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ABSTRACT
A short report about travertine stone walls.
Golgojan Alexandru Octavian
Finishing Works
DECORATIVE
STONE WALLS
Table of Contents
General presentation of decorative stone walls .......................................................................................... 2
Advantages and Disadvantages ................................................................................................................... 5
Requirements for installation ...................................................................................................................... 6
Surface Preparation ................................................................................................................................. 6
Installation .................................................................................................................................................. 7
Setting Wall Tiles ..................................................................................................................................... 7
Applying Grout ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Quality Check Criteria .............................................................................................................................. 7
Required Tools ............................................................................................................................................ 8
Life span and maintenance ......................................................................................................................... 9
Natural Stone care and maintenance ...................................................................................................... 9
Maintenance of Interior Stone ................................................................................................................ 9
Sealing Stone ........................................................................................................................................... 9
Stain Removal ....................................................................................................................................... 10
Poultices ................................................................................................................................................ 11
Poultice Materials ............................................................................................................................. 11
Poultice Mixtures .............................................................................................................................. 11
Poultice Application .......................................................................................................................... 12
Cleaning Exterior Stone ......................................................................................................................... 12
Testing ................................................................................................................................................... 13
Grout Sealing ......................................................................................................................................... 13
Grout Cleaning ...................................................................................................................................... 13
Stained Grout ........................................................................................................................................ 13
Cleaning Grout Haze .............................................................................................................................. 14
Costs of Travertine Tiles ............................................................................................................................ 15
Bibliography .............................................................................................................................................. 16
General presentation of decorative stone walls
Rock is the basic building material of the earth’s crust and the original building material used by
man to serve as protection from the severe ice age and post‐ice age raw climate; shelters were made of
assembled field stones to form a basic house. Stone was later elaborately shaped to satisfy man’s artistic
expression.
The natural rock material is called “stone” when shaped to man's needs. We speak of building
stone, decorative stone, sculptural stone, aggregate stone in the fabrication of concrete, rip‐rap for
shoreline protection against erosion, and others. It is only building stone, decorative stone and sculptural
stone which are given attention in this book; stone properties and their decay also applies to aggregate
stone and other types of stone. In contrast, “stone” in gemstones for bracelets and necklaces is not
included.
Travertine is a form of limestone deposited by mineral springs, especially hot springs. Travertine
often has a fibrous or concentric appearance and exists in white, tan, cream‐colored, and even rusty
varieties. It is formed by a process of rapid precipitation of calcium carbonate, often at the mouth of a
hot spring or in a limestone cave. In the latter, it can form stalactites, stalagmites, and other
speleothems. It is frequently used in Italy and elsewhere as a building material.
Travertine is a terrestrial sedimentary rock, formed by the precipitation of carbonate minerals
from solution in ground and surface waters, and/or geothermally heated hot‐springs. Similar (but softer
and extremely porous) deposits formed from ambient‐temperature water are known as tufa.
Travertine is often used as a building material. The Romans mined deposits of travertine for
building temples, aqueducts, monuments, bath complexes, and amphitheatres such as the Colosseum,
the largest building in the world constructed mostly of travertine.
Travertine is one of the most frequently used stones in modern architecture. It is commonly used
for façades, wall cladding, and flooring. The lobby walls of the modernist Willis Tower (1970) (formerly
Sears Tower) in Chicago are made of travertine. Architect Welton Becket frequently incorporated
travertine into many of his projects. The first floor of the Becket‐designed UCLA Medical Center has thick
travertine walls. Architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe used travertine in several of his major works,
including the Toronto‐Dominion Centre, S.R. Crown Hall, the Farnsworth House and the Barcelona
Pavilion.
Travertine can come in many colours, such as: silver, white, or beige.
The natural surface of travertine permits different finishes, depending on its use or application.
Figure 1 ‐ Polished
The most characteristic finish, one that achieves an inimitable effect that reflects light and objects like a
mirror.
Figure 2 ‐ Honed
This finish gives the stone greater character and prominence when laid. It reflects the light, but with lower
reflection. The surface is smooth.
Figure 3 ‐ Aged
A special treatment gives it a texture that enhances the natural properties of the stone and the aesthetic
force of its seams. The surface is somewhat irregular.
Figure 4 ‐ Rough
The stone is presented in its natural state both in colour and in texture.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Travertine tiles are cheaper than marble or granite tiles while looking quite similar.
Travertine tiles are available in various colour and tone alternatives.
Travertine tiles are very durable, water and moisture resistant.
Travertine tiles are very environmentally friendly. Travertine is the type of stone which is more
eco‐friendly than the other materials (compared to porcelain). Travertine tiles do not have to go through
the manufacturing process.
Travertine is an extremely porous material, so it quickly absorbs spills and dirt and holds onto
them tenaciously. Acidic spills, such as orange juice, ketchup, vinegar or pet urine, are especially
damaging to travertine.
On the Moh's hardness scale, travertine only ranks at 3 or 4. Granite, by comparison, is rated at 8
or 9. Because it is so soft, travertine may dent or chip if you drop a dish on it or toss your car keys onto
the counter. Sealing helps protect against this type of damage as well as stains, but it isn't fool proof.
Travertine is extremely heavy. Whether used for countertops, flooring or shower tile, travertine
slabs and tiles need beefy support systems to hold their weight. This can mean installing a stronger
subfloor or taking other structural measures to make sure the travertine is secure.
While not a problem with travertine countertops or shower walls, it is important to note that
travertine floors are very slippery when they are wet. Honed and brushed finishes help to alleviate this
problem but may not solve it completely.
Sealed travertine needs resealing every 6 to 12 months, and travertine surfaces should be
cleaned regularly. In commercial flooring applications, travertine should be dust mopped or swept every
day to eliminate dirt build up and then mopped with a neutral cleanser. Failure to clean travertine
regularly allows potentially abrasive dirt to build up on the surface where it may cause scratches.
Requirements for installation
Surface Preparation
1. You cannot install wet Travertine. Both the tile and the substrate need to be completely dry
when you begin your installation.
2. Check the wall or floor to ensure it is level and free of any protruding objects. Use a screwdriver
or hammer to set any screws or nails below the surface. Apply floor levelling compound to the
floor or spackling compound to the wall to correct any uneven areas. Follow manufacturer’s
instructions for using these products. Allow time for them to dry.
3. Prepare 1/2‐inch cement fibreboard to attach to wooden subfloors or walls. To cut fibreboard,
set a straight edge tool on top of the fibreboard and draw a utility knife along the edge to cut a
straight line. Space fibreboard pieces 1/4‐inch apart and leave a 1/4‐inch expansion gap around
the perimeter of the room. Stagger all joints.
4. Add enough water to the mortar to make it the consistency of mashed potatoes. Spread the
mortar on the floor or wall and set the pieces of fibreboard into it. Use a carpenter’s level as you
set the fibreboard to ensure the floor or wall remains level.
5. Seal seams with fiberglass mesh tape embedded in a thin layer of mortar. Smooth the tape in
place with the smooth side of the trowel.
6. Add screws around the perimeter of each piece of cement fibreboard and in the middle of each
piece. Space screws 8 inches apart.
Installation
Setting Wall Tiles
1. Measure the length of each wall. Mark its midpoint vertically with a chalk line. Use a carpenter’s
level to ensure the line is plumb, or straight up and down. Repeat for each wall. Measure the
width of one tile and mark a horizontal line on the wall, checking that it is level with a carpenter’s
level.
2. Lay tiles on the floor for planning their horizontal placement on the wall. Both ends of the wall
should also have even spacing. If necessary, move chalk lines.
3. Apply mortar mixed to the consistency of mashed potatoes to the wall. Set the bottom row of
tiles with spacers between them. Check that they are level with a carpenter’s level. Continue
setting tiles as you work your way up the wall. Cut tiles, as necessary, with a wet saw with a
diamond blade.
4. Let the mortar dry. Remove the spacers.
Applying Grout
1. Mix white grout with water to form a thick paste. Rub the grout into the joints with a grout float.
Work across joints diagonally to completely fill each opening.
2. Remove excess grout from the surface of the travertine tile with a clean, damp sponge. Grout a
small area at a time to keep the grout from drying on the surface of the tiles.
3. Rub off any haze that remains on the grouted wall with a clean, soft cloth. Allow the grout to
cure for the time recommended by the manufacturer.
4. Apply a grout and travertine tile sealer following manufacturer’s recommendations.
Quality Check Criteria
There are ASTM standards for the minimum/maximum physical property requirements for a
travertine stone, which is ASTM C1527. They do classify the stone as either Class I Exterior or Class II
interior use, although the physical properties are the same for both except exterior use requires a higher
compressive strength. The stone can be tested for these physical properties, although the test protocols
require a thicker configuration of the stone sample to be tested. Although modified testing can be
performed and the results extrapolated.
Travertine naturally has voids as it is quarried from fresh water areas where it developed. Some
stones have more voids than others. The travertines with a lot of voids are normally less expensive, but
doesn’t make it defective. Filling the voids is common and consistent with the standards and practices.
Why the fill keeps coming out might have to do more with the underlying conditions such as excessive
moisture or excessive deflection in the floor assembly, or that it isn’t being filled with the proper fill in an
appropriate method.
Generally speaking when there is a problem the cause isn’t due to any one single factor, but is
due to multiple compounding defects. The only way to determine the cause is to perform a thorough
forensic intrusive inspection and perform some laboratory testing. In some cases it may not be practical
to invest in those costs depending the situation.
Required Tools
The tools required for the installation are as follows:
Measuring tape
Tile wet saw
Tile spacers
Trowel
White, latex modified mortar
Stone sealer
Foam paintbrush
Soft cloth
Sanded grout
Grout float
Grout sponge
Life span and maintenance
Natural Stone care and maintenance
Natural Stone is considered a high quality covering, which fulfils all the physicochemical and
building requirements to carry out a good project with demonstrable benefits. One of the main benefits
is the low maintenance cost in comparison to other materials like stoneware and artificial stone.
The hardness and lifespan of Natural Stone can be increased with a good election of the material
finish, treatment and further maintenance.
Water is the best cleaning solution. However, when it comes to clean and disinfect, it is advisable
to use pH balanced cleaners (7‐10 pH).
Never use aggressive detergents as bleach, ammonia, anti‐scaling products, etc.
Never use metal utensils that may scratch the surface.
In case of stains, try to clean with soapy water first. If the stains persist, proceed with "deep
clean" type cleaners available from good manufacturers.
Maintenance of Interior Stone
There are generally two types of stone that is most often used in interiors: hone‐finished stone
and polished‐finish stone. Hone‐finish stone has a satin‐smooth surface with little light reflection while
Polish‐finished stone has a high gloss, reflects light and also accentuates the color and stone markings.
Honed‐finish travertine stone is commonly found in high traffic areas such as floors, thresholds, and
treads, whereas polished‐finish stone is found on counter tops, walls, tables, and furniture. Interior stone
can generally be cleaned by dry dust mopping to remove dirt and debris. To wash your interior stone, use
a neutral (PH 7) and clean water. Honed‐finish stone can tolerate only a neutral PH 7 mild abrasive
cleaner. It’s ideal to use a soapless cleaner, as soap can often leave streaks and film behind, which may be
noticeable on polish‐finished travertine stone. Ideally you should use mild, phosphate‐free,
biodegradable liquid dishwashing soaps or powders or stone soaps to clean your travertine. Follow the
manufacturer’s directions on the cleaning solution and gently wash in an overlapping sweeping motion
from the bottom up (on a vertical surface). Change the water often as you go and rinse thoroughly with
clean water. If necessary, a wet vacuum can be employed to remove contaminants from the tile. If you’re
cleaning a high traffic area, an automatic scrubber fitted with a disc brush will work effectively to remove
dirt and debris without damaging the stone tile. Many foods, drinks, and cosmetics contain acids that
may etch or dull a stone’s surface. For this reason, it’s important to use coasters, trivets on counter tops
and tables or where food preparation is likely. Many food preparation stone surfaces use a sealant; be
aware that any sealant or impregnator must be nontoxic and safe for food preparation surfaces. Spills
should be blotted immediately or as soon after as possible to avoid damaging the stone’s surface. Regular
cleaning with a solvent‐free cleaner will keep surfaces looking their best. Because travertine is considered
a marble and comes from the limestone family, you should never use an acid or chemical cleaner when
caring for the surface. There are many cleaners readily available for stone cleaning. Your stone supplier or
installer can direct you to the best cleaner available for your travertine stone.
Sealing Stone
In order to keep your stone tile looking like new, it is important that a sealant be applied. Some
tiles will not require this, as they will be pre‐sealed. To determine if your tile needs to be sealed, apply a
small amount of water to the surface. If the water is absorbed by the tile and the tile darkens, it needs to
be sealed. The surface preparation, density, and porosity of the stone will help you determine whether a
water based or petroleum based sealer is indicated. Check for the tile manufacturer’s recommendation
and then purchase the very best sealant you can afford.
Stain Removal
Removal of most surface stains is possible by using the proper household or commercial cleaning
product. The first step to removal, however, is identification. Once you have identified the cause of the
stain, you will know what type of cleaning method is required to achieve the best result.
Oil‐based Stains – An oil‐based stain is one created by grease, cooking oil, cosmetics, tar, and
other items that have any oil in them. An oil‐based stain darkens the stone and will usually need
to be chemically cleaned in order to dissolve and then rinse away the source. First, you must
remove any excess staining agent by wiping it away if it is soft, or in the case of tar, chipping it
off. Then clean the area gently with a soft liquid cleanser. Suitable cleansers include ammonia,
household detergent, acetone, or mineral spirits. It is important that you don’t pour the cleaner
directly on the staining agent itself, as that could cause the agent to thin and seep into more of
the stone. Instead, wet a cloth with the cleaner and place it over the stain in order to draw the
agent into the cloth. You may also use a cleaner specifically designed to remove oil‐based stains
such as an alkaline degreaser or a homemade poultice.
Organic Stains – An organic stain is one created by an organic substance such as coffee, tea,
tobacco, fruit juice, food, paper, urine, leaves, bird droppings, or bark. These substances will
often leave a pinkish‐brown stain that, if outdoors, may disappear after the source of the stain
has been removed because of the normal bleaching process caused by the rain and sun.
However, if the stain is indoors you will have to use a cleaning formula. To make your own you
can use 12% hydrogen peroxide mixed with a few drops of ammonia. You can also purchase
commercially marketed cleaners or use a homemade poultice.
Ink Stains – Any form of ink, such as that found in magic markers or pens, could cause an ink
stain. If the color of the stone is light, clean it with bleach or hydrogen peroxide. For darker
stones use acetone or lacquer thinner. Do not pour a cleaner directly on the stain, as it could
result in the staining agent thinning and spreading further along the surface. Instead, wet a cloth
with the cleaning agent and allow the stain to be drawn into it.
Paint Stains – If the paint is covering only a small portion of the tile, scrape it off with a razor
blade, or remove with a lacquer thinner. If a large area is covered by the paint, it must be
removed with a commercially formulated liquid paint stripper. Under no circumstances should
you use flame tools or acid to strip the paint from the stone.
Water Spots and Rings – Water damage occurs due to the surface accumulation of hard water.
To remove these stains buff the affected area with dry 0000 steel wool.
Fire and Smoke Damage – This damage is typically seen with stone that is part of a fireplace. In
order to remove the stain you must thoroughly clean the stone. This is most easily accomplished
with commercially formulated smoke removal products.
Etch Marks – These stains are left by acid that has been left on the surface of the stone. Some
acids will cause the finish to be etched but the surface of the stone won’t actually be stained;
other acids will etch the finish and discolour the stone. Once the acid has been removed, wet the
surface with water and apply marble polishing powder. Rub the powder into the stone with a
buffing pad and a drill or polisher set to a low speed, or by hand with a damp cloth. Buff until the
etch marks disappear and the surface shines. Honing may be needed for a deep stain that
requires a professional stone refinisher.
Efflorescence – This is a white powdery substance that appears on the stone’s surface. It is
caused by mineral salts within the stone being carried to the surface of the stone by water and
then being left behind when the water evaporates. For new installations simply vacuum or dry
mop the surface of the stone and repeat as needed until the stone has completely dried. Do not
use water to remove the powder, as this could exacerbate the situation. If the problem is
persistent, contact the contractor in order to identify and remedy the cause of the moisture.
Poultices
A poultice is applied to a stone tile to remove a stain. To make a poultice you must combine an
absorbent material with a chemical, or mixture of chemicals, in order to form a thick paste. The poultice
is then spread over the affected area in a thickness of between ¼ ” to ½ ” with a plastic or wooden
implement and allowed to stand for between 24 and 48 hours. During this time, the chemical will draw
the stain into the absorbent material and away from the stone. This process may have to be repeated
several times in order to remove the stain. However, it is possible that the stain may not be removed
completely.
Poultice Materials
Absorbent materials you can use for the poultice include fuller’s earth, kaolin, diatomaceous
earth, whiting, powdered chalk, talk, and white moulding plaster. Roughly, one pound of your chosen
material will be needed for each square foot of tile that must be cleaned. Whiting and iron based clays
such as fuller’s earth should not be used with acidic chemicals, as the reaction will prevent the poultice
from being effective. Highly volatile solvents such as mineral spirits or acetone can be combined with
other absorbent substances such as white paper towels, white cotton balls, or white gauze pads.
Commercially available premixed poultices that require only the addition of water may also be used.
Poultice Mixtures
The poultice you decide to use will depend on the type of stain. Each type of stain will require a different
mixture for optimal removal.
Oil‐Based Stains – Create a poultice with water and baking soda or combine one of the
powdered absorbent materials and a commercial degreaser or mineral spirits.
Organic Stains – Create a poultice with one of the powdered absorbent materials and a 12%
hydrogen peroxide or acetone.
Iron Stains – Create a poultice with a commercial rust remover and diatomaceous earth.
However, be careful as many rust removers will etch stone. It may be necessary to consult a
professional to remove an iron stain.
Copper Stains – Create a poultice with ammonia and one of absorbent materials. However, these
stains are very difficult to remove and may require the services of a professional.
Water Based Paint Stains – Create a poultice with a commercial paint remover and one of the
absorbent materials.
Oil Based Paint Stains – Create a poultice with mineral spirits and one of the absorbent
materials. If the stain is deep within the stone, it may require methylene chloride. If you must
use a highly volatile solvent in your poultice, pour it directly on a paper towel and then place the
paper towel on the affected area.
Ink Stains – Create a poultice with mineral spirits and one of the absorbent materials. If the stain
is embedded deeply within the stone it may be necessary to use methylene chloride. If you do
use a highly volatile solvent, pour it directly on a paper towel and place directly on the affected
area.
Biological Stains – Create a poultice with ammonia and one of the absorbent materials. Instead
of ammonia you can use bleach or hydrogen peroxide. Only use one of the chemicals, do not mix
as they combine to create a toxic gas.
*Flammable Materials – The above text does not purport to address all possible safety concerns which
are associated with the use of flammable solvents. The user is cautioned to consult the manufacturer’s
labelling and MSDS for complete cleaning directions and handling directions for the individual products.
There are commercial cleaners available for many of the most common stains, which may have fewer
safety and health concerns
Poultice Application
First, you will need to prepare the poultice. If you are using powdered material, mix it with the
cleaning agent or chemical until a thick paste with a smooth consistency is formed. If you are using a
paper product or cloth soak it in the chemical and let the excess drain. You do not want the liquid to drip.
Next, you must prepare the stained area by wetting it with distilled water. You are now ready to apply
the poultice. Apply ¼” to ½” of the poultice to the affected area and beyond it by about one inch using a
wooden or plastic scraper or spatula to apply evenly. Once you have applied the poultice cover it with
plastic and tape the edges to seal the poultice in. Make several small holes in the plastic covering to allow
ventilation. You will now need to give the poultice enough time to completely dry and draw out the stain.
This could take up to 48 hours. After 24 hours remove the plastic and allow the poultice to continue
drying. Once the poultice is completely dry remove it from the affected area, rinse with distilled water,
and buff dry using a soft cloth. If the stain is still visible, repeat the process. Repetition may be required
as many as five times. If the surface has been etched by one of the chemical agents, apply a polishing
powder and buff with the pad recommended by the manufacturer.
Cleaning Exterior Stone
Exterior stone is any stone or stone tile that is used on the exterior of a structure. It may be
utilized as a facing material or structural component. The first step to maintaining exterior stone is
routine cleaning, ideally at least once per year. This can be done simply by rinsing with clean water in
order to prevent an accumulation of dirt and other impurities. If regular cleaning has not been
performed, the most cost‐efficient method is one of the commercially available water systems such as
hydro‐air, plain water, or hydraulic.
Older buildings, with an accumulation of dirt on the stones, may be more difficult to clean. A
pressure washer should remove most accumulation. If additional cleaning is necessary soft bristled
brushes are recommended. However, the use of chemicals on exterior stone could be detrimental to the
appearance and should be used only by professionals.
Testing
Before you begin a cleaning project choose a small section to test. This will ensure that the
cleaning method produces satisfactory results and is not detrimental to the stone. Ideally, the section
should be in the least visible place possible in case any discoloration takes place.
Grout Sealing
Not all grouts need to be sealed. To determine if your grout needs to be sealed apply a small
amount of water to the grout. If the grout darkens, a sealer is required. The two types of grout sealers are
a topical sealer and a penetrating sealer. The topical sealer will create a wet look and a penetrating sealer
provides a natural look, which does not affect the appearance of the grout. One method of sealer
application is to apply the sealer directly to the grout joints and buff off any that happens to adhere to
the tile. Another popular method is to apply the sealer over the entire surface of the tile and grout joints
and then buff the sealer off the tile with a terry cloth or soft rag. For the best results follow the
manufacturer’s guidelines closely.
Grout Cleaning
As with tile, it is important that any spills be immediately wiped up from the grout. Soap‐less
detergents and pH balanced cleaners should be used for routine cleanings. Loosen debris in grout joints
with a soft bristled brush then rinse with water and allow the area to dry. Acidic cleaners should be
avoided because they can make cleaning more difficult in the future and may permanently damage or
discolour grout when used repeatedly.
Stained Grout
If you need to clean a stain, or if the grout has not been cleaned routinely, a pH cleaner and soft
bristled brush is still recommended. Apply the cleaner and let it rest for a few minutes and then use the
brush to ensure the cleaner is thoroughly worked into the grout. If this is not adequate it may be
necessary to utilize one of the alkaline cleaners that are often labelled as providing a “deep clean.”
Another option is the use of commercial cleaning machines or buffers. These are especially useful for
large areas of tile and grout that need a deep cleaning. There are several cleaning solution options for
these machines. A final option is the use of acidic cleaners, although this is the least desirable due to the
problems mentioned earlier. The two safest, and most effective, options are cleaners with sulfamic acid
and phosphoric acid. If you do use one of these cleaning products, it is critical that you follow the
directions exactly in order to harm your flooring and tile as little as possible. No matter what cleaning
method you choose, you need to thoroughly rinse, dry, and polish the area you have cleaned.
Cleaning Grout Haze
Grout haze is the residue left by the application of the grout on the face of the tile. This can often
be removed by using just water and a scouring pad. If that does not produce satisfactory results a
scouring cleanser may be used or a poultice and a pad. Other options include a commercially available
grout haze removal cleaning solution or an acidic cleaning solution.
Costs of Travertine Tiles
The minimum reported cost for travertine tile installation is $3 per square foot.
The maximum reported cost for travertine tile installation is $30 per square foot.
The average reported cost for travertine tile installation is about $15 per square foot.
The type of travertine being purchased can greatly influence cost. For example, when buying tile
by the piece, the cost tends to be a bit higher, whereas buying the travertine in slabs can reduce costs by
up to 50%.
Furthermore, if homeowners would like to have the travertine sealed, they should expect to
spend a few hundred dollars extra on the entire project. Most companies charge for sealant by the
square foot, so the total cost will vary depending on how large of an area of travertine tile is being
installed.
Another factor that can influence the cost of the project is the travertine's finish. These days, there
are a number of finishes available, including:
Polished
Honed
Brushed
Tumbled
Natural
Generally, natural travertine (with no dyes or special finishes) is the least expensive, typically costing
closer to just a few dollars per square foot. However, travertine that's polished, brushed for an aged
appearance, honed or tumbled for a rough appearance can cost significantly more. These types of
travertine generally cost between $15 and $30 per square foot, depending on the overall quality of the
stone itself.
Natural travertine with no finish can be a great option for those looking to save money, but
homeowners should take into consideration that natural travertine is more prone to staining and damage
over time and thus should be sealed.
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