Electronic Waste

Generation and
Management in the
Middle East and North
Africa (MENA) Region:
Algeria as a Case Study
Electronic waste (e-waste) show that high amounts
What Happens to
is one of the fastest grow- of computer and monitor
ing waste streams in the waste were registered for the
Obsolete Equipment
world. Notwithstanding period from 2014 to 2016.
increasing concern world-
(and What Should
wide, e-waste has not yet Introduction
been discussed in depth in Electronic waste, often
Happen to It)?
the Middle East and North called e-waste, is among the
Africa (MENA) region. This study first re- fastest growing waste streams in the world.
views the literature regarding the estimation During the past decades, several developing
of e-waste in the MENA region. It then gives countries have experienced changes in their
an estimate of the past and future trends in lifestyles due to notable economic growth.
the generation of obsolete computers in Al- This situation has driven the use of elec-
geria. For this purpose, the study combines tronic equipment, both in households and
two models: the Carnegie Mellon model in the business sector. An increasing num-
and the market supply (distribution delay) ber of electrical and electronic devices are
model. The Carnegie Mellon model offers entering the market in both developed and
the following options for obsolete computers
and monitors: the device could be reused,
stored, or discarded. The amounts of devices
falling into each category were determined Karima Hamouda
based on these options. The outcomes from
the market supply (distribution delay) model Rachid Adjroudi

© 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) Environmental Quality Management / DOI 10.1002/tqem / Summer 2017 / 5
DOI: 10.1002/tqem.21500
 developing countries (Schluep et al., 2009).
The advance in technology has pushed
people to purchase different electronic de-
vices, although these items are not necessary
(Kahhat et al., 2008). According to Robinson
(2009), e-waste represents 1–3% of total solid
wastes worldwide. However, this share is es-
timated to be higher in developed countries,
where e-waste is estimated to constitute
approximately 8% of municipal solid waste
by volume (Widmer, Oswald-Krapf, Sinha-
Khetriwal, Schnellmann, & Böni, 2005).
E-Waste includes all different household
or business electrical and electronic prod-
ucts with power or battery supplies that have
entered the waste stre-
In addition to the quantities of
ams (StEP Initiative,
e-waste generated by
2014). These electro-
developing countries, large
nic appliances are
amounts of obsolete electronic
composed of a range
devices are exported to these
of complex and het-
countries. According to the
erogeneous materials
German Federal Environment
requiring special end-
Office (UBA), approximately
of-life treatment to
155,000 tons (t) of e-waste was
recover the materials
exported from Germany to
and close the loop
Nigeria, Ghana, India, South
on the one hand and
Africa, and other countries.
avoid the environ-
mental burdens of inappropriately disposed
of e-wastes on the other hand (Cucchiella,
Adamoa, Koh, & Rosa, 2015). In addition
to the quantities of e-waste generated by
developing countries, large amounts of ob-
solete electronic devices are exported to
these countries. According to the German
Federal Environment Office (UBA), approx-
imately 155,000 tons (t) of e-waste was
exported from Germany to Nigeria, Ghana,
India, South Africa, and other countries.
With the falling prices of electronic ap-
pliances, more consumers in the MENA re-
gion are able to purchase them. Therefore,
6 / Summer 2017 / Environmental Quality Management / DOI 10.1002/tqem
the quantity of e-waste generated is expected
to increase. According to Baldé, Wang, Kuehr,
and Huisman (2015), the average per capita
amount of e-waste generated in the MENA
region per year is around 8 kilograms per
capita per year. Baldé et al.’s (2015) assess-
ment included 19 countries in the region
with a combined population of 420 million.
Our own survey in Algeria revealed that,
similar to other developing countries, elec-
tronic devices are not disposed of directly af-
ter the usage period; rather, they are stored
for a period of time. Data regarding the
amount of e-waste generated in the MENA
region are scarce. Despite the increasing con-
cern regarding e-waste, only a few assessment
studies have been carried out in Tunisia,
Morocco, Jordan, and Egypt. The table in
Exhibit 1 provides data on the status of e-
waste management in some MENA countries.
Studies on the Flow of e-Waste
Laissaoui and Rochat (2008) carried out
a study in Morocco to assess the current e-
waste management situation. The study pre-
sented a mass flow analysis of three types
of electronic products: televisions, comput-
ers, and mobile phones. The study also ana-
lyzed the social, economic, and environmen-
tal impacts resulting from current e-waste
management practices. The results showed
that, in 2007, e-waste generation amounted
to 30,300 t and that televisions and comput-
ers constituted 95% of the total amount.
Fraige, Al-khatib, Alnawafleh, Dweirj, and
Langston (2012) conducted interviews and
used questionnaires to evaluate e-waste gen-
eration in Jordan. The study focused on dif-
ferent electrical and electronic products such
as computers, televisions, mobile phones,
refrigerators, washing machines, and other
Karima Hamouda and Rachid Adjroudi
 Exhibit 1. Status of E-Waste Management in Some MENA Countries (Based on Baldé et al. 2015; Madar,
2012)
Algeria
Population (million) 37,597
Internet users (% of the population) 20.93
e-Waste (kg/cap/year) 4.9
e-Waste legislation No
household appliances. The study showed
that Jordanian households produced 23,400
t of e-waste in 2010. Tarawneh and Saidan
(2013) examined the level of awareness of
e-waste among Jordanian households. The
findings of this study revealed that a signifi-
cant percentage of the respondents has insuf-
ficient knowledge about e-waste. Neverthe-
less, more than 50% of the respondents were
aware of the importance of collecting and
treating e-waste. Ikhlayel and Tasaki (2015)
examined different methods to evaluate six
types of e-waste generated from Jordanian
households. Based on a questionnaire survey,
the study revealed that Jordanian households
generate 25,799 t of e-waste annually, which
constitutes 1.24% of the country’s municipal
solid waste.
In a study published by Öko Institute
headquartered in Freiburg im Breisgau, Ger-
many (Degreif et al., 2014), the number of
end-of-life computers in Egypt was estimated
to be approximately 1 million units in 2013.
According to the study, this number is ex-
pected to reach 1.7 million units by the
year 2025. According to Seitz (2014), the
amount of e-waste generated in Tunisia is
about 90,000 t per year. Of this amount,
around 22,500 t is collected each year. The
collection and the treatment of e-wastes are
completely dominated by the informal sec-
tor, which operates for profit and without
government oversight.
Electronic Waste Generation and Management in MENA
Egypt Jordan Morocco Saudi Arabia Tunisia
85,833 6,694 33,179 30,254 11,060
26.64 35 39.26 47.92 31.98
4.3 4.5 3.7 12.5 5.0
No No No No No
Challenges Posed by e-Waste
The accumulated amount of e-waste and
its mismanagement presents a crucial chal-
lenge for both developed and developing
countries. Although e-waste can contain haz-
ardous substances that can generate negative
impacts on the environment if improperly
handled, it also contains valuable materials
that may be recovered for reuse (Lundgren,
2012).
Based on a tabulation of questionnaires
sent out to information and communica-
tions technology companies and to govern-
mental and nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs), Seitz (2014) determined that there
is no formal e-waste sector—that is, NGOs
or private companies that are overseen by
the government and provide environmen-
tally friendly conditions for workers and en-
vironmentally sound treatment of wastes—
in the MENA region, even though in Mo-
rocco, a formal sector is still in its early
stages of development and some formal e-
waste pretreatment activities exist (Laissaoui
& Rochat, 2008).
The management of e-waste in the MENA
region faces two major hurdles. First, there
are no specific regulations to address the
management of these types of waste. How-
ever, there are several laws regarding the
management of solid and hazardous waste
that might be extended to include e-
waste. The second problem is the lack of
Environmental Quality Management / DOI 10.1002/tqem / Summer 2017 / 7
 accurate data about the amounts and types of
e-waste generated. Only a few studies about
e-wastes were available in respect to the re-
gion (Fraige et al., 2012; Ikhlayel & Tasaki,
2015; Laissaoui & Rochat, 2008). Providing
data on the quantities of e-waste that are gen-
erated will help decision makers set the right
strategy to:
• Collect and treat e-waste,
• Reduce the volume that goes to disposal,
and
• Tackle the informal treatment of e-waste.
This paper is the first study on this topic
in Algeria, and it attempts to bridge the gap
between the lack of
This paper is the first study on
availability of data
this topic in Algeria, and it
and the need to
attempts to bridge the gap
assess e-waste. Fur-
between the lack of availability
thermore, this study
of data and the need to assess
provides an overview
e-waste.
of the e-waste situ-
ation in the MENA region and proposes
a methodology to estimate computer
and monitor waste generation in Algeria.
Materials and Methods
This study focuses only on desktop com-
puters, laptops, cathode ray tube (CRT) mon-
itors, and flat panel display (FPD) monitors
generated in Algeria. Generally, to estimate
the amount of e-waste that is generated, sales
figures of electronic products are required.
This approach is not applicable in Algeria,
however, due to the fact that sales data are
not publically available. In the absence of
reliable official statistics, import data were
considered in this study as an alternative.
The methodology was performed according
to the steps shown in Exhibit 2.
8 / Summer 2017 / Environmental Quality Management / DOI 10.1002/tqem
Data Collection
Data regarding imports of computers were
collected and analyzed for the period from
2000 to 2014. Data on imported desktops
and laptops were obtained from the Algerian
National Centre of Informatics and Statis-
tics (CNIS), whereas data on CRT and FPD
monitors were extracted from the United Na-
tions International Trade Statistics Database
(COMTRADE).
Questionnaire Survey
The useful life and the fate of obsolete
products were the main focus of the ques-
tionnaire. Data on consumer behavior and
the fate of obsolete computers and monitors
were obtained primarily through face-to-face
interviews and field visits. An initial round of
mail-based questionnaires and telephone in-
terviews did not bring any useable results, as
the response rate was very low. To collect rep-
resentative samples, questionnaires were sent
to different cities in the country, with an em-
phasis on big cities. Questionnaires were also
sent randomly to different companies.
In total, 452 questionnaires were com-
pleted. The survey questionnaire covered the
life cycle of computers and monitors from
purchase to final disposal.
Estimates of Computer and Monitor Lifespans
Determining lifespan is more compli-
cated for computers than for other electronic
products. For personal computers, the useful
lifespan has been decreasing rapidly (Kang &
Schoenung, 2006).
■ Carnegie Mellon Model
To use the Carnegie Mellon model, de-
termining average computer lifespans is re-
quired. The average lifespan of the first user
was extracted from the survey. However, no
Karima Hamouda and Rachid Adjroudi
 Exhibit 2. A Summary of the Estimation Methodology Used in This Study
data were available on the average lifespan of
the equipment as used by second users.
According to the survey, the substitution
of computers is made owing to technological
obsolescence rather than functional obso-
lescence. Thus, for purposes of our study,
we assumed that all computers are reused
(second use) for at least 2 years and then
stored for 2 years, as well, as computers are
seen as sources of revenue (see the table in
Exhibit 3). In the case of businesses and in-
stitutions, computer equipment was usually
sold through auctions.
■ Market Supply (Distribution Delay) Model
For the market supply (distribution delay)
model, lifespan is variable, and its parame-
ters are derived from the survey mentioned
previously. According to the market supply
model, lifespan is defined as the time period
limited to products in use and it does not
include products that are stored unused. Ac-
cording to the literature, different methods
to estimate a product’s lifetime distribution
Electronic Waste Generation and Management in MENA
exist that provide the same value if accurate
and reliable data are available. In this study,
normal distribution was used. The obsoles-
cence rate is described by Equation (1), where
𝜇 is the average lifetime and 𝜎 is the standard
deviation:
( )
1 1 x−𝜇 2
f (t) = e− (1)
𝜎 (2𝜋) 2 𝜎
Product lifespans using this model are shown
in Exhibit 4.
Use of Carnegie Mellon Model
The Carnegie Mellon model is applied in
this first part of the study with some modi-
fications as shown in Exhibits 3 and 5. Ac-
cording to the survey, three options are avail-
able to owners who must deal with e-waste
equipment. First, the owner can sell it to an-
other person to reuse the complete equip-
ment or working components; second, the
owner can store it at home (for institutions
and businesses, they sell them through auc-
tions after a period a storage). The third pos-
sibility is to discard the equipment. Of these
Environmental Quality Management / DOI 10.1002/tqem / Summer 2017 / 9
 Exhibit 3. End-of-Life e-Waste Disposal Percentage
Desktop Laptop CRT monitor FPD monitor

Survey analysis Average lifespan (years) 5 3 7 5

Obsolete reused (P1) 66% 66% 49% 67%
Obsolete stored (P2) 28% 25% 32% 25%
Obsolete landfilled (P3) 6% 6% 19% 6%

Assumption Reused stored (P4) 80% 80% 80% 80%

Reused landfilled (P5) 20% 20% 20% 20%
Stored landfilled (P6) 10% 10% 10% 10%

Exhibit 4. Product Lifespan

options, storage is the most important flow
due to the lack of take-back systems. Accord-
ing to the available data and the assumptions
above, Equations (2)–(4) are used to calcu-
late the amount of computers to be reused,
stored, and discarded.
Rut = P1 × (Ot − L Import)
where Rut is the total amount of reused items
in the year t, P1 denotes the percentage of ob-
solete, reused devices in the year t. Ot−L Im-
port is the number of obsolete items disposed
of in the year t, which were purchased in the
year t-L. L is the average lifespan.
where St equals the total stored devices by
the first user and the second user, P2 repre-
sents the percentage of stored units that are
deemed obsolete by the first user, P4 is equal
to the percentage of storage by the second
user, and Lr is the average lifespan of reused
computer.
(2)
Dat = [P3 × (Ot − L Import)] (4)
+ [P2 × P6 × (Ot − L − Lr Import)]
+ [P1 × P5 × (Ot − L − Ls Import)]
+ [P1 × P4 × P6 × (Ot − L − Lr
− Ls Import)]

St = [P2 × (Ot − L Import)] + [P1 × P4 (3)

Dat equals the number of discarded items for
× (Ot − L − Lr Import)] the year t, and P3 is equal to the percentage

10 / Summer 2017 / Environmental Quality Management / DOI 10.1002/tqem Karima Hamouda and Rachid Adjroudi
 Exhibit 5. Schematic Presentation of Generic End-of-Life Model to Predict Computer
Waste in Algeria
of equipment landfilled by the first user. P4 is
equal to the percentage of stored equipment
by the second user. Ls is the storage period by
the second user. P6 denotes the percentage of
equipment discarded by the second users.
Exhibit 5 presents a generic end-of-life
model to predict e-waste.
Use of Market Supply (Distribution Delay)
Model
Import data are combined with their re-
spective rates of obsolescence to calculate the
quantity of computer waste generated. The
model is represented by
∑
m
W (t) = IMP (t) ⋅ Dn
n=1
where W (t) is the amount of computer
waste generated in the year t, IMP (t) is the
import of computer during the historical
years, Dn denotes the lifespan distribution,
and m is the maximum lifespan of the prod-
uct. To make the model calculable, a series of
product import data are needed.
Electronic Waste Generation and Management in MENA
Results and Discussion
Data Collection
To estimate the generation of e-waste,
sales figures are required. However, in Alge-
ria, no reliable data on national sales were
available. According to our own survey, the
majority of computers sold in Algeria are im-
ported. We used the import data as an alter-
native to derive local consumption.
The major limitation of this study is the
unexpected low response rate to the ques-
tionnaires that were sent out. The majority of
companies do not want to divulge their sales
figures. In addition, in looking at household
use data, some household respondents ap-
(5)
peared to have provided unreliable answers.
For example, some respondents reported that
their families are middle income, but the use-
ful life of their desktop computers is one
to two years. This is not logical, given that
the average lifespan of desktop computers
in developed countries is 5 years and in de-
veloping countries 10 years. These kinds of
answers were excluded.
Environmental Quality Management / DOI 10.1002/tqem / Summer 2017 / 11
 Exhibit 6. Amount of Reused, Stored, and Discarded Laptop Computers
Using the Carnegie Mellon Model
Survey Analysis
According to the survey, the equipment
is purchased, and after a period of usage it
becomes obsolete. As already noted, three
options are available to the consumer. First,
the equipment could be reused (reuse of the
whole computer or reuse of components);
second, it could be stored; or third, it could
be discarded. Because of the lack of take-back
systems, Algerian households do not know
how or where to dispose of their e-waste. As
a result, e-waste is being mixed together with
other household wastes.
Use of Carnegie Mellon Model
The estimated end-of-life using the
Carnegie Mellon model for obsolete comput-
ers is depicted in Exhibits 6–9. This study
revealed that in 2016, an estimated 247,411
laptop computers were reused, 216,866 units
were stored, and 64,508 units were discarded
(see Exhibit 6). In 2016, an estimated 7,103
desktop computers were reused, 16,736 units
were stored, and 5,459 units were discarded
(see Exhibit 7).
12 / Summer 2017 / Environmental Quality Management / DOI 10.1002/tqem
For CRT monitors, an estimated 77,564
units remained in storage, 59,232 units were
reused, and 38,204 units were discarded, as
shown in Exhibit 8.
By the year 2018, the amount of reused
FPD monitors is expected to reach 108,988,
with an estimated 124,601 units stored
and 39,282 units discarded, as shown in
Exhibit 9.
An option for end-of-life of electronic
equipment in Algeria is similar to that in
other developing countries, where reuse and
storage are dominant due to the lack of
take-back systems. The consumer in Algeria
does not know where or how to dispose of
their end-of-life equipment. As a result, this
equipment is being mixed in with household
waste. There is no selective collection system
for e-waste in the country or in other MENA
countries (Seitz, 2014).
As discussed earlier, after using the com-
puter for a period of time, three options are
available to the users, as depicted in Exhibit
5. Reuse and storage are only intermediate
phases. After reusing a computer, it could be
stored for at least 2 years or discarded. The
Karima Hamouda and Rachid Adjroudi
 Exhibit 7. Amount of Reused, Stored, and Discarded Desktop Computers
Using the Carnegie Mellon Model

Exhibit 8. Amount of Reused, Stored, and Discarded CRT Monitors Using

the Carnegie Mellon Model

survey that we carried out in Algeria revealed
that there are some dismantling activities to
extract components from computers and re-
sell them. However, Seitz (2014) states that
e-waste management in Algeria is dominated
by the informal sector, and no further infor-
mation was available.
Use of Market Supply (Distribution Delay)
Model
In this study, only imported computers
in Algeria are considered. The amount of
computer waste is expected to be higher if
domestic production is considered. Combin-
ing the modeled lifespan with the imported
computers gives the number of computers
discarded every year. The modeling results of
computer waste generations are presented in
Exhibit 10. The outcomes from the distri-
bution delay model show that high amounts
of computer and monitor waste were regis-
tered for the period from 2014 to 2016.
Using this model in our study, the equip-
ment lifespan is limited to the length of

Electronic Waste Generation and Management in MENA Environmental Quality Management / DOI 10.1002/tqem / Summer 2017 / 13
 Exhibit 9. Amount of Reused, Stored, and Discarded FPD Monitors Using
the Carnegie Mellon Model

Exhibit 10. Computer and Monitor Waste Generation Using the Market Supply,
Distribution Delay Model

time a household or business uses the device
excluding the storage time. The average lifes-
pan obtained for computers and monitors is
presented in the table in Exhibit 3.
Sensitivity Analysis
A sensitivity analysis of the model param-
eters was carried out to investigate which pa-
rameters have an influence on model results.
However, this study tested, in particular, the
influence of average equipment lifespan by
increasing or decreasing it by one unit. The
results revealed that this change could cause
approximately ±15% variation in the annual
amount of obsolete computers and moni-
tors on average compared with the previous
results.
The choice of these two models consid-
ered the market saturation level. Computer
use is growing fast with decreasing lifespans.
Hence, applying a lifespan distribution is
the right modeling choice for an unsatu-
rated market. However, the Carnegie Mel-
lon model provides insight into the fate of

14 / Summer 2017 / Environmental Quality Management / DOI 10.1002/tqem Karima Hamouda and Rachid Adjroudi
obsolete computers. The lifespan retrieved
from the survey appears to be realistic, owing
to the fact that the majority of households
and businesses tend to replace their comput-
ers in response to the evolution of technol-
ogy rather than for functional reasons.
Based on the findings of this study and
local conditions in Algeria, the following
points are recommended for enhancing e-
waste management in the country:
• Set specific regulations to collect and
manage e-waste; this is a crucial step.
• Provide access to data sets, such as sales
on a national basis, to understand the
scope of potential e-waste.
• Consider the experiences of other devel-
oping countries in the preparation of a
national strategy to address e-waste in Al-
geria (e.g., project set in Morocco) (Seitz,
2014).
• Learn from other developed countries
and implement a take-back system. Vari-
ous stakeholders should work together to
enforce the system’s regulations.
Conclusion
In this study, two different methods were
used to estimate computer and monitor
waste in Algeria. The results should be taken
with the consideration that local produc-
tion was not included. If all electrical and
electronic equipment were incorporated, the
total amount of e-waste could be notice-
ably higher than the amount estimated by
this study. Data sets on sales and product
lifespans are crucial parameters for an effec-
tive assessment. One major limitation of this
study was the failure to obtain a greater re-
turn of completed questionnaires due to the
unexpectedly low response rate. The accu-
racy of the summarized results depends on
the representativeness of the modeled lifes-
Electronic Waste Generation and Management in MENA
pans of computers and monitors; thus, a sen-
sitivity analysis was performed.
The outcomes of this study underline the
demand for further research on e-waste as-
sessment to acquire more put-on market—or
sales—data and to define strategies to col-
lect different types of electronic appliances.
The availability of these data will provide a
platform for an efficient e-waste policy in
Algeria.
Acknowledgment
The authors are thankful to the Algerian
National Center for Informatics and Statistics
(CNIS) for providing data on computer im-
ports to the country.
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Karima Hamouda holds a master degree in industrial engineering from the University of Batna 2. Currently, she is a doctoral
candidate at the same department. Her research interests include electronic waste management, decision support systems,
and circular economy.
Rachid Adjroudi is a PhD researcher teacher in agricultural engineering and evaluating environment at INSVSA, University
of Batna 1. His research interests include wastes and air pollution.
16 / Summer 2017 / Environmental Quality Management / DOI 10.1002/tqem
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Karima Hamouda and Rachid Adjroudi