M.A.

Industrial Relation & Personnel Management

(Semester-2)

PAPER-1- INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Unit-1
Industrial Psychology: Introduction

Concept: Industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology is the science of behavior and
mental processes in the workplace. Industrial and organizational psychologists conduct scientific
research on all sorts of people-oriented workplace topics, such as what personality traits predict
good performance under stress and what social factors cause conflict in work groups. It also
hands-on practitioners who help organizations apply research findings to problems such as
matching employees to jobs and maximizing cooperation in workplace teams. The link between
scientific research and professional practice can be especially strong in I/O psychology because
the workplace provides both a natural laboratory for studying psychological questions and a
setting in which research-based answers can be applied and evaluated.

Nature: Industrial psychology involves the study of psychological principles as it relates to

groups and organizations in business and industry. This can include the study of the effect of
corporate cultures, safety measures in factories, and performance incentives for large groups.

Scope:
1. Economic, Social and Psychological Aspect of the Industry:
Industrial psychology deals with human behavior in the entire industrial environment.
Consequently, it studies the economic, social and psychological aspects of human behavior. In
the modern age most of economic factors have some psychological influence. The various
factors in communal life of workers living in industrial environment also influence the
psychology of the worker. Industrial psychology studies these factors.

2. Study of the Physical Aspect of Work Environment:

In an industry the worker is greatly influenced by the working conditions. If the conditions are
well, the worker feels satisfied and remains healthy while on the other hand if the conditions are
got good the workers become dissatisfied. Industrial psychology deals with the physical working
conditions.
 3. Principles of Human Relationships:
Irrespective of the automation introduced in industries, the human element can not be eliminated
Even most efficient machine needs an engineer to run it, and because the engineer is a human
being the most importance of the psychological element in the running of the factory cannot be
ignored. The efficiency of the human being will depend very much upon the nature of his
relations with the management.

In the previous century most industrialists behaved like autocrats and considered the workers as
nothing more than tools. But in that period the efficiency level was not very high.

It has been seer that an industrialist can achieve a higher rate of production if he behaves
sympathetically with his employees. An industrialist who cannot maintain good relations with
his workers does not succeed for long time. Industrial psychology tries at discover principles for
improving human relationships in an industrial environment.

4. Study of Aptitudes and Motives:

As in any other circumstances, human behaviour in the industrial environment is influenced and
formed by attitudes and aims. Behaviour changes with the changes in stimuli. Hence it is very
important to study the rules pertaining to correct attitudes and aims.

Industrial psychology pursues this kind of study. An important example of study of this kind is
the study conducted by Hawthorne Works Western Electric Company into the effect of the
attitudes of workers upon production. This study is known as the Hawthorne Study.

5. Study of Principles of Mental Health:

Today all intelligent people realize the importance of maintaining the proper health of workers.
The workers mental health is influenced by working conditions and by the attitude of other
people towards him. Industrial psychology not only studies the factors influencing the mental
health of industrial works but also tries to discover principles for maintaining their mental health.
Industrial “psychology also gives suggestions for improving the mental health of those who are
suffering from mental disease or are otherwise unbalanced.

6. Study of Human Relation:

Industrial psychology is the study or human behavior in an industrial context. Being a branch of
psychology, industrial psychology is particularly concerned with the observation and study, of
human relations, about which it reaches conclusions experimentally and through other study. On
the basis of these conclusions it tries to discover general principles which can be in improving
social relations between the workers and the management.
Objectives Its aim is to
1. discover the best possible human conditions in occupational work, whether they relate to
the best choice of a vocation,
2. the selection of the most suitable workers,
3. the most effective means of avoiding fatigue and boredom,
4. the study and provision of the most valuable incentives to work,
5. the causes of and remedies for irritation, discontent and unrest,
6. the best methods of work and training,
7. the reduction
8. of needless effort and strain due to bad movements and postures, inadequate
illumination, ventilation and temperature,
9. Change the ill-considered arrangements of material, or defective routing, layout, or
organization.

Values & Assumptions of Industrial Psychology:

The fundamental assumption is that the people in organizations and the goals of organizations
are best served when there is a good function of ability, motivation, and situational opportunities
(or constraints) between the two.
The focus should be on individual’s causal influences of human abilities, skills, attitudes, values
and other characteristics mapped into the person and also tasks, interpersonal factors, or
organizational structures to explain behavior.

Recent Trends of Research in the area of Industrial psychology:

1. Globalization and the Virtual Workplace

Increased globalization has many implications for I-O. For example, globalization may increase
the importance of cross-cultural leadership, with accompanying changes in organizational
policies and practices. Leaders increasingly realize the importance of retaining heterogeneity
from the team level to the national level rather than enforcing a single organization-wide set of
practices. Such inclusive cultures allow organizations to capitalize on the strengths of employees
from all backgrounds and to garner their “buy-in” and support.

Globalization has also enhanced the need for, and the use of, virtual workplaces. Virtual
workplaces may well change both how I-O psychologists perform their daily duties and the
scope of their projects. Technological advances such as electronic whiteboards and Skype™
allow collaboration with people sitting on the opposite side of the world. I-O researchers and
practitioners may want to seize the opportunity to investigate issues involving virtual workplaces
such as
 a. how they impact social relationships,
b. whether employees feel the same level of commitment in such environments, and
c. Their effects on organizational culture and communication.

2. Internet-Based Recruitment and Selection

Today, many organizations find it in their best interest to enhance their online presence to attract
desired applicants. Once attracted, job seekers can use the Internet to complete job applications,
upload their resumes, and participate in virtual job tryouts. Organizations transitioning to a
greater online presence may want to consider the implications of that change. For example, the
composition of the selection pool may change if younger adults are more likely than older adults
to possess the access and technological skills needed for online applications. Although this may
become a nonissue as older job seekers also have computer experience, it is concerning now, that
applicants may view online selection processes as unfair when the position sought does not
involve computer work.

In spite of some drawbacks, online selection systems have many benefits. Less paper is wasted.
Applicants across the globe can apply on their own schedules, regardless of their time zone or
physical location. Electronic systems are also built to adapt to the applicant, often providing
training and immediate feedback. In addition, assessments can still be proctored at a testing
center or at a later date following the initial screening. Future research will need to continue to
assess how organizations can best utilize the Internet, including more knowledge about how to
optimally combine Internet-based selection components with more traditional components such
as interviews.

3. Defining Limits for Online Searches of Personal Information

Online searches are used in such workplace contexts as employee selection and monitoring
current employee activity. Indeed, 84% of surveyed employers reported that they use Internet
search engines as an HR tool. I-O professionals would benefit from more exploration of the
implications of such easy access to employee personal information.

4. Innovation

Innovation is critical to driving our economy. The push for constant innovation to remain
competitive and simply to survive in a volatile economic environment is characteristic of many
industries. However, innovation must be undertaken strategically and purposefully to gain the
most organizational benefits. Organizations should have a clear purpose for all innovative
initiatives, and they must also act within employee and organizational limits to change. I-O
psychologists can do much to better understand and help organizations achieve an optimal level
of innovation and change.
 5. Technology-Enabled Training

In both work and academic settings, classroom-based training is being abandoned in favor of
technology-driven alternatives. Simulation centers provide hands-on training that allows trainees
to learn under conditions that would be too dangerous, rarely occurring, or otherwise prohibitive
in the real work environment. Virtual classrooms—as opposed to traditional classrooms—allow
instructors to reach many more students at one time without the added costs of bringing everyone
to the same location. Employees may also be looking for trainings that are customizable to their
needs and can be completed in sessions timed to match their schedules.

6. Heavy Focus on Developing the Top Employees

Every company has a few employees who are truly outstanding. These high potentials are
invaluable assets that organizations go to great lengths to identify, retain, and develop. As
organizations increase their investment in grooming high-potential employees, researchers need
to validate high-potential identification systems and to evaluate the best ways to retain and
develop these talent superstars.

7. Increased Coaching in the Workplace

Companies are hiring executive coaches to assist in employee development at a growing rate.
Large consulting firms use coaches to

a) help executives achieve higher performance,

b) groom high-potential employees, and
c) Enhance team effectiveness.

Future issues that need to be explored include figuring out whether coaching should be regulated,
in addition to identifying (and potentially stopping) untrained individuals.

8. Proactive Approaches to Improve Employee Health

Research consistently finds that compared to healthy employees, unhealthy employees tend to
have higher medical expenses, absenteeism. As a result, organizations are turning to health and
productivity management programs because it is too expensive not to invest in the health of their
employees. We will likely continue to see increases in evidence-based wellness programs that
include incentives for employees to become healthier.
 9. Facilitating Work–Life Merge

The term “work–life merge” describes a life where work and personal activities are so
intertwined that it becomes impossible to neatly compartmentalize the two. This concept differs
from aiming for balance because the balance approach tends to assume that work—the hard
grind—is the opposite of life—a time of pleasure. Employees with work–life merge tend to be
individuals who enjoy their work and want to customize it to best fit their lifestyles.
 Unit-2

Job Analysis, Worker’s Analysis, Monotony, Fatigue

Job Analysis-

Concept: Job analysis refers to the process of collecting information about a job. In other words,
it refers to the anatomy of the job. Job analysis is performed upon ongoing jobs only. It contains
job contents, what minimal knowledge, skills and abilities are necessary to be able to adequately
perform this job

Job analysis is the process of getting information about jobs: specially, what the worker does;
how he gets it done; why he does it; skill, education and training required; relationship to other
jobs, physical demands; environmental conditions

There are two major aspects of job analysis:

Job Description is prepared on the basis of data collected through job analysis. Job description
is a functional description of the contents what the job entails. It is a narration of the contents of
a job. It is a description of the activities and duties to be performed in a job, the relationship of
the job with other jobs, the equipment and tools involved, the nature of supervision, working
conditions and hazards of the job and so on.

All major categories of jobs need to be spelled out in clear and comprehensive manner to
determine the qualifications and skills required to perform a job. Thus, job description
differentiates one job from the other. In sum, job description is a written statement of what a job
holder does, how it is done, and why it is done.

Job description is done for fulfilling the following purposes:

1. Grading and classification of jobs

2. Placement and Orientation of new employees
3. Promotions and transfers
4. Outlining for career path
5. Developing work standards
6. Counseling of employees
7. Delimitation of authority
Job Specification:
While job description focuses on the job, job specification focuses on the person i.e, the job
holder. Job specification is a statement of the minimum levels of qualifications, skills, physical
and other abilities, experience, judgment and attributes required for performing job effectively.
In other words, it is a statement of the minimum acceptable qualifications that an incumbent
must possess to perform a given job. It sets forth the knowledge, skills and abilities required to
do the job effectively.

Job specification specifies the physical, psychological, personal, social and behavioral charac-
teristics of the job holders. These contents of the job specification are contained in Table 5.1.

Usages of Job Specification: The usages of job specification include:

1. Personnel planning

2. Performance appraisal

3. Hiring

4. Training and development

5. Job evaluation and compensation

6. Health and safety

7. Employee discipline

8. Work scheduling

9. Career planning
Objectives:

1. Recruitment and Selection: Job Analysis helps in determining what kind of person is
required to perform a particular job. It points out the educational qualifications, level of
experience and technical, physical, emotional and personal skills required to carry out a
job in desired fashion. The objective is to fit a right person at a right place.
2. Performance Analysis: Job analysis is done to check if goals and objectives of a
particular job are met or not. It helps in deciding the performance standards, evaluation
criteria and individual’s output. On this basis, the overall performance of an employee is
measured and he or she is appraised accordingly.
3. Training and Development: Job Analysis can be used to assess the training and
development needs of employees. The difference between the expected and actual output
determines the level of training that need to be imparted to employees. It also helps in
deciding the training content, tools and equipments to be used to conduct training and
methods of training.
4. Compensation Management: Of course, job analysis plays a vital role in deciding the
pay packages and extra perks and benefits and fixed and variable incentives of
employees. After all, the pay package depends on the position, job title and duties and
responsibilities involved in a job. The process guides HR managers in deciding the worth
of an employee for a particular job opening.
 5. Job designing and Redesigning: The main purpose of job analysis is to streamline the
human efforts and get the best possible output. It helps in designing, redesigning,
enriching, evaluating and also cutting back and adding the extra responsibilities in a
particular job. This is done to enhance the employee satisfaction while increasing the
human output.

Factors: Job analysis is subject to several standards including:

1. Quality of performance required.

2. The size of the required performance.
3. Knowledge and scientific and technical skill.
4. Self management and ability to work without direct supervision.
5. Teamwork (group work).
6. the spirit of the initiative
7. Level of motivation at work.
8. Discipline and time management.
9. Commitment to the application of occupational health and safety.
10. Commitment to the dates of attendance, degrees of absence.
11. Focus on customer service.
12. General appearance.
Monotony-

Meaning: Sometimes it is also called boredom, indicates psychologically undesirable effect of

repetitive work found in the factories and offices of industrial and business organizations of
today. It adversely affects the morale, motivation and productivity of the employees. It is
subjective in nature and is related to personality factor.

Factors:

 Excessively high workloads, with unrealistic deadlines making people feel rushed, under
pressure and overwhelmed.
 Insufficient workloads, making people feel that their skills are being underused.
 A lack of control over work activities.
 A lack of interpersonal support or poor working relationships leading to a sense of
isolation.
 People being asked to do a job for which they have insufficient experience or training.
 Difficulty settling into a new promotion, both in terms of meeting the new role's
requirements and adapting to possible changes in relationships with colleagues.
 Bullying or harassment.
 A blame culture within your business where people are afraid to get things wrong or to
admit to making mistakes.
 Weak or ineffective management which leaves employees feeling they don't have a
sense of direction, or over-management, which can leave employees feeling
undervalued and affect their self-esteem. Multiple reporting lines for employees, with
each manager asking for their work to be prioritised.
 Failure to keep employees informed about significant changes to the business, causing
them uncertainty about their future.
 A poor physical working environment, eg excessive heat, cold or noise, inadequate
lighting, uncomfortable seating, malfunctioning equipment, etc.
 Personal or Family Problems
 High-ended or complex Technology usage
 High Demand for Performance
 Job Insecurity
Protective Measures:

1. Job-Enlargement: It cause the reduction in absenteeism, cutting overtime in half

despite an increase in work volume, increasing interest in jobs, increasing pay and
lowering overall costs for the company due to the usage of the machine operators which
could save a lot of time and gain variety in the jobs.
2. Worker Participation: Giving a worker more say in organizing his work is also known
to reduce monotony.
3. Job Relation or Change in Job: Monotony at work can be reduced by temporarily
transferring the worker to another job and employing some other worker in his place.
4. Change in Mental Set-up: By simply changing the mental set of the worker, the worker
can be made to see a new meaning in a task. By making the worker see how his job is
important to the organization, he can give more respect to the job that was boring and
repetitive for him.
5. Breaking up the Task: Breaking the big goal into a series of sub-goals makes the goal
achievable. When the monotonous task is broken up into a series of sub- tasks then it
gives a more frequent sense of accomplishment to the worker, keeps the interest level
high and thereby keeps monotony away.
6. Music: Organizations can reduce the monotony at work by the use of music, especially
for employees on routine jobs. Some studies have indicated that use of music resulted in
improved employee attitudes and increased production. Music decreases monotony at
work, makes time pass more rapidly and seems to make work easier. Music is generally
considered good for the morale of the workers.
7. Rest-Pauses: Rest pauses are believed to permit complete recovery from monotony. Both
the mind and the body need to recover after a period of continuous work. Rest pauses are
beneficial for giving the much needed break to both body as well as the brain.

Fatigue-

Meaning: Fatigue is a psychological aspect that means not having enough energy to do work and
experience subject reluctance to continue a task. A state of feeling tired, weary, or sleepy that
results from prolonged mental and physical work, extended periods of anxiety, exposure to harsh
environment, or loss of sleep. Fatigue is a result of prolonged mental or physical exertion; it can
affect people's performance and impair their mental alertness, which leads to dangerous errors.
Factors:

Protective Measures:

1. Minimize sleep loss

Promoting quantity and quality sleep is an essential factor for ensuring optimal performance
during work time. Majority of people need about 8 h of sleep per day to preserve full alertness.
Obtaining only 6 h for an individual who requires 8 h of sleep result to sleep-deprivation by 2h.
It is recommended to have adequate resting time before a shift. The data showed that risk of
fatigue increased exponentially at the 12-h shifts and early start shifts. It is necessary to avoid
overtime on 12-h shifts and provide at least a 24-h break between shifts.

2. Naps during night shifts

Napping as a fatigue countermeasure has been found to be effective for shift workers. Many
researches showed that short naps improve both of the mood and performance. Also, it was
found that a 30 min nap in subjects with normal sleep and who had a night of restricted sleep
decrease sleepiness and increase subjective alertness. The positive effects of naps depending on
many issues including timing of the nap, nap length, and severity of sleep inertia following a
nap.

3. Good sleeping habits

There are specific strategies that can help improve each sleep opportunity, and some of them
include: When possible keep a regular sleep/wake schedule to avoid circadian disruption; reserve
the bedroom for sleep and not for work, if possible; develop a comforting pre-sleep routine such
as listening radio; avoid frequent naps during the day; get out of bed if there is a trouble with
falling asleep; do not use caffeine, alcohol, and cigarettes right before bedtime; and making
bedroom quiet, totally dark, and comfortable with the ideal temperature about 18–24°C.
 4. Stimulators
When other no pharmacologic approaches to fatigue management become impractical or
ineffective, alert-enhancing medications should be considered. They help workers sustain alert
during extended work shift when adequate restorative sleep is not possible. Stimulants to combat
the effects of fatigue have been used in many industries. The most widely used drug in this group
is caffeine.
 Unit-3

Work Motivation, Job Satisfaction, Industrial Morale, Efficiency.

Work Motivation-

Meaning:

Work motivation is a set of energetic forces that originates both within as well as beyond an
individual's being, to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form, direction,
intensity, and duration.

Motivation is a person's internal disposition to be concerned with and approach positive

incentives and avoid negative incentives which is the anticipated reward or aversive event
available in the environment. While motivation can often be used as a tool to help predict
behavior, it varies greatly among individuals and must often be combined with ability
and environmental factors to actually influence behavior and performance.

Factors:

1. Intrinsic Motivation
Those who have a desire to effectively perform behaviors for their own sake are said to have
intrinsic motivation. Workers who love being at work and will do anything it takes for the
company to flourish are most of the time intrinsically motivated.

2. Extrinsic Motivation
Commissions, sales incentives and social praise are well-known motivators. The psychological
concept is extrinsic motivation. These rewards can be extremely powerful when looking to
motivate your staff to go above and beyond their current comfort zone of productivity.

3. Over-justification Effect
The over-justification effect occurs when someone naturally has a passion (intrinsic motivation)
to see something through, but is offered a reward for its completion. Thus, rendering them less
effective. For instance, if an employee loves writing on your corporate blog but you decide to
financially compensate them for each post. There is a chance they will find the writing less
enjoyable. Since they have to be bribed into writing, then the task must not be worth doing for its
own sake.
 4. Positive Reinforcement
Strengthening or diminishing certain employee behaviors is extremely important when
developing a highly effective team. This can be achieved with a basic understanding of operant
conditioning. Essentially, the concept describes how the effects of praise and reward can be
used to refine behavior. While this can be seen throughout life, you can apply the concept when
motivating your workforce.
A few examples of positive reinforcements in the workplace are social praise in public, sales
incentives & bonuses as well as creative rewards such as early departure from work, casual dress
days and in-office game/personal time.

5. Shaping
After a while, positive reinforcement will become less effective as they will become accustomed
to the praise. Withholding the reward unless performance is continually improved upon will help
shape the productivity.

6. Achievement Motivation Theory

The desire to achieve the absolute best results possible is an amazing trait to find in coworkers.
Those who strive to achieve share these three major characteristics:

a. They favor a work environment in which they are able to assume

responsibility for solving problems.
b. They tend to take calculated risks and to set moderate, attainable
goals.
c. They need continuing recognition and feedback about their
progress so that they know how well they are doing.
Furthermore, these high achievers have been found to carry two different goals – mastery and
performance, which means that as a leader you must recognize what, makes these workers tick.
The high achievers who strive for mastery of tasks are driven by developing themselves
internally and are rewarded by becoming increasingly skilled. Performance based achievers need
to be the best. They find satisfaction by completing their duties better than their coworkers.

7. Needs Hierarchy Theory

Sometimes called Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, the concept illustrates human needs, arranged
in order of importance. The lower needs on this pyramid must be fulfilled before one can achieve
the next higher level:
This chart is important for entrepreneurs and leaders to understand. For example, if an employee
is lacking self-esteem or self-fulfillment in their life, there is little chance of them becoming an
extremely remarkable addition to your team. You must recognize and create solutions for your
staff to become truly satisfied in their life before you can achieve the results you desire.

8. Motivator-Hygiene Theory
Also called the Two-Factor Theory, the Motivator-Hygiene Theory isn’t backed by a lot of
supporting data in the psychology/research world. But it has transformed many organizations in
terms of employee motivation. The concept is based on the suggestion that an employee has two
needs:

a. Motivator Needs – These produce job satisfaction and are considered higher needs. They
can be satisfied by providing stimulating, challenging and absorbing work. Meeting these
demands will result in job satisfaction. However, the lack of a challenging job will not
create job dissatisfaction.
 b. Hygiene Needs – These produce job dissatisfaction and are considered lower needs. A
few examples of these needs are a company policy, working conditions, wages paid and
other external factors that can directly affect a worker such as their supervisor. Meeting
these needs does not result in job satisfaction but rather prevents job dissatisfaction.
The take away from this concept is that as you oversee your organization, it is important to
emphasize job enrichment. Put in other words, be sure to maximize the potential of every single
employee by consciously recognizing the opportunities to promote satisfaction and demote
dissatisfaction in the workplace.

9. Equity Theory
Ensuring that your employees feel equal amongst their peers is extremely important when
creating a motivated workforce. The equity theory describes how workers assess their efforts and
outcomes on the job by calculating a “productivity ratio.” They then (most likely unconsciously)
compare their ratio to the perceived ratios of their coworkers.

Further studies have expanded on this theory by classifying three types of equatorial behaviors:

a. Benevolent – These workers feel satisfied when under-rewarded compared to coworkers

and feel guilty when equally or over-rewarded.
b. Equity-Sensitive – These workers believe everyone should be rewarded fairly. They
dislike when they are under-rewarded and guilty when over-rewarded.
c. Entitled – These workers feel they should be over-rewarded in comparison to their
coworkers and dislike anything less.

10. Goal Setting Theory

The goal setting theory is somewhat common sense but it reinforces the fact that a worker’s
motivation shares a direct relationship with their goals. This theory was developed by Edward
Locke and illustrates that by setting specific and challenging goals for your team motivation will
provoke extreme productivity. From profit goals for your sales force to timeframe goals for your
research team, your overall business will benefit greatly by implementing this strategy.

11. Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy (VIE) Theory

This theory may be one of the most important concepts for motivation but is often overlooked by
most businesses. The VIE theory states that people are motivated to perform as expected because
of the prospect of personal advancement such as a pay-raise or promotion. Put in other words,
workers who aspire for a better status at work will do anything they believe will get them their
desired results.
 12. The Pygmalion Effect
The Pygmalion Effect produces a self-fulfilling prophecy in which your expectations about the
level of your employees’ job performance can directly influence their performance. Put in other
words, managers who expect high performance tend to get high performance and those who
expect poor performance tend to get poor performance.

Promoting Measures:

1. Make Expectations Clear

Employees without goals will be naturally aimless. Provide them with clear achievable goals and
make sure there are measurable standards in place to evaluate their performance. Employees
should understand what they are expected to do, how they are expected to do it, and how they
will be judged on it.

2. Provide Continuous Feedback

Immediate, continuous feedback lets an employee know that their actions affect the company.
It’s hard for you, and the employee, to remember specific incidents when employee performance
review time rolls around. Goal-setting theory predicts (quite obviously) that employees are
motivated by setting goals and by receiving continuous feedback on where they stand relative to
those goals. Always be specific in your feedback,, pointing out remotely about the methods
applied, efficient decisions made, analytical skills used, etc.

3. Correct Privately

Most people are not motivated by negative feedback, especially if they feel it’s embarrassing.
The only acceptable place to discuss an ongoing, performance-related issue or correcting a
recent, specific error is in the employee’s office or your own, with the door closed.

Don’t think of correcting an employee’s performance or behavior as punitive. Instead, consider it

a learning opportunity for the employee. Keep an open mind, which suggests that a majority of
performance problems are actually outside of an employee’s control. If it is something the
employee can change, it’s up to you to present the issue in such a way that the he feels he can
correct the mistake.
 4. Believe in Your Employees

Whether you tell him so during an employee performance review, or in the break room, an
employee whose boss constantly calls him worthless, or a screw-up will feel a lot of emotions.
He will not, however, feel particularly motivated to improve his performance. The perception of
leaders’ trust is a key component of transformational leadership.

5. Praise Publicly

People love praise; they thrive on it. Make it a standard practice in your office to recognize
positive people and trends within the business. Announce publicly when one of your employees
made a particularly outstanding presentation, sale, or other notable achievement. Tie an incentive
to accolades, such as a bonus or a gift certificate. Praising your employees in front of others
helps motivate their continued stellar performance.

6. Make Rewards Achievable

Everyone is familiar with the annual bonus trip awarded to the top-performing employee. The
problem is, such rewards usually go to one or two employees. This leaves the rest of your staff
feeling like there’s not much point in working hard because the same few people always reap the
rewards. Each every individual must see the desired performance and link the reward to their
performance to get an opportunity to receive one for themselves.

Job Satisfaction-

Meaning: Job satisfaction or employee satisfaction is a measure of workers' contentedness

with their job, whether or not they like the job or individual aspects or facets of jobs, such as
nature of work or supervision. Job satisfaction can be measured in cognitive (evaluative),
affective (or emotional), and behavioral components.

One of the most widely used definitions in organizational research is that of Locke (1976), who
defines job satisfaction as "a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal
of one's job or job experiences"
Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction:
1. Organisational Factors:
a. Salaries and Wages: Wages and salaries play a significant role in influencing job
satisfaction. This is basically because of a few basic reasons.

Firstly, money is an important instrument in fulfilling one’s needs. Money also satisfies
the first level needs of Maslow’s model of satisfaction.

Secondly, employees often see money as a reflection of the management’s concern for
them.

Thirdly, it is considered a symbol of achievement since higher pay reflects higher degree
of contribution towards organizational operations.

Non monetary benefits are also important, but they are not as influential. One reason for
that is that most of the employees do not even know how much they are receiving in
benefits. Moreover, a few tend to under value there benefits because they do not realize
their monetary value. The employees, generally, want a pay system which is simple, fair
and in line with their expectations.

b. Promotion Chances: Promotional chances considerably affect the job satisfaction

because of the following reasons:

Firstly, Promotion indicates on employee’s worth to the organization which is highly

morale boosting. This is particularly true in case of high level jobs. .

Secondly, Employee takes promotion as the ultimate achievement in his career and when
it is realized, he feels extremely satisfied.

Thirdly, Promotion involves positive changes e.g. higher salary, less supervision, more
freedom, more challenging work assignments, increased responsibilities, status and like.

c. Company Policies: Organizational structural and policies also play on important role in
affecting the job satisfaction of employees. An autocratic and highly authoritative
structure causes resentment among the employees as compared to a structure which is
more open and democratic in nature.
Organisational policies also govern the human behavior in the organizations. These
policies can generate positive or negative feelings towards the organization. Liberal and
fair policies usually result in more job satisfactions. Strict policies will create
dissatisfaction among the employees because they feel that they are not being treated
fairly and may feel constrained.
 Thus, a democratic organisational structure with fair and liberal policies is associated
with high job satisfaction.

d. Work Environmental Factors:

Supervision: Supervision is a moderately important source of job satisfaction. There are
two dimensions of supervisory styles which affect the job satisfaction:
First is Employee Centeredness: Whenever the supervisor is friendly and supportive of
the workers there is job satisfaction. In this style, the supervisor takes personal interest in
employee’s welfare.
Second is Participation: The superiors who allow their subordinates to participate in
decisions that affect their own jobs, help in creating an environment which is highly
conducive to job satisfaction. Thus, the supervisors who establish a supportive personal
relationship with subordinates and take personal interest in them, contribute to the
employees’ satisfaction.

e. Work Group:
A friendly and co-operative group provides opportunities to the group members to interact with
each other. It serves as a source of support, comfort, advice and assistance to the individual
group members. If on the other hand, the people are difficult to get along with, the work group
will have a negative impact on job satisfaction.
The work group will be even a stronger source of satisfaction when members have similar
attitudes and values. In such a group, there will less friction on day to day basis.
Smaller groups provide greater opportunity for building mutual trust and understanding as
compared to larger groups.
Thus, the group size and quality of interpersonal relations within the group play a significant role
in worker’s satisfaction.

f. Working Conditions: Good working conditions are desirable by the employees, as they
lead to more physical comfort. People desire that there should be a clean and healthy
working environment. Temperature, humidity, ventilation, lighting and noise, hours of
work, cleanliness of the work place and adequate tools and equipment are the features
which affect job satisfaction. While the desirable working conditions are taken for
granted and may not contribute heavily towards job satisfaction. Poor working conditions
do become a source of physical discomfort & danger which results in job dissatisfaction.

g. Work Itself: The content of the work itself plays a major role in determining the level of
job satisfaction.
Job Scope: It provides the amount of responsibility, work pace and feedback. The
higher the level of these factors, higher the job scope and higher the level of satisfaction.
 Variety: A moderate amount of variety is very effective. Excessive variety produces
confusion and stress and a too little variety causes monotony and fatigue which are dis-
satisfiers.
Lack of Autonomy and Freedom: Lack of autonomy and freedom over work methods
and work pace can create helplessness and dissatisfaction. Employees do not like it
when their every step and every action is determined by their supervisor.
Role Ambiguity and Role Conflict: Role ambiguity and role conflict also lead to
confusion and job dissatisfaction because employees do not know exactly what their task
is and what is expected of them.
Interesting Work: A work which is very interesting and challenging and provides
status will be providing satisfaction to the employees as compared to work which is
boring and monotonous.

2. Personal Factors:
Personal attributes of the individuals also play a very important role as to whether they are
satisfied at the job or not. Pessimists and people with negative attitudes will complain about
everything including the job. They will always find something wrong in every job to complain
about.

a. Age and Seniority: With age, people become more mature and realistic and less
idealistic so that they are willing to accept available resources and rewards and be
satisfied about the situation. With the passage of time, people move into more
challenging and responsible positions. People who do not move up at all with time are
more likely to be dissatisfied with their jobs.
b. Tenure: Employees with longer tenure are expected to be highly satisfied with their
jobs. Tenure assures job security, which is highly satisfactory to employees. They can
easily plan for their future without any fear of losing their jobs.
c. Personality: Some of the personality traits which are directly related to job satisfaction
are self assurance, self esteem, and maturity, and decisiveness, sense of autonomy,
challenge and responsibility. Higher the person is on Maslow’s needs hierarchy, the
higher is the job satisfaction. This type of satisfaction comes from within the person and
is a function of his personality. Accordingly, in addition to providing a healthy work
environment, management must ensure that the employee is happy with himself and has a
positive outlook on life.
Promoting Measures:

1. Respectful treatment of staff at all levels in the organization

2. Trust between employees and senior management
3. Overall benefits (paid time off, healthcare, flex-time, family plans)
4. Overall compensation (competitive pay, base rate, opportunities for variable pay, stock
options)
5. Job security
6. Relationship with immediate supervisor
7. Opportunities to apply your skills and abilities
8. Ideas are respected by immediate supervisor
9. Organization’s financial stability
10. Performance is recognized by management

Industrial Morale-

Concept: Morale represents the attitudes of individuals and groups in an organisation towards
their work environment. Morale is an indicator of the attitude of employees towards their jobs,
superiors and their organisational environment. It is a collection of the employees’ attitude,
feelings and sentiments. Morale is the co-operative attitude or mental health of a number of
people who are related to each other on some basis.
Characteristics of Morale:

1. Morale is basically a psychological concept

2. Morale is intangible therefore it is very difficult to measure the degree of morale
accurately
3. Morale is contagious in the sense that people learn from each other
4. Morale in dynamic in nature. It cannot be developed overnight. Managers have to make
continuous efforts to build and maintain high morale. It is a long-term concept.
5. Morale is a group phenomenon consisting of a pattern of attitudes. It is the sum total of
employees’ attitudes, feelings and sentiments.

Significance of Morale:

1. Morale is the vital ingredient of organisational success because attitudes and sentiments
of employees greatly influence productivity and satisfaction of employees.
2. Morale may be high or low; when the morale of the employees is high, they co-operate
fully with the management towards the achievement of organisational objectives.
3. High morale leads to good discipline, high degree of interest in the job , loyalty to the
organization and high performance.

Promoting Measures:

Every manager should attempt to build high morale of his subordinates. Both individual and
collective efforts are required to develop and maintain high morale. The following measures are
taken to improve the morale of employees in the organisation:-

1. A fair system of wage and salary payments should be evolved

2. A sense of security of job should be ensured
3. The promotion policy should be sound and should be followed promptly
4. Competent supervisors should be appointed
5. The channel of communication should be effective.
6. The employees should be made to feel proud of being employed in the organization
7. Employees’ welfare schemes like housing, medical benefits, education facilities for
children, canteen, credit facilities, and safety measures should be provided as they are
very helpful in developing positive attitude among the employees.
8. Workers should be given proper training so that they may perform their jobs without
frustration and get job satisfaction.
Factors determining morale: The degree of morale in any organization is determined by several
factors.

1. Confidence in leadership: If the leader of the organization is able to win the confidence
of the employees, morale will be high. For employees, the leader being mentioned is the
immediate supervisor/superior. If the leader is systematic, fair, honest, helpful and
friendly, he may win over the confidence of his subordinates and boost their morale.
2. Job Satisfaction: The morale of the employee would be high if he is satisfied with his
job. Hence right men should be placed in the right job to boost up their morale in their
jobs.
3. Confidence in co-workers: Mani is a social being and he finds himself more enthusiastic
in the company of others. If he finds that his companions or fellow workers are co-
operating with him, his morale would be high.
4. Sound and efficient organization: Sound and effective organization is an important
factor affecting the employee’s morale. At the same time, the chance of communication
should be effective and the personal problems of the employee should be heard and
redressed as quickly as possible.
5. Fair remuneration: Fair and reasonable remuneration is essential to secure enthusiasm
and willingness of the workers to do the job. The wages should be comparable with those
paid in similar concerns. Besides, monetary incentives should be provided to them as and
when necessary and possible.
6. Security of job: If the employee feels secured, they will be willing and co-operative to
do the job allotted to them.
7. Opportunity to rise: The employees should also be made to realise that if they work
properly, they will be promoted and adequately rewarded. This feeling of recognition will
definitely boost their morale.
8. Working conditions: The conditions of work at which the employees are required to
work also affect their morale. Providing safety measures, hygienic facilities, clean
workplace etc. give them satisfaction and boost their morale.
9. Physical & mental health: An employee with weak health cannot be co-operative and
willing to work. Similarly his mental strain shall also reduce his motivation of morale.
Both physical and mental illness are detrimental to an individual’s work and thereby the
organisational output.
Efficiency:
Meaning: The comparison of what is actually produced or performed with what can be achieved
with the same consumption of resources (money, time, labor, etc.). It is an important factor in
determination of productivity.

Factors:

1. Racial Qualities:
It is sometimes said that physical strength and mental advancement are mainly racial
characteristics. About the truth of this remark there is, however, much room for doubt. With
proper education and a suitable environment people of all races can become efficient.

2. Climate:
The climate of a country exerts considerable influence on the productivity of labour. A temperate
climate is particularly favorable for prolonged work. In such climatic regions labourers become
very efficient. Hot and humid climates, on the other hand, produce lethargy and weariness
among the workers and lower their efficiency.

The climate of India is hot and humid and is therefore detrimental to hard work. However, due to
scientific advance, climate is no longer an insurmountable handicap to efficiency. For example,
by installing air-conditioning plants in factories and offices, extremes of temperature can be
avoided.

3. Income and Standard of Living:

The income of a worker is an important determination of his efficiency and the standard of living
is determined by one’s income. If a person’s income is not sufficient for getting food, clothing,
shelter and some entertainment, his productive capacity is bound to suffer. In most parts of India
the incomes of labourers are not sufficient for healthy and comfortable living.

In recent years, however, some attention has been paid to this matter. Steps are being taken to
raise the level of wages. The Government is also spending money on labour welfare, housing
schemes, etc.

4. Working Conditions:
The efficiency of a labourer depends on the environment in which he works. A dark, cold and
cheerless workplace is unlikely to encourage industrious and carefree effort. By contrast, well-
ventilated, clean and pleasant working place, absence of unusually long hours of work,
satisfactory employer-employee relations all go a long way towards increasing the productivity
of a worker.
So, factories and offices must provide the workers with adequate air, light, drinking water, bath-
rooms, cheap canteens, medical aid and other amenities. In the post-Second World War period
there has been, in most countries, continuous improvement in the conditions under which labour
performs its daily tasks.

Greater attention is now paid in places of employment (factories and offices) to such matters as
ventilation, lighting, temperature and medical care. Most of the things are now carefully
regulated by the State through official inspectorate.

In India the Factories Act of 1948 lays down rules regarding conditions of work inside factories.
There is compulsory provision for adequate ventilation, lighting, etc. There are laws regarding
the settlement of industrial disputes, provision of minimum wages in certain industries, social
(unemployment) insurance, etc.

5. General and Technical Education:

The efficiency of a labourer depends on his level of education. General education broadens a
labourer’s angle of vision and makes him more intelligent. But, in order to acquire technical skill
one must get the right type of technical education. As a matter of fact, in a developing country
like India, the spread of technical education is an essential pre-requisite of industrial expansion.

6. Efficiency of Other Factors:

The efficiency of a labourer will increase if the other factors of production are of good quality.
If, for example, agricultural lands are fertile, production per head is large. Similarly, better
equipment and raw materials increase output per man hour. It is anybody’s knowledge that the
worker using modern equipment will produce a large output.

In fact, an important determinant of labour productivity is the quality of the factors (land and
capital) with which labour has to work. But providing labour with bigger and better machinery
and more fertile land is not enough. Organisation and motivation are equally, if not more, impor-
tant in raising labour productivity.

It is possible to achieve substantial improvements in labour productivity, even with the same
amount of machinery and labour employed, by improving the existing methods of production
and proper reorganization of men and machines.

Two such techniques of increasing productivity are work study and method study. These two
procedures are designed to increase output by carefree and systematic analysis of the existing
methods of production. From this point of view, Indian workers are in a bad position. The
machinery and equipment in most Indian factories are old and obsolete.
The efficiency of a labourer is also dependent upon the skill of the organizer. The per capita
output of labour may be higher if the organizer is efficient, farsighted and liberal in his outlook.
In the advanced countries of the West, skilful organization is one of the main causes of high
productivity.

7. Welfare Services:
In most modern mixed economies, like the UK or Sweden, the State provides a comprehensive
social security system like a national health service. This makes medical care and attention
available to all irrespective of the ability to pay.

National insurance schemes provide unemployment compensation, sickness benefit and various
other supplementary facilities so as to ensure that even in case of eventualities people get some
minimum level of income. These benefits are provided to ensure economic and social justice;
but, while helping to maintain the health and moral of the people, they do make a positive
contribution to the efficiency of the labour force.

8. Motivation and Incentives:

Efficiency of labour can be increased if the worker has prospects of promotion, honour and
reward. The desire to work better and improve oneself must be stimulated by providing sufficient
incentives to work.

It is also possible to raise productivity by motivating the workers properly. The most important
type of motivation in today’s highly specialized mass-production systems is a high degree of job
satisfaction. By introducing various incentive and bonus schemes it is possible to relate monetary
reward more closely to effort. This is often used as a means of stimulating output.

Two other schemes of motivating workers are:

a. Worker participation in management (which seeks to bring the worker more
prominently into the decision making process), and

b. Profit sharing schemes (i.e., giving stock options to employees). Although the
second method seems to be economically feasible the first method may be
difficult to apply or implement in practice.

9. Economy of High Wages:

Finally, as Alfred Marshall has pointed out “High wages may result in a high standard of
efficiency”. This is true if high wages increase the physical welfare (i.e., comforts and pleasure)
of workers. Low wages, as in India, generally retard efficiency. In advanced countries like the
USA, high wages conduce to high standard of efficiency by improving the living standards of
people.
Promoting Measures:

1. Get Rid of Motivation Killers

A good manager will find ways to carefully observe the work environment in search of problem
areas that adversely affect employee motivation. Typical motivation killers include toxic people,
abrasive personalities, lack of organizational vision, absence of opportunities for professional
development, poor communication systems, autocratic management styles, and the feeling of
lack of appreciation.

2. Motivate through Gaming

Motivation is a very important factor in ensuring productivity. Unmotivated employees get bored
especially when they are dealing with monotonous routines. Likewise, employees who lack
motivation may not have the enthusiasm to complete challenging tasks. One effective way of
motivating employees is through the use of gaming techniques. Tasks like completing reports or
contributing ideas for projects and policy changes can be turned into games to make them more
appealing, exciting, or interesting.

Gaming involves the use of badges, rewards, leader boards or rankings, points, challenges, and
other game elements to make repetitive and quantifiable tasks more engaging. Enterprise gaming
platforms like GameEffective can be integrated with existing ERP, CRM or other enterprise
applications, making it easier for employees to use these and get ahead in the game. These can be
readily deployed to add a "play" dimension to various aspects of a business operation, like sales
and customer service.

3. Set Clear Goals and Provide Feedback

Employees or personnel will be more motivated if they know what they are expected to achieve.
Clearly stating goals or having a company vision provides guidance for everyone. Short-term
goals, in particular, are effective in encouraging employees to properly manage their speed in
doing tasks to meet targets. Additionally, it is important to provide feedback or show that
employees are being supervised. Accomplishments should be acknowledged, while errors or
failures in meeting targets should be promptly addressed. Good management practices can
enhance and help maintain employee productivity.

4. Use Technology Responsibly

Refusing to leverage technology could be considered a grave mistake for any business. There are
many technologies that significantly increase productivity in a workplace. To emphasize, using
technology is not just about having computers and an Internet connection in the office. It's also
important to study and utilize different hardware and software solutions that can improve
employee productivity. Collaborative applications like Asana can be very effective in making
employees more productive, especially for organizations with geographically-distributed setups.
 5. Set Standards and Provide Skills Development
In every business, it is important to establish standards. Employees should be familiar with what
the company expects from them. They need to know what they should be doing as well as their
assigned roles. Without clear or explicit expectations, people tend to find excuses when they fail
to achieve targets. Be clear at the outset: define what you expect of everyone, and how you
expect people to perform their assigned tasks and responsibilities.

Moreover, address the aspirational needs of employees by providing opportunities for developing
skills or advancing professionally. Management should expect every employee to seek
challenges, and to not want to be stagnant. It's not enough that they have mastered the skills
needed to efficiently accomplish their current assignments. Let the employees realize that there
are other things they can do, so that they can progress to higher positions. If managers don't help
employees develop professionally, that may become motivation for them to seek a new
company.

6. Communicate Effectively and Efficiently

Communication, without a doubt, is a crucial aspect of business operations. Without an effective
system of communication in place, organization will have difficulty in achieving goals and even
in functioning properly. Communication here, by the way, is not just the simple use of devices,
such as phones or verbal and written exchanges of information. It is about designing and using
communication systems that are appropriate for the needs of a business or company.

Effective and efficient communication means that employees should know the hierarchy and
expertise within the company. They should know who to reach out to regarding their concerns.
In terms of tools, take advantage of modern platforms and applications available.
 Unit-4

Stress at Organization & Work Environment

Stress at Organization-

Concept:

Work stress refers to the process of job stressors, or stimuli in the workplace, leading to strains,
or negative responses or reactions. Work stress is a generic term that refers to work-related
stimuli (aka job stressors) that may lead to physical, behavioral, or psychological consequences
(i.e., strains) that affect both the health and well-being of the employee and the organization.

Organizational Factors:

Organizational stressors may relate to task demands, physical demands, role demands, or inter-
personal demands.

1. Task demands are stressors associated with the specific task or job the person is
performing. Some occupations are naturally more stressful than others.

2. Physical demands are stressors associated with the job setting. Environmental
temperatures, poorly designed offices, and threats to health can lead to stress.

3. Role demands are stressors associated with a particular position in a group or

organization. Examples are role ambiguity and the various role conflicts that
people experience in groups.

4. Inter-personal demands are stressors associated with the characteristics of the

relationships that confront people in organizations. Examples are group pressure,
personality style, and leadership style.
Personal Factors:

The causes of stress may reside in events that are not directly connected to people’s daily-work
lives.

5. Death of spouse

6. Divorce

7. Marital separation

8. Jail term

9. Death of close family member

10. Personal injury or illness

11. Marriage

12. Lose of job

13. Marital reconciliation

14. Retirement

Stress and Burnout:

Burnout is a general feeling of exhaustion that may develop when an individual simultaneously
experiences too much pressure and too few sources of satisfaction. The effects of burnout are
mostly, constant fatigue and feelings of frustration and helplessness.

Individual Approaches to Managing Stress:

People have different ways of managing stress. One way is exercise. Another method is
relaxation. Individuals can use time-management techniques to help them manage time. Role
management can be used to avoid role overload, ambiguity, and conflict. Finally, people can
manage stress by developing and maintaining support groups.
Organizational Approaches to Managing Stress:

Organizations have a vested interest in helping their employees manage stress. Firms can use
institutional programmes and wellness programmes. Institutional efforts to manage stress are
based on established organizational mechanisms. Organizations can redesign especially stressful
jobs, rearrange work schedules, and eliminate rotating shifts.

Also, the organizational culture can help manage stress. Wellness programmes are specifically
created to help individuals deal with stress. Stress management programmes, health promotion
programmes, and other kinds of programmes can be made a part of an organization’s wellness
focus. Career-development programmes can help minimize stress by showing managers clearly,
where they are in their careers at present and where they would like to be. While developing any
type of stress-management programme, managers need to balance the costs and benefits.

Work Environment-

Meaning: A healthy psychological work environment is imperative to ensure job satisfaction and
well-being in the workplace. A healthy psychological work environment means that there is a
balance between the demands made on the employee and the resources and skills he or she
possesses to meet what is required.
Work environment covers two categories,

1. Physical environment-
a. Illumination- The most important physical aspect of the working environment
concern the illumination of the working space. There are two important principals
of effective illumination.

-Uniformity of illumination:
1. The intensity of illumination would be depending on the nature of task.
2. Intensity should be more than 200 foot candles.
3. Illumination should be distributed uniformly.
4. Illumination should be comes from the side.

-Intensity of illumination- Brighter light therefore result in faster and more

effective work. Blackwell has recommended certain levels of illumination for various tasks.
Similarly increases intensity of illumination result in an increase in accuracy particularly with
five works.
 b. Ventilation- Ventilation means circulation of fresh air. It is common belief that
the bad effects resulting from inadequate ventilation are due to the reduced
oxygen content of the air and to the excessive amounts of the carbon di oxide
present in it. Breathing polluted air can have negative effects on both personal
health and task performance. Substance such as dust, carbon mono oxide and
sulfur are common in major cities and various industrial settings. Exposure to
such substances can produce an air pollution syndrome which includes headache,
fatigue, and insomnia can adversely affect performance on various tasks.
Especially in those tasks which are involving reaction time.

c. Effect of Heat- The effect of heat on the performance of people performing

heavy physical activities has been rather well known but heat can also affect the
performance on cognitive tasks. The best temperature is 20 – 250c for proper
working.
d. Noise- Noise is regarded as a distracter. The factor primarily determining whether
noise is distracter is its character. Whether it is steady or intermittent. When the
noise is steady, the person adopts himself to it, but when it is intermittent, he must
make a great effort to maintain efficiency.

2. Work Schedule
An important condition of work from the worker’s point of view is that of the work schedule.
Work schedule have various aspects, including total number of hours worked per week,
distribution of hours, shift of works and rest pauses.

a. Hours of work- The pattern of hours worked in terms of their distribution throughout the
week is a factor in determining productivity. The highest output for each hour worked
comes from 8 hour/day. For many industrial operations 8 hour/day and 5 days /week
schedule appears to be the best.
b. Shift Work- Having evolved in a world with a twenty four hour, day night schedule, the
human being has developed at temporal program called circadian rhythm. Individuals
attitudes towards shift work probably are influenced in part by how much their circadian
rhythms adjust to such a schedule, but their perception of various features of shift work
also influence their overall attitude towards it. Individual attitudes toward shift work
probably are influenced in part by how much their circadian rhythms adjust to as
schedule.
c. Effect of Shift Work-Disruption of circadian rhythms, the 24 hour cycles of
physiological functions maintained by every person. Continued exposure to night shift
causes digestive appetite and sleeping problems.
 d. Rest Pauses- Rest breaks during scheduled work sessions are becoming rather common
practice providing time to have coffee, soft drinks, tea and others refreshments. The
effects of rest pauses do not reduce output but a cause of increase output.

Factors:

1. Job design, including control over work

2. Overtime and number of hours worked

3. Providing social support

4. Conflict between work and family commitments

5. Perceived fairness and justice at work

6. Layoffs and economic insecurity

7. Offering health insurance