…

Designing of a Solar PV system for

household & integrating them

Usama Ali 16-ME-115

Submitted To

Engr. Kashif

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF MECHANICAL & AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
TAXILA
April 2019
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

1.1 Solar Power Plants

A solar power plant is based on the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly
using photovoltaics (PV), or either indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP).
Concentrated solar power systems use lenses, mirrors, and tracking systems to focus a
large area of sunlight into a small beam.

Fig 1 10-1
Figure Concentrated Solar
Concentrated Power
Solar System
Power (CSP)
System (CSP)

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 While photovoltaics converts light into electric current using photoelectric effect.
Photovoltaics were initially solely used as a source of electricity for small and medium-
sized applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar cell to remote homes
powered by an off-grid rooftop PV system.

Figure
Fig 1 2 0-2
Photovoltaic
Photovoltaic
Solar
System
Power System

1.1.1 Theory of Solar Cells

The theory of solar cells explains the process by which light energy in photons is
converted into electric current when the photons strike a suitable semiconductor device.
The theoretical studies are of practical use because they predict the fundamental limits of
a solar cells and give guidance on the phenomena that contribute to losses and solar cell
efficiency.

1.1.1.1 Simple Explanation

• Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semi-conducting
materials.
• Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms as they are
excited. Due to their special structure and the materials in solar cells, the electrons
are only allowed to move in a single direction. The electronic structure of the
materials is very important for the process to work, and often silicon incorporating
small amounts of born or phosphorus is used in different layers.
• An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct
current (DC) electricity.

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 1.1.1.2 Photogeneration of charge carriers
When a photon hits a piece of silicon, one of three things can happen:

• The photon can pass straight through the silicon — this (generally) happens for
lower energy photons.
• The photon can reflect off the surface.
• The photon can be absorbed by the silicon if the photon energy is higher than the
silicon band gap value. This generates an electron-hole pair and sometimes heat
depending on the band structure.

Fig 1 3 Band diagram for solar cells

When a photon is absorbed, its energy is given to an electron in the crystal lattice. Usually
this electron is in the valence band. The energy given to the electron by the photon
"excites" it into the conduction band where it is free to move around within the
semiconductor. The network of covalent bonds that the electron was previously a part of
now has one fewer electron. This is known as a hole. The presence of a missing covalent
bond allows the bonded electrons of neighbouring atoms to move into the "hole," leaving
another hole behind, thus propagating holes throughout the lattice. It can be said that
photons absorbed in the semiconductor create electron-hole pairs.
1.2 Major Components of Solar Power Plants

Following are the main components of Solar Power Plants:

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 1.2.1 Solar Panels

Photovoltaic solar panels absorb sunlight as a source of energy to generate electricity.

A photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged, connected assembly of typically 6x10
photovoltaic solar cells. Photovoltaic modules constitute the photovoltaic array of
a photovoltaic system that generates and supplies solar electricity in commercial and
residential applications.
The most common application of solar energy collection outside agriculture is solar water
heating systems. Photovoltaic modules use light energy (photons) from the Sun to generate
electricity through the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer -
based crystalline silicon cells or thin film cells. The structural (load carrying) member of a
module can either be the top layer or the back layer. Cells must also be protected from
mechanical damage and moisture. Most modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones based on
thin-film cells are also available. The cells must be connected electrically in series, one to
another.

Fig 1 4 Solar panels

A PV junction box is attached to the back of the solar panel and it is its output interface.
Externally, most of photovoltaic modules use MC4 connector type to facilitate easy
weatherproof connections to the rest of the system. Also, USB power interface can be used.
Module electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage or in
parallel to provide a desired current capability (amperes). The conducting wires that take
the current off the modules may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive
transition metals. Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial
module shading, to maximize the output of module sections still illuminated.
Some special solar PV modules include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or
mirrors onto smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost per unit area (such
as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.
Solar panels also use metal frames consisting of racking components, brackets, reflector
shapes, and troughs to better support the panel structure.

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 1.2.1.1 Types of Solar Panels
• Monocrystalline Solar Panels

These are made from thin wafers of silicon, sliced from large crystals that have been grown
under carefully controlled condition. Typically, cells are few inches across, and several
cells are laid out in a grid to create a panel. They are durable and perform efficiently even
in low light condition. As they are expensive, so they are being used in industries.

Fig 1 5 Monocrystalline Solar Panel

This type of solar panels (made of monocrystalline silicon) is the purest one. You can
easily recognize them from the uniform dark look and the rounded edges. The Silicon’s
high purity causes this type of solar panel has one of the highest efficiency rates, with the
newest ones reaching above 20%.

Monocrystalline panels have a high-power output, occupy less space, and last the longest.
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Of course, that also means they are most expensive of the bunch. Another advantage to
consider Is that they tend to be slightly less affected by high temperatures compared to
polycrystalline panels
• Polycrystalline Solar Panels

It is made up of number of silicon which are then melted and formed as silicon wafers.
They are least expensive and are implemented in most of the house.

You can quickly distinguish these panels because this type of solar panels has squares, its
angles are not cut, and it has a blue, speckled look. They are made by melting raw silico,
which is a faster and cheaper process than that used for monocrystalline panels

This leads to a lower final price but also lower efficiency (around 15%), lower space, and a
shorter lifespan since they are affected by hot temperatures to a greater degree. However,
the difference between mono- and polycrystalline types of solar panels are not so
significant, and the choice will strongly depend upon your specific situation. The first
option offers a slightly higher space efficiency at a slightly higher price but power
outputs are basically the same.

Fig 1 6 Polycrystalline Panel

• Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells

Have you ever used a solar powered pocket calculator? Yes? Then you have definitely seen
these types of solar panels before. The amorphous silicon solar cell is among the different
types of solar panels, the one that is used mainly in such pocket calculators. This type of
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solar panel uses a triple layered technology, which is the best of the thin film variety.

Just to give a brief impression of what “thin” means. In this case, we’re talking about a
thickness of 1 micrometer (one millionth of a meter). With only 7% efficiency rate, these
cells are less effective than crystalline silicon ones-that have an efficiency rate of circa
18%-but the advantage is the fact that the A-Si-Cells are relatively low in cost.

Fig 1 7 Amorphous-Silicon Solar Panel

Table 1 Difference between solar panels

Efficiency-
Solar Cell Type Advantages Disadvantages
Rate
Monocrystalline High efficiency rate;
Solar Panels ~20% optimized for commercial Expensive
use; high life-time value
Sensitive to high
Polycrystalline
temperatures; lower
Solar Panels ~15% Lower Price
lifespan & slightly
less space efficiency
Amorphous-Silicon
Relatively low costs; easy Shorter warranties
Solar Cells 7-10~%
to produce & flexible & lifespan

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Fig 1 8 Difference between solar panels

Fig 1 9 Difference Between Mono- & Polycrystalline Panels

1.2.1.2 Grades of Solar Panels

• Grade A Solar Panels

Grade A cells are simply without any visible defects, and the electrical data are in
specification. The specifications of the cells can be measured with cell testing equipment.
The perfect grade A cell may still have a slight bend of <= 2.0mm and a tiny colour
deviation is permitted. Below a grade A solar cell. Due to the light the colour seems to
deviate, but in fact, this is a flawless solar cell:

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Fig 1 10 Grade A Solar Panel

• Grade B Solar Panels

Grade B cells have visible but tiny defects, and the electrical data are in specification.
The following visible defects are common:

1. Slight bend of 2.0mm – 2.5mm

2. Colour deviation, Visible yellow area takes more than 1/4 area of total on the Surface
3. Missing prints < 0.5mm
4. Part of front Busbar missing, missing area ≤ W:0.5mm×L: 5mm
5. Paste leakage, for a single area: 0.3mm – ≤2.0mm2
6. Scratch, length 15-50mm
7. Water marks, L<15mm, W<2mm

Here a couple of examples of Grade B solar cells:

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Fig 1 11 Grade B Solar Cell- Color Deviation

Fig 1 12 Grade B Solar Cell-Paste Leakage

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Fig 1 13 Grade B Solar Cells- Large Bend

• Grade C Solar Cells

A Grade C solar cell has visible defects, and the electrical data are off-specification. All
solar cells with defects worse than Grade B can be classified as Grade C. Or, A solar cell
can be graded as C when the partly broken cell which could be cut into smaller pieces and
re-used.

Here are a number of Grade C solar cell examples:

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 Fig 1 14 Grade C Solar Cells- Chipped Cell

Fig 1 15 Grade C Solar Cells-Corner Breakage

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Fig 1 16 Grade C Solar Cells-Busbar missing

Fig 1 17 Grade C Solar Cells-Missing Print

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 Fig 1 18 Grade C Solar Cells- Water Mark

• Grade D Solar Cells

A Grade D solar cell is broken and cannot be cut in smaller cells. There’s not much you can
do with these.

Fig 1 19 Grade D Solar Cells

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 1.2.2 Batteries

Batteries chemically stored electrical energy in renewable energy system. They come in
several voltages, but most common verities are 6 volts & 12 volts. Solar batteries work by
converting the DC energy being produced by your solar panels and storing it as AC power
for later use. In some cases, solar batteries have their own inverter and offer integrated
energy conversion. The higher your battery's capacity, the more solar energy it can store.
When you install a solar battery as part of your solar panel system, you can store excess
solar electricity at your home instead of sending it back to the grid. If your solar panels are
producing more electricity than you need, the excess energy goes towards charging the
battery. Later, when your solar panels aren’t producing electricity, you can draw down the
energy you stored earlier in your battery for night use. You’ll only send electricity back to
the grid when your battery is fully charged, and you’ll only draw electricity from the grid
when your battery is depleted.

Fig 1 20 Solar Batteries

What this means in practical terms is that homes with solar-plus-storage can store
excess solar power onsite for use later when the sun isn’t shining. As a bonus, since solar
batteries store energy at your home, they also offer short-term backup power if there’s a
power outage in your area. There are four main types of battery used in connection with
storing electricity from solar power systems. Below is a summary of the various technologies
currently commercially available and links to further information on each type.

• Lead Acid Battery

The common automobile batteries in which the electrodes are grids of metallic lead-
containing lead oxides that change in composition during charging and discharging. The
electrolyte is diluted sulfuric acid. The new AGM Battery technology has made a huge
impact on lead-acid batteries, making it one of the best batteries to use in solar electric
systems. Industrial-type batteries can last as long as 20 years with moderate care, and even
standard deep cycle batteries, such as the golf car type, should last 3-5 years. Intermediate
batteries, such as the S460 and other batteries made by Surrette should last 7 to 12 years.
Ugly and bulky. But also, dependable, tried and tested. Lead acid batteries have been
taking Aussies off-grid for decades. But they are rapidly being eclipsed by other
technologies with longer warranties and lower pricing as solar battery storage becomes
more popular.
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 Fig 1 21 Lead Acid Battery

• Lithium-ion Batteries

Lithium-ion batteries are evolving in leaps and bounds as the electric car industry drives
their development. Spearheaded by the brilliantly marketed Tesla Powerwall, lithium-
ion batteries are looking to become the most popular choice for on-grid solar battery
storage for the foreseeable future.

Fig 1 22 Lithium-ion Batteries

• Flow Battery

Flow batteries are a relatively new entrant to the battery storage marketplace (though their
technology has been around for many years). They are called flow batteries because they
have a water-based solution of zinc-bromide sloshing around inside them. At the moment
only a few companies are producing flow batteries for the residential market, the most
prominent of which is Red flow, an Australian-based flow battery company that outsources
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battery manufacturing to Thailand (previously North America). The ZCell is the smallest
flow battery on the market.

Fig 1 23 Flow Battery

• Sodium Nickle Chloride Battery

Sodium nickel chloride technology is yet another competitor to the dominant lithium-ion
storage technology. In Australia, GridEdge is producing their Quantum battery which, like
the Aquion (a salt water battery), offers a range of environmental and safety benefits due to
its unique battery chemistry.

Fig 1 24 Sodium Nickel Chloride Battery

1.2.2.1 Considerations while choosing a battery for Solar

system

 Capacity & power

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 o Capacity is the total amount of electricity that a solar battery can store, measured in
kilowatt-hours (kWh). Most home solar batteries are designed to be “stackable,”
which means that you can include multiple batteries with your solar-plus-storage
system to get extra capacity.
o While capacity tells you how big your battery is, it doesn’t tell you how much
electricity a battery can provide at a given moment. To get the full picture, you also
need to consider the battery’s power rating. In the context of solar batteries, a power
rating is the amount of electricity that a battery can deliver at one time. It is measured
in kilowatts (kW).
o A battery with a high capacity and a low power rating would deliver a low amount of
electricity (enough to run a few crucial appliances) for a long time. A battery with
low capacity and a high power rating could run your entire home, but only for a few
hours.

 Depth of discharge (DoD):

o Most solar batteries always need to retain some charge due to their chemical
composition. If you use 100 percent of a battery’s charge, its useful life will be
significantly shortened.
o The depth of discharge (DoD) of a battery refers to the amount of a battery’s capacity
that has been used. Most manufacturers will specify a maximum DoD for optimal
performance. For example, if a 10-kWh battery has a DoD of 90 percent, you
shouldn’t use more than 9 kWh of the battery before recharging it. A higher DoD
means you will be able to utilize more of your battery’s capacity.

 Round-trip efficiency

A battery’s round-trip efficiency represents the amount of energy that can be used as a
percentage of the amount of energy that it took to store it. For example, if you feed five kWh
of electricity into your battery and can only get four kWh of useful electricity back, the
battery has 80 percent round-trip efficiency (4 kWh / 5 kWh = 80%). Generally speaking, a
higher round-trip efficiency means you will get more economic value out of your battery.

 Battery life & warranty

o For most uses of home energy storage, your battery will “cycle” (charge and drain)
daily. The battery’s ability to hold a charge will gradually decrease the more you use
it. In this way, solar batteries are like the battery in your cell phone – you charge your
phone each night to use it during the day, and as your phone gets older you’ll start to
notice that the battery isn’t holding as much of a charge as it did when it was new.
o Your solar battery will have a warranty that guarantees a certain number of cycles
and/or years of useful life. Because battery performance naturally degrades over time,
most manufacturers will also guarantee that the battery keeps a certain amount of its
capacity over the course of the warranty. Therefore, the simple answer to the
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 question "how long will my solar battery last?" is that it depends on the brand of
battery you buy and how much capacity it will lose over time.
o For example, a battery might be warrantied for 5,000 cycles or 10 years at 70 percent
of its original capacity. This means that at the end of the warranty, the battery will
have lost no more than 30 percent of its original ability to store energy

 Manufacturer

Many different types of organizations are developing and manufacturing solar battery
products, from automotive companies to tech startups. While a major automotive company
entering the energy storage market likely has a longer history of product manufacturing,
they may not offer the most revolutionary technology. By contrast, a tech startup might
have a brand-new high-performing technology, but less of a track record to prove the
battery’s long-term functionality.

1.2.3 Inverter

A solar inverter or PV inverter converts the direct current (DC) output of a

photovoltaic solar panel into a utility frequency alternating current (AC) that can be fed
into a commercial electrical grid or used by a local off-line electrical network. The Solar
inverters may be classified into following main categories:

Fig 1 25 Off grid 5kW inverter

 Stand-Alone inverters

• It is used in isolated system

• The inverter draws its DC energy from batteries charged by PV array
• Many stand-alone inverters also incorporate integral battery chargers to replenish
the battery from an AC source.

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• Normally these do not interface in any way with the utility grid.
• It does not require to have anti-islanding protection.

Fig 1 26 Standalone Inverter

 Grid-Tie Inverters

• It matches phase with a utility-supplied sine wave.

• Grid-tie inverters are designed to shut down automatically upon loss of utility
supply.
• They do not provide backup power during utility outages.
• Grid tie inverter converts DC power produced by PV array to AC power.

Fig 1 27 Grid Tie Solar inverter Kit

 Battery Backup Inverters

• These are special inverters which are designed to draw energy from a battery.
• It manages the battery charge via an on board charger, and export excess energy to
the utility grid.

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• These inverters are capable of supplying AC energy to selected loads during a
utility outage
• The battery backup inverters are also required to be installed with an anti-islanding
protection.

Fig 1 28 Grid Tie Inverter with Battery Backup

 Micro Inverters

• Microinverters are modern in the solar industry.

• They are small, compact size and portable with a lot of performance. They include
all the features of any central inverters.
• Microinverters are teeny tiny solar inverters about the size of a paperback book.
You need one per solar panel. You can read about the advantages of microinverters
here, the main one being is they optimize each panel individually, delivering more
energy – especially if you have partial shade conditions. The only microinverter in
the list above is Enphase

Fig 1 29 Micro Inverter

 String Inverters

• This is the most common type of inverter for residential use. All the solar inverters
above (apart from Enphase) are string inverters. On a residential solar power system,
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 you generally have one per installation. It is called a string inverter because you
connect strings of solar panels to them.

Fig 1 30 String Inverter

 Central Inverters

• These are massive inverters used for solar systems in the hundreds of kilowatts or
even megawatts of capacity. They look like big metal cabinets that can handle up to
500kW per enclosure.
• You won’t find these in any homes; they are only used for large commercial
installations or utility scale solar farms.

Fig 1 31 Central Inverter

 Hybrid Inverters

• Also known as multi-mode inverters, a hybrid inverter allows you to plug batteries
into your solar power system.
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 • The hybrid inverter interfaces with the battery using a technique called ‘DC
coupling‘, and its electronics coordinate the charging and discharging of the battery.
• There is a limited choice of hybrid inverters on the Australian market right now.
We’ve listed all the ones we know about on this Hybrid Inverter Comparison Table.
Check it out if you are considering buying batteries with your solar power system.

Fig 1 32 Hybrid Inverter

 Battery inverters

• If you want to retrofit batteries to your solar power system, or simply keep your
battery system separate from your solar panels (i.e. not going through the same
inverter), then a separate battery inverter is a good choice.
• This simply converts your battery power into 230V AC and feeds it into your
switchboard instead of grid power where possible.

1.2.3.1
Role of Inverters
• This energy generated by the panel, in the form of direct current (DC) is
transmitted to the inverter. The job of the inverter is to convert the DC
power the solar panel has generated to alternating current (AC) that is
transmitted on the grid. The inverter converts DC to AC by using two
switches which convert the positive only DC power to an alternating
positive to negative AC power.
• The inverter will then step up the voltage from 12 volts to 120volts, which is
the voltage used throughout the US electrical grid. This conversion of
voltage is what allows a 12 volt DC solar polar to be tied into a 120 volt AC grid.
Advantages

• High efficiency and outstanding energy harvest in a small modular design.

• Ease of installation to save time and money.
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 • Is compatible with other GT Series models to customize the inverters to the array.
• Central and micro inverters can be up to 95% efficient.
Disadvantages

• Central inverters is difficult to do properly and is usually the hardest part of

designing a solar array.
• For central inverter, the output from your whole array can drop significantly, if any
one of the panel is shaded.
• Another weakness of a central inverter is that you won’t be able to monitor how
each individual panel is performing.
• Micro inverters are more expensive.

1.2.4 SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLERS

Every solar electric system with batteries should have a solar charge controller.
Charge controller regulates the amount of current the PV modules feed into a battery bank.
Their main function is to prevent overcharging of the batteries, but charge controllers also
block battery bank current from leaking back into the photovoltaic array at night or on
cloudy days, draining the battery bank.

The two main types are PWM (Pulse Width Modulated) and MPPT (Tracking).
PWM technology is older and more commonly used on smaller solar arrays. Choose a PWM
charge controller that is the same as your solar array and battery bank. The controller must
also have enough capacity (in rated Amps) to handle the total current of the solar array safely.
MPPT charge controllers can track the maximum power point of a solar array and deliver
10-25% more power than a PWM controller could do for the same array. They do this by
converting excess voltage into usable current. Another feature of MPPT charge controllers
is their ability to accept higher voltage from the solar array for output to a lower voltage
battery bank.

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 Fig 1 33 Solar Charge Controller

CHAPTER 2

Selection of Solar Equipment

2.1 Selection of Solar Panels

While Selecting the Solar Panels we consider the following factors:

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2.1.1 Solar Power Efficiency

Solar panel efficiency is a measurement of how much of the sun’s energy a certain panel can
convert into usable electricity. This is done by capturing the electrical current generated when
sunshine interacts with silicon or thin film cells inside a solar panel.

Factors that affect solar panel efficiency:

Many internal and scientific factors play into the solar cell efficiency equation. But
two major components are:

 Reflectance efficiency is determined by how much sunlight is reflected back instead of

absorbed and put to use. The less reflection in solar cells, the better. Silicon reflectance
can be as much as 38 percent, though most solar cells have a slight micro-pyramid shape.
This reduces reflectance to about 11 percent. There are ways to reduce reflectance, such
as anti-reflective coatings. Really advanced solar cell construction or, “stacking micro-
and Nano-sized arrays on top of the larger structures” can bring reflectance down to just
1 or 2 percent.
 Thermodynamic efficiency is the maximum efficiency possible. It’s the height at which the
sun’s energy could be converted into electricity. This number is right around 86 percent, the
thermodynamic efficiency limit. The way photons interact with solar cells, they can only
generate electricity from the sun’s energy up to a certain point. After that point (86 percent)
thermal energy, or heat, is created. One way to improve thermodynamic efficiency is to
construct multi-junction or tandem solar cells. This improves efficiency by dividing the solar
spectrum into smaller areas, which raises the efficiency limit for each section.

Environmental Factors Affecting Solar Cell Efficiency

Shade from nearby buildings, trees, or heavy cloud coverage are the nemeses of efficiency.
Significant amounts of dirt and dust can also reduce efficiency. For the most part, solar panels are
self-cleaning. A rain shower can reset you panel efficiency in just a few minutes. If you live in a
particularly arid region and heavy dust-storms are a problem, you might want to clean the panels off
yourself.
A common misconception is that winter weather will mean lower efficiency. The opposite is
often true. Though solar panels are designed to withstand average temperatures, they’re more inclined
to function better when they’re cooler. This is true with most electronic equipment. And since solar
panels need light (not heat) from the sun, bright winter days might be some of the most productive.

2.1.2 Types of Solar Panel

Advantages of Monocrystalline

• Monocrystalline solar panels have the highest efficiency rates since they are made out
of the highest-grade silicon. On October 2 2105, SolarCity announced that it has
developed the world’s most efficient solar panels. The new panels convert more than
22% of sunlight into electricity.
• Just days later Panasonic announced it had trumped that achievement. A
Panasonic solar panel has established a new world record module conversion
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 efficiency of 22.5% on a commercial sized prototype using solar cells based on mass
production technology. The test results were confirmed by the renowned Japanese
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology. The 72-cell, 270-
watt prototype incorporates newly developed enhanced technology that will
eventually be scaled into volume production.
• Panasonic also says it is introducing the HIT® N330, the latest addition to the
company's high-efficiency hetero-junction photovoltaic module product line and its
most powerful photovoltaic module to date. It will be available in the UK and other
European markets starting in March, 2016. Manufactured at Panasonic's state-of-the-
art, vertically integrated solar fabrication facilities in Malaysia, HIT® N330 features
19.7% module-level efficiency and a nominal power output of 330 watts.
• Monocrystalline silicon solar panels are space-efficient. Since these solar panels yield
the highest power outputs, they also require the least amount of space compared to any
other types. However, monocrystalline solar panels produce marginally more power
per square foot of space used in an array and so.
• Monocrystalline Panels have a long lifespan. Most solar panel manufacturers put a 25-
year warranty on their monocrystalline solar panels. Because both types of crystalline
solar panels are made from crystalline silicon, a very inert and stable material it is very
likely that these solar panels will last much longer then their 25 year warranty life.
• Monocrystalline solar panels tend to be more efficient in warm weather. With all solar
cells electricity production falls as temperature goes up. However, this degradation of
output is less severe in monocrystalline panels than polycrystalline solar panels.
However, in practice the difference is very small. The level to which each solar panels
production falls as temperature increase sis called the temperature co-efficient and is
published with the specifications for each panel.
Disadvantages of Monocrystalline solar panels

• Monocrystalline solar panels are the most expensive. In recent years a rash in
installation of polycrystalline ingot, cell and module production efficiencies have
mean that polycrystalline solar panel have become more common and have
benefited from costs advantages over mono panels. Most manufacturers that still
make mono panels have targeted the premium end of the market.

Advantages of Polycrystalline solar panels

• The process used to make polycrystalline silicon is simpler and cost less. The amount
of waste silicon is less compared to monocrystalline.
• Polycrystalline solar panels tend to have slightly lower heat tolerance than
monocrystalline solar panels. Polycrystalline solar panels will tend to have a higher
temperature co-efficient than solar modules made with mono cells. This means that
as heat increased output for this type of cell will fall less. However, in practice these
differences are very minor.

Disadvantages of Polycrystalline solar panels

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 •The efficiency of polycrystalline-based solar panels is typically 14-16%. Because of
lower silicon purity, polycrystalline solar panels are not quite as efficient as
monocrystalline solar panels.
• Lower space-efficiency. You generally need to cover a larger surface to output the
same electrical power as you would with a solar panel made of monocrystalline
silicon. However, this does not mean every monocrystalline solar panel perform
better than those based on polycrystalline silicon.
• Monocrystalline and thin-film solar panels tend to be more aesthetically pleasing
since they have a more uniform look compared to the speckled blue color of
polycrystalline silicon.
2.1.3 PV Module Quality and Warranty

Warranties are an important aspect of protecting your solar panels and other related
equipment. If anything happens to your solar panels, having a warranty helps you to keep the
manufacturer accountable — without any additional cost to you. There are also some
incentive programs (available in many different states) that require you to have a warranty for
your solar equipment.
Types of Warranties
A few different types of warranties exist for solar panels, equipment and installation.
Some of these warranties include:
Solar Panel Warranty

This type of warranty should cover your solar panels for 25 – 30 years. If the warranty offered
to you is for less than 25 years, understand that this is considered lower than the industry
standard. This warranty covers a guaranteed minimum power output over the warranty period
of the panel. Industry Standard Scele that you should receive a minimum of 80% energy
output for the length of time the panels are covered under the warranty.

Installation Warranty

This warranty covers situations where the solar panels and related equipment have been installed
incorrectly. These types of warranties can generally last from 2 – 10 years. Many of these
warranties cover things like, the labor and parts related to repair or replacing elements of the
system, roof penetrations, shipping, replacing defective parts, and more. For more information,
make sure to ask your contractor what kind of installation warranties they provide.
2.1.4. Manufacturing – Country of Origin
Top 20 Solar Panels brands in 2019 are:

• LG Solar
• Sun Power
• Silfab
• Hanwha Q Cells
• Solar World Americas Inc.
• Panasonic
28
 • Mission Solar Energy
• Trina Solar
• Canadian Solar
• Jinko Solar
• Tesla
• Itek Energy
• AXITEC Solar USA
• Znshine Solar
• Solaria
• REC Group
• Hyundai Heavy Industries
• Peimar
• UpSolar
• Recom

2.1.5 Solar Panel Specifications:

• Standard Test Conditions (STC)

STC is the set of criteria that a solar panel is tested at. Since voltage and current change
based on temperature and intensity of light, among other criteria, all solar panels are tested to the
same standard test conditions. This includes the cells’ temperature of 25℃ (77℉), light intensity of
1000 watts per square meter, which is basically the sun at noon, and the atmospheric density of 1.5,
or the sun’s angle directly perpendicular to the solar panel at 500 feet above sea level.

• Normal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT)

I don’t know about you, but I’ve been on a roof in the summer, and I can assure you,
the solar panel cells are not 77℉. They heat up much hotter than that in the sun, well over
100℉.NOCT takes a more realist view of actual real world conditions, and gives you power ratings
that you will likely actually see from your solar system. Instead of 1000 watts per square meter, it
uses 800 watts per square meter, which is closer to a mostly sunny day with scattered clouds. It uses
an air temperature of 20℃ (68℉), not a solar cell temperature, and includes a 2.24MPH wind cooling
the back of a ground mounted solar panel (more common in larger solar fields than a roof mounted
residential array). These ratings will be lower than STC, but more realistic.

• Rated Output Specifications and Solar Panels

Rated output for solar panels at different light intensities (W/m2). The “knee” of the curves is where
the most power is produced, and the voltage & current is optimized.

29
 Fig1
Fig2-34
1 Rated Output Specification
Specification

• Open Circuit Voltage (Voc)

Open circuit voltage is how many volts the solar panel outputs with no load on it. If you just
measure with a voltmeter across the plus and minus leads, you will read Voc. Since the solar
panel isn’t connected to anything, there is no load on it, and it is producing no current.This is a
very important number, as it is the maximum voltage that the solar panel can produce under
standard test conditions, so this is the number to use when determining how many solar panels
you can wire in series going into your inverter or charge controller.Voc will potentially be
briefly produced in the morning when the sun first comes up and the panels are at their coolest,
but the connected electronics haven’t woken up out of sleep mode yet.Remember, fuses and
breakers protect wires against over-current, not over-voltage. So, if you put too much voltage
into most electronics, you will damage them.
• Short Circuit Current (Isc)

Short Circuit Current is how many amps (i.e. current) the solar panels are producing when not
connected to a load but when the plus and minus of the panels wires are directly connected to each
other. If you just measure with an ammeter across the plus and minus leads, you will read Isc. This
is the highest current the solar panels will produce under standard test conditions.When determining
how many amps a connected device can handle, like a solar charge controller or inverter, the Isc is
used, generally multiplied by 1.25 for National Electrical Code (NEC) 80% requirements.

• Maximum Power Point (Pmax)

The Pmax is the sweet spot of the solar panel power output, located at the “knee” of the curves in
the graph above. It is where the combination of the volts and amps results in the highest wattage
30
(Volts x Amps = Watts).When you use a Maximum Power Point Tracking MPPT) charge
controller or inverter, this is the point that the MPPT electronics tries to keep the volts and amps at
to maximize the power output. The wattage that a solar panel is listed as is the Pmax where Pmax =
Vmpp x Impp (see below).

• Maximum Power Point Voltage (Vmpp)

The Vmpp is the voltage when the power output is the greatest. It is the actual voltage you want to
see when it is connected to the MPPT solar equipment (like an MPPT Solar Charge Controller or
a grid=tie inverter) under standard test conditions.
• Maximum Power Point Current (Impp)

The Impp is the current (amps) when the power output is the greatest. It is the actual amperage you
want to see when it is connected to the MPPT solar equipment under standard test conditions.

• Nominal Voltage

Nominal voltage is the one that confuses a lot of people. It’s not a real voltage that you will actually
measure. Nominal voltage is a category.

For example, a nominal 12V solar panel has a Voc of about 22V and a Vmp of about 17V. It is used
to charge a 12V battery (which is around 14V). A 12V solar panel is used with a 12V charge
controller, a 12V battery bank, and a 12V inverter. You can make a 24V solar array by wiring two
12V solar panels together in series. 12V panels are common, like the Kyocera 145W and some
manufacturers such as Canadian Solar and SolarWorld are making 24V panels.

Fig2- 2 Nominal Voltage (1)

12V solar panels charging a 12V battery with a traditional 12V PWM charge controller. It
starts to get tricky when you move away from battery based solar systems, and the 12V increments
are no longer necessary. Grid tie solar panels with 60 cells are often referred to as 20V nominal panels,
like the SolarWorld Sun Module 290W solar panel.

31
 They have too high of a voltage to charge a 12V battery bank with a traditional charge controller, but
too low of a voltage to charge a 24V battery bank. MPPT Charge Controller can change the voltage
output to allow them to be used in a battery system, see our blog discussing the advantages of an
MPPT charge controller over a PWM charge controller.

Fig2-
Fig1 36
3 Nominal
NominalVoltage
Voltage(2)
(2)

A 20V nominal solar panel goes through an MPPT solar charge controller so it can efficiently
charge a 12V battery.

Nominal 12V 20V 24V

Number of cells 36 60 72
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) 22V 38V 46V
Max Power Volts (Vmp) 18V 31V 36V

Above: Approximate voltages to determine nominal voltage of solar panels.

2.1.6 Aesthetics
Some people prefer the look of certain types panels to others. As a general rule, thin film
panels look more uniform and some feel these look best, although they take up much more space
due to their lower conversion efficiencies. Some suppliers can integrate the panels into your roof,
others can supply solar roof tiles. And if you've got a whacky, curved roof, you can even
get flexible solar panels these days! However, the sleek aesthetics of integrated solar power
comes at a price of course.
As a rule, choosing a more "utilitarian" look will be cheaper and super slick integrated systems can
cost considerably more.

32
2.2 Solar Panel Mounting

Solar Mounting System are one of the most important components in PV power
generation. Their performance and service life are directly related to the benefits of solar
energy systems. Generally, the brackets on the market can be roughly divided into two
types of materials: aluminum alloy and stainless-steel solar mounting bracket. First of all
PV panel structure are generally used outdoors, long-term exposure to wind and sun,
should consider the two aspects of anti-corrosion and rust and firmness.

Fig2- 4 Solar Panel Mounting

• In terms of strength analysis, the strength of aluminum alloy solar bracket is weaker
than that of stainless steel. Therefore, it is recommended to use steel brackets for
strength in areas with high wind resistance requirements or in practical applications.
The need for aluminum brackets is mostly used in general areas.
• From the perspective of anti-corrosion performance, because the anti-corrosion
quality not only affects the service life of the PV power station, but also affects the
appearance of the bracket. Generally, the surface of the stainless steel PV support is
hot-dip galvanized, generally required to be 65μ or more. Under normal conditions,
the service life of 20 years can be ensured, but regular maintenance is required, and
the surface of the aluminum alloy structure is anodized to form a dense oxide film
and anti-corrosion performance. It is far superior to steel brackets, and the surface
aesthetics of aluminum alloy solar bracket are also superior to steel brackets.
• From the price of the two, if the strength requirement is relatively high, if the
aluminum solar mounting system must be used, the material can only meet the
requirements by increasing the material, and the price of the aluminum alloy on the
market is about the steel bracket. 3 times, therefore, the cost of aluminum alloy pv
structure will be much higher than steel structure. In the case of general strength
requirements, such as color steel tile roof PV brackets, usually the span is relatively
small, so the strength requirements are not high, and the aluminum alloy brackets
satisfying the strength are basically close to the stainless steel solar mounting
bracket in terms of cost, and due to the processing technology The difference in the
33
 cross-section of the aluminum alloy bracket makes the aluminum alloy bracket rich
in form and convenient to install.

In short, for the aluminum alloy solar bracket or the stainless-steel PP bracket is good
for this problem, everyone should fully consider the local installation environment and the
wind resistance level of the bracket during the use and selection process

2.3 Irradiance
Irradiance is the radial flux (Power) received by a surface per unit area. The SI unit of
irradiance is the W/m2. Irradiance is often called intensity because it has the same physical
dimension.

2.4 Solar Irradiance

Solar Irradiance is the power received from the sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation
in the wavelength range of measuring instrument.

2.5 Average Solar Irradiance of Jhang

Irradiance Irradiance
Month Month
(kWh/m2/day) (kWh/m2/day)
January 3.29 July 6.16
February 4.26 August 5.64
March 5.06 September 5.08
April 5.71 October 4.30
May 6.75 November 3.45
June 6.88 December 3.04
Table2 1 Solar Irradiance of Jhang

2.6 Efficiency of Solar Power Plants

Efficiency is an interesting concept when you talk about renewable energy. Mostly, it’s
meaningless except as input to a more useful economic discussion. Efficiency is a much
greater factor for non-renewable energy sources because they must pay for their fuel.
Renewable sources don’t. The wind blows, and the sun shines regardless of whether
anyone puts up a solar or wind farm to capture it. The wind and sun are free resources.
Efficiency is explicitly a measurement of how much of a given resource’s energy potential
gets turned into electricity. With solar panels, this is around 20%, but the 80% isn’t an
expensive waste. And 20% isn’t that bad. Car engines only turn about 20% of the energy
in gas into movement, with the rest being waste heat. Coal plants achieve from 33% to
40% efficiency in the best cases, with the rest being just wasted heat. Combined cycle gas
34
plants, where the heat is used in addition to the mechanical energy to generate electricity
manage to make it up to about 54% efficiency.

Fig2- 5 Efficiency of Different Power Plants

But all those fossil fuel sources are paying for 100% of the fuel, and the negative
externalities of the fuel are from 100% of it. In fact, CO2 emissions are two to three times
the mass of the fuel inputs, so it’s arguable that we are paying for 300% of the fuel but only
getting 20% to 50% out of it.Wind energy, coincidentally, has a theoretical maximum
efficiency of 59.3%, known as the Betz’ Limit. The best wind turbines reach about 95% of
that, which is awesome, but still isn’t that much different from a combined cycle gas plant.
The wind is still free however.Solar and wind have another factor which is important for
economics. While the wind and sun are free, they don’t blow all the time and aren’t always
blowing or shining hard enough to make the wind farms and solar panels generate electricity
at maximum potential. Over the course of a year, the ratio of generated electricity to
potential maximum electricity is called the capacity factor.

For solar, the capacity factor ranges from 15% to 25% depending on where you are located
and whether the panels follow the sun on (more expensive) trackers or not. For modern wind
farms, capacity factors range from 40% onshore to 77% one year for the best offshore site.
And now the very flexible wind and solar farms are sometimes curtailed because the much
less flexible nuclear and other baseload forms of generation can’t be turned down quickly
even though they often have much worse economics in many cases.But even there, lots of
legacy forms of generation have lower capacity factors. Nuclear is high at 90% because it
can’t run at less than that capacity factor and pay for itself. Coal in the USA was at 60% or
35
 so a decade ago, but now it’s at 50% for the country because wind, solar and gas are cheaper,
so it can’t compete. Many gas plants are at 10% simply because they only turn them on to
provide peak power at highest profit. So, wind and solar don’t have to be efficient, they just
must run enough over the course of time to pay for their capital costs. Their marginal
operating costs are dirt cheap, much cheaper than coal and gas plants.

CHAPTER 3
3 Design of Solar PV System for my own house

3.1 Load Calculation

The purpose of the residential electrical load calculation is to accurately determine the size
of the electrical service based upon the electrical equipment that will be installed. The
national electrical codes are the basis of making sure the electrical service is sized properly
and installed correctly. VA is the abbreviation for volt-ampere, which is a unit of power
that is determined by multiplying the voltage and the amperage current in a circuit. VA is a
standard measurement of electrical power that is used for identifying electrical circuit
component requirements.

Example: a 120-volt circuit which is providing 1 ampere = 120 volt-amperes.

PF or Power Factor is the ratio of the actual power in watts to the apparent power in volt-
amperes which is expressed as a percentage.

Example: 100% power factor is the best; however, a typical power factor could range
between 75 to 90%.

Power per Unit Total Power Consumption

Sr. No. Appliances Quantity
(Watt) (Watt)
1 Fan 120 10 1200
2 Tube Light 40 6 240
3 Energy Saver 25 15 375
4 LED Bulb 15 16 240
5 Air Conditioner 1150 1 1150
6 Washing Machine 500 1 500
8 Water Pump 500 1 500
10 Refrigerator 500 1 500
Total 4705

36
 3.2 Quotations
• Several companies offer solar panel and their installation in world and in Pakistan.
They offer a complete range of solar systems including all parts. Though there are
only few manufacturers in Pakistan. They mostly import it from foreign countries.
• I contacted to 4 companies and show them my interest in solar panel. They send me
their quotations. Their quotations are are;
Quotation No.1

Sr Item/Description Unit Qty Rate Value

#
1 INVERTER CROWN SOLAR INVERTER VM III 5KW PIECES 1 81,900 81,900
2 SOLAR PANEL CANADIAN SOLAR POLY CRYSTALLINE 325 WATT 5BB PIECES 12 16,900 202,800
3 SOLAR PANEL STANDS GALVANIZED RUST PROOF P2 PIECES 6 3,450 20,700
4 BATTERY JTE GEL GEL 6CNF 200AMP PIECES 4 46,500 186,000

AH: 200
Voltage:12
Dimension (mm): L= 522, W=234 , H=218
Type: Gel

5 INVERTER ACCESSORIES WIRES+MISC ELECTRIC HARDWARE PIECES 1 0 0

DB, Breaker, Wire, Nut Bolt, Flexable pipe, Duct ,MC4

connector, Thumbles, washers etc.
This Price is on basis the of AS per Actual rule,final price will
given after site visit by our technical team.
Civil Work is not Include in this price.
As per actual.

6 INVERTER SERVICES COMMISSIONING & INSTALLATION PIECES 1 25,000 25,000

Total 25 516,400

NOTE:
• The price does not include any transportation/loading unloading
charges. These are payable by the customer or buyer.
• Any kind of taxes in not included in this price

Quotation No.2

Sr# Item/Description Unit Qty Rate Value

1 INVERTER CROWN SOLAR INVERTER VM III 5KW PIECES 1 81,900 81,900
2 SOLAR PANEL CANADIAN SOLAR POLY CRYSTALLINE 325 WATT 5BB PIECES 12 16,900 202,800
3 SOLAR PANEL STANDS GALVANIZED RUST PROOF P2 PIECES 6 3,450 20,700
4 BATTERY DELUX OUTDO 150 AMP PIECES 4 35,400 141,600
5 INVERTER SERVICES COMMISSIONING & INSTALLATION PIECES 1 25,000 25,000
Total 24 472,000

37
 NOTE:
• The price does not include any transportation/loading
unloading charges. These are payable by the customer
or buyer.
• Any kind of taxes in not included in this price

Quotation No.3

Sr# Item/Description Unit Qty Rate Value

1 INVERTER CROWN SOLAR INVERTER VM III 5KW PIECES 1 81,900 81,900
2 SOLAR PANEL TRINA SOLAR POLY CRYSTALLINE 325 WATT 5BB PIECES 12 16,250 195,000
3 SOLAR PANEL STANDS GALVANIZED RUST PROOF P2 PIECES 6 3,450 20,700
4 INVERTER ACCESSORIES WIRES+MISC ELECTRIC HARDWARE PIECES 1 0 0

DB, Breaker, Wire, Nut Bolt, Flexable pipe, Duct ,MC4

connector, Thumbles, washers etc.
This Price is on basis the of AS per Actual rule,final price will
given after site visit by our technical team.
Civil Work is not Include in this price.
As per actual.

5 BATTERY TUBULAR 150AH PIECES 4 19,800 79,200

6 INVERTER SERVICES COMMISSIONING & INSTALLATION PIECES 1 25,000 25,000
Total 25 401,800

NOTE:
• The price does not include any transportation/loading
unloading charges. These are payable by the customer
or buyer.
• Any kind of taxes in not included in this price

Quotation No.4

For 01 No Inverter Ac 1.5 Ton + 10 No. Fans + 01 No. Fridge + 01 No.

LED TV + 01 No. Iron 01 no. Washing Machine + 800W Lighting Load
+ 01 No. Water Pump (optional)
Sun Shine Hours With 2 Hrs battery backup@ 2.8kW

38
 S# Item Name Description Units Qty Rate Amount (PKR)
1 PV Modules 320W Polycrystaline (A Grade) watts 4,480 48 215,040
Origin Renesola
Module Efficiency 16.50% Cell Efficiency: 17%
Performance Warranty 25 years max loss in efficiency 20%
2
Surface Area (m ) 27.16 Coverd Area (m2) 40.46452
2 Solar Inverter VM II 5kVA Unity P.F 1 72,000 72,000
Origin Voltronic Power Taiwan Warranty: 01 Year
SCC MPPT Builtin Efficiency >93%
Peak Efficiency >90%
Topology Tranformer less
3 Batteries Tubler TR-1600 4 24,000 96,000
Origin Osaka, Volta, Fujika Warranty: 12 Months
Amperes/Hr 160 Volts: 12V
4 Pre-Galvanized Flat Roof Mounting Structure, nuts & bolts, anchor bolts 20,160
5 DB Box (circuit breakers & Change over) 9,500
Electrical Materials/Consumables (Cables, Junction Boxes, bus bars, Flexible pipe,
6 5,500
trucking channels, multiple connectors, thimbles, multiple sleeves)
7 DC Cable (Estimated) Will Charge on actual Basis 15,000
8 Fabrication, Erection, Installation, Commissioning 20,000
9 Transportation and lifting of material to SITE 4,500
10 Battery/Cells rack for 24 cells Not Included
11 Net Metering Not Included
12 Any Kind of Civil Work Not Included
Total 457,700
Remarks:
Terms & Conditions System Total Cost: 457,700
1- Payment: 50% Advance with work order 40% on delivery and 10% on completion of project Sales Tax: 16% Not Included
2- Order Confirmation: Order will be confirmed upon receiving of 50% Advance payment S.T: 1% (for Non registerd cust.) Not Included
3- Delivery & Installation time : 10 To 20 days after the confirmation of order W.H.Tax Not Included
4- Transportation : As per actual from ware house to site

5- Quotation & Price Validity: 15 Days Grand Total 457,700

6- One Year after sales services free

3.3 Cost Analysis

After getting all these quotation from different companies I then analyse all of the
quotation and select the best suited equipment to my situation which is as follows:

39
 Item Quantity Rate Value
Solar Panel Trina Solar
Polycrystalline Solar 325 Watt 12 16,250 195,000
5BB
Solar Inverter VM II 5kVA Unity
1 72,000 72,000
P.F
Battery Tubular 150Ah 4 19,800 79,200
Pre-Galvanized Flat Roof Mounting
20,160
Structure, nuts & bolts, anchor bolts
DB Box (circuit breakers & Change
9,500
over)
Electrical Materials/Consumables
(Cables, Junction Boxes, bus bars,
Flexible pipe, trucking channels, 5,500
multiple connectors, thimbles,
multiple sleeves)
DC Cable 15,000
Fabrication, Erection, Installation,
Commissioning 20,000
Transportation 4,500
Grand Total 420,860

3.4 Surveying of Location

There are following questions one must follow during installation.

• How to assess whether your location is solar-ready ?

• How much space you need to place the solar panels ?

• What is the best orientation of your roof ?

• How to avoid shading from any nearby obstacles ?

• What direction to mount solar panels ?

• What angle to mount solar panels ?

• What is solar panel mounting structure and how to choose the optimal mounting for
your solar panels, Costly Solar Mistakes Related to Solar Site Survey ?

The below-provided guidelines apply both to residential (home, office) and mobile solar
panel systems (motorhome, caravan, camper, RV).Also, you should mind that it is in your
interest to be equipped with some essential knowledge about how to survey one’s site and
about orientation, tilt angle and optimal mounting of the solar array.
40
 • Is your building solar-ready?

Even if area and location have a good solar potential, building might not be suitable for
installation of a photovoltaic system.

Building is prepared for installing a solar system if:

• You have already made it energy-efficient.

• The roof of building (or your yard) is unshaded, at least during the sunny hours
(normally six) of the day.

• Its roof has a Southern (or Northern, if you live in the Southern hemisphere)
orientation.

• The roof is in a good condition.

Fig3- 1 Rooftop of my house

• How to assess location for the solar resource?

The spot where I intend to install photovoltaic solar array should have:
41
 • A clear and unobstructed access to the sun throughout the day (between 9 a.m. and 3
p.m.) and throughout the year. This means lack of any obstacles between the sun’s
rays and the solar array’s surface – trees, chimneys, lamp-posts, neighbour buildings,
etc. It should be noted that a spot may be unshaded during one part of the day and
shaded during another part of the day. Furthermore, a site unshaded in summer might
be shaded in winter, as the low position of the sun in winter casts longer shadows.

• Preferably a South-facing roof. True South orientation is not mandatory. A somehow

Southeast or Southwest facing roof is also acceptable. It has been proven that
deviation within 20-30 degrees of the True South results in less than 10% degradation
of PV array’s performance, which is acceptable. Pure Eastern or pure Western
orientation not recommended, since as a rule, solar photovoltaic panels should be
exposed to direct sunlight for at least 6 hours a day. You should mind that installing
a solar PV system on a roof facing East or West might result in 20% degradation of
system performance, which is a serious compromise. The roof can be either inclined
or flat. Flat roofs allow easier to implement the desired tilt angle of the PV array, but
a sloped roof will do as well.

• Enough space for placing solar panels. The area i need for PV system depends mainly
on:

 How much energy it is designed to produce?

 Types of PV panels I am going to install (monocrystalline, polycrystalline or

thin-film)

 The size of the PV panels (to a lesser extent since, as a rule, PV panels do not
vary much in size).

The less efficient photovoltaic panels you use, the greater the area you need for your solar
array but also the lower the costs.

Monocrystalline panels are the most efficient solar panel type while thin-film panels are the
least efficient ones. But for my house location Polycrystalline panels are best

• Why does the condition of roof matter?

42
A PV system can be installed on any roof type. Regarding roof mounting, there are two
options for installing PV panels – either mounting the solar panels on the roof or replacing
the roof tiles with PV panels.

Here are the drawbacks in case of photovoltaic panels mounted on the roof:

• Panels must be removed upon performing any roof repair or replacement activity.

• Installation of brackets and racks could cause roof leaks.

• Roof warranty may be affected.

• Some people might find this unattractive.

Fig3- 2 Solar Panels on rooftop

However, roof-integrated installation costs amount up to 40% more compared to roof-

mounted installation. If roof is relatively old and is to be replaced soon, in order to minimize
any redundant costs, a smart idea would be to replace it at the time the solar power system is
being installed. Certainly, solar panels can be placed on the ground as well, on a fixed or
tracking mount.
43
When searching for a proper site to install the solar array, you should consider:

• The orientation towards the sun

• Lack of any shading obstacles (during the whole day and throughout the whole year!)

• Minimization of the length of the DC cables between the PV array and the inverter

• Aesthetics

• Protection from theft and vandalism

• Easy access for installation and maintenance of the PV array.

To make better use of this guide, you should be familiar with some fundamental issues,
such as azimuth and tilt angle:

• Azimuth is the angle between the direction perpendicular to the array’s surface and the
True North.

Fig3- 3 Tilt angle (1)

• Tilt (elevation) is the angle measured between a

mounted PV panel and a horizontal ground surface.

• Zenith is angle of panel with the Vertical axis.

What is to be done during a site survey?

Step 1: Assess any possible shading by nearby objects

Fig3- 4 Tilt Angle (2)

The solar array should be provided with clear and

unobstructed access to sunlight between 9 a.m. and 3 p.m. every day, throughout the year.
44
Shading is not recommended, at least between 9:00 a.m. and 3:00 p.m. Mind that even small
shadows can affect severely the power output of the PV array. To achieve the maximum of
shading analysis, perform the survey during a bright and sunny day, preferably in summer
when trees have their full foliage mass.

During the site survey, you should be looking for the following obstacles:

• Buildings – you should be informed whether a new building is not being planned nearby,
throwing shade to your site

• Chimneys, power lines, poles, hedges and neighboring roofs

• Trees – if you’re performing your site survey in winter, remember that in summer trees
look different than in winter

• Hills and other earth obstacles – mind that in winter sun is much closer to the horizon
than in summer.

If a site is unshaded in summer, it might be shaded in winter, since in winter sun is lower
than in summer and vice versa

Step 2: Determine the area available on roof

Usually, access space around the panels adds up to 20 % to the required area for placing PV
panels.

Don’t try to use every square inch on roof to install a solar PV array because:

• The PV array gets challenging to install.

• The PV array gets hard to maintain.

• Wind loading at the edge of the roof increases.

• From a regulatory point of view, you could violate specific provisions for providing space
for fire-fighters and other staff that might need to access the roof area.

Step 3: Determine orientation and tilt angle

Use a compass to check what direction roof faces and a spirit level to measure the angle of
the roof from the horizontal.

• If site is in the Northern hemisphere, you should look towards the South, East, and West.
45
• If location is in the Southern hemisphere, you should look towards North, East, and West.

Things, however, are not as crucial as they appear.

In summer the panels are usually placed at an angle of less than 30o while in winters the
orientation is usually between 40o & 45o.

One can get 90-95% of a PV panel’s full power if it is located within 20 degrees of the
sun’s direction.

Recommended limits for mounting PV array at my house in Jhang:

 Latitude 31o15’

 Longitude 72o22’

 Tilt at 58o45’

A practical rule for determining the optimal orientation:

At solar noon (the time when the sun is highest above the horizon) place a straight object,
such as a pencil or a ruler, perpendicularly to the surface of your photovoltaic solar panel. If
the panel is perpendicular to the sun, you’ll see no shadow. Otherwise, the object will throw
a shadow, and you must make adjustment to position the PV panel optimally.

What if I select a tilt angle other than the local latitude?

• If your PV array is tilted at an angle lower than local altitude, your system will
produce maximum possible power in summer but will underperform in winter. For
grid-connected systems this is not a critical issue – on one hand, the building is
connected to the grid and on the other hand, there is less sun in winter anyway.

• On the opposite, if your PV array is tilted at an angle higher than local altitude, system
will produce the maximum possible power in winter but will underperform in
summer.

• Of course, if it is technically feasible, you can choose to set one tilt angle value in
summer and another one in winter. This is recommended for off-grid systems where
maximum performance is targeted throughout the whole year

46
 Conclusion

In this report we discussed and learned all the technical aspects of Solar Power Plants and
describe the brief description of the equipment used in Solar Power Plants. And at the end I
also designed an off-grid solar power system of my own house and installed it. This report
is actually a guide to install solar PV system in your house.

47