Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Technology Human
Production Worker motivation,
Process selection, and satisfaction, and
the physical layout of higher productivity
plant facilities and in industry.
services
THE SCOPE OF INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE
the orderly development of physical facilities to provide proper scale, stimulus and
perception of work situation to workers.
the recognition of, and provision for other individual and group needs of workers.
Although little architectural development of a valuable philosophical content in
the industrial field occurred between the beginning of the Industrial Revolution
era in the eighteenth century and the dawn of the twentieth century,
great strictures have been taken in industrialized building techniques, especially
in the structural and constructional aspects, since the second World War.
Rapid progress in technological developments, the use of complex mechanization
in production systems, and the increasing demand for controlled atmosphere for
machines, equipment and products, and in some cases for people, have resulted in
the introduction and increasing use of artificially controlled environment, the
culmination of which is the notion of the "windowless factory."
•Economic Objective-
1. To stay in business
2. to make money.
•Social Objective-
1. promoting social progress and strengthening the
economic foundations of human well-being
2. workers' comfort, welfare and motivation
CAUSES OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
The steam engine : invented by James Watt in 1785, whose proliferation into
newly built machine shop and iron foundries engendered an appropriate type
of building. Steam engine leads to invention of steam ship , steam locomotives.
Railway- a meaningful symbol of the new age which in turn had consequences for
architecture - stations, bridges, tunnels
Transportation system
Roads, railways and canals were built.
Canals- canals began to be built in the late eighteenth century to link major
manufacturing centres
Rail road - the construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns
MAJOR INVENTIONS
INVENTION OF BUILDING MATERIALS
Wrought iron, which is forty times as resistant to tension and bending as stone,
is only four times heavier. It can be form and molded into any shape.
Wrought iron, which is forty times as resistant to tension and bending as stone,
is only four times heavier. It can be form and molded into any shape.
lnstability in the economy causes instability in the individual firms. A period of rapid
growth means that most firms must increase production, employ more workers,
obtain new capital and facilities, and increase sales. A period of contraction means
that most firms must curtail expenditures, decrease production, and lay off workers.
While such changes are commonly associated with booms and depressions,
they are actually occurring all the time.
New products, new methods, and new ideas appear continually; the competition
they foster and the failures they use are both a part of the never-ending process
of change.
Types of Layout:
▪Concentrated
▪Fragmented
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
1. PROCESS OF CHANGE IN INDUSTRY
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
1. PROCESS OF CHANGE IN INDUSTRY
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
1. PROCESS OF CHANGE IN INDUSTRY
Long-range Planning
Because of this process of change, dynamic economic planning which anticipates future
conditions becomes important in manufacturing management. Today there is a trend for
management planning to become more long-range in character. Increasing population and
rising standards of living mean that there will be a greater demand for products in the
future. Long-range requirements for buildings, equipment and manpower must therefore
be established. Another factor which makes long-range planning necessary is that most
manufacturing industries require large capital outlays. Automation and increasing labour
costs tend to make it profitable to increase capital expenditures still further.
Recovery of these costs must be spread over a long period of time and it is therefore
Necessary to plan far ahead.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
1. PROCESS OF CHANGE IN INDUSTRY
Specialization or Flexibility ?
One factor which requires careful long-range planning is the vital question of whether an
industrial enterprise should have specialized or flexible physical facilities, or the right balance
of both.
Many companies are at a serious competitive disadvantage today merely because their
facilities are so highly specialized. To keep pace with technological progress which has
substantially improved competitive products, they find that they must spend unusually
large sums of money for building and layout changes. More astute facilities planning in the
past would have saved them much of that expense.
Admittedly, there are some industries which can operate successfully only with the use of
highly specialized facilities.Petroleum refining and cement manufacturing are typical
examples in which the possibility of designing truly flexible facilities is limited and is
accepted largely as a characteristic of the industry.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
1. PROCESS OF CHANGE IN INDUSTRY
The problem of facilities planning, therefore appears to have no definite solutions.
The degree of flexibility that is ideal for one product-situation may be totally inadequate or
ineffectual to another. Each problem would have to be individually studied to determine the
effects of flexibility and specialization on the current and long-term profit position. This
requires obviously that marketing research findings should be carefully analysed during the
design programming stage. For example: if the sale of a product depends on its price, which
leaves a very small profit margin, it may be imperative to plan highly specialized facilities so
that manufacturing costs can be kept to the absolute minimum. Here the need for the lowest
possible current operating cast may be so vital that designing flexible facilities is out of
the question.
Often, however, the spread between manufacturing costs and selling price will
permit some loss of current efficiency in expectation of greater long-term gains from
flexibility. If the higher manufacturing costs do not seriously affect the current competitive
position of the company, long-term profits may be greatly enhanced by designing highly
flexible facilities.
Closely related to the phenomenon of change, and in fact prompted by it, is the
problem of plant obsolescence. Only when management executives consciously try
to visualize the future of the product and the processing equipment, and the effects
which these have on plant buildings or equipment layout, can they hope to foresee
and offset the effects of product obsolescence on plant facilities.
In this respect, market research should provide suitable answers to the following
type of questions:
How often will the raw materials, makeup, and other aspects of the product change ?
What will be the nature and extent of those changes?
What effect will they have on equipment layout and building structure ?
What strong or new substitute products are appearing in other related
industries
Today, many companies are making important plant planning and design decisions
without adequately considering what might happen to the product or its process
in the future.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
2. PROCESS OF OBSOLESCENCE ANDDISPOSAL IN INDUSTRY
Closely related to the phenomenon of change, and in fact prompted by it, is the
problem of plant obsolescence. Only when management executives consciously try
to visualize the future of the product and the processing equipment, and the effects
which these have on plant buildings or equipment layout, can they hope to foresee
and offset the effects of product obsolescence on plant facilities.
In this respect, market research should provide suitable answers to the following
type of questions:
How often will the raw materials, makeup, and other aspects of the product change ?
What will be the nature and extent of those changes?
What effect will they have on equipment layout and building structure ?
What strong or new substitute products are appearing in other related
industries
Today, many companies are making important plant planning and design decisions
without adequately considering what might happen to the product or its process
in the future.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
2. PROCESS OF DISPOSAL IN INDUSTRY
The product's history and its current market position, and the research and
development program of a company should indicate possible answers to these types
of questions.
Almost as important as trying to make the actual prediction, however, is the constant
awareness that changing technology and changing markets may some day force the
company to make new and different product or even abandon the plant for a new
site.
Possibility of Plant Disposal
Summary:
In the United Kingdom, the picture is very rouch the same. The direct loss
from fire has been estimated to amount each year to about L25 million,
arising from about 45,000 building fires.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
3. SECURITY OF INDUSTRIAL ASSETS FROM FIRE HAZARDS
The design and structural aspects of fire protection, including restriction of spread of
fire, means of escape, and access for fire-fighting, involve the whole field of building
- site planning, internal planning and the form and materials of construction.
Site Planning
Access roads for fire-fighting appliances- Existing practice requires that adequate
access roads should be provided around the building for the efficient operation of
fire appliances. The architect must ensure that the access to his buildings will be
adequate for the fire-fighting appliances in the locality.
Access from roads and open spaces into the buildings. Apart from road access
for fire-fighting appliances, there should be adequate access into the building or
building complex for fire-fighting operations. Unless hydrants are provided within the
building, an important criterion in relation to access and siting will be the fire cover
provided by a fire appliance. With the pressure likely to be available, the maximum
effective throw from a fire-fighting nozzle may be about 75 ft. This therefore imposes
a limitation on the size and plan shape of the building
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
3. SECURITY OF INDUSTRIAL ASSETS FROM FIRE HAZARDS
With the pressure likely to be available, the maximum effective throw from a
fire-fighting nozzle may be about 75 ft. This therefore imposes a limitation on
the size and plan shape of the building
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
3. SECURITY OF INDUSTRIAL ASSETS FROM FIRE HAZARDS
Existing practice also requires that the fire resistance of the various structural
elements of a building should, ideally, be sufficient-To resist the effects of the fire load
without collapse under the structural load. The periods of fire resistance appropriate
to various fire loads are:
Fire load (B.t.u/sq. ft.) Fire Resistance (Hours)
Less than 100,000(low) 1
100,000 - 200,000(moderate) 2
200,000 - 400,000(high) 4
These standards allow for a complete burn-out of the combustible contents of the
building. For small buildings lower standards of fire resistance are considered
adequate because fire fighting can be expected to control the fire more easily.
In a single-storey building, no specific standard of fire resistance is required by by-law,
except in relation to the risk of spread of fire. To adjacent premises. Nevertheless, the
industrial management may consider, in its own interest, whether fire protection is
economically justified in its particular case.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
3. SECURITY OF INDUSTRIAL ASSETS FROM FIRE HAZARDS
Existing practice also requires that the fire resistance of the various structural
elements of a building should, ideally, be sufficient-To resist the effects of the fire load
without collapse under the structural load. The periods of fire resistance appropriate
to various fire loads are:
Fire load (B.t.u/sq. ft.) Fire Resistance (Hours)
Less than 100,000(low) 1
100,000 - 200,000(moderate) 2
200,000 - 400,000(high) 4
These standards allow for a complete burn-out of the combustible contents of the
building. For small buildings lower standards of fire resistance are considered
adequate because fire fighting can be expected to control the fire more easily.
In a single-storey building, no specific standard of fire resistance is required by by-law,
except in relation to the risk of spread of fire. To adjacent premises. Nevertheless, the
industrial management may consider, in its own interest, whether fire protection is
economically justified in its particular case.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
3. SECURITY OF INDUSTRIAL ASSETS FROM FIRE HAZARDS
In steel-framed single-storey structures the columns can usually be protected without
much difficulty. The large-span steel trusses are more difficult to deal with; sprayed
coatings of asbestos or some other fire resistant materials provide one of the more
convenient methods of protection. The initial cost of protecting steel work by means
of concrete or a sprayed coating may be largely offset by saving the maintenance cost
of painting.
The decision whether to protect all structural steel work will also be influenced by the
other forms of fire protection available, and the economic justification.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
3. SECURITY OF INDUSTRIAL ASSETS FROM FIRE HAZARDS
Since the fire resistance of building materials and structural
elements does not ensure the security of the contents within the building structure,
but merely prevents the collapse of the structure, an additional measure, in the form
of internal planning devices to confine the spread of fire should be considered.
lnternal Planning
It is obvious that the smaller the region within which an outbreak of fire is initially
confined, the less will be the chance of it developing into a major fire. It is usually
claimed that in many types of industry, there are sound reasons for large undivided areas,
But this isnot always so, and often, undue importance is attached to open planning.
Division should be the first consideration in relation to fire protection, even to the extent
Of providing a separate building for thestorage of combustible materials and for high-hazard
processes.
The normal practice, usually demanded by insurance companies, is the use of walls of
adequate fire resistance which extend from ground to roof to divide a building into parts
or divisions. The effectiveness of this practice largely depends on the fire-tightness of the
joint with the under-side of the roof, and around ducts and service pipes, doorways and
conveyors. In most cases, what is usually regarded as adequate fire separation by
compartmenting a building in this way, is a fire wall that has little ability to resist fire or contain it.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
3. SECURITY OF INDUSTRIAL ASSETS FROM FIRE HAZARDS
Since the fire resistance of building materials and structural
elements does not ensure the security of the contents within the building structure,
but merely prevents the collapse of the structure, an additional measure, in the form
of internal planning devices to confine the spread of fire should be considered.
lnternal Planning
It is obvious that the smaller the region within which an outbreak of fire is initially
confined, the less will be the chance of it developing into a major fire. It is usually
claimed that in many types of industry, there are sound reasons for large undivided areas,
But this isnot always so, and often, undue importance is attached to open planning.
Division should be the first consideration in relation to fire protection, even to the extent
Of providing a separate building for thestorage of combustible materials and for high-hazard
processes.
The normal practice, usually demanded by insurance companies, is the use of walls of
adequate fire resistance which extend from ground to roof to divide a building into parts
or divisions. The effectiveness of this practice largely depends on the fire-tightness of the
joint with the under-side of the roof, and around ducts and service pipes, doorways and
conveyors. In most cases, what is usually regarded as adequate fire separation by
compartmenting a building in this way, is a fire wall that has little ability to resist fire or contain it.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
3. SECURITY OF INDUSTRIAL ASSETS FROM FIRE HAZARDS
Since the fire resistance of building materials and structural
elements does not ensure the security of the contents within the building structure,
but merely prevents the collapse of the structure, an additional measure, in the form
of internal planning devices to confine the spread of fire should be considered.
lnternal Planning
It is obvious that the smaller the region within which an outbreak of fire is initially
confined, the less will be the chance of it developing into a major fire. It is usually
claimed that in many types of industry, there are sound reasons for large undivided areas,
But this isnot always so, and often, undue importance is attached to open planning.
Division should be the first consideration in relation to fire protection, even to the extent
Of providing a separate building for thestorage of combustible materials and for high-hazard
processes.
The normal practice, usually demanded by insurance companies, is the use of walls of
adequate fire resistance which extend from ground to roof to divide a building into parts
or divisions. The effectiveness of this practice largely depends on the fire-tightness of the
joint with the under-side of the roof, and around ducts and service pipes, doorways and
conveyors. In most cases, what is usually regarded as adequate fire separation by
compartmenting a building in this way, is a fire wall that has little ability to resist fire or contain it.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
3. SECURITY OF INDUSTRIAL ASSETS FROM FIRE HAZARDS
The notion of designing for security against extensive damage or destruction by fire,
flood, bombing, explosions, and similar hazards, suggests a form of fragmentation of a
system into main components in such a way that an accident in any one of them would
not so easily affect other components.
The concept of separating the main
component elements of a plant system
to provide intrinsic physical fire
separation can be applied prac-tically in
different ways. Figures 20 and 21
indicate two of the various possibilities
where the main parts are separated in
space. In this way, the extent of damage
and loss will likely be minimized. The
greatest security will result where, in
addition to physical separation, the con-
necting parts which are obvious
weaknesses in these system, are treated
with fire restricting elements or
structures.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
3. SECURITY OF INDUSTRIAL ASSETS FROM FIRE HAZARDS
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
3. SECURITY OF INDUSTRIAL ASSETS FROM FIRE HAZARDS
SUMMARY
Existing site planning regulations, fire resistance of structural elements and
internal planning devices prove a substantial measure of safe-guard; but they are
not adequate. When great fires occur, although the structures may not collapse,
contents within them are destroyed.
A possible solution may well be the fragmentation of the plant system into
main component parts which can be separated in space without lowering the
operational efficiency of the system as a functioning entity. The extent of this
fragmentation and separation will greatly depend on the extent of security risk
involved in particular industrial cases.
TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Manufacturing Processes
The Architects
It is not the duty of the architect to take over the technical responsibilities of the industrial engineer in the
selection of a manufacturing process. But it should be his duty to carefully understand and appreciate the
economic, technical, and operational objectives of the industrial managers and engineers., With this
understanding, the architect should be in a position to make valuable suggestions .
TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Manufacturing Processes
Technically, the purpose of a manufacturing process is to attain one of the following objectives:
•To shape the materiel inputs as nearly as possible to the final desired form and dimensions, in order to save
materials, machine time, and labour.
•To improve the properties of the materials inputs, for instance, by heat treatment, or by addition of other
materials to form alloys or coatings
Continuous-Process lndustry
A continuous-process industry is usually made up of operations that involve chemical
reactions.
The nature of the operations is such that a rigid control of flow systems must be adopted
since a sequence of operations must be performed before another can commence.
Usually the process can be a disintegration into components as in distilling and oil refinery;
an integration as in cement, heavy chemicals and sugar; or a combination of disintegration
and integration as in basic iron and steel, and aluminium refining. Production is normally
continuous for twenty-four hours per day.
One of the main architectural design problems in this type of industry is that of successfully
integrating building with the gigantic equipment and machines that often cannot be housed
because of their size and complexity, but which must be expressed as clean, functional
external elements. Naturally, the aesthetic and functional solution of this problem cannot
be specified, slnce technology and systems are constantly changing, but must be left to the
sense of order of the architect and the engineers concerned.
TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Repetitive-Process Industry
A repetitive process industry is usually one in which the product is processed in lots. A variety of operations
may be involved, but the nature of the operation is such that flow cannot be rigidly controlled as in the
continuous-process industry.
The product moves through the process in specified quantities called lots. Each item in the lot follows
successfully through the same operations as the previous items. If lots of the same or similar items follow
one another wlth regularity through the process, the situation becomes similar to the continuous-process
type of industry, except that the production is seldom carried on twenty-four hours per day.
An illustration is a mass-production plant producing automobile engines with standardized parts. Today, this
type of industrial process is used to manufacture numerous products such as telephones, television sets and
tubes, refrigerators and electronic equipment.
This type of production process creates two distinct problems - human and aesthetic. On the human side,
because jobs have been broken down "scientifically" into their most elementary components, there is over-
specialization and consequently over-simplification of jobs which in most cases become very elementary
routine functions. This situation undoubtedly has certain advantages, such as requiring less skilled people
and shorter training time. In many cases, however, the process has been carried to such extremes that jobs
have little inherent interest or challenge; operations are reduced to the simplest possible repetitive level and
the worker makes nothing he can identify as a product of his own
TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
What then is the true meaning and scope of industrial architecture ? The art of
building construction, of providing only shelter for the manufacturing process ?
Besides, when one considers the second problem -that of visual chaos - which most
production processes, especially the repretitive-process type produce, one feels more
convinced that the architect should be involved at the problem-analysis and
production process selection level of the planning stage so that he might know how
best human, functional, technical, and aesthetic requirements could be reconciled,
and a more hurnane order restored to the conveyor-tangle and mechanistic chaos.
TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
An intermittent-process industry is one that processes items of products when and as ordered.
It is sometimes called a job-lot industry. Here a small lot of items may be ordered by a customer
to be made to his specifications. Once the lot is completed, it is likely that the item will never be
manufactured again, since it is normally concerned with special projects, models, prototypes,
special machinery or equipment to perform specialized and specific tasks, or components to
provide replacement for parts in existing machines. Examples are large turbo-generators, large
boilers, processing equipment, special electronic equipment, shipbuilding, printing and
publishing.
In this type of industry, flexibility of operations is of the utmost importance. The process layout
principle applies very well to this type of industry. In this type of industry, flexibility of
operations is of the utmost importance.
TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Combination-Process Industry
A combination-process industry is one that combines varlous degrees of disintegration,
integration, fabrication and assembly. Examples are: basic iron and steel, phamaceutical, and
aluminium refining industries. In practice, for a given industry, some form of combination
process is normally required to solve its particular manufacturing problems.
However, the use of combination processes is frequently adopted from a purely quantitative
analysis. For instance, to obtain a compromise solution on the type and degree of combination
to be used in a specific instance, the distances travelled in feet by each type of process flow are
compared, and adjustments made for a combination solution.
This approach appears to be a good weapon that can be utilized to further reconcile or
integrate qualitative merits with quantitative demands, even if the result may seem initially
more expensive, The important fact to realize in this respect is that the total efficiency of plant
production system - men and machines - is what matters.
With the possibilities inherent in a combination process, the concept of fragmentation, once
accepted as advantageous, should not be difficult to effect for varieties of manufacturing
situations.
TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Two Examples of
Schematic
Process Outlines.
TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Two Examples of
Schematic
Process Outlines.
TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Schematic Diagram
of An Ice-cream
Process
.
TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Selection of Process
The quantitative criteria for selection of a production process have been mainly technological
and economic. Some of the qualitative aspects of a manufacturing facility which are best
resolved at the process-planning and selection stage, but are usually not given adequate
attention
•The problem of nuisance characteristics of some machines in terms of effluent disposal; fumes,
smoke and air pollution; noise and vibration; and intrusion into the landscape (where this is an
important consideration);
• The quality of a process or its flexibility to facilitate physical design against fire hazard or plant
disposal in case of obsolescence
•The relation of production process to human considerations and the consequent minimization
of labour relations problems.
PHYSICAL LAYOUT OF A PLANT’S FACILITIES
Selection of a production process is primarily based on quantitative operational
efficiency criteria, the ultimate objective being that of low current operating cast.
Important as this approach is, however, it does not take into consideration many
important qualitative factors which also contribute in some measure to the prosperity
of an enterprise - matters like the nuisance characeristics of some equipment and
machines (noise, vibration, atmospheric pollution, and effluent disposal) which are directly
attributable to the type of production process adopted; regard for process flexibility to facilitate
design against fire, explosive and other hazards or plant disposal in case of obsolescence; and
possible better integration of workers into the production process to minimize labour conflicts
Adequate attention is not generally given to the problem of technological change on the proper
functioning of the plants' elements, both individually and collectively.
ln effect, the four distinct elements to be found in any manufacturing plant are:
1.Administration - those functions that serve the entire plant, consisting mostly of
"general” office areas and related activities. Depending on the size and complexity of
an organization, the administrative element could be composed of up to about five
sub-elements - executive, general administration and reception, accounting, marketing
and research, and engineering and research functions.
3.Welfare - those services and facilities that are provided and operated primarily for
serving or handling the needs of employees. This consists of about four sub-elements:
First-aid or medical facilities, recreational and eating facilities, sanitary and other
ancillary facilities.
4.Utilities - those physical services that are primarily concerned with production
needs. This includes mechanical and electrical service equipment, fire protection
systems, ancillary facilities (water tower or reservoir, vehicle storage, maintenance
shops, plant protection systems.)
The content, size and complexity of each of these major elements provided in any
given manufacturing enterprise will naturally depend on the nature, size and
complexity of that enterprise.
PHYSICAL LAYOUT OF A PLANT’S FACILITIES
1.Administrative element could be composed of up to about five sub-elements -
executive, general administration and reception, accounting, marketing and research,
and engineering and research functions.
B. General Section & Reception
A. Executive Function
a. Personnel
President
General
Vice Presidents
Employment
General Manager
Training
Credit Union
C. Marketing and Research
Safety
Sales
b. General
Advertising
File Room & Records
Marketing
Conference Room
Promotion Research
Reception Room
Purchasing
D. Accounting
General
Cost
Payroll
Credit
PHYSICAL LAYOUT OF A PLANT’S FACILITIES
1.Administrative element could be composed of up to about five sub-elements -
executive, general administration and reception, accounting, marketing and research,
and engineering and research functions.
E. Engineering & Research
a.Product Engineering c. Production Control
Research Planning
Development Routing
Design Scheduling
Drafting Despatching
Testing & Experimental Traffic
b. Industrial Engineering Plant Layout d. Quality Control
Materials Handling Methods Receiving, In Process
Standards e. Plant Engineering
Packaging General
Process Engineering Maintenance
Tool Design
PHYSICAL LAYOUT OF A PLANT’S FACILITIES
1.Administrative element could be composed of up to about five sub-elements -
executive, general administration and reception, accounting, marketing and research,
and engineering and research functions.
E. Engineering & Research
a.Product Engineering c. Production Control
Research Planning
Development Routing
Design Scheduling
Drafting Despatching
Testing & Experimental Traffic
b. Industrial Engineering Plant Layout d. Quality Control
Materials Handling Methods Receiving, In Process
Standards e. Plant Engineering
Packaging General
Process Engineering Maintenance
Tool Design
PHYSICAL LAYOUT OF A PLANT’S FACILITIES
3.Welfare - those services and facilities that are provided and operated primarily for
serving or handling the needs of employees. This consists of about four sub-elements:
First-aid or medical facilities, recreational and eating facilities, sanitary and other
ancillary facilities
For a long time, the entire scope of worker satisfaction in industrial plants has
been assumed to be adequately satisfied by the provision of appropriate physical
working conditions. It is usually thought that if the atmospheric condition is right,
lighting and ventilation adequate, colour well used, noise adequately muffled or
prevented, and washrooms, lockers, cafeteria, and so forth, are provided,
industrial workers will not have much to grumble about except financial
incentives. Today, the architect and his consultants know a great deal about, and
have adequate
HUMAN CONSIDERATIONS
PHYSICAL WORKING CONDITIONS AND MOTIVATION
In most industrial working places today, the physical working conditions are good:
desirable temperature, humidity, and ventilation are adequately provided;
lighting and colour are good; noise is being greatly abated; rest periods and
coffee breaks are allowed. Thus the presence of good working conditions in most
plants and offices today is taken for granted and has therefore little, if any
motivating force.
Since our architectural objective is to assist industry to fight some of its problems
and provide suitable conditions for increasing its productivity, it now becomes
absolutely important that we should extend our understanding of human needs
and how they can be satisfied more completely. Let us examine the nature of
human needs.
HUMAN CONSIDERATIONS
PHYSICAL WORKING CONDITIONS AND MOTIVATION
Although workers themselves may not be aware of different kinds and levels of
needs, their needs may be considered organized in a series of five levels or a hierachy
of importance: physiological, safety, love, esteem and self-fulfilment. Really, these
levels are not separate steps, but are interdependent and overlapping, each higher-
need level emerging before the lower needs have been satisfied completely.
Physiological and safety needs shall be considered under physiological; love as a
social need; and esteem and self-fulfilment as egoistic needs.
Physiological Needs:
These involve basic essentials such as air, food, water, shelter, protection against
danger, injury, threat, and deprivation. These necessities must be at least partially
fulfilled before a person gives much thought to other needs. They are usually met
mainly through money, security on the job, and appropriate physical working
conditions. As these needs are satisfied, a man is inclined to place increasing
emphasis on social and egoistic needs.
HUMAN CONSIDERATIONS
No brief for the design of industrial buildings can be regarded as adequate and
comprehensive which does not take a good account of factors like temperature and
humidity, lighting, colour, ventilation, noise, safety measures, washrooms, lockers and
cafeteria.
The attention of plant designers must therefore be extended to other levels of human
motivation - social and egoistic -which, if activated may lead to workers' satisfaction and
better perfor-mance.
HUMAN CONSIDERATIONS
SOCIAL NEEDS
When man's physiological needs are satisfied and he is no longer
fearful about his physical welfare, his social needs become important motivators of his
behaviour - needs for belonging, for association, for acceptance by his fellows, for giving and
receiving friendship and love. Social needs of a worker can only be satisfied by contact with
other employees. lndustrial management knows today of the existence of these needs, but it
often assumes quite wrongly that they represent a threat to the organization. Many studies
have demonstrated that the tightly knit, cohesive work group may, under proper conditions, be
far more effective than an equal number of separate individuals in achieving organizational
goals.
Yet management, fearing group hostility to its own objectives, often goes to considerable
lengths to control and direct human efforts in ways that are inimical to the nature
gregariousness of human beings.
When man's physiological needs are
satisfied and he is no longer fearful about his
HUMAN CONSIDERATIONS physical welfare, his social needs become
important motivators of his behaviour - needs
for belonging, for association, for acceptance
by his fellows, for giving and receiving
friendship and love. Social needs of a worker
can only be satisfied by contact with other
employees. lndustrial management knows
today of the existence of these needs, but it
often assumes quite wrongly that they
represent a threat to the organization. Many
studies have demonstrated that the tightly
knit, cohesive work group may, under proper
conditions, be far more effective than an equal
number of separate individuals in achieving
organizational goals.
Yet management, fearing group hostility to its
own objectives, often goes to considerable
lengths to control and direct human efforts in
ways that are inimical to the nature
gregariousness of human beings.
HUMAN CONSIDERATIONS
When man's social needs are thwarted, he behaves in ways which tend
to defeat organizational objectives. He becomes resistant, antagonistic, uncooperative.
Work is a social experience, and most workers can fulfil their social need through
membership in small work group. An individual employee can belong to several informal
groups task or functional group; friend-ship clique, composed of employees who have a liking
for each other; 5 and interest group of employees who share a cornmon economic goal
and seek to gain some objective relating to the larger organization.
3 2
1 2
3 3
2 1 4 4
1
The standard dimensions need not have to be used for corridors, nor do staircase
landings always have to be the smallest possible space that permits only
maneuvering. “Casual” encounters can be planned by creating larger spaces that
encourage temporary lingering. Depending on needs, coffee corners or copying
stations can be allocated to these spaces. Studies by Ebadi and Utterback [Eba84] and
Bismarck andHeld [Bis98] show that 80 % of all innovative ideas originate through
direct personal contact andthat informal communication promotes collaboration at
the workplace. Architecture which facilitates communication can be highly rewarding.
In office buildings, the relation between the shape of the building and the depth
of the rooms is obviously dependent on the working style.
Corridors, Stairwells, Intermediary Spaces
Finally, the business club idea is increasingly gaining followers. Similar to the model of
business centers found in airports, train stations and hotels, temporary workplaces
are established in enterprises for individuals or workgroups who wish to withdraw
Location, Shape and Furnishings of Common Areas
It seems logical to place seminar and training rooms at the junction or along the
production areas. Venetian blinds or slatted window coverings make it possible to
change the views inside or outside in a variety of ways. Discussion or meeting areas
can also be located .Musty break-out and/or change-rooms in the basement should
be a thing of the past, replaced by bright, airy, attractive possibilities
. A cafeteria or canteen located on an upper level, such as a roof terrace with leisurely
flair, beckons workers to visit them outside of the main meal times and thus exchange
information with one another.
1 2
It is also proven that changes of the sunlight reduce the error rate in production. The
distribution of light in rooms, especially in case of a deep building, can be optimized with
systems that re- direct light. Based on their structural configurations as well as their
significance for the changeability of a factory, we will now turn our attention to a more
detailed discussion of light related design elements i.e., daylight, natural lighting, artificial
lighting, and redirecting light.
When we talk about suitably lighting a workplace we are primarily concerned with
ensuring consistent illumination and luminous efficacy. Illuminating a space evenly
prevents shadows and glare. The consistency of the light distribution measured on the
work level is dependent on the distance from the opening in the roof, whereas the size
and type of windows determines the quality and consistency of the luminous efficacy.
Furthermore, the relation of the available interior daylight level to the external light level
when there is a cloudy sky is determined by means of the daylight factor DF
Lighting
Daylight factor is defined as
DF=interiorillumination(lx)/external illumination (lx) under a cloudy sky condition.
For each of the spaces in the diagram, the sum of daylight openings is assumed to be
1/6th of the floor space. This parameter is referred to as the ‘window factor’ WF and
defined as WF = window area/floorspace.
Lighting
Generally speaking, workplaces whose day- light factor is 2 % or less should not be
considered without supplementary artificial lighting. An influx of light from above
provides the best supply of daylight for the middle of a room. The entry surface should be
designed such that the work area is uniformlyilluminated.
Since incoming sunlight also brings heat into the space, on sunny days the heat generated
can be uncomfortable. Thus, in addition to possible glares and reflections at workplaces,
measures have to be taken to ensure that the room and equipment temperatures do not
exceed permis- sible levels due to the incoming sunlight. To some extent, this can be
achieved by using shading devices which impede solar radiation.
10 10
10
WF = 0.25
WF = 0.3 WF = 0.20
WF = 0..6
Impact of room profiles on the daylight factor
Lighting
light domes
+ regularity of the lighting is particularly easy to attain; due to form less collection of dirt;
simple assembly.
-large number of roof openings may cause leakage problems.
Saddle rider
large span width possible, in correspondence to sufficient sub- construction
danger of unfavourable glare in longitudinal direction
Monitor
+ uniform distribution of sunlight in comparison to sheds
- danger of unfavorable glare due to building orientation and
roof shape.
+combination
a combination of several top light forms make it possible to avoid disadvantages of sun
light exposure, glare, and heat balance.
Intelligently designed industrial sheds,having north-lighting systems (in the northern
hemi- sphere), ensure uniform illumination without glare. Also, they do not require
shading devices and/or cast shadows.
façade ribbon combination
Lighting
The basic characteristics that determine the quality of lighting include the level of
lighting, the uniformity of the lighting intensity, the absence of reflections and glares, the
direction and color of the light and its efficiency.
Illuminance, measured in lux (lx), is a criterion used to measure the quality of the
apparent brightness. One lux is defined as the luminous flux or luminous power
(measured in lumen) per m2. The luminous flux of a candle is approximately 10lm.
Nominal lighting levels for industrial activities (to DIN 5035). © Reichardt 15.168_JR_B
Surfaces that are exposed to are relatively strong illumination density cause distractions (glare, reflections) within
the visual field thus Impairing the worker’s well-being. When users express that the lighting is too bright it usually means
that the system is not designed well enough to limit glares and reflections. Reflected glare is caused by reflecting strong
illuminance off of shiny surfaces. This can be reduced by properly arranging lights and using matted surfaces on equipment
and/or tinted walls and ceilings.
Lighting
Electrical lamps are divided into three color temperatures (or qualities) based on their impression of colo
ww—warm white (upto 3300K),
nw—neutral white(3300–5000K),dl—daylight(5000Kandabove).
Color rendering ,on the other hand, relates to the color an object appears.
Silhouette effects created when objects or persons are viewed in front of bright window surface scan,
For example, be decreased with a sufficiently high percentage of toplighting. In industrial set-ups
The recommended ratio for top to side lighting is 1:3.
Lighting
TABLE D-3 - MINIMUM ILLUMINATION INTENSITIES IN FOOT-CANDLES
General. Construction areas, ramps, runways, corridors, offices, shops, and storage areas shall be lighted
to not less than the minimum illumination intensities listed in TableD-3 while any work is in progress:
One foot candle is equal to one lumen per square foot or approximately 10.764lx
Foot-
Candle Area of Operation
s
5 General construction area lighting.
..........
3 General construction areas, concrete placement,
..........
excavation and waste areas, access ways, active storage areas,
loading platforms, refueling, and field maintenance areas.
5 Indoors: warehouses, corridors, hallways, and exit ways.
..........
5 Tunnels, shafts, and general underground work areas:
....…..
(Exception: minimum of 10 foot-candles is required at tunnel and
shaft heading during drilling, mucking, and scaling. Bureau of Mines approved
cap lights shall be acceptable for use in the tunnel heading)
10 General construction plant and shops (e.g., batch plants, screening plants,
…….
mechanical and electrical equipment rooms, carpenter shops, rigging lofts
and active store rooms, mess halls, and indoor toilets and workrooms.)
Redirecting Light
The quantity of side lighting is influenced by the room height, depth as well as the
neighboring buildings that restrict light entering from the side. Typically, rooms
with a depth greater than 7 m (22 ft) can no longer be naturally lit; one of the
reasons why historically multi-story buildings seldom had a room depth of more
than 15 m (49 ft)—even with higher ceilings.
This thus raises a pertinent question as to how glare-free sunlight can be directed
or guided into the depths of the room. Systems for redirecting light prove to be
particularly helpful because they can transport sunlight upto 20m (65ft)deep
into a room
Redirected Lighting
Holographic sheets, developed by Müller , make it possible to control the direction of light:
Using relatively small strips on the façade the full depth of the room can be illuminated while
the rest of the facade offers an unobstructed view.Using reflective mirrors, light shelves or
holographic sheets the light can be redirected into the depths of the room and considerably
increase the daylight factor useable for office work.
Comfort
For humans, the indoor climate has a comforting effect when a body’s regulatory mechanisms
maintain the required internal temperature undetected from the person.
The sensation of comfort differs considerably and varies according to the type and duration of work
as well as age, gender, health and clothing.
Unfortunately, there are no standard or nominal values for the thermal well-being.
Individual thermal comfort is a result of interactions and interconnected components comprising
of the physical indoor climate (room temperature, radiant temperature, humidity, air flow and airpurity).
When the body is under stress or when external temperatures are above comfort levels,
the body’s internal regulator increases the production of sweat and thus the expulsion
of heat via evaporation. When air quality decreases due to the presence of pollutants, heat and/or
excessive moisture, it is important to renew the air in order to maintain a certain minimum level of
comfort condition within the various workshops.
The temperature zone surrounding a work- place is characterized by the air temperature and the
radiation temperature. Depending on the activity, the air temperature should range between
18 and 24 °C (64.4–75.2 °F). The lower value applies to work that is slightly flexible;
the upper for a sedentary state. The mean radiation temperature can be 3–4 °C (5.4–7.2 °F)
lower than the room temperature. The arithmetic means of the air temperature and radiation
temperature corresponds roughly to the perceived temperature. Thus an air temperature of
22 °C (71.6 °F) and a radiation temperature of 18 °C (64.4 °F) are perceived as a uniform ambient
temperature of 20 °C (68 °F). In the summer months a tem- peratureof26°C(78.8°F)
Can still be referred to as comfortable for light work.
Comfort
Humidity should generally be within the range of of 35% to 65%.When air temperatures are higher, lower air
humidity should be aimed for in order to increase the percentage of heat emissions through evaporation,
otherwise the air will be noticeably muggy. The permissible air speed is dependent on the indoor air
temperature. If a temperature of 20°C (68°F) is attributed to an air speed of 0.15m/s(0.5ft/s) then22°C(71.6°F)
would relate to 0.20 m/s (0.65 ft/s). If a job involves physical activity the air speed can be increased. Air pol-
lutants including dust, gases, vapors and odors that are uncomfortable are considered as a mea- sure of the air
purity. The amount of fresh air that needs to be fed into the interior is dependent on the number of people in
attendance as well as the nature of pollutant. If gases and vapors arise in specific areas, the hourly air exchange
cannot be generalized; instead it has to be determined as a function of the accruing gas and vapor
concentration. It is often recommended to ensure a higher air exchange rate by placing a number of smaller air-
supply units in various strategic locations, thus allowing partial operations when compared to a central air-
conditioning system. The necessity of having transformable work areas as well as being able to individually
control the surrounding requires sensible planning for small volume work areas having as much natural
ventilation as possible.
Relaxation
‘Breakout’ or relaxation areas should contribute to the employees need for recreation after a period of
concentrated work. Relaxation phases that offset this mental stress promote a sense of community, social
competencies and team-building.
A break-out area needs to be provided when there are 10 or more employees. In the absence of such areas
or when break-out areas are too far away, employees often consume their snacks or lunches while
standing next to the machinery and/or work-place. Attractive break-out areas or zones should thus offer
the possibility to relax especially in factories that have manufacturing processes which directly influence
the level of comfort. There is often the possibility for an ‘oasis’—a visually attractive, ‘green’ area right in
the middle of the production.
stairs, corridors exit ways for able / attack-and rescue paths circulation routes
andstairwells physicallychallengedpeople rescue paths
media supply lines drinking and industrial water water supply for sprinkler water supply for corrosion protection
systems, hydrants/riserlines stationaryandmobilefire-fighting
daylight, ventilation and visual escape routes, smoke outlets attack-and rescuepaths,
windows connection smokeoutlets
Fire Protection Concept and Fire Compartment
‘
The fire protection risk assessment summarizes both the specific fire load for the
material flow at the site according to safety categories and the fire load of the building
construction itself. Two important results of calculating the fire load include the largest
size of a fire sub-compartment and its required fire resistance rating. The fire resistance
rating indicates how many minutes a building component can fulfill its function when
exposed to fire .Fire resistance classes, also referred to as fire grading period or fire
protection class, differentiate between fire resistant (at least F 30), fire retardant
(at least F 60) and best possible flame retardant(atleastF120),whereby F 30, F 60 and
F 120 each refer to the fire resistance rating provided in minutes.
Complex partitioning walls are often required for storing goods that have a high fire load
(e.g., paper)
Fire Protection Concept and Fire Compartment
‘
Fire Protection Concept and Fire Compartment
Fire compartments limit fire related damages and permits a evacuation routes in areas
that are less susceptible to fire by limiting spaces using fire resistant enclosures
(e.g.,floors,walls and doors). Fire compartments are limited to 40m×40m=160m2
(131.2 ft × 131.2 ft = 17.222 ft2). Implementing industrial building regulations and in
particular special measures such as sprinkler systems permit larger connected
productionareas.
Fire Protection Concept and Fire Compartment
‘
Fire compartments are limited by fire walls. In case of an accident, they are meant to
restrict fire from developing beyond a site. A minimum of one-and-a-half-hour fire
resistance (F 90-A) would ensure structural safety in a fire accident.
In areas that are at greater risk due to storage of inflammable goods, partitioning walls
are mandatory. Also, in such scenarios higher requirements with regards to the fire
Resistant ratings and structural detailing need to be adhered to.
Depending on the local fire department’s requirements, the building regulations and the
fire protection concept, a fire resistance rating of F 60–F 90 is normally required for the
supporting structures while F 90–F 180 for walling material for the fire compartments
and materials for the shell and furnishings.
The design and detailing of building services also have to undergo similar considerations.
Installation ducts, cables, lines and pipes should predominantly using fire-resistant materials.
All media and utility lines which pass through fire- resistant walls also have to be sealed in a
manner that protects against fire spread. Moreover, all openings such as doors, gates and flaps
in partitioning components have to be authorized by a building inspector
Evacuation and Rescue Routes
Vertical and horizontal evacuation and rescue routes ensure a quick safe exit from a building when
there is a fire. Entrances to rescue routes and deployment areas for fire fighters need to be clearly
‘
marked and permanently kept free. Other architectural means for ensuring a quick orientation with
easy detection of the evacuation routes include use of daylight, transparency and providing points that
allow overviews or Views in/out.
A person from any given point within the building should be able to reach the outdoors or
other secure areas within 35 m (114 ft) through an exit or a series of emergency exits. Accordingly, due
to the advantages of a high ceiling regarding smoke exhaust, an actual rescue route of up to 105 m
(344 ft) is allowable for halls having ceiling heights of 10m (33 ft) or more . It is mandatory to connect
all the floors in a building in one continual stairwell, designed and built such that
—along with the entrances and exits to the open air—the same can also be safely used as a rescue
route
Workplaces have to be ergonomically (from Greek argon = work; nomos = law, rule) designed
and provide optimal working conditions. The space and connecting pathways for each of the
workplaces should be laid out keeping in mind accessibility requirements for the physically
challenged workers, also.
The goal of designing an ergonomic workplace is to optimize working conditions with regards
To the manufacturing tasks and environmental conditions to human characteristics and abilities.
In doing so,It should be ensured that the required output satisfies the quality requirements
while at the same time keeping the costs for the work system to a minimum. Furthermore, it mus
Be assured that the workload and demands on the human are bearable over a long-term
without endangering their health and safety.
Anthropometric (Greek anthropos = human) design is concerned with organizing the work-
pieces, tools and control panels in accordance with body measurements.
Movement technique design pursues three basicprinciples:
(a)simplification of movements,
(b) consolidation of movements and
(c) partial mechanization and automation.
a)simplification of movements :Aim here is to identify a sequence of movements which require the least
amount of time and in view of diligence and accuracy avoids unnecessary ones. This is achieved by
minimizing the distance of the movements and organizing materials accordingly.
c) partial mechanization and automation :Partial mechanization and automation can be encouraged
after motions have been consolidated as much as possible, since the investment costs are
disproportionate to the additional savings in time
Room Interiors
The color scheme of a workspace should be planned depending upon the type of
operations. With monotonous work, stimulating color elements are recommended
(columns, doors); however, such colors should not be applied to large surfaces (walls,
ceilings). If the workspace is large, it can be spatially subdivided with special color
elements. When the work executed in a space requires a great deal of concentration,
the color scheme should be conservative in order to avoid unnecessary distraction. In
this case,walls, ceilings and other structural elements should be painted with colors that
are as light as possible and/or mildly toned.
In order to create color contrasts, the color schemes for large surfaces (walls, furniture,
etc.) should be distinguished from small surfaces (eye catchers for switches, grips, lever,
etc.). For larger surfaces colors that have a similar degree of reflection should be
selected. Moreover, with larger surfaces bright colors should not be used since they
unilaterally strain the retina, which in turn generates after-images. Orienting and
detecting workpieces is facilitated by creating a color contrast between the workpiece
and the immediate surroundings (workbench or machine). Here too, differences in
brightness should be avoided.
Color Design
We use the term building services to refer to all of the equipment necessary to ensure the production
processes, users’ comfort and building security including the technical equipment centers, pipelines,
wire routings, connections,etc. It covers all measures which guarantee the spatial comfort of users
and provide the necessary technical media for the production facilities. The technical facilities
associated with the building are treated in literature under the term TBE technical building equipment
, and includefacilities for sewage, water, gas and fire extin-guishing systems, heat supply, ventilation,
elec-trical systems and building control systems. In particular, aspects such as modularity,
upgradeability and accessibility (i.e., for maintenance purposes) determine the degree of the building
equipment changeability.
With interior finishings we are referring to all of the stairways, building cores and
specialbuilt- in units like elevators or wet rooms as well as static optional components
(walls,windows etc.).
Finally, the appearance of industrial and commercial architecture is created by the
overall atmosphere, structural order and clarity as well as the balance between unity
and diversity.
Load-Bearing Structure
1.The changeability of size and utilization areas as well as built-in units plays a dominant role.
2. The protection and safety of people and property as well as comfort levels are equally important criteria
3. However the main priority is economics i.e., the costs and construction time
Once the basic project requirements are defined, the dimensions for the structural members should be
estimated early-on.
Let’s take an overview of important load assumptions for the main elements of the
structural framework. Some of these are conditional on processes, others are due
to local conditions e.g., the soil load. The effort to create foundations and the
base plate is largely determined by the quality of the specific subsoil, especially
by groundwater level and location as well as the existence of load bearing soil
layers, which is why a qualified soil report must be submitted when the project
starts. The floorplate plays a special role with regards to changeability as it
decisively determines the possibilities for changing the location of equipment
and machinery or re-designating floor surfaces e.g. from logistics to
manufacturing or viceversa.
Although the initial cost of the structure increases if the building is designed for
additional future loads it also provides for a corresponding higher degree of
changeability. When making decisions it is critical to practically weigh both
strategic and economic factors. Expanding floor areas or overhead areas have
to be considered with foresight, in the same way as anticipated changes in the
production e.g., a new generation of machinery and equipment along with their
structural requirements
Building Structure Form as a Static System
The properties of the building structure are determined by the architectural usage of
beams and supports systems, ceiling systems, floor plates, foundations, load-bearing
Walls and cores. Structural forms for halls can be simplified into four groups:
supports and beams,
frames,
arches and
space frames (arch systems and space frames are seldom used in factory buildings )
Generally, every hall and multi-story building has to be braced longitudinally and
transversely. Space frames or arch structures are inherently stable in transverse
direction and thus only need to be braced longitudinally. Directed structures areclearly
Identifiable by the location of the main and secondary support beams. Here, the vertical
load is directed along a single axis over the main beam into the support columns.
In comparison, non-directed structures distribute the vertical load bi-axiallyover all the
Structural members into the support columns.
Non-directed structures are thus usually only efficient on square support fields.
it is also critical to discuss how the modularity, span width, rein- forcements,
load distribution and extensions can be combined for every project from both the
process and spatial perspective.
Building Structure Form as a Static System
Building Structure Form as a Static System
The building structure for large halls, for example, should permit galleries to be built-in
for administrative functions closely related to the production (work planning, production
control, quality assurance etc.) and should thus allow interiors to be easily modified.
If necessary, these auxiliary levels could be suspended from the hall structure in order to
provide for an unobstructed column free space below.
In the case of the pump factory, six additional modules of 21 × 21 m (68 × 68 ft) could be added
on to the length without disrupting the production.The interior of the modules at the front is
furnished with office spaces that continue into the factory and thus facilitate direct
communication. Similarly, in the car radiator factory large and independent mod- ules spanning
18 or 36 m (59 × 118 ft) can be added without disruption of operation. Instead of a separate
administrative building, an integrated office gallery offers room for the management with a direct
view on to the production processes
Building Structure Form as a Static System
In regards to the economy of hall structures with large spans, it is also important to pay
attention to the impact loads resulting from the movement of the fork lift trucks on
supports as well as the sum of the loads to be suspended by the roof structure. Steel,
a material that can withstand a great deal of stress, is a preferable option for changeable
load-bearing structures for a number of reasons. Wide spanning structures can be
devel- oped with relatively minimal weight. It also allows for comfortable routing of
services pipes throughthetruss-work.Inordertoensurethatthe building structure complies
with fire protection regulations composite steel constructions (i.e., load-bearing elements
encased in concrete) can be used.
Building Structure Form as a Static System
The properties of the building structure are determined by the architectural usage of
beams and supports systems, ceiling systems, floor plates, foundations, load-bearing
Walls and cores. Structural forms for halls can be simplified into four groups:
supports and beams,
frames,
arches and
space frames (arch systems and space frames are seldom used in factory buildings )
Generally, every hall and multi-story building has to be braced longitudinally and
transversely. Space frames or arch structures are inherently stable in transverse
direction and thus only need to be braced longitudinally. Directed structures areclearly
Identifiable by the location of the main and secondary support beams. Here, the vertical
load is directed along a single axis over the main beam into the support columns.
In comparison, non-directed structures distribute the vertical load bi-axiallyover all the
Structural members into the support columns.
Non-directed structures are thus usually only efficient on square support fields.
it is also critical to discuss how the modularity, span width, rein- forcements,
load distribution and extensions can be combined for every project from both the
process and spatial perspective.
Steel, a material that can withstand a great deal of stress, is a preferable option
for change- able load-bearing structures for a number of reasons.
Wide spanning structures can be developed with relatively minimal weight.
It also allows for comfortable routing of services pipes through the truss-work.
In order to ensure that the building structure complies with fire protection regulations
composite steel constructions (i.e., load-bearing elements encased in concrete)
can be used.
Span Width
Determining the span width for halls or multi- storied buildings is one of the
important, if not the most important decision from the perspective of processes
and space. The aim to have as few supporting columns as possible obstructing
the use of space has to be weighed against the efficiency of the building structure.