Computers in A Networked Society U2 PDF

WUC 118/03
Computers in a
Networked Society
Unit 2 Computer
Technology
in Action
Contents
Unit overview 1
Unit objectives 2
2.1 Hardware and software: Types and functions 3
Objectives 3
Introduction 3
Comparison of hardware and software 4
Input, output and storage 6
Inside the system unit 30
Data representation 43
Suggested answers to activity 48
2.2 System and application software 49
Objectives 49
Introduction 49
System software 49
Application software: Tools for productivity 65
Suggested answers to activity 73
2.3 Developments in mobile technology 74
Objectives 74
Introduction 74
The evolution of mobile phones 75
Types of mobile applications 83
Suggested answer to activity 87

2.4 Computer security and reliability 88
Objectives 88
Introduction 88
Computer security concepts 89
Types of security and hackers 91
Various types of computer attacks 93
Methods to protect computers 98
Suggested answer to activity 103
Summary of Unit 2 104
Unit practice exercise 105
Suggested answers to self-tests 106
Suggested answers to unit practice exercise 110
References 113
Glossary 114
Unit Overview
Knowing how to use a computer is not sufficient. It is also vital to know
and understand each component of a computer. A computer is similar to
a human body; each part of the body has its function and purpose and
so has each part of a computer. In the first section of this unit, computer
hardware and software will be discussed, focusing on the various forms of
input, output and storage devices. The system unit and how it manages
data will be explained.
In the second section of this unit, two types of computer software —

system software and application software — will be discussed. System
software manages the operations of a computer and allows users to
interact with it. Application software allows users to perform tasks with
a computer.
Today, almost everyone carries a mobile phone. We cannot seem to live

without one. In the third section of this unit, you will learn a bit about
the history of the mobile phone, the major players in the mobile phone
market and mobile phone applications.
The fourth section explores the important topic of computer security. There
are many different ways that computer security can be compromised.
You need to know how to protect your computer and to ensure that it
runs reliably.
The final part of this unit covers two applications in MS Office: Excel
and PowerPoint. The applications will be explained in a separate manual
called the Lab Guide.
1 WUC 118/03 Computers in a Networked Society

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Differentiate between software and hardware.
2. Describe the various types of input, output and storage

devices.
3. Explain systems software and application software.
4. Discuss the various types of mobile applications.
5. Describe the various types of computer security and

ways to protect computers.
6. Use spreadsheet and presentation applications.
UNIT 2 Computer technology in action 2

2.1 Hardware and Software:
Types and Functions
Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
1. Distinguish between hardware and software.
2. Identify input, output and storage devices.
3. Explain the tasks performed by the central processing

unit.
4. List the components found inside the system unit.
Introduction
As computers have become such a big part of our lives, it is important
for us to understand the various devices and software that are related
to them. Hardware refers to the physical elements of a computer.
Software consists of programs or applications that tell the hardware
how to accomplish a certain task. This section discusses hardware and
software, focusing on input and output devices, storage devices, and
the computer system unit.

Comparison of hardware and software
A computer system consists of connected components which are
structured to perform simultaneously. These components can be split
into two broad types: hardware and software (Figure 2.1).
Hardware is any device which can be physically touched and is connected

to a computer; for instance, hard disk drives (HDDs). Other examples of
hardware are CD-ROM drives, display monitors, printers, sound cards
and mice. For a computer system to function in a useful way, both
hardware and software need to work together. Software gives commands
to hardware that specify tasks for it to carry out.
To perform a task on a computer system you require software, which

is a combination of computer programs, applications and procedures.
Software is divided into three broad categories: system software,
programming software and application software. Software provides you
with a user-friendly interface to interact effectively with hardware.
A computer can be switched on without software but it would not

function as a computer. If a computer is unable to locate its operating
system (OS), it will generate an error message or not display any output.
Software programs installed in a computer will enhance its computing
capability and can improve the productivity of the end user. For example,
Microsoft Word installed on top of the OS will provide the user with word
processing capability.
A computer consists of multiple interconnected peripherals and devices

such as a keyboard, HDD, monitor, processor, motherboard, sound card,
video card, power supply and memory board. An error may occur or the
computer may not start if one of these devices is missing or malfunctions.
In order for hardware to perform effectively, software called device drivers
are needed by the OS.

Software
Hardware
Figure 2.1 Examples of software and hardware

Source: Adapted from Wikimedia Commons
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0
Unported license.
Table 2.1 provides a summary of hardware and software.
Hardware Software
Definition A physical component of a A pool of instructions that

computer system that executes allows a user to connect with
instructions provided by a computer and permits the
software and enables users to computer to perform tasks
interact with the system
Types Input, processing, control, System software, programming
storage and output devices software and application
software
Examples Monitor, keyboard, mouse, MS Office, Adobe Acrobat,
printer, video card, scanner, Internet Explorer, QuickBooks
CD-ROM drive, modem and and Windows
router

Hardware Software
Failure Hardware failure is irregular Software failure is systematic

and does have cumulative and does not have a growing
failure at the last stage failure rate
Durability Hardware fatigues over time Software does not fatigue over
time, but errors are detected
in software as time passes
Table 2.1 Hardware and software
Input, output and storage

You require external devices called input, output, storage and peripheral
devices to interact with a computer.
Input devices
The primary purpose of input devices is to allow you to insert data and
to give commands to a computer. Data can be entered in various ways,
such as by clicking, keying in or scanning.
Keyboard
The keyboard is the main input device for keying-in data. There is no rule
that dictates the number of keys a keyboard should have; nevertheless,
almost every keyboard has 104 keys as the de facto standard. Some
models have a different number of keys, depending on the manufacturer.
Each key on a keyboard has various functions to perform and sends
different signals to the central processing unit. Certain keyboards use
images as alternatives to numbers, alphabets and symbols. For instance,
McDonald’s uses images like the Big Mac on its keyboards.

Spending a great deal of time keying-in data using standard keyboards
may cause you to suffer from repetitive strain injury (RSI) on your wrist.
However, using ergonomic keyboards (Figure 2.2) may solve RSI issues.
These keyboards are designed to support the user’s wrist by providing
more natural and comfortable hand, wrist and arm positions.
Figure 2.2 Ergonomic keyboard

Source: Wikimedia Commons
Unported license.
There are also enhanced keyboards which have extra keys such as
media or control keys that can open a Web browser, a search window
or electronic mail through a single keystroke.
Users can also interact with computers and tablets by using radio
frequency (RF), infrared (IR) or Bluetooth technology-enabled wireless
keyboards. These keyboards use radio or infrared-beam technology
to transfer data to a computer via a receiver that is plugged into the
computer.

Other keyboards include:
• On-screen keyboards that allow you to use a stylus or finger to

enter data or commands.
• Virtual laser keyboards (Figure 2.3) on devices like smartphones.
Figure 2.3 Virtual laser keyboard

This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike
2.0 Generic license.
• Flexible keyboards (Figure 2.4) are water resistant and virtually

indestructible keyboards that require less pressure to activate as
the keys are not solid. They are full-sized, lightweight and portable
devices. You can roll up these keyboards for storage, which is a
significant advantage in terms of mobility or for more desktop
space.

Figure 2.4 Flexible keyboard
4.0 International license.
Mouse
The second most essential input device apart from the keyboard is the
mouse, which falls under the category of pointing device. The mouse is
a handheld input device which is used to control a cursor displayed on
the computer screen. The cursor can be used to select and move icons
on a Graphical User Interface (GUI). It can also be used to select text,
files and folders displayed on a computer screen. For desktop Personal
Computers (PCs), a mouse is usually situated on a flat surface like a
mouse pad or desktop in front of the PC screen. The mouse uses a ball,
light or laser to track movement. Nowadays, smartphones and tablets
use a touch screen as their primary input device, and therefore your
finger acts like a mouse on these devices.
There are various types of computer mice and pointing devices. Today,
for a desktop computer the most common type of mouse is the optical
mouse, which connects to the computer’s USB port and is also known as
a USB mouse. The scroll mouse (Figure 2.5) has a wheel between the left

and right buttons which permit you to scroll up and down a document or
Web page. Furthermore, the wheel acts as a mouse button. For instance,
if you hover over a link on a Web page and press down on the wheel, it
launches that link in a new tab on the browser.
Scroll mouse Trackball mouse
Figure 2.5 Scroll mouse and trackball mouse

There is also an “upside-down” mouse (Figure 2.5). It is referred to as

a trackball mouse. The trackball is used to move an onscreen pointer
or cursor. It requires less arm and wrist motion than a standard mouse,
therefore, it is often less stressful for the user to use and helps to prevent
RSI.
The most common type of pointing device for laptop computers is the
touchpad (Figure 2.6). It is also referred to as a glide pad, glide point
or pressure sensitive tablet. Instead of using an external mouse you
can use the touchpad. To operate the touchpad, you drag your finger
across the flat surface of the touchpad. The on-screen cursor will then
move in the same direction as your finger. Like a computer mouse, the
touchpad has two buttons which allow you to click on icons displayed
on a computer screen.

Figure 2.6 Touchpad
Source: Pixabay
In 1992, IBM introduced the first portable computer to have a TrackPoint

mouse built into its keyboard (Figure 2.7). This is a tiny isometric joystick
which looks like a pencil eraser head, positioned among the “G”, “H”
and “B” keys on the keyboard. It allows you to maintain your hands on
the keyboard and still control the mouse.
Figure 2.7 TrackPoint mouse

This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported
license.
A type of computer mouse that allows users to control the mouse cursor
with their feet is the footmouse. The purpose of this technology is to
permit users to keep their hands on the keyboard and, at the same time,
use a mouse.

Figure 2.8 Footmouse
Source: Pixabay
Joystick
A joystick (Figure 2.9) allows the user to control an object in a computer

program, for example, a plane in a flight simulator. You will find similar
devices in an amusement arcade, possibly with extra buttons for
additional functionality.
Figure 2.9 Joystick

Generic license.

There are other input devices or methods, for example:
• Data can be entered into a computer by using a scanner (Figure 2.10)

or other hardware devices like digital cameras. When text is
scanned into a computer, Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
technology can be applied. OCR is the process of capturing
an image of text and then converting the image into data which
a computer recognises as text. Computer fax applications can
also apply OCR to transform incoming faxes from graphic files
into word processing documents.
Figure 2.10 Scanner

3.0 Unported license.
• A biometric input device is a scanning device which can identify

people by measuring their biological features. Various biometric
input devices are available, such as face scanners, hand scanners,
finger scanners, retina or iris scanners, and voice scanners.
• Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) is a character-

recognition technology mostly used by the banking industry to
reduce the processing time for cheques and other documents.
You can find an MICR line at the bottom of cheques and vouchers
(Figure 2.11). This technology permits MICR readers to scan and
read information directly into a data-collection device.

MICR line
Figure 2.11 Sample cheque with an MICR line at the bottom

3.0 Unported license.
• A barcode reader is a scanner that reads barcodes. A good

example of a barcode reader is the supermarket point-of-sale
barcode scanner, which reads and logs the price of a product.
• An Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) device works with a special

scanner which shines a beam of light onto special paper (Figure
2.12). OMR software can then detect the presence or absence
of a mark on the paper by the amount of light reflected from
it. The pre-printed text uses dropout colours so that the scanner
ignores it.

Figure 2.12 OMR paper
Source: Alberto, G
2.0 Generic license.
• Webcams, digital cameras, digital video cameras and microphones

are also considered to be computer input devices.
Output devices
Once data is entered into a computer via an input device, computer users
then require devices to output processed information so that they can
use it, for example, in a presentation or for decision making. Information
can be presented in many ways, for instance, by displaying it, printing it
or emitting sounds. The most frequently used computer output devices
are display monitors and printers.
Monitor
Monitors (Figure 2.13) are also referred to as Video Display Units (VDUs).
They display video images to computer users. They have electronic
circuitry, a screen, buttons to adjust screen settings and a casing to hold
all the other components. The first computer monitors applied Cathode

Ray Tube (CRT) technology. Today, most screens are based on Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD) flat-panel display technology, typically backlit with
LEDs.
Figure 2.13 Flat screen monitor

Source: Intel Free Press
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license.
Printer
Printers are output devices that can retrieve stored data from a computer
or other devices and generate a hard-copy of the data. They are frequently
used and can print text and images. There are two types of printers:
impact and non-impact printers.
Impact printers function by making physical contact with an ink ribbon

before striking the paper. Examples of impact printers are daisy wheel,
dot matrix and line printers.
Non-impact printers print without making contact with the paper; they do
not strike the paper. They are generally quieter and more efficient than
impact printers. Examples of non-impact printers are inkjet and laser
printers. Currently, the most common printers are inkjet and laser printers.

Inkjet printers (Figure 2.14) are the most common printers in homes. They
print by spraying streams of quick-drying ink onto paper. The ink is stored
in disposable ink cartridges. An individual cartridge contains a major
colour like black, red/magenta, green/cyan or yellow. Inkjet printers are
inexpensive, but the ink cartridges increase the total cost of using them.
Figure 2.14 Inkjet printer

Source: Pixabay
Laser printers (Figure 2.15) produce high-quality printed materials. They

use a laser to create a pattern of electrostatically charged dots on a light-
sensitive drum, which attract toner or dry ink powder. Once the toner is
transferred to a piece of paper, a heating process fuses the toner onto
the paper. The printed paper that you immediately remove from a laser
printer is warm because of this heating process.

Figure 2.15 Laser printer
Unported license.
All-in-one or multifunction printers can print, fax and scan. They are
usually based on inkjet or laser printers.
Dot matrix printers or pin printers (Figure 2.16) use dots to create text
or images. The quality of the text or image is dependent on the number
of dots per inch (dpi) that the printer can place on paper. These printers
use print heads to strike an ink ribbon such that hundreds to thousands
of little dots are placed onto a piece of paper to create text and images.
They are now rarely used due to their lower quality printout compared
to inkjet and laser printers.
Figure 2.16 Dot matrix printer

Source: Patterson, B

Plotter printers translate instructions given by a computer to create
line drawings on paper using one or more electronic pens. Plotters
draw nonstop point-to-point lines directly from vector graphics files or
commands. There are two types of plotters:
• Drum plotters (Figure 2.17) use a drum revolver to move the paper
during printing while the pen performs the printing.
• Flatbed plotters use an arm to move a pen over the paper rather
than making the paper move under the arm.
Figure 2.17 Drum plotter

Source: Oskay, W
Thermal impact printers (Figure 2.18) use heated pins to burn text or
images onto heat-sensitive paper. Although such printers produce
low-resolution printouts, they print relatively fast and are inexpensive.

Figure 2.18 Thermal impact printer
Braille display
A Braille display or Braille reader is an electronic device that permits a

blind user to “read” a document displayed on a computer screen. The
computer transfers the text to the output device and then converts it
into Braille, “displaying” it by raising rounded pins through a flat surface
on the device. These devices come in various forms and sizes and are
designed to work with laptops and tablet computers. There is a Braille
reader application available for smartphones and tablets which can
connect to a Braille display device via Bluetooth.
Speech generating device
A Speech Generating Device (SGD) is an electronic output device which

is used to assist individuals who have serious speech impairments or
other problems that result in difficulty in communicating. This tool is
useful for children who are suspected of having speech deficiencies.
SGDs vary in their design. Some SGDs allow users to choose what to
output from a touch screen. Most SGDs can produce electronic voice
output by using either speech synthesis or digital recordings of an actual
person speaking.
Other computer output devices are speakers, projectors and headphones.

Storage devices
Besides producing output on a monitor or from a printer, you may want

to store the output for another occasion. Therefore, you need storage
devices to store data and information for retrieval later. Storage devices
act as a backup tool and also hold your OS and application programs.
Storage devices are divided into two categories: primary storage and
secondary storage.
Primary storage devices have lower access times and faster performance
because they hold data for short periods while your computer is
processing data. Examples of primary storage are Random Access
Memory (RAM) and cache memory.
Secondary storage devices are non-volatile devices which keep data until
it is removed or overwritten. They are about two orders of magnitude
cheaper than primary storage devices. Examples of secondary storage
are HDDs and SD cards.
Magnetic storage devices
Magnetic storage is available in multiple forms, such as floppy disk

drives, tape drives and hard drives. These devices work on the principle
of magnetic charge. They use magnetic heads to write and read data to
and from a magnetisable medium.
Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) are non-volatile memory storage devices. They
store data permanently and allow computers to retrieve it whenever
needed. HDDs consist of one or more metal platters that are placed in
an air-sealed casing and magnetic heads to write data onto the platters.
Internal HDDs are located in a drive bay and connected to the computer’s
motherboard via ATA, SCSI or SATA cables (refer to the Glossary). They
are powered by the power supply unit (PSU) of the computer. They can
store data, pictures, videos, text documents and other files. Furthermore,
these drives store the OS and software programs which are executed on

the computer. HDDs are capable of storing large amounts of data and
come in various sizes and capacities. Older HDDs could store several
hundred MB (megabytes) to several GB (gigabytes) of data, whereas
newer versions can store several hundred GB to several TB (terabytes) of
data. Figure 2.19 shows an example of a HDD from a desktop computer
(with the top cover of the casing open).
Platter
Spindle
Read/write Read/write head

actuator arm
Actuator
Figure 2.19 Internal hard disk drive

Source: Pixabay
External hard drives are stand-alone devices which enable users to

backup data and increase available disk space. They come in various
shapes and sizes. They interface with computers via USB or eSATA
(external SATA) cables. To protect the drives, they are often stored in an
enclosure. Figure 2.20 shows a typical portable hard drive.
Figure 2.20 Portable external hard drive

Source: Pixabay

Solid State Drives (SSDs) have started to replace HDDs because SSDs
perform better. SSDs deliver faster access times and lower latency
compared to HDDs. They are a type of non-volatile memory. Unlike
HDDs, SSDs have no moving parts. This means that SSDs can store and
retrieve data faster and consume less power than HDDs. They also make
no noise and are reliable. While SSDs are becoming more popular, HDDs
are still used in many desktop computers mainly due to their low price.
However, many laptops now have an SSD instead of a HDD because
it helps to enhance their reliability, stability and battery life. Figure 2.21
shows an SSD.
Figure 2.21 Intel SSD

Floppy Disk Drives (FDDs) fall under the category of magnetic storage
devices. In 1971, the first FDD was introduced. It was an 8-inch disk
drive (Figure 2.22). However, 5¼-inch FDDs were used in the first desktop
computers. They stored between 360 KB and 1.2 MB of data. They were
later replaced by 3½-inch FDDs that could store between 360 KB and
1.44 MB of data. Today, computers no longer use FDDs, due to their
limited capacity. This technology has largely been replaced by CD-R
(compact disk — recordable), DVD-R (digital versatile disk — recordable)
and flash drives.

8 inch, 5 1/4 inch and 3 1/2 inch floppy drives
Figure 2.22 Types of FDDs

Optical storage devices
An optical storage device is a standard storage device that uses lasers

and lights to read data from and write data to optical storage media.
It is also called an Optical Disk Drive (ODD). The most common types
of optical storage media are Blu-ray disks, Compact Disks (CDs) and
Digital Versatile Disks (DVDs). Computers use CD or DVD drives to read
CDs and DVDs, whereas Blu-ray disks require Blu-ray drives. CD-R and
DVD-R drives read and write data to disks.
Compact Disk — Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) allows users to read or

copy stored data (Figure 2.23). They are mostly used to store audio and
software data. To read the data on a CD-ROM, you need a CD-ROM
drive. A single CD-ROM can store up to 700 MB of data.

Figure 2.23 CD-ROM
Unported license.
A Compact Disk — Recordable (CD-R) can be written on once and read

many times after that. Once it is written, the contents of a CD-R cannot
be deleted or formatted. Users can record data into a CD-R because it is
coated with a photosensitive organic dye. A writing laser inside the CD-R
drive heats up the dye to change its transparency in certain locations.
The modified dye locations can later be read using a low-power reading
laser inside a CD-ROM or CD-R drive. CD-Rs can hold up to 700 MB
of data and are a cheap solution for backing up data. However, many
users are now using DVD-R and USB flash drives for backup and file
transfer tasks.
A Digital Versatile Disk — Recordable (DVD-R) is similar to the CD-R; data

can be recorded on it once and then read many times. Besides DVD-R,
there are other recordable DVDs such as DVD-RW (digital versatile disk
— read/write), DVD+R, DVD+RW and DVD+R DL (digital versatile disk
— recordable dual layer).
The Blu-ray optical disk was first introduced at the Consumer Electronics
Show (CES) in 2006. It was jointly developed by consumer electronics
and computer companies, namely Dell, Hewlett-Packard, LG, Panasonic,
TDK and Hitachi. Blu-ray can store up to 25 GB of data on a single-

layer disk and 50 GB of data on a dual-layer disk. The disk is similar
in size to a standard CD. Today, Blu-ray is backed by Apple and the
companies mentioned above. Blu-ray disks and drives are an upgrade
and replacement for the CD and DVD disks and drives.
Flash memory devices
Fujio Masuoka invented the first flash memory in 1980 while working in
Toshiba. The first commercial flash memory was marketed in 1984. Flash
memory does not require constant power to hold data because it stores
data in integrated circuit memory chips, but it is slightly more expensive
than magnetic storage. It is now widely used in mobile phones, SSDs,
cameras and tablets.
Portable flash memory drives are referred to as pen drives, USB flash
drives, jump drives and thumb drives (Figure 2.24). These drives are
portable storage devices which use a USB port to connect to a computer.
They come in capacities ranging from 2 GB to 1 TB. Flash memory is
also used in memory cards and memory sticks.
Flash drive
Memory card
Memory stick
Figure 2.24 Different types of flash memory

Unported license.

Cloud storage
Another popular data storage method is cloud storage. Instead of

using the HDD on your computer to store data, you can use storage
space provided on remote or network servers (these servers make up
the “cloud”). By doing this, your data can be downloaded or accessed
through the Internet. Examples of cloud services available today are
Amazon Drive, Oracle Public Cloud, Microsoft Azure and OneDrive,
Dropbox and Google Drive.
Activity 2.1
1. Which type of keyboard eliminates repetitive strain injury?
A. Enhanced keyboard
B. Ergonomic keyboard
C. Wireless keyboard
D. Standard keyboard
2. Which type of mouse requires less arm and wrist movement?
A. Trackball mouse
B. Scroll mouse
C. TrackPoint mouse
D. Standard mouse

3. Which technology is used to print cheques?
A. OCR
B. Barcode reader
C. MICR
D. OMR
4. An _________________ device works together with a special

scanner that shines a beam of light onto special paper to
detect the presence or absence of a mark on the paper.
A. OCR
B. OMR
C. OICR
D. MICR
5. Which of the following printers is not an impact printer?
A. Line printer
B. Dot matrix
C. Inkjet printer
D. Daisy wheel
6. A _______________ printer translates instructions given by

a computer to create line drawings on paper using one or
more electronic pens.
A. line
B. dot matrix
C. laser
D. plotter

7. A _________________ is an electronic output device which is
used to assist individuals who have speech problems that
cause difficulty in communicating.
A. speech recognition device

B. speech generating device
C. speech correcting device
D. speech projecting device
8. Which of the following is a non-volatile memory hardware

device which stores data permanently and retrieves it whenever
needed?
A. RAM
B. Cache
C. SRAM
D. Hard disk drive
9. Which drive has a faster access time and lower latency

compared to hard disk drives?
A. Solid state drive

B. Blu-ray drive
C. Floppy disk drive
D. Optical disk drive
10. Which of the following is not an optical storage device?
A. Blu-ray
B. Magneto-optic
C. Solid state drives
D. Digital versatile disk-recordable

Inside the system unit
In this subsection, we will discuss the main components that are found
inside the system unit of a computer.
Motherboard
The main circuit board inside a computer is known as a motherboard

(Figure 2.25). A motherboard is a platform that enables computer
components and peripherals to communicate with one another.
Components are connected to the motherboard either directly or
via ports. A motherboard has a specific socket type (Figure 2.26) for
connecting a CPU (e.g., Socket A, Socket 478 and so forth). You will be
notified on the socket type when you purchase a motherboard.
Figure 2.25 A typical motherboard and its components

Source: WIkimedia Commons
Unported license.

Figure 2.26 Intel Socket 370
Unported license.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
A CPU is the complicated electronic circuitry inside a computer which

carries out program instructions (Figure 2.27). The CPU obtains data
from input devices and storage devices, processes the data, and then
outputs the results via output devices. It consists of a Control Unit (CU)
and an Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). The CPU is the processor or
microprocessor in a computer, and its primary role is to manage the
operations of hardware devices and to execute the instructions given
by software programs. There are a number of CPU manufacturers, but
Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) and Intel are the market leaders.
Control Unit (CU)
The CU is circuitry which supervises a computer system’s operations in

carrying out program instructions. The CU acts as an orchestra conductor
inside a computer system; it commands the other system elements to
perform program instructions. It is essential for the CU to interact with
the ALU and memory.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
The ALU carries out four kinds of mathematical operations: addition,

subtraction, multiplication and division. The logic part of the ALU
assesses logic operations (e.g., greater than, equal to or less than). The
ALU is built into the CPU and is able to hold data that is currently being
processed in storage locations called registers. The CU instructs the
registers to obtain, keep and move data and also controls the execution
of the ALU.
Secondary storage
Stores data and programs
Input Central Processing Unit Output

devices devices
Send data CU ALU Make
to the processed
CPU information
available to
Memory users
Processing
Figure 2.27 CPU: Main components and basic operations

CPU operations
Every time a CPU executes an instruction, a machine cycle process

takes place (Figure 2.28). The machine cycle is divided into two parts:
instruction and execution. The machine cycle process is as follows:
1. Fetch: The CU fetches the instruction from memory and places

it in the register.
2. Decode: The CU decodes the instruction and determines where

the needed data is located in memory. Steps 1 and 2 are known
as instruction time or I-time.
3. Execute: Data is transferred from memory to the register in the

ALU by the CU. The ALU performs arithmetic or logic operations
on the data.
4. Store: The results of the operations are stored in memory or a

register by the CU. Steps 3 and 4 are known as execution time
or E-time.
There is a built-in system clock in the CPU which emits pulses at a

fixed rate to synchronise the operations of the computer. The pulses are
measured in cycles per second (hertz). For instance, if the rate of the
clock is 800 MHz, this means that the clock ticks 800 million times per
second. A computer’s operation speed depends on the system clock’s
speed. System clock speeds have been increasing progressively over
the years.
A computer can execute millions of instructions every second. The

speed of a CPU is measured in millions of instructions per second
(MIPS) and even in billions of instructions per second (BIPS) in newer
CPUs. Moreover, current microprocessors use pipelining technology
to process instructions even faster. In pipelining, the CU initiates the
execution of another instruction before the present cycle is concluded.

Instruction execution is carried out in phases: once the first instruction is
fetched, it is transferred to the decoding step and the CU fetches a new
instruction. This technique allows newer microprocessors to execute up
to 20 instructions concurrently.
Control Unit ALU

2 3
Decode Execute
1 4
Fetch Store
Memory
Figure 2.28 The machine cycle
Memory
A CPU is unable to permanently keep whole programs or massive

amounts of data. Therefore, it requires a storage space to keep programs
and data. Computer memory (i.e., RAM) fulfils this requirement. Memory
is located on a chip which you can find on the motherboard or a small
circuit board attached to the motherboard. Memory permits a CPU to
store and retrieve data quickly.

Semiconductor memory
Semiconductor memory is reliable, compact and economical and it

consumes only a small amount of power. This type of memory is used
in modern computers. The categories of semiconductor memory are as
follows:
1. Volatile: It requires a constant electric current to hold data; an

interruption in the current flow causes data loss.
2. Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS): It is

suitable for battery-powered devices and is used in contemporary
microchips. This technology uses low power and produces
little heat; it is sometimes found in a tiny battery-powered
configuration chip found on PC system boards. Once a PC
boots up, the CMOS chip keeps data like time, date and
hardware configuration information. If a PC uses CMOS RAM,
it can be updated when the PC boots up and the latest contents
will remain until they are changed.
RAM
RAM stands for random access memory. It is categorised as volatile

memory, which means that its contents are lost the moment power is
shut off. Programs can use the RAM in a computer. The following are
various types of RAM:
1. Static RAM (SRAM)
SRAM stores data as long as power is supplied to it. SRAM

is high-cost, high-speed and energy efficient. It is suitable for
critical and secondary uses such as fast cache memory. Modern
HDD disk caches also use it. SRAM is synchronous when it
is synchronised to the CPU clock speed and asynchronous
otherwise.

2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Modern desktop computers use DRAM as standard computer

memory. DRAM is a volatile memory and requires refreshing
with voltage regularly, or else information stored will be lost.
This type of memory chip contains tiny capacitors which are
refreshed automatically by a logic unit built into the chip.
3. Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM)
SDRAM is the latest technology. It is synchronised with the

system clock and thus can run faster than DRAM. It is now
the most common type of RAM memory used in computers.
SDRAM is also made up of tiny capacitors and transistors, and
each capacitor holds a bit of data.
4. Rambus DRAM (RDRAM)
RDRAM was once the fastest type of memory. It could transfer

data at up to 800 MHz. Intel used RDRAM with its Pentium III
Xeon and Pentium 4 processors. It is now obsolete.
5. Magnetoresistive RAM (MRAM)
MRAM is a non-volatile RAM which uses magnetic storage

elements to store data. It consists of two iron plates with a thin
insulating layer in between. One of these plates is a magnet
that is set to a specific charge, whereas the other is a variable
magnet, allowing for changing polarity according to an external
field’s pull. Data is written into MRAM using magnetic fields,
and is stored in the chip as long as the magnetic charge holds.
MRAM circuits can retain data long after shutdown and do not

require refreshing. It is still under research and development
as it holds the promise of being a “universal memory” capable
of replacing all memory types in use today.
RAM modules
In computers, RAM is usually installed in the form of modules (Figure

2.29). The following are the different types of RAM modules used in
computers:
1. Single In-line Memory Module (SIMM)
The old Pentium and x86 computers used SIMM, as did certain
laser printers. SIMM consisted of a small circuit board which
held from 2 to over 32 RAM chips and sockets. It had an 8-bit
or 32-bit data path. However, SIMM is an old technology and
DIMM has replaced it.
2. Dual In-line Memory Module (DIMM)
Current computers use DIMM. It is a small printed circuit board

which holds either four or nine SDRAM chips per side. DIMM
permits larger data paths and transfers data faster than SIMM.
DIMM is usually used in desktop computers, while a variant
called SODIMM (Small Outline Dual In-line Memory Module)
is used in laptops.

SIMM
DIMM
SODIMM
Figure 2.29 SIMM, DIMM and SODIMM memory modules

Unported license.
Read-Only Memory (ROM)
Computer manufacturers record data permanently in ROM. Users can

read and use the data in ROMs but they cannot change the data. ROM
is non-volatile memory. It is possible to modify the data in a certain type
of ROM called programmable ROM (PROM). To do this, we require a tool
called a ROM burner. PROM is used in printers and hard disk drives.

Flash memory
Flash memory is a non-volatile memory which allows erasing and

reprogramming in units of memory called blocks. It is frequently used
to store control code like the Basic Input Output System (BIOS) on a
computer. Mobile phones, digital cameras, USB drives and digital music
players also use flash memory.
Cache memory
Cache memory is used in CPUs to keep instructions that are frequently

needed. It is a very fast memory that is fabricated into a CPU. By using
cache memory, a CPU can avoid using the motherboard’s system bus
to transfer data. The cache memory built into a CPU is referred to as
the L1 (Level 1) cache; this is the fastest kind of cache available for the
CPU to access. The L2 (Level 2) cache is an external cache which can
be found in older computers. It uses a separate chip containing cheaper
SRAM. There are CPUs with an L3 (Level 3) cache, which may be built
into the CPU module or located on the motherboard.
Buses, ports and connectors
Data travels within a computer via an electrical path called the bus.
The role of the bus is to interface the CPU with memory and peripheral
devices. The types of bus that connect peripheral devices to the CPU
are called expansion buses. The various kinds of expansion buses are:
1. Industry Standard Architecture (ISA): The ISA bus is slow; it

transfers 6 to 8 bits at a time. The ISA bus is suitable for
sound cards or mice. It has been replaced by the latest bus
standards.

2. Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI): It can transmit up
to 64 bits at one time, and so is faster than the ISA bus. Intel
designed this bus. It is simpler to integrate with new data
types, namely graphics, audio and video. The PCI bus is used
to interface other buses, such as USB buses, to the CPU.
3. Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP): The AGP bus has a unique

architecture which allows video cards to access RAM and
significantly boost graphics performance. Moreover, AGP
supports 3D graphics and full-motion video playback. Older
PCs support this bus.
4. Universal Serial Bus (USB): Every current machine has the

USB bus. It allows more than 127 devices to be attached to a
PCI bus via a single port on the system unit. Although data
is transmitted at a slow rate, the universal support and
convenience of USB has made it a broadly used bus for
peripherals.
5. FireWire/IEEE 1394: Apple designed this bus. It can

connect numerous external devices to a PCI bus through a
single port. FireWire is relatively fast and mainly used to
connect compatible video cameras, digital TVs and various
multimedia peripherals to IBM and Apple computers.
6. PC Card: This bus is accessed via a credit-card sized slot in

a computer case. It was originally called PCMCIA card and
was used in laptops. PC cards can contain solid state memory,
network adapters and modems.
Usually, there are two or more vacant expansion slots on a motherboard.

These slots connect to the computer’s bus and receive expansion boards
(also known as adapter cards). Table 2.2 lists various kinds of expansion
slots and cards.

Types of computers Expansion slots Cards
Desktop PCs Expansion slot Expansion card

Notebook and tablet PC Card slot PCMCIA card
PCs
Handheld PCs and SD (Secure Digital) slot Flash memory cards
mobile devices
Table 2.2 Expansion slots and cards
Figure 2.30 shows some of the common ports and connectors for desktop
computers.
Figure 2.30 Ports and connectors for desktop computers

Source: http://images.slideplayer.com/22/6492201/slides/slide_47.jpg

Computers use dedicated expansion ports that permit the connection
of additional devices. The dedicated expansion ports are listed below:
1. Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)
A SCSI port is a connector that a compatible device can use

to connect to the computer bus via an adapter card. It acts as
an extension cord for the data bus. You can create a chain of
devices by plugging one SCSI device to another. Most high-end
disk drives, tape drives, scanners and optical devices provide
SCSI interfaces.
2. IEEE 1394 (FireWire)
The IEEE 1394 port provides access to the computer’s bus to

various peripheral devices. IEEE 1394 is a costly technology.
This port is used for connecting video and other high data
throughput devices to the system bus.
3. Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)
This port permits electronic musical instruments to communicate

with a computer with a compatible sound card. Various sound
cards are MIDI compatible and include MIDI ports. It is mainly
used in music recording and performance to control electronic
drums, synthesisers and lighting systems.

4. Serial port
This port transmits data a single bit at a time. It enables

long-distance transmission of data. It uses low-cost cables.
Devices that are attached to this port include mice, modems
and keyboards. It has DB-9 (9-pin) and DB-25 (25-pin) serial
connectors.
5. Parallel port
It transmits one byte of data at a time and thus performs faster

than the serial port. The parallel port requires costly cables to
transmit data if the distance is more than 50 feet. Parallel ports
are suitable for printers and scanners. The latest parallel ports
are the Enhanced Parallel Port and Extended Capabilities Port.
6. USB port
USB devices use this port. Numerous USB devices can be

connected to a single USB port.
Apart from the ones already mentioned, there are various other kinds of
ports, for example, HDMI port, monitor port, modem port, network port,
keyboard port, Infrared Data Association port and game port.
Data representation
A computer does not recognise regular characters, punctuation and
numbers; therefore, it requires a unique code to interpret them. A
computer sees text and images as numbers. For instance, the sentence
“I love WOU” is seen by a computer as a sequence of ones and zeros
(Table 2.3).

What you see on screen What a computer sees
I 0100 1001
L 0110 1100
O 0110 1111
V 0111 0110
E 0110 0101
W 0101 0111
O 0110 1111
U 0101 0101
Table 2.3 Comparison of what a human sees and what a computer sees
Data is represented by the states of a computer’s electronic switches;

which only have two states: on and off. If a switch is on it represents the
number 1 and if it is off it represents the number 0. These two values
make up the binary (base two) number system.
Table 2.4 shows how the binary number system functions and compares
it to the base 10 (decimal) number system. For instance, the base 10
symbols are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. Every number is called a digit;
this means that 10 is a two-digit number. To build two-digit numbers,
you need to use the numbers 10 – 99 and to create three-digit numbers
requires the numbers 100 – 999.
Binary numbers are made up of only two symbols: 0 and 1. From Table
2.3, you can see how base two (binary) numbers are created. For example,
the binary number 1012 is the same as the decimal number 510 (the
subscripts of these numbers show you which number system they are
from). The number 1012 is made up of three digits which when added up
results in the equivalent of the decimal number 5. The addition is carried
out in the following way: 1012 = 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20 = 4 + 0 + 1 = 510.

Power of 2
Base 10 Base 2
(count the 1s)
0
0 0
0
20
1 1
1
21
2 10
10
+ 20
3 11
1 1
22
4 100
100
22 + 20
5 101
101
22 + 21
6 110
110
22 + 21 + 20
7 111
1 1 1
23
8 1000
1000
23 + 20
9 1001
1001
23 + 21
10 1010
1010
23 + 21 + 20
11 1011
1 01 1
23 + 22
12 1100
1 100
23 + 22 + 20
13 1101
1 101
23 + 22 + 21
14 1110
1 110
23 + 22 + 21 + 20
15 1111
1 1 1 1
24
16 10000
10000
Table 2.4 The binary number system compared to the decimal number system

Bits and bytes
A bit (binary digit) is the smallest unit of data in computing. It can only
have one of two values: 0 or 1. Computers can only recognise and use
0s or 1s. A byte is made up of eight bits. It is used by most computers
to represent one alphanumeric character. Half a byte is called a nibble.
Every character in the sentence “I love WOU” is represented by one
byte of data.
The terms “bit” and “byte” are now commonly used in our daily lives. For
example, modem data transfer rates are given in bits per second (bps).
You should be familiar with broadband service advertisements that offer
“100 Mbps” or “500 Mbps” data rates; the “M” here stands for Mega or
million. Data storage capacities of HDDs are given in bytes; for example,
there are 500 Gigabyte (GB) and 1 Terabyte (TB) HDDs in computers.
Character codes
A character code specifies how each letter, digit or special character

is represented in a computer. Character codes were created and
standardised by computer programmers many years ago. The following
are the common character codes in use today:
• Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) is

an 8-bit code with 256 symbols. IBM mainframe computers still
use this code.
• American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is a

standard 7-bit code that is used in almost every kind of computer.
It defines 128 symbols.
• Extended ASCII character values range from 128 to 255 (8-bit

code). The first 40 symbols represent pronunciation and unusual
punctuation. The remaining symbols represent graphics.

• Unicode uses 4 bytes (32 bits) to represent symbols, letters
and digits. It is a worldwide character standard. Unicode can
generate more than 4 billion distinctive characters or symbols
with its 4 bytes. It is sufficient to represent all the characters in
the Chinese, Korean and Japanese character sets. The first
256 symbols in Unicode are similar to the symbols in the ASCII
and Extended ASCII character codes.
Summary
This section described different types of input, output and storage

devices. It also provided a detailed comparison of hardware
and software. The computer system unit and its components
were described and the CPU machine cycle was explained. The
various types of computer memory, buses, ports and connectors
were described. How computers represent data was also briefly
discussed.
Self-test 2.1
1. Differentiate between impact and non-impact printers.
2. Describe the CPU.
3. Describe the CPU machine cycle.

Suggested answers to activity
Feedback
Activity 2.1
1. B
2. A
3. C
4. B
5. C
6. D
7. B
8. D
9. A
10. C

2.2 System and Application
Software
Objectives
1. Differentiate between system software and application

software.
2. Explain the five functions of an operating system.
3. Describe the two types of compression.
Introduction
This section discusses system software and its various functions. The
computer booting (start up) process is also discussed in this section.
Since application software plays a significant role in our daily lives, a
brief discussion of such software is also provided.
System software
System software maintains and controls the operations of a computer
and its peripherals. The computer’s Operating System (OS) is part of
system software. Examples of system software are Microsoft Windows
and system utilities such as antivirus programs.

Components of an OS
The OS is a set of software packages which is used to manage interaction

with computer hardware. The following are the elements in an OS:
1. Kernel — serves basic functions such as managing memory,

files, processes, primary inputs/outputs and communications.
2. Shell — permits user communication with the OS through a

control language and enables users to administer peripherals.
3. File system — organises files in a tree structure.
Functions of an OS
Application software is unable to function or run without the support

of an OS. An OS is a computer program that is designed to support a
specific type of computer like the Macintosh or PC. An OS coordinates
the various functions of computer hardware. The following are the five
essential functions of an OS:
1. Starting the computer
2. Managing applications
3. Managing memory
4. Handling messages from input and output devices
5. Providing a user interface
These functions are further discussed in the following subsections.

Starting the computer
Starting the computer is the first function of an OS. The OS is loaded

into the computer’s RAM from secondary storage (usually the HDD) the
moment you turn on your computer. The term “booting” has been used
in computing since the very early days to refer to the process of starting
a computer and loading an OS into its RAM. There are two types of
booting: cold booting and warm booting.
A cold boot occurs when you first switch on your computer. A warm boot
happens when you restart your computer that is already on — this is
vital especially after installing new software or if your computer suddenly
stops functioning. Once booting begins, the computer starts to copy
the kernel and other important parts of the OS from the HDD into RAM.
The parts of the OS that are loaded will remain in RAM as long as the
computer’s power is on.
The kernel acts as an intermediary for the OS. It initiates applications,

manages devices and memory, and performs other crucial functions. It is
necessary for OS programmers to keep the kernel as small as possible
because it remains in RAM all the time a computer is on. The parts of
the OS that are not used frequently are kept on the HDD and retrieved
whenever required — these parts of the OS are called non-resident
programs.
The six steps in the booting process are shown in Figure 2.31.

1.
BIOS is loaded
2.
Power-on self-test (POST) is
3. completed
Operating system is
loaded 4.
System configuration is
accomplished
5.
System utilities are loaded
6.
User is authenticated
Figure 2.31 The booting process
Step 1: Load the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS)
The moment you turn on your computer, electricity flows from the power
supply to the CPU and it starts to search for the BIOS. The BIOS is part
of system software and it is permanently stored in the ROM located on
the motherboard of your computer. The BIOS provides your computer
with the instructions required to receive input from input devices and to
send output to the monitor or printer. You can access the BIOS setup
program by pressing a key during the booting process. Some computers
display a message telling you which key to press to enter the BIOS setup
program (e.g., F1, F2, F10 or Del).

Figure 2.32 A BIOS setup screen
Source: Masone, R
Unported license.
Step 2: The Power-on Self-Test (POST)
The POST is a sequence of tests carried out once the BIOS is loaded
into RAM. The purpose of this test is to ensure that the computer and its
associated peripherals are functioning correctly. The components that
are tested are the main memory (RAM), HDD, floppy disk drives (if any),
keyboard and mouse. During this test, a “beep” sound will be heard and
an error message will be displayed on the screen if an error or failure
is detected. If this happens, the computer will stop further execution.
One possible way to rectify this failure is to ensure that the components
mentioned above are connected properly.
Sometimes, the errors are severe and the computer may be unable to
display an error message; it may only emit “beep” sounds. If this happens,
it is time for you to get some expert technical support. Always write down
the number of beeps you heard and any error message you may have
seen on the screen before complete failure occurred. This information
will be useful to technical support personnel.

Step 3: Load the OS
The moment the POST is completed successfully, the BIOS will start to
look for the OS. A setup program determines where the BIOS can find
the OS. Usually, the BIOS first searches the computer’s HDD to locate
the OS. Once it is found, the kernel of the OS will be loaded into RAM.
From that moment, the OS takes charge of the computer and starts to
load system configuration details. Although the system configuration
settings on the computer are set by default, you are allowed to modify
some of them.
Step 4: System configuration
In the Microsoft Windows OS, there is a database called the registry. The
registry stores a computer’s configuration details, such as settings for
installed software and peripherals. It also stores configuration choices
such as mouse and screen settings. The moment the kernel is loaded,
it inspects the system’s configuration to decide which utility programs
and drivers are required. For instance, if the driver for a peripheral device
is already installed on the system, it will load automatically when the
device is detected by the OS. However, if the drivers are missing, the
OS will prompt you to insert a disk or other storage device that contains
the driver or to supply the driver in another way (e.g., by downloading
it from the Web).
The Windows OS has Plug-and-Play (PnP) capability, which means that it

can detect a new PnP-compatible peripheral when it is connected to the
computer. For example, if a new PnP-compatible device (e.g., a printer)
was installed while the computer was switched off, the OS will load its
drivers once the computer is switched on and check for conflicts with
other devices. Peripheral devices that have PnP capability will identify
themselves to the OS.
The Windows OS permits you to view configuration settings and choose

additional configuration options from the Control Panel program.

Step 5: Load system utilities
After the OS completes the system configuration process, it will load the
system utilities. The system utilities consist of programs like antivirus
software and speaker volume control.
Step 6: Authenticate users
After the OS completes the loading process, it will usually display a

dialogue box that requests for your username and password. This is the
authentication or login process. This process verifies that you are a person
who is authorised to use the computer. However, Microsoft Windows and
Mac OS are consumer-oriented operating systems which do not force
you to supply a username and password. However, you can set up a
user profile that requires this. A user profile defines a user’s choices on
features such as security, desktop theme, icons and menu styles.
In multiuser environments like offices or labs, you will need an account to

access computers. A system administrator will create the account for you.
This account will define your login details and allocated storage space.
Managing applications
When you start an application, the CPU loads the application from
secondary storage (usually the HDD) into RAM. Older OSs were single-
tasking, which meant that they could only run one application at a time.
To switch between applications, the application which was running had
to be stopped before a new application was started. Today, computers
use multitasking OSs which enable you to run multiple applications
simultaneously (Figure 2.33).

Word
Excel
Figure 2.33 Multitasking OSs allow two or more applications to run

simultaneously
Managing memory
If the OS continuously accesses program instructions from secondary

storage (e.g., the HDD), the computer would perform poorly since
secondary storage access is relatively slow. To improve processing
performance, a buffer is required. The computer uses a temporary storage
medium called RAM as the buffer. It is the OS’s responsibility to manage
RAM. The OS provides each executing program with its own portion of
RAM and ensures that the programs do not interfere with each other
(Figure 2.34).

1001 1002 1003
Word
1004 1005 1006
Excel
1007 1008 1009
Data
Figure 2.34 The OS allocates temporary RAM storage locations to applications

that are executing simultaneously, including itself
The OS can make a computer’s RAM appear to be larger than usual by

using virtual memory. Virtual memory is a technique of using the HDD as
an expansion of RAM. Virtual memory uses “pages” to divide program
instructions and data into units of fixed sizes. The OS will store copies
of the “pages” in files called “swap files” on the HDD when RAM is fully
used. The pages are copied back into RAM when they are required
(Figure 2.35). “Paging” means moving files from secondary storage to
RAM, and vice versa.

Figure 2.35 The virtual memory process
Handling input and output
The OS handles communication through input and output devices.

Almost every OS comes with device drivers for traditional input and
output devices. For instance, printers or mice have their own drivers.
A device driver contains details about a particular brand and model of
input or output device. They enable communication between the OS
and the device. A device manufacturer will provide a device driver if it is
not included in the OS. Device drivers can usually be downloaded from
manufacturers’ websites.
The OS receives “interrupt” signals from input and output devices which
inform it that some event has occurred; for instance, a document has
finished printing or a user has pressed a key on the keyboard. Each
interrupt signal from a device has a related interrupt handler (a block of
program code that is part of a device’s driver). Whenever an interrupt
occurs, the relevant interrupt handler will be executed immediately by
the OS to take the necessary action. Interrupt request (IRQ) lines handle
the interaction between devices and the CPU. Almost every PC has 16
IRQ lines numbered from 0 through 15. An IRQ conflict occurs if two
devices are configured to use the same IRQ but are not sharing the IRQ
line; this leads to system failure. The solution to this problem is to shut
down the computer and unplug the peripheral devices one after another
to determine which devices are causing the conflict.

Providing the user Interface
The OS provides a user interface for users to communicate with programs.

The following are the actions that a user interface allows you to perform:
1. To start application programs
2. To handle files and disks
3. To perform an orderly shutdown procedure
There are three different kinds of user interface: graphical, menu-driven

and command line. A Graphical User Interface (GUI) is a general user
interface, and because of its graphics it makes the OS and application
programs easier to use. The GUI presents a “desktop” with icons and
menus that you can click on to interact with the computer (Figure 2.36).
Figure 2.36 MacOS GUI

Source: Mohan, M
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Unported
license.

When programs are executed in resizable on-screen windows, you
have the ability to quickly switch from one program to another (Figure
2.37). To give commands to the programs, you can use icons, pull-down
menus or dialogue boxes. Dialogue boxes allow you to provide additional
information needed by a program (Figure 2.38).
Figure 2.37 Programs running within resizable on-screen windows
Dialogue
box
Figure 2.38 A dialogue box “floating” above a program’s window

When you use a menu-driven user interface (Figure 2.39), you do not
need to memorise command keywords like copy and paste. A text-based
menu is displayed on-screen with various options. The menu options
are selected by using the arrow and Enter keys on the keyboard or by
clicking them with the mouse. You can also type in certain letters to
select the options directly; these letters will be highlighted in some way
in the menu.
Figure 2.39 A menu-driven user interface
A command-line user interface uses keywords that you need to type in

to tell the OS what to do (Figure 2.40). It has complicated rules of syntax
which define precisely what you can type and how you type it. Most
current computer users are not familiar with command-line user interfaces
because we now use GUIs. Command-line user interfaces require us to
memorise keywords and syntax. There is a good chance of users making
mistakes when typing commands into these interfaces. While commands
are usually simple, some are cryptic. However, experienced users like
to use command-line interfaces because they can operate a computer
much faster with these interfaces.

Figure 2.40 A command-line user interface
OS utilities
To enhance the capabilities of an OS, software developers continually

create utility programs with new features. Table 2.5 describes the utilities
that are available in most OSs.
Utility Description
Backup • Helps in duplicating files from the HDD to a

storage medium (e.g., magnetic tape or DVD).
• New OSs usually come with a built-in backup
utility.
• There are three types of backups:
1. Full backups which include all files and
data.
2. Incremental backups of files that were
changed or created after the previous
backup.
3. Drive imaging software makes an image of
an entire HDD.

Utility Description
Antivirus • Examines the contents of RAM and storage

devices for concealed viruses and other malware.
• Popular antivirus programs are:
1. BitDefender Antivirus
2. Kaspersky Antivirus
3. Webroot Antivirus with SpySweeper
4. Norton Antivirus
5. ESET Nod32 Antivirus
6. McAfee Antivirus
Firewall • Examines and if necessary blocks traffic that
flows in from and out to the Internet.
Intrusion detection • Checks incoming and outgoing network traffic for
patterns which show that someone is trying to
access the network or system.
Screen saver • Hides whatever is being displayed on the screen.
Disk scanning and • Scanning detects bad sectors on disks and
defragmenting rectifies the problem by shutting out the bad
sectors.
• Disk clean-up utility removes unwanted files and
recovers disk space.
• Defragmentation boosts the retrieval rate by
relocating related files so that they reside in
adjoining areas on a disk.
File compression • Reduces file sizes by approximately 80 percent
without damaging or changing data.
Accessibility utilities • Make computing easier for individuals with
disabilities.
• Accessibility utilities include:
1. Magnifier
2. On-screen keyboard
3. Speech recognition
4. Narrator
System update • Update utility.
• Downloads and installs OS service packs, version
upgrades and security updates.
Table 2.5 Operating system utilities

Categories of OS
There are three categories of OS as shown in Table 2.6.
Category Examples
Stand-alone OSs used by single DOS (Disk Operating System) for the
users original IBM PC.
Windows (3.x, 95, 98, 2000 Professional,
ME, XP, Vista, 7, 10), MAC OS X, Unix,
Linux
Server OSs used in client/server Windows (NT Server, 2000 Server, Server
network environments 2003, Server 2008), Unix, Linux, Novell
Netware, Solaris, Red Hat Enterprise
Server
Embedded OSs found on ROM Windows CE (variations are Windows
chips in portable or dedicated Mobile, Pocket PC), iOS, Palm OS,
devices BlackBerry OS, Embedded Linux,
Google Android, Symbian OS
Table 2.6 Categories of OS
Activity 2.2
Form a group of 2 or 3 students and do the following activities:
1. Compare the Windows OS and the MacOS.
2. List the system utilities in the Windows OS and the MacOS.

State if there are any differences.
3. State which of the following OSs you prefer: Linux, Unix,

MacOS or Windows. Explain why you prefer it.

Application software: Tools for productivity
Application software was developed to assist users to be more productive.
Various kinds of application software are available to perform tasks using
computers. To enable users to complete everyday tasks, general-purpose
application software such as graphics software, media software, Internet-
based software, productivity programs and education programs are
needed. We will briefly describe some of these application programs.
Productivity programs
Productivity programs make your work easier because each of them

specialises in a certain task. Examples of productivity programs are word-
processing software, spreadsheets, database software, presentation
software, project management software and personal information
management software. Table 2.7 lists some of the productivity programs
that are available.
Category of
productivity Programs Developers Purposes
program
Word Pages, Apple, Corel, Format, create and
processing WordPerfect, Google, Microsoft produce reports
Documents, Word and documents
Spreadsheet Numbers, Quattro Apple, Corel, Insert and work
Pro, Spreadsheets, Google, Microsoft with figures by
Excel using formulas
Database FileMaker Pro, Apple, Corel, Administer and
Paradox, Access Microsoft link data among
correlated tables
to create queries,
forms and reports
Presentation Keynote, Slides, Apple, Google, Produce
PowerPoint Microsoft presentation slide
shows

Category of
productivity Programs Developers Purposes
program
Project Project, Tenrox Microsoft, Tenrox Administer and
management plan resources
between various
projects
Personal Calendar, Lotus Google, IBM, Save e-mails,
information Organiser, Outlook, Microsoft, Palm contact lists,
manager Desktop schedules and
appointment
calendars
Table 2.7 Productivity programs
The Microsoft Office productivity suite falls under the category of

productivity programs. The latest Microsoft Office programs have the
following features:
1. Office button changed to File tab on ribbon
2. Allows customisation of the ribbon
3. A live preview for the paste clipboard
4. The ability to capture and include screenshots in documents
5. Improved multimedia editing such as video cutting, removing

backgrounds and recording a slide show as a video

6. Office Web applications:
• Free online companions to Word, Excel, PowerPoint and

OneNote
• Real-time “buddy list” identifies who is currently editing a

document
7. Stronger security settings for working on collaborative projects
Figure 2.41 shows several Microsoft Office programs.
Figure 2.41 Examples of Microsoft Office programs

Microsoft Office programs share an interface that has similar features as
Microsoft’s Windows OS. The following are the features of the shared
interface:
1. Application window and application workspace
2. Document
3. Title bar, window control buttons: minimise, restore down/

maximise, close
4. Window border, status bar, scroll bars and scroll arrows
5. Ribbon, tab and contextual tab
6. Group and Quick Access Toolbar
Media and graphics software
Media software is used to present information in the form of pictures,

sound and video. Multimedia and graphics software enable users to do
professional desktop publishing, multimedia authoring, drawing, painting,
animation, image editing, 3D rendering, computer-aided design, and
audio and video editing.
Compression and decompression software also fall under the category

of multimedia and graphics software. A codec or compression/
decompression program is a special computer program which reduces
the size of computer files. It reduces file transfer time over the Internet
and the required storage space. There are two types of compression:
1. Lossless compression — maintains the original data after a

compressed file is decompressed. It does not delete any of the
data. It is used for compressing executable files and image
files.

2. Lossy compression — eliminates unnecessary data from the
original file. After decompression, users will not realise that
some information has been deleted from the original file. An
MP3 file is an example of a lossy compressed file.
The following are examples of media and graphics software:
1. Microsoft Windows Media Player uses the Windows Media

Video (WMV) and Windows Media Audio (WMA) file formats
to play video and audio, respectively. It also supports other
file formats such as MP3, WAV, MP4, AAC and AVCHD.
2. Desktop publishing programs such as Adobe InDesign are

available if you need to design catalogues, newsletters and
brochures on PCs.
3. Painting or drawing programs such as Adobe Illustrator are

used to create graphics. They are usually used to create
bitmapped or raster images that are made up of tiny dots
known as pixels. They can also create vector graphics which
can be edited and resized without distortion unlike raster
graphics which are distorted when manipulated (Figure 2.42).
The following are the standard image file formats that are
used in painting programs:
a. Graphical Interchange Format (GIF) uses lossless

compression for simple images. It is frequently used in
Web pages.
b. Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) uses lossy

compression for composite images. It is also used in
Web pages.

c. Portable Network Graphic (PNG) is a patent-free
alternative to GIF. It uses lossless compression and is
suitable for Web use only.
d. Bitmapped graphics (BMP) files tend to be large because

compression is optional.
e. Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) includes descriptive

information with an image. It is used in publishing.
f. Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) is a vector image format

for 2D graphics.
Figure 2.42 A comparison between raster and vector graphics

This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
ShareAlike 2.5 Generic license.
4. Image editors such as Adobe Photoshop are advanced painting

programs. Image editors can modify complex bitmapped
images, including photographs.
5. Animation programs such as Blender and Autodesk Maya can

produce and run animation.

6. Three-dimensional (3D) rendering programs such as
RenderMan produce graphics objects that have three-
dimensional effects mainly for films. Computer-aided design
(CAD) software capable of 3D rendering is also used by
engineers and scientists for object visualisation and simulation.
7. Multimedia authoring systems are used to create multimedia

presentations. Authoring tools like Dreamweaver and Flash
are also used to develop dynamic Web pages.
8. Audio software is used to capture and process sound used in

multimedia presentations. The standard sound file formats used
by audio software are MP3, Windows Media Audio (WMA), WAV,
Ogg Vorbis and Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI).
9. Video editors enable users to modify digitised videos and save

them in the following formats: MPEG (Moving Picture Experts
Group), QuickTime and Video for Windows.
Internet-based software
Web-hosted software technology allows us to share files and collaborate

using applications such as Windows Live and Google Docs. It also helps
us to avoid file incompatibility.
Home and educational programs
There is a variety of home and educational programs available such

as personal finance and tax software, interior design and landscaping
software, digital reference software, and computer games.

Tailor-made applications
These applications are specially designed for users based on their specific
needs. They often cost more than general-purpose applications because
of their development costs. Tailor-made or custom software is made
based on the explicit requirements of an individual or a business. For
example, if you are an engineer, you may hire a programmer to develop a
custom software programme for your simulation needs. Custom software
differs from packaged software such as Microsoft Office, which is usually
general-purpose.
Summary
In this section, we looked at system and application software.

System software controls the operations of a computer and
enables users to interact with it. The OS is the main example of
system software. A description of the various roles of the OS was
provided in this section. The computer booting process was also
discussed. Application software enables users to be productive
in various tasks. There are general-purpose application software
and tailor-made application software.
Self-test 2.2
1. State the five basic functions of an OS.
2. List the six steps in booting a computer system.
3. Compare custom software and packaged software.

Suggested answer to activity
Feedback
Activity 2.2
Since this is a group discussion activity, answers will vary. Those

of you who have used various OSs can share your experiences
with your classmates. Alternatively, you can discuss your findings
from various sources such as the Web, books and magazines.

2.3 Developments in Mobile
Technology
Objectives
1. Describe the various types of mobile phones.
2. Identify the three different types of mobile phone

applications.
3. Compare the three different types of mobile phone

applications.
Introduction
Mobile technology is more significant than ever before because many
people prefer to use their mobile phones than their laptops or PCs to
perform various tasks. Mobile technology enables people to access
the Internet through mobile devices no matter where they are. Mobile
devices are used for social media purposes and for electronic commerce
transactions. Mobile technology has also begun to replace television
and radio because it allows people to watch movies and listen to music
while they are travelling.
This section briefly discusses the evolution of mobile phones. Three

different types of mobile phone applications (apps) will also be described.

The evolution of mobile phones
The first mobile phone was invented by Motorola researcher and
executive Martin Cooper in 1973. The world’s first cellular mobile phone
call happened when Cooper placed a call to Joel S. Engel of AT&T Bell
Labs from a prototype handheld mobile phone (Figure 2.43). The weight
of the prototype was 1.1 kg and it was 23 cm long, 13 cm thick and
4.45 cm wide. It took 10 hours to re-charge and had a talk time of only
30 minutes.
Figure 2.43 Martin Cooper with his 1973 prototype handheld mobile phone
in 2007
Unported license.
In 1983, Cooper’s prototype handheld mobile phone became the world’s

first commercial mobile phone (or cell phone) under the name Motorola
DynaTAC 8000x. Two companies competed against each other to
develop this new communication method, namely, AT&T and Motorola.

Unfortunately, AT&T was stuck with the idea of having a cell phone in a
car. Meanwhile, Cooper researched how to communicate wirelessly from
anywhere and successfully developed the DynaTAC. In 1989, Motorola
launched the first flip-down mobile phone, the MicroTAC 9800x (Figure
2.44), which was far smaller than the original DynaTAC.
Figure 2.44 Motorola MicroTAC 9800x flip-down mobile phone

The first mobile phone to have a touchscreen and also the first to have
feature apps was the IBM Simon Personal Communicator. It was released
in 1994 but its phone feature only worked in 15 American states.
Figure 2.45 IBM Simon Personal Communicator


The original slider phone, the Nokia 8110, was launched in 1996 (Figure
2.46). In the same year, Motorola marketed its StarTAC, which was the
first flip phone (or clamshell phone). Nokia also started the mobile gaming
revolution. The legendary Snake video game was initially included in the
Nokia 5110, which was launched in 1998.
Mobile phone with

Slider mobile phone Flip mobile phone
game
(Nokia 8110) (StarTAC)
(Nokia 5110)
Figure 2.46 Revolutionary mobile phones

Unported license.
In 1998, the first 3G networks were launched and in the following year,
the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) was made available for mobile
devices. Blackberry’s business phone empire began in 2000 when the
Blackberry 857 that supported Web browsing and email was introduced.
The Samsung SCH-V200, released in 2000, had a built-in camera but
users had to plug it into a computer to see the photos it took; thus, it was
not a true camera phone. It is claimed that the world’s first true camera
phone was the Sharp J-SH04, which was first sold in 2000. However,
it was only available in Japan. The first camera phone available in the
US was the Sanyo SCP-5300 (in 2002). It allowed users to view photos
on-screen.

Many of us have probably used or owned a Nokia 1100 (Figure 2.47),
launched in 2003. It is currently still the best-selling mobile phone of all
time, with 250 million units sold. This particular mobile phone was a basic
phone aimed at connecting people in developing countries.
Figure 2.47 Nokia 1100

Unported license.
The Casio G’zOne (2005) was a chunky flip phone with a 1.3 megapixel
camera; it was the first waterproof phone. In 2005, Android Inc., the
company that created the Android mobile OS, was acquired by Google.
This was done to show that Google was serious about developing mobile
technology. While Google was busy with its Android, Apple was working
hard to launch its first smartphone, which had features such as a finger-
input touchscreen, no keyboard, an intuitive interface and apps. When
the Apple iPhone went on sale in 2007, it revolutionised the mobile phone
world (Figure 2.48). In the same year, Google released its Android OS for
free development and use.

Figure 2.48 The original Apple iPhone
Generic license.
The first Android phone, the T-Mobile G1 (also called the HTC Dream),
was introduced in 2008 but it had limited touchscreen capabilities and
included a slide-out keyboard (Figure 2.49). In the same year, the Apple
App Store was launched featuring 552 apps, 135 of which were available
for free. In 2009, the WhatsApp instant messaging service, which is
hugely popular now, was launched on the Apple App Store.

Figure 2.49 T-Mobile G1 (HTC Dream)
Unported license.
Motorola launched what was then the world’s thinnest (7.1mm thick)
mobile phone in 2011. In the same year, Samsung became the leading
smartphone vendor in the world. In 2012, five years after the original
iPhone went on sale, the iPhone 5 was released (Figure 2.50). The Candy
Crush game was launched on iOS in the same year. In 2013, Apple started
selling the iPhone 5S, which featured a fingerprint authentication sensor.
Apple also revamped its mobile OS with the release of iOS 7 in that year.
In 2014, Samsung’s Android-based Galaxy S5 smartphone featuring

a 5.1-inch Super AMOLED display was introduced. This mobile phone
also had a fingerprint sensor, a 16-megapixel primary camera and a
2-megapixel secondary camera. The LG G Flex 2 smartphone was
launched in 2015 featuring a 5.5-inch full HD P-OLED (Polymer —
Organic Light-Emitting Diode) screen, a 13-megapixel rear camera and
a Qualcomm Snapdragon processor.

Figure 2.50 Apple iPhone 5
Unported license.
We have indeed come a long way since the introduction of the first
commercial mobile phone in 1983. A compressed summary of the evolution
of mobile phones (by year, model and manufacturers) is given in the
graphic below (adapted from: http://www.computersciencedegreehub.
com/cell-phone/).

Types of mobile applications
There are many different types of user-friendly mobile applications or
apps available in the market today. For instance, there are chat apps,
games, video conferencing and health check apps. We can divide these
apps into three different categories: native app, web app and hybrid
app. You can find native and hybrid apps in the app stores, whereas
web apps are mobile-optimised Web pages which resemble apps.
Hybrid and web apps both render HTML Web pages but hybrid apps
use app-embedded browsers to do it.
Native apps
Smartphone apps are native mobile apps that are coded using the
Objective-C programming language for iOS or Java for Android. Such
apps perform faster, provide a high degree of reliability and are able to
access your phone’s address book and camera. Furthermore, users
are able to access certain native apps without an Internet connection
(offline). To develop this type of app is costly because it is dependent
on one type of OS. This forces companies that create such apps
to produce multiple versions to cater to the various OS platforms.
Nevertheless, most video games for mobile devices are native apps.
Native apps are installed from an app store such as Google Play or Apple
App Store.
Mobile web apps
Mobile web apps are actually websites which look like native applications.
However, the implementation of these apps is not the same as that of
native apps. Mobile web apps operate in a browser and are typically
written in HTML5, JavaScript and CSS (Cascading Style Sheets). You
can access these apps in the same way you access a Web page using a
URL (Uniform Resource Locator). You have the option of “installing” them
on your smartphone home screen as a bookmark. Mobile web apps can

perform reasonably well in any mobile Web browser, from full-featured
browsers to the mid-range browsers on Blackberry phones. These apps
use “open Web” technologies, so the cost of developing them is lower.
Mobile web apps can only be distributed via the Web and not through
app stores. Their performance does not match that of native apps.
Hybrid apps
Hybrid apps are a combination of native apps and web apps. These
apps are available in app stores and take advantage of mobile device
features. Hybrid apps are built using Web technologies such as HTML,
CSS and JavaScript. Companies often develop hybrid apps as a cover
for their Web page. This is a technique for obtaining a presence in an
app store without expending a lot of effort on developing a separate app.
The cross-platform development of hybrid apps reduces development
cost, and this makes hybrid apps popular. Developers can use tools
like PhoneGap and Sencha Touch to design and code across platforms
using HTML. Hybrid apps run in WebView (a simplfied browser) and
are able to access the camera, accelerometer and other devices on a
smartphone.
Native, mobile web and hybrid apps each have their strengths and
weaknesses and the choice to use which type of app will depend
almost entirely on business needs. The apps that provide greater
product experience on mobile devices are the native and hybrid apps.
Unfortunately, these apps are more expensive to develop than web
apps.

Activity 2.3
In this activity, you are required to search the Web for the following
and then to describe them:
1. Facebook Snapchat clone
2. Citizen crime tracking app
3. Sephora’s Virtual Artist app
4. Latest features of Google Maps
5. Instagram’s new feature
Summary
This section gave you a brief history of mobile phones. Mobile

phones have advanced rapidly; they are now not only for making
calls — they can be used to browse the Internet, watch movies,
listen to music, conduct video-conferencing, and take photographs
and videos. Current smartphones run mobile apps which you can
download from app stores, such as the Apple App Store. This
section also gave you a brief description of the various types of
mobile apps that are available.

Self-test 2.3
State whether each of the following statements is true or false.
1. Joel S. Engel made the first mobile telephone call using a

handheld device.
2. The world’s first commercial mobile phone was the Motorola

DynaTAC 8000x.
3. The first mobile phone that featured a touch screen and apps
was the IBM Simon.
4. The legendary Snake video game was launched with the

Motorola StarTAC.
5. The first Android phone was called the G1 and it had limited
touchscreen capabilities.
6. Nokia released the first personal digital assistant device in

1993.
7. Samsung overtook Nokia and became the world’s leading

manufacturer of mobile phones in 2013.
8. A smartphone app is a native mobile app that is coded using

Objective-C for iOS or Java for Android.
9. Native apps cannot be installed from an app store such as

the Apple App Store or Google Play.
10. Mobile web apps operate in a browser and are written in

HTML5.

Feedback
Activity 2.3
You are required to go to the following Web page to find out more
about the apps listed in this activity:
http://www.businessinsider.com/best-new-apps-updates-
march-2017-3/

2.4 Computer Security and
Reliability
Objectives
1. Define computer security.
2. Explain the different types of computer security.
3. Describe the various types of computer hackers.
4. List the different types of computer attacks.
5. Suggest ways to protect computers from security

breaches.
Introduction
You use your computer to access services like banking, online shopping,
email and online chat. You do not want a third-party to access your
computer and use it to read your email, access your private information
or to attack someone else’s computer. For that reason, you must
understand and be aware of computer security. Computer security
involves procedures to prohibit and detect unauthorised access to your
computer. This section explains various types of computer security,
attacks and hackers. It also looks at methods to protect computers from
attacks.

Computer security concepts
Computer security involves procedures to prohibit and detect
unauthorised access to your computer. Prohibition procedures assist
you in preventing intruders from accessing any part of your computer
system. Detection procedures assist you in concluding whether anyone
has gained access to your system and, if someone has, what he or she
has done to the system. Apart from computer security, there is also data
security. You need to protect your data from corruption and unauthorised
access. The main reasons for data security are to safeguard your
privacy and to protect corporate and personal information. As a whole,
information technology security is the process of guarding computers,
programs, networks and data from unintended or unauthorised access
and destruction.
There are several reasons why you should care about computer security.
We now depend on computers for almost everything including shopping,
investing, banking and communicating. The government, military,
hospitals and businesses compile and store an enormous amount of
confidential data on computers daily. All this data is transmitted across
networks to other computers. With the rising sophistication of computer
network attackers, we need constant vigilance to protect this data.
There are also intruders such as hackers, attackers or crackers who are
interested in gaining control of computers to attack other computers.
For instance, controlling and using your computer enables hackers to
hide their actual location when they launch their attacks.
The following are the goals of computer security:
1. Integrity
a. Affirms that information is authentic and fulfils requirements.
b. Integrity is the principle of protecting information against

improper modification.

2. Confidentiality
a. Only authorised people should be able to access

information.
b. Confidentiality is the principle of protecting information

from disclosure to unauthorised people.
3. Availability
a. Affirms that the system that is responsible for storing,

delivering and processing information is available
whenever required.
The following are the main concepts in computer security:
1. Passive attacks acquire or exploit information from a computer

system without affecting system resources.
2. Active attacks modify or create false data streams. There are

four kinds of active attacks: masquerade, replay, modification
of messages and denial of service.
3. A computer security risk is any event that leads to loss of data

or damage to computer software, hardware or processing
capability.
4. A cracker is someone with extensive computer knowledge

who accesses a computer or network illegally to wipe out
data, steal information or perform other malicious actions.
5. A cyber terrorist conducts acts of terror for a political cause

by using the Internet or networks.

6. A rootkit is a program which is concealed in a computer and
allows someone to take control of the computer from a remote
location.
Types of computer security and hackers

The following are the three types of computer security:
1. Network security
A network administrator implements policies and procedures

for the purpose of avoiding and keeping track of unauthorised
access, modification, exploitation, or denial of a network and
its resources. Effective network security is aimed at prohibiting
various kinds of threats from entering or spreading on a
network.
2. Software security
The aim of software security is to protect software from

malicious attack and other hacker activities. Although there
are potential hazards, software security ensures that software
will continue to function accurately.
3. Physical security
The goal of physical security is to protect information technology

(IT) assets such as equipment, facilities, personnel, resources
and other assets from destruction and unauthorised physical
access. Physical security procedures are put in place to defend
these assets from physical threats as well as from theft, fire,
vandalism and natural disasters.

A person who seeks and exploits weaknesses in a computer system or
network is a hacker. There are various reasons why hackers are motivated
to hack a computer system; it could be for profit, protest, challenge or
enjoyment. The following are the types of computer hackers:
1. White hat hacker
White hat hackers are computer security experts who hack

into secured systems and networks to examine and measure
their security. They use their expertise to enhance security by
finding weaknesses before malicious hackers (called black hat
hackers) manage to expose and exploit them. These hackers
usually have an organisation’s permission to make use of
the methods of malicious hackers against the organisation’s
computer systems or networks.
2. Black hat hacker
Black hat hackers are computer experts who attempt to

discover weaknesses in computer security in order to exploit
them for financial or malicious motives. This type of hacker
can cause massive damage to organisations and individual
computer users by stealing personal financial data, modifying
the security of computer systems, and shutting down or altering
websites and networks.
3. Gray hat hacker
Gray hat hackers breach ethical standards or principles but do

not have the malicious motives of black hat hackers. Although
these hackers might be involved in practices which seem
illegal, they are usually operating for the common good. They
represent the middle ground between white hat hackers and
black hat hackers.

Various types of computer attacks
A computer attack is an effort to damage or disable a computer or
computer network, or to damage, reveal, amend, acquire unauthorised
access to, or cause unauthorised use of the resources in a computer or
computer network.
The following are several types of computer attacks:
1. Denial-of-Service (DoS) attack
In a DoS attack, attackers try to prohibit legitimate users

from obtaining a computer service. The DoS attack sends
frequent massive messages requesting a server or network
to authenticate requests which have invalid return addresses.
The server or network is unable to find the return address of
the attacker when transmitting the authentication approval, so
the server holds the connection for some time before closing
it. The moment the server connection is closed, the attackers
direct more authentication messages with invalid addresses to
it. Thus, the waiting process repeats and this causes the server
or network to be continuously busy and unable to provide
effective service to legitimate users.
2. Smurf attack
A smurf attack is a kind of DoS attack which burdens a

targeted system with many fake ping messages. The victim’s
computer network is burdened with an extraordinary amount
of online traffic and becomes unresponsive. A smurf attack
makes use of the Internet Protocol (IP) and Internet Control
Message Protocol (ICMP). Network administrators apply ICMP
to exchange information regarding the state of a network and
to ping a network node to verify its status. However, a smurf
program transmits a large number of spoofed (i.e., fake IP

address) network packets which consist of an ICMP ping
message to the victim’s IP address. The massive number of
pings followed by the subsequent echoes causes the network
to become unavailable to real users.
3. Man-in-the-middle attack
Eavesdropping is a standard technique used by many attackers.

They monitor and modify communications between two users
and so are categorised as man-in-the-middle (MITM) attackers.
They eavesdrop to hijack an original message, replace it with
their own message and retransmit it to the receiver. The actual
message sender is unaware that a “middleman” has modified the
original message and retransmitted it to the unknowing receiver.
4. Packet sniffing
Some attackers capture data packets that are flowing across

a computer network by using software called packet sniffers.
This method of attack is called packet sniffing and allows
attackers to illegally gather information about networks they
intend to break into. The attackers will be able to intrude into
a network effortlessly as the packet sniffers can capture IP
addresses, passwords, protocols used on the network and
various other details.
5. DNS hijacking
Internet users are sometimes unaware that they have been

redirected to some other server during an Internet session
by DNS (Domain Name Server) hijackers. DNS hijacking uses
rogue DNS servers or changes IP addresses to redirect users
to fake websites.

6. Phishing
Many email users unknowingly visit fake websites when

they click on links in emails from attackers who are using
the phishing technique. A phishing attack attempts to obtain
confidential data such as usernames, passwords, credit card
numbers and personal identification data. Phishing attackers
use social engineering methods and computer programming
expertise to trick users.
7. SQL injection attack
An SQL injection attack uses a website’s interface to “inject”

SQL commands into an online database to obtain data stored
in the database, such as usernames and passwords. SQL
commands can be injected into inadequately coded websites
and web apps. For instance, attackers can use a website’s
login form to obtain access to the data stored in the website’s
database.
8. Dictionary attack
Dictionary attackers systematically enter every word that is

found in a dictionary as a password to break into a password-
protected computer system. Since most users employ common
words as passwords, dictionary attackers use a program to
enter the words in a dictionary into a computer system’s login
screen in a brute-force attempt to find the correct password.
Besides the various types of attacks, there are also various kinds of
computer viruses. A computer virus is a piece of code or program which
is inserted into your computer without your knowledge and permission
to do something, usually malicious, when it executes. Viruses can also

replicate themselves. Every computer virus is man-made. Computer
viruses and other malware such as worms and Trojan horses perform
different functions, but all of them can damage your computer.
By design, a computer worm is like a virus and is treated as a sub-class

of virus. A worm spreads from computer to computer through networks
without the need for any human action. A worm clones itself on a system
and transmits the clones to other computers, creating a massive, dreadful
effect.
A Trojan horse appears to be harmless software. It is usually disguised

as an innocent-looking attachment file in an email or as a free program
(e.g., a game). Once the attachment or program is downloaded and run,
the Trojan horse executes malicious code on your computer to carry out
tasks specified by its creator. Some Trojans are designed to change your
computer desktop, add unwanted desktop icons, wipe information on
your system and delete files. Trojan horses are well-known for creating
backdoors on infected computers which allow confidential or personal
data to be accessed by malicious attackers. Trojans do not clone
themselves or infect other files.
The following are several types of computer viruses:
1. Creeper virus
The Creeper virus was an experimental self-duplicating

program created in 1971 by Bob Thomas for demonstrating a
mobile application, and not for causing damage. Nevertheless,
it corrupted DEC PDP-10 computers which ran on the TENEX
OS by meddling with installed printers and showing messages
such as “I’m the creeper, catch me if you can!” This virus
replicated itself by removing older versions. It is commonly
believed to be the first computer virus.

2. Boot sector virus
A boot sector virus infects the master boot record of storage

devices and non-bootable media. It copies its code to a hard
disk’s partition table or a floppy disk’s boot sector. This virus
loads into memory during the start-up process and infects
disks. Fortunately, boot sector virus infections have reduced a
lot since floppy disks became obsolete and strict boot-sector
precautions made it tough for the virus to infect operating
systems.
3. Virus hoax
Many people are tricked by emails which warn them about a

virus, worm or other malware and insist that they forward the
“warning” to other people. This is a technique used by virus
hoaxers. Hoax e-mails appear to be from a legitimate source
and usually encourage recipients to delete necessary files from
their computer or to download a virus-infected attachment.
For example, a virus hoax email circulated in 2006 claimed
that an email attachment file named “Invitation” contained
an “Olympic torch” which would burn the hard drive on a
recipient’s computer if it was opened.
4. Polymorphic virus
A polymorphic virus is designed to avoid detection by a virus

scanner. When it infects a computer it replicates itself, but
each new copy is slightly different so that virus scanners are
fooled. Every copy also has various forms of encryption and it
is difficult for virus scanners to detect and remove it from the
infected computer system. To detect and remove such a virus,
brute-force scanner programs need to be written.

5. Cluster virus
A cluster virus infects a computer by changing directory table

entries and ensuring that when the computer starts it executes
the cluster virus first. Although a cluster virus is located in one
place on an infected system, it appears as if every program on
the system is infected.
6. Stealth virus
A stealth virus uses various techniques to evade detection by

antivirus software. It hides in files, partitions and boot sectors
or temporarily removes itself from an infected file and hides in
another location on the hard drive to evade detection by virus
scanners. It can also hide the actual size of a file in which it is
concealed.
Activity 2.4
There are many types of malware programs which can harm your
computer, such as worms, viruses and Trojans. List and explain
at least three recent Trojan programs by doing a Web search.
Methods to protect computers

The following are methods to protect your computer from being hacked
or infected by a virus or other malware:
1. Get the latest anti-virus software and update it frequently. The

software should be updated as per the instructions of the
developer.

2. Download files only from trusted sites. Do not open any
downloads from unknown sources. Refrain from downloading
attachments that have the “.exe” suffix because they are
executable files that are frequently used to transmit Trojan
horses, viruses and worms. Always perform a virus scan
before opening an email attachment.
3. Perform a full backup of your computer system regularly.

Apply the grandfather-father-son principle in backing up your
system.
4. Install a host-based and personal firewall software program

which analyses and controls incoming and outgoing network
packets.
5. Always perform a virus scan when a new peripheral device is

connected to your computer.
6. Use disk encryption to encrypt your disks. Use Public Key

Infrastructure (PKI).
7. Conceal data within other data by using a steganography

program.
8. Use passwords and biometrics to prevent unauthorised

access to your computer.
There are other methods and precautions which can be used to protect
your computer. For instance, many of us like to play computer games
which might not be legitimate copies and thus use game cracks and
keygens to install them. Be aware that game cracks and keygens can
contain Trojans. In addition, prevent your Web browser from running
programs like Word through email programs because Word and other
programs similar to it can run macros. Some macros can be viruses. Set
up your browser to open attachments in WordPad or Notepad instead.

Summary
This section covered computer security concepts and goals. Three

types of computer security were discussed, namely, network,
software and physical security. Three types of computer hackers
— white hat, black hat and gray hat — were described. In addition,
various kinds of attacks on computer systems were listed.
Computer viruses, worms and Trojan horses were differentiated
and several types of virus were described. This section ended
with a brief discussion on how to protect your computers from
the various types of malware and threats.
Self-test 2.4
1. Which type of attack tries to acquire or use information from

a computer system without affecting system resources?
A. Active
B. Passive
C. Rootkit
D. Cracker
2. Which type of hacker attempts to discover computer security

vulnerabilities and exploit them for his or her own financial gain?
A. Red hat hacker

B. White hat hacker
C. Gray hat hacker
D. Black hat hacker

3. Which type of attack prevents legitimate users from accessing
a computer service?
A. Denial-of-service
B. Smurf
C. Main-in-the-middle
D. Packet sniffing
4. Who uses the eavesdropping technique?
A. Packet sniffing
B. Man-in-the-middle
C. DNS hijacking
D. Phishing
5. How does an SQL injection attack obtain stored database

information?
A. Uses the Microsoft Access interface to dispense SQL

commands
B. Uses the server interface to dispense SQL commands
C. Uses the Microsoft Excel interface to dispense SQL
commands
D. Uses the website interface to dispense SQL commands
6. Which of the following changes your computer desktop and

adds unwanted icons?
A. Virus
B. Worm
C. Trojan horse
D. Creeper

7. Which of the following was the first computer virus?
A. Boot sector virus

B. Creeper virus
C. Virus hoax
D. Stealth virus
8. Which virus produces copies of itself that are different to

mislead virus scanners?
A. Virus hoax
B. Cluster virus
C. Stealth virus
D. Polymorphic virus
9. The ____________ virus hides by covering up the size of the

file that it is concealed in.
A. stealth
B. Creeper
C. boot sector
D. cluster
10. Which of the following is not a method to protect a computer?
A. Get the latest anti-virus software

B. Open unknown source downloads
C. Apply the grandfather-father-son principle in performing
backups
D. Use a steganography program to hide data

Feedback
Activity 2.4
You may list and explain any new Trojan programs based on your
Web search. The following are examples of Trojans:
1. Clampi is a Trojan program which attacks a computer

through an open Internet port.
2. Kido consists of a series of programs which begins to

execute on an infected computer without the user’s
consent.
There are also other Trojan programs such as FakeAv and

Redirector.U.

Summary of Unit 2
Summary
This first section of this unit showed you how to differentiate

between hardware and software, and described various input,
output and storage devices.
The second section explained the difference between system

software and application software.
The third section discussed the evolution and history of mobile

phones. Various types of mobile apps were also described.
The fourth section discussed various types of computer security,

attacks, hackers and malware. It also briefly described the
methods of protecting computers.

Unit Practice Exercise
1. Describe the five functions of an OS.
2. State the four most popular character codes.
3. Explain the two main parts of a CPU.
4. Discuss the three types of computer security.
5. List at least three methods of protecting computers.

Suggested Answers to Self-tests
Feedback
Self-test 2.1
1. Impact printers function by making physical contact with

an ink ribbon before striking the paper. Non-impact printers
print without striking the paper, so they are quieter and more
efficient than impact printers.
2. A CPU is a set of electronic circuitry which performs program

instructions; it contains a CU (control unit) and an ALU
(arithmetic logic unit).
3. CPU machine cycle:
a. Fetch: The CU fetches an instruction from memory and

places it in the register.
b. Decode: The CU decodes the instruction and decides

which memory location the required data is in. (Steps 1
and 2 are known as instruction time or I-time.)
c. Execute: Data is transferred from memory to registers

in the ALU by the CU. The ALU performs arithmetic or
logic operations on the data.

d. Store: Operation results are stored in memory or a register
by the CU. (Steps 3 and 4 are known as execution time
or E-time.)
Self-test 2.2
1. Starting the computer, managing applications, managing

memory, handling input and output devices, and providing a
user interface.
2. Load the BIOS, perform a power-on-self-test, load the

OS, complete system configuration, load system utilities
and authenticate the user.
3. Custom software is created based on the explicit requirements

of an individual or business. For instance, you may hire a
programmer to develop a custom software program to meet
your home business needs.
Packaged software executes common functions and

features; they are packaged as a set of software programs,
for instance, Microsoft Office.

Self-test 2.3
1. F
2. T
3. T
4. F
5. T
6. F
7. T
8. T
9. F
10. T
Self-test 2.4
1. B
2. D
3. A
4. B

5. D
6. C
7. B
8. D
9. A
10. B

Suggested Answers to
Unit Practice Exercise
Feedback
1. Functions of an OS:
a. Starting the computer: This is the first function of an OS.

The OS is loaded into your computer’s RAM the moment
you start it.
b. Managing applications: Once you start an application,

the CPU loads the application from storage into RAM.
The OS enables multitasking — users can work with two
or more applications simultaneously.
c. Managing memory: If the OS continuously accesses

program instructions from secondary storage such as
the hard disk, this will lower processing performance. To
improve processing performance, the OS requires a
buffer. This buffer is the computer’s memory (i.e., RAM).
It is the responsibility of the OS to manage the memory.
The OS allocates a portion of RAM to every executing
program and ensures that the programs do not use
another program’s portion of memory.
d. Handling input and output: The OS handles communication

through input and output devices.

e. Providing the user interface: The OS provides a user
interface that enables users and programs to
communicate. The user runs application programs,
operates files and disks, and performs an orderly
shutdown procedure by using the user interface.
2. Four character codes: EBCDIC, ASCII, Extended ASCII and

Unicode
3. The two main parts of a CPU are:
a. CU (Control unit) — Circuitry which supervises the

whole computer system in carrying out and storing
program instructions.
b. ALU (Arithmetic and logic unit) — The arithmetic unit

carries out four kinds of operations, namely, addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. The logic
unit assesses letters, special characters or numbers
and conditions (greater than, equal to or less than).
4. The three types of computer security are:
a. Network security — A network administrator implements

policies and procedures to avoid and to keep track of
unauthorised access, modification, exploitation or denial
of the network and its resources. Effective network
security aims at various kinds of threats and prohibits
them from entering or spreading on the network.

b. Software security — The aim of software security is to
protect software from malicious attack. Although there
will be potential hazards, software security ensures that
software will continue to function properly.
c. Physical security — The aim of physical security is to

protect IT assets such as equipment, facilities, personnel
and resources from damage and unauthorised physical
access. Physical security procedures are put in place
to defend these assets from physical threats as well
as theft, fire, vandalism and natural disasters.
5. Three methods of protecting computers (you can list any

method described in this unit):
a. Get the latest anti-virus software.
b. Do not open any download from an unknown source.
c. Apply the grandfather-father-son principle in performing

backup.

References
Catherine, L (2011) Computers Are Your Future, Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
MCS Test Equipment (2017) 1876 to 2015 — The History of the Mobile
Phone, https://mcs-testequipment.com/story/1876-to-2015-the-history-
of-the-mobile-phone/ (Accessed 14 Aug 2017).
Shelly, G B and Vermaat, M E (2010) Discovering Computers 2011,

Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Glossary
Advanced Technology A physical interface that connects
Attachment (ATA) storage devices inside a computer.
Cathode ray tube (CRT) A vacuum tube, consisting of one or

more electron guns, a phosphor target
and electrostatic deflection plates,
which is located behind the glass
screen of a television or computer
monitor.
Grandfather-father-son A standard rotation system for backup

backup media, in which there are three or more
backup cycles, such as daily, weekly
and monthly.
Plug and play A technology that enables the

computer’s OS to detect and configure
internal and external peripherals
including most adapters.
Serial Advanced Technology An interface to attach hard disk drives

Attachment (SATA) to a host system like a motherboard.
Small Computer Systems A primary interface to attach peripheral

Interface (SCSI) devices to a PC.
Steganography A method of hiding secret messages.
Public Key Infrastructure A collection of policies, procedures

(PKI) and rules required to take charge
of public-key encryption and digital
certificates.

COURSE TEAM
Course Team Coordinator: Ms. Azrina P. Jamal Mydin
Content Writer: Ms. Parasathy C. Daivasigamani
Instructional Designer: Mr. Yeap Hock Aun
Academic Members: Dr. Ooi Chia Yi, Prof. Phalachandran Bhandigadi and Ms. Deehbanjli
Lakshmayya
COURSE COORDINATOR
Ms. Tan Cheng Peng
EXTERNAL COURSE ASSESSOR

Associate Professor Dr. Norhaziah Md. Salleh, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka
PRODUCTION
In-house Editor: Mr. Yeap Hock Aun
Graphic Designer: Ms. Audrey Yeong
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adult learners. It is funded by the Wawasan Education Foundation, a tax-exempt entity established
by the Malaysian People’s Movement Party (Gerakan) and supported by the Yeap Chor Ee Charitable
and Endowment Trusts, other charities, corporations, members of the public and occasional grants
from the Government of Malaysia.
The course material development of the university is funded by Yeap Chor Ee Charitable and
Endowment Trusts.
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WUC 118/03

2.1 Hardware and software: Types and functions 3

Comparison of hardware and software 4

Input, output and storage 6

Inside the system unit 30

Suggested answers to activity 48

2.2 System and application software 49

Application software: Tools for productivity 65

Suggested answers to activity 73

2.3 Developments in mobile technology 74

The evolution of mobile phones 75

Types of mobile applications 83

Suggested answer to activity 87

Computer security concepts 89

Types of security and hackers 91

Various types of computer attacks 93

Methods to protect computers 98

Suggested answer to activity 103

Summary of Unit 2 104

Unit practice exercise 105

Suggested answers to self-tests 106

Suggested answers to unit practice exercise 110

In the second section of this unit, two types of computer software —

Today, almost everyone carries a mobile phone. We cannot seem to live

1 WUC 118/03 Computers in a Networked Society

1. Differentiate between software and hardware.

2. Describe the various types of input, output and storage

3. Explain systems software and application software.

4. Discuss the various types of mobile applications.

5. Describe the various types of computer security and

6. Use spreadsheet and presentation applications.

UNIT 2 Computer technology in action 2

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

1. Distinguish between hardware and software.

2. Identify input, output and storage devices.

3. Explain the tasks performed by the central processing

4. List the components found inside the system unit.

3 WUC 118/03 Computers in a Networked Society

Hardware is any device which can be physically touched and is connected

To perform a task on a computer system you require software, which

A computer can be switched on without software but it would not

A computer consists of multiple interconnected peripherals and devices

UNIT 2 Computer technology in action 4

Figure 2.1 Examples of software and hardware

Table 2.1 provides a summary of hardware and software.

Definition A physical component of a A pool of instructions that

5 WUC 118/03 Computers in a Networked Society

Failure Hardware failure is irregular Software failure is systematic

Table 2.1 Hardware and software

Input, output and storage

UNIT 2 Computer technology in action 6

Figure 2.2 Ergonomic keyboard

7 WUC 118/03 Computers in a Networked Society

• On-screen keyboards that allow you to use a stylus or finger to

• Virtual laser keyboards (Figure 2.3) on devices like smartphones.

Figure 2.3 Virtual laser keyboard

• Flexible keyboards (Figure 2.4) are water resistant and virtually

UNIT 2 Computer technology in action 8

9 WUC 118/03 Computers in a Networked Society

Scroll mouse Trackball mouse

Figure 2.5 Scroll mouse and trackball mouse

There is also an “upside-down” mouse (Figure 2.5). It is referred to as

UNIT 2 Computer technology in action 10