CHAPTER - 1

INTRODUCTION

The issue of calculating the energy saving amount due to regenerative braking implementation in
modern AC and DC drives is of great importance, since it will decide whether this feature is cost
effective. However, as the increase of the electric energy cost at the industrial sector, the need for
advanced energy saving techniques emerged in order to cut down operational costs. To this direction,
this project presents a theoretical, simulation and experimental investigation on the quantization of
energy recovery due to regenerative braking application in industrial rotating loads. Finally, a power
conversion scheme is proposed for the storage/exploitation of the recovered energy amount. Fossil
fuels become each time less abundant and expensive, and with the problems of worldwide pollution,
they also become inadequate to be used in such a large scale. The automotive industry is one of the
biggest spenders of this limited resource. This fact may be changed with the use of electronic
propelling systems, such as the appliance of a three-phase induction motor driven by a controlled
inverter, replacing the internal combustion engine. The objective of this project is to research, design
and implement the most effective regenerative system . The extra energy obtained from braking is
used for light the bulb. Regenerative Braking for an Electric Vehicle Using Ultra capacitors and a
Buck-Boost Converter: An ultra-capacitor bank control system for an Electric Vehicle has been
simulated. The purpose of this device is to allow higher accelerations and decelerations of the vehicle
with minimal loss of energy, and minimal degradation of the main battery pack. The system uses an
IGBT Buck-Boost converter, which is connected to the ultra-capacitor bank at the Boost side, and to
the main battery at the Buck side. The control of the system measures the battery voltage, the battery
state-of-charge, the car speed, the instantaneous currents in both the terminals (load and ultra-
capacitor), and the actual voltage of the ultra-capacitor. This last indication allows to know the
amount of energy stored in the ultra-capacitor. A microcomputer control manipulates all the variables
and generates the PWM switching pattern of the IGBTs. When the car runs at high speeds, the
control keeps the capacitor discharged. If the car is not running, the capacitor bank remains charged
at full voltage. Medium speeds keep the ultra-capacitors at medium voltages, to allow future
accelerations or decelerations. The battery voltage is an indication of the car instantaneous situation.
When the vehicle is accelerating, the battery voltage goes down, which is an indication for the
control to take energy from the ultra-capacitor. In the opposite situation (regenerative braking), the
battery voltage goes up, and then the control needs to activate the Buck converter to store the kinetic
energy of the vehicle inside the ultra-capacitor. The measurement of the currents in both sides allows
to keep the current levels inside maximum ratings. The battery state-of charge is used to change the
voltage level of the ultra-capacitor at particular values. If the battery is fully charged, the voltage
level of the capacitors is kept at lower levels than when the battery is partially discharged. The

1
converter also has an IGBT controlled power resistor, which allows to drop energy when in some
extreme situations cannot be accepted neither for the ultra-capacitors nor for the battery pack. The car
that will be used for future implementation of this experiment is a Chevrolet LUV truck, similar in
shape and size to a Chevrolet S-10. This vehicle was already converted to an electric car at the
Catholic University of Chile. Fully Regenerative braking and Improved Acceleration for Electrical
Vehicles: Generally, car brake systems use hydraulic brake technology, which converts the excess of
kinetic energy into heat, effectively resulting in an energy loss. Regenerative braking technology
focuses on converting this kinetic energy of the decelerating vehicle back into electrical energy that
can then be reused for example during acceleration. Current hybrid vehicles are equipped with such
regenerative braking technology, which makes them particularly interesting for situations with
frequent deceleration, like city traffic. However, the technology used in these vehicles has its
limitations and therefore does not stand on its own, but is always assisted with conventional
hydraulic brakes. This paper looks at removing this limitation and allowing a vehicle to fully rely on
regenerative braking technology to deal with any braking situation ranging from simple slow down to
emergency stops. To enable this, multiple generators with different gear ratios are used. The
additional benefit of this construction is that, by introducing the appropriate control circuit, the
generators can be used as electrical engines. Since these motors are connected with different gear
ratios there is a more consist tent acceleration at any speed. The paper shows that the overall
efficiency of the system is very close to the efficiency of the generators used while achieving braking
performance similar to conventional braking mechanisms. Study on Regenerative Braking of Electric
Vehicle: In this paper, a control scheme for a constant regenerative current is given based on the
analysis of several regenerative braking schemes. The three main control strategies discussed are
maximum regenerative efficiency control, maximum regenerative power control and the constant
regenerative current control. Analysis is performed for two modes, the continuous current mode and
the discrete current mode. Using the above analysis, a formula for regenerative efficiency of a control
scheme is derived. The analysis of the braking system is done to find out two aspects, the electric
loop efficiency and the regenerative energy efficiency. Using the results of the analysis, the paper
concludes that the constant regenerative current control scheme is better than the maximum
regenerative power control scheme and the maximum regenerative efficiency control scheme. Also,
the paper concludes that the used method gives a higher regenerative braking efficiency and better
control performance. Regenerative Braking for Electric Vehicle based on Fuzzy Logic Control
Strategy: In this paper to recycle more energy during regenerative braking, a regenerative braking
force calculation controller is designed based on fuzzy logic. Here, Sugeno's fuzzy logic controller is
used which has 3 inputs and the output is the braking force. The three inputs are vehicle speed;
driver’s braking requirements and the battery’s state of charge. Fuzzy membership functions are
defined for the above inputs and outputs and the output is found out in the range of 0 to 1. Each input
has a membership value of high, medium and low based on which the fuzzy rules are developed. The

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simulations which are carried out show a substantial improvement in energy efficiency of an electric
vehicle. Benchmarking of Regenerative Braking for a Fully Electric Car Short range of electric
vehicles is one of the stumbling blocks in the way of electric cars to gaining wide user acceptance
and becoming a major market player. The possibility to recover vehicle energy otherwise lost as heat
during braking is an inherent advantage of a hybrid electric or a fully electric vehicle. Regeneration
has the potential to answer this problem by aiding in range extension with recuperation of vehicle
energy during braking. The control and dynamics of braking undergoes a major change as compared
to a conventional vehicle with friction braking, due to the addition of motor-generator. In this
research two regenerative braking concepts namely serial and parallel have been studied and
implemented on an electric vehicle. Also a point of interest is to find if any additional states are
required from the TNO Vehicle state estimator (VSE) which would aid in regeneration. From the
results obtained we try to draw a conclusion on the difference in energy recuperation level in the two
strategies with consistent pedal feel in mind. The proposed brake torque distribution strategy has
been tested through the simulation on the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) drive cycle and
straight line braking scenario. Care has been taken to observe and adjust brake torque such that wheel
lock up is prevented and hence regeneration is un-interrupted. The research couldn’t come with any
additional parameters to be added to VSE. However, it would be worthwhile to employ VSE to
achieve a more accurate estimation of the braking force, which may aid in prolonging regeneration
time and hence more energy recuperation. The results provide a good case to invest more time and
money into developing serial regenerative braking as it clearly out-performs parallel regenerative
braking strategy. The simulation tests conducted in this research are for a longitudinal braking
scenario. Further investigation is required to study effects with lateral motion and cornering
manoeuvres. A Flywheel Regenerative Braking System : This thesis presents a flywheel based
mechanical regenerative braking system (RBS) concept for a Formula SAE type race car application,
to improve the performance and/or efficiency of the race car. A mechanical system is chosen to
eliminate losses related to energy conversion while capturing the rotational braking energy. The
Flywheel-Regenerative Braking System (f-RBS) concept consists of a metal flywheel design of
truncated cone geometry for the energy storage system (ESS) component and a V-belt CVT with a
fixed gear for the transmission component of the RBS system. Race car lap data and race car
specifications are used for designing/sizing the components Mathematical models are developed for
design, integration and operation of the f-RBS system. It was observed that a maximum of 27 % of
energy requirements of the race car can be supplied by the f-RBS. Also, a Virtual test rig model is
created using MSC ADAMS, an advanced dynamics/virtual prototyping software, in order to test the
whole f-RBS system for performance, as a preliminary alternative to experimental testing. Initial
testing is performed to validate the regenerative braking principle employed, to establish the actual
operating limits of the virtual test rig and for an initial analysis of performance improvement by
utilization of the f-RBS system.

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1.1 BRAKING SYSTEM

All electric machines have two mechanical operations, motoring and braking. The nature of braking
can be regenerative, where the kinetic energy of the rotor is converted into electricity and sent back to
the power source or non-regenerative, where the source supplies electric power to provide braking.
This project investigates several critical issues related to regenerative braking in both DC and AC
electric machines, including the re generative braking capability region and the evaluation of
operating points within that capability region that result in maximum regenerative braking recharge
current. Electric machines are used in the power trains of electric and hybrid-electric vehicles to
provide motoring or braking torque in response to the driver’s request and power management logic.
Since such vehicles carry a limited amount of electrical energy on-board their energy storage systems
(such as a battery pack), it is important to conserve as much electrical energy as possible in order to
increase the range of travel. Therefore, the concept of regenerative braking is of importance for such
vehicles since operating in this mode during a braking event sends power back to the energy storage
system thereby replenishing its energy level. Since the electric machine assists the mechanical
friction braking system of the vehicle, it results in reduced wear on components within the
mechanical friction brake system. As both mechanical friction braking and electric machine braking
are used to provide the requested vehicle braking torque, braking strategies which relate to splitting
of the braking command between the two braking mechanisms are discussed.

1.2 GENERAL DISCRIPTION

The most common form of regenerative brake involves using an electric motor as an electric
generator. In electric railways the generated electricity is fed back into the supply system. In battery
electric and hybrid electric vehicles, the energy is stored chemically in a battery, electrically in a bank
of capacitors, or mechanically in a rotating flywheel. Hydraulic hybrid vehicles use hydraulic motors
to store energy in form of compressed air Vehicles driven by electric motors use the motor as a
generator when using regenerative braking: it is operated as a generator during braking and its output
is supplied to an electrical load; the transfer of energy to the load provides the braking effect.
Regenerative braking is used on hybrid gas or electric automobiles to recoup some of the energy lost
during stopping. This energy is saved in a storage battery and used later to supply AC power.

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1.3 PROJECT METHODS

This project has various different design paths to complete our product while meeting the majority
objectives. This means we will have to implement and compare our different designs to insure the
best product based on our set of objectives. These paths have changed as we progressed through our
project, and there were a few foreseen methods that we expand upon in the design section. The basic
design for the regenerative braking is to have an induction motor, alternator, rectifier, battery, relay,
step up transformer and load. While an alternator is easier to find and purchase with many
functioning units available in scrap yards, they also tend to be less efficient in the output of DC
power compared to a dynamo. One option is to use two contacting wheels to connect the two
components. There are bound to be various other obstacles and design methods to be implemented as
the project progresses, and will be observed and recorded as they occur.

5
 CHAPTER -2

DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

A simple block diagram of the overall project design is shown in Fig 2.1

PRIME ALT
MOVER ERNATOR ST EP -UP LOAD
T
RANSFORME
R

RECT IFIER

BAT T ERY

Fig 2.1 Block diagram of overall project design

In our project, we consider single phase induction motor as prime mover. Prime mover is directly
coupled with an alternator by using belt and pulley arrangement. Output of the alternator is connected
to a step-up transformer. The transformer step up into 230 V AC supply and this is fed into an
incandescent lamp. While we applying the brake, giving DC supply to rotor. The rotor will produce
flux. Due to the kinetic energy, the rotor will slowly rotate and come to rest. During this time an emf
will produce in the stator winding and fed to the step-up transformer and then fed to the load. The DC
supply is provided with 12 V battery and this battery is charging by using rectified output of
alternator. Three phase diode bridge rectifier is used as rectifier. The relay circuit is used to control the
braking system properly. Here we used a 12 V single pole double throw relay. In an ordinary system,
during braking energy will lost in the form of heat and noise. If we use this system, we can conserve
the energy loss due to braking.

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 2.2 PRIME MOVER

All generators, large and small, ac and dc, require a source of mechanical power to turn their rotors.
This source of mechanical energy is called a prime mover. The type of prime mover plays an
important part in the design of alternators since the speed at which the rotor is turned determines
certain characteristics of alternator construction and operation. Here we use an induction motor as
prime mover for alternator and braking is applied to this motor itself.

2.2.1 BELT AND PULLEY ARRANGMENT

Fig 2.2 Belt and pulley arrangement

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 A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and change of direction
of a cable or belt along its circumference. Pulleys are used in a variety of ways to lift loads, apply
forces, and to transmit power. In nautical contexts, the assembly of wheel, axle, and supporting shell
is referred to as a “block.” A pulley may also be called a sheave or drum and may have a groove
between two flanges around its circumference. The drive element of a pulley system can be a rope,
cable, belt, or chain that runs over the pulley inside the groove. Hero of Alexandria identified the
pulley as one of six simple machines used to lift weights. Pulleys are assembled to form a block and
tackle in order to provide mechanical advantage to apply large forces. Pulleys are also assembled as
part of belt and chain drives in order to transmit power from one rotating shaft to another. Here we use
motor shaft as driver pulley and alternator shaft as driven pulley

2.3 SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

An induction or asynchronous motor is an AC electric motor in which the electric current in the rotor
needed to produce torque is obtained by electromagnetic induction from the magnetic field of the
stator winding. An induction motor therefore does not require mechanical commutation, separate-
excitation or self-excitation for all or part of the energy transferred from stator to rotor, as in
universal, DC and large synchronous motors.

Fig 2.3 Single phase Induction Motor

Like any other electrical motor asynchronous motor also have two main parts namely rotor and stator.
Stator: As its name indicates stator is a stationary part of induction motor. A single phase ac supply is
given to the stator of single phase induction motor.

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Rotor: The rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is connected to the mechanical load
through the shaft. The rotor in single phase induction motor is of squirrel cage rotor type. The
construction of single phase induction motor is almost similar to the squirrel cage three phase motor
except that in case of asynchronous motor the stator have two windings instead of one as compare to
the single stator winding in three phase induction motor.

2.3.1 STATOR OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The stator of the single phase induction motor has laminated stamping to reduce eddy current losses
on its periphery. The slots are provided on its stamping to carry stator or main winding. In order to
reduce the hysteresis losses, stamping are made up of silicon steel. When the stator winding is given
a single phase ac supply, the magnetic field is produced and the motor rotates at a speed slightly less
than the synchronous speed Ns which is given by

The construction of the stator of asynchronous motor is similar to that of three phase induction motor
except there are two dissimilarity in the winding part of the single phase induction motor. Firstly the
single phase induction motors are mostly provided with concentric coils. As the number of turns per
coil can be easily adjusted with the help of concentric coils, the MMF distribution is almost sinusoidal.
Except for shaded pole motor, the asynchronous motor has two stator windings namely the main
winding and the auxiliary winding. These two windings are placed in space quadrature with respect to
each other

2.3.2 ROTOR OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The construction of the rotor of the single phase induction motor is similar to the squirrel cage three
phase induction motor. The rotor is cylindrical in shape and has slots all over its periphery. The slots
are not made parallel to each other but are bit skewed as the skewing prevents magnetic locking of
stator and rotor teeth and makes the working of induction motor more smooth and quieter. The squirrel
cage rotor consists of aluminium, brass or copper bars.
These aluminium or copper bars are called rotor conductors and are placed in the slots on the periphery
of the rotor. The rotor conductors are permanently shorted by the copper or aluminium rings called the
end rings. In order to provide mechanical strength these rotor conductor are braced to the end ring and
hence form a complete closed circuit resembling like a cage and hence got its name as “squirrel cage
induction motor”. As the bars are permanently shorted by end rings, the rotor electrical resistance is
very small and it is not possible to add external resistance as the bars are permanently shorted.

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2.3.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE

When single phase ac supply is given to the stator winding of single phase induction motor, the
alternating current starts flowing through the stator or main winding. This alternating current produces
an alternating flux called main flux. This main flux also links with the rotor conductors and hence cut
the rotor conductors. According to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, emf gets induced
in the rotor. As the rotor circuit is closed one so, the current starts flowing in the rotor. This current is
called the rotor current. This rotor current produces its own flux called rotor flux. Since this flux is
produced due to induction principle so, the motor working on this principle got its name as induction
motor. Now there are two fluxes one is main flux and another is called rotor flux. These two fluxes
produce the desired torque which is required by the motor to rotate. According to double field
revolving theory, any alternating quantity can be resolved into two components, each component have
magnitude equal to the half of the maximum magnitude of the alternating quantity and both these
component rotates in opposite direction to each other. For example – a flux, φ can be resolved into
two components

Each of these components rotates in opposite direction i.e if one φm/2 is rotating in clockwise
direction then the other φm/2 rotates in anticlockwise direction. When a single phase ac supply is
given to the stator winding of single phase induction motor, it produces its flux of magnitude, φm.
According to the double field revolving theory, this alternating flux, φm is divided into two
components of magnitude φm/2. Each of these components will rotate in opposite direction, with the
synchronous speed, Ns. Let us call these two components of flux as forward component of flux, φf and
backward component of flux, φb. The resultant of these two component of flux at any instant of time,
gives the value of instantaneous stator flux at that particular instant.

Now at starting, both the forward and backward components of flux are exactly opposite to each
other. Also both of these components of flux are equal in magnitude. So, they cancel each other and
hence the net torque experienced by the rotor at starting is zero. So, the single phase induction motors
are not self-starting motors.

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2.3.4 SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR AS SELF STARTING

MOTOR

From the above topic we can easily conclude that the single phase induction motors are not self-starting
because the produced stator flux is alternating in nature and at the starting the two components of this
flux cancel each other and hence there is no net torque. The solution to this problem is that if the stator
flux is made rotating type, rather than alternating type, which rotates in one particular direction only.
Then the induction motor will become self-starting. Now for producing this rotating magnetic field we
require two alternating flux, having some phase difference angle between them. When these two fluxes
interact with each other they will produce a resultant flux. This resultant flux is rotating in nature and
rotates in space in one particular direction only. Once the motor starts running, the additional flux can
be removed. The motor will continue to run under the influence of the main flux only. Depending upon
the methods for making asynchronous motor as Self Starting Motor, there are mainly four types of
single phase induction motor namely,

 Split phase induction motor

 Capacitor start inductor motor

 Capacitor start capacitor run induction moto,

 Shaded pole induction motor

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2.3.5 CAPACITOR START INDUCTION MOTOR

This motor is similar to the three-phase motor except that it has only two windings (a-a′ and b-b′) on
its stator displaced 90° from each other. The a-a′ winding is connected directly to the single-phase
supply. For starting, the b-b′ winding (commonly called the auxiliary winding) is connected through a
capacitor (a device that stores electric charge) to the same supply. The effect of the capacitor is to
make the current entering the winding b-b′ lead the current in a-a′ by approximately 90°, or one-
quarter of a cycle, with the rotor at standstill. Thus, the rotating field and the starting torque are
provided.

Fig 2.4 Internal Diagram of Capacitor Start Induction Motor

As the motor speed approaches its rated value, it is no longer necessary to excite the auxiliary winding
to maintain the rotating field. The currents produced in the rotor squirrel-cage bars as they pass the
winding a-a′ are retained with negligible change as they rotate past the winding b-b′. The rotor can
continue to generate the rotating field with only winding a-a ′connected. The winding b-b′ is usually
disconnected by a centrifugal switch that opens when the speed is about 80 percent of rated value.

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 2.4 ALTERNATOR

An alternator is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy in the
form of alternating current. For reasons of cost and simplicity, most alternators use a rotating
magnetic field with a stationary armature. Occasionally, a linear alternator or a rotating armature
with a stationary magnetic field is used. In principle, any AC electrical generator can be called an
alternator, but usually the term refers to small rotating machines driven by automotive and other
internal combustion engines. An alternator that uses a permanent magnet for its magnetic field is
called a magneto. Alternators in power stations driven by steam turbines are called turbo-alternators.
A conductor moving relative to a magnetic field develops an electromotive force (EMF) in it,
(Faraday's Law). This emf reverses its polarity when it moves under magnetic poles of opposite
polarity. Typically, a rotating magnet, called the rotor turns within a stationary set of conductors
wound in coils on an iron core, called the stator. The field cuts across the conductors, generating an
induced EMF (electromotive force), as the mechanical input causes the rotor to turn. The rotating
magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the stator windings. Since the currents in the stator windings
vary in step with the position of the rotor, an alternator is a synchronous generator. The rotor's
magnetic field may be produced by permanent magnets, or by a field coil electromagnet. Automotive
alternators use a rotor winding which allows control of the alternator's generated voltage by varying
the current in the rotor field winding. Permanent magnet machines avoid the loss due to magnetizing
current in the rotor, but are restricted in size, due to the cost of the magnet material. Since the
permanent magnet field is constant, the terminal voltage varies directly with the speed of the
generator. Brushless AC generators are usually larger machines than those used in automotive
applications.

2.4.1 ALTERNATOR COMPONENTS

A typical rotating-field ac generator consists of an alternator and a smaller dc generator built into a
single unit. The output of the alternator section supplies alternating voltage to the load. The only
purpose for the dc exciter generator is to supply the direct current required to maintain the alternator
field. This dc generator is referred to as the exciter. A typical alternator is shown in figure.

13
 Fig 2. AC generator schematic drawings
Main parts of the alternator obviously consist of stator and rotor. But, the unlike other machines, in
most of the alternators, field exciters are rotating and the armature coil is stationary.
Stator: Unlike in DC machine stator of an alternator is not meant to serve path for magnetic flux.
Instead, the stator is used for holding armature winding. The stator core is made up of lamination of
steel alloys or magnetic iron, to minimize the losses. Armature winding is stationary in an alternator
because;

 At high voltages, it easier to insulate stationary armature winding, which may be as high as
30 kV or more.

 The high voltage output can be directly taken out from the stationary armature. Whereas, for a
rotary armature, there will be large brush contact drop at higher voltages, also the sparking at
the brush surface will occur.

 Field exciter winding is placed in rotor, and the low dc voltage can be transferred safely.

 The armature winding can be braced well, so as to prevent deformation caused by the high
centrifugal force.

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 Rotor: There are two types of rotor used in an AC generator / alternator:

(i) Salient and (ii) Cylindrical type

 Salient pole type: Salient pole type rotor is used in low and medium speed alternators.
Construction of AC generator of salient pole type rotor is shown in the figure above. This
type of rotor consists of large number of projected poles (called salient poles), bolted on a
magnetic wheel. These poles are also laminated to minimize the eddy current losses.
Alternators featuring this type of rotor are large in diameters and short in axial length.

 Cylindrical type: Cylindrical type rotors are used in high speed alternators, especially in turbo
alternators. This type of rotor consists of a smooth and solid steel cylinder having slots along
its outer periphery. Field windings are placed in these slots. The armature is wound for a
three-phase output. Remember, a voltage is induced in a conductor if it is stationary and a
magnetic field is passed across the conductor, the same as if the field is stationary and the
conductor is moved. The alternating voltage in the ac generator armature windings is
connected through fixed terminals to the ac load.

2.5 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Fig 2.6 Alternator with voltage regulator

A voltage regulator circuit for an alternator includes voltage responsive circuitry having a Zener
diode. The regulator will maintain a pre-determined charging system voltage level. When the system
voltage decreases the regulator strengthens the magnetic field and thereby increases the alternator
15
output voltage. When the system voltage increases the regulator weakens the magnetic field and
thereby decreases the alternator output voltage. Zener diodes are especially used on applications with
sensitive electronic components. These can prevent major damage caused by voltage peaks due to
sudden discharges. In 12V systems, Zener diodes with a voltage range 24V - 32V are used and in 28V
systems the range is 36V - 44V. When ac generators are operated in parallel, frequency and voltage
must both be equal. Where a synchronizing force is required to equalize only the voltage between dc
generators, synchronizing forces are required to equalize both voltage and speed (frequency) between
ac generators. On a comparative basis, the synchronizing forces for ac generators are much greater
than for dc generators. When ac generators are of sufficient size and are operating at unequal
frequencies and terminal voltages, serious damage may result if they are suddenly connected to each
other through a common bus. To avoid this, the generators must be synchronized as closely as
possible before connecting them together. The output voltage of an alternator is best controlled by
regulating the voltage output of the dc exciter, which supplies current to the alternator rotor field. This
is accomplished as shown in Fig 2.5, by a Zener diode regulator of a 28 volt system connected in the
field circuit of the exciter. The Zener diode regulator controls the exciter field current and thus
regulates the exciter output voltage applied to the alternator field. The only difference between the dc
system and the ac system is that the voltage coil receives its voltage from the alternator line instead of
the dc generator. In this arrangement, a three phase, step down transformer connected to the alternator
voltage supplies power to a three phase, full wave rectifier. The 28 volt, dc output of the rectifier is
then applied to the Zener diode voltage regulator. Changes in alternator voltage are transferred
through the transformer rectifier unit to the Zener diode. This controls the exciter field current and the
exciter output voltage. The exciter voltage anti-hunting or damping transformer is similar to those in
dc systems and performs the same function. The DC output voltage from the half or full-wave
rectifiers contains ripple superimposed onto the DC voltage and that as the load value changes so too
does the average output voltage. By connecting a simple Zener stabilizer circuit as shown below
across the output of the rectifier, a more stable output voltage can be produced.

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2.5.1 ZENER DIODE REGULATOR

Fig 2.7 Zener Diode Regulator

Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilized voltage output with low ripple under varying load
current conditions. By passing a small current through the diode from a voltage source, via a suitable
current limiting resistor, the Zener diode will conduct sufficient current to maintain a voltage drop of
output voltage. The resistor, RS is connected in series with the Zener diode to limit the current flow
through the diode with the voltage source, VS being connected across the combination. The
stabilized output voltage Vout is taken from across the Zener diode. The Zener diode is connected
with its cathode terminal connected to the positive rail of the DC supply so it is reverse biased and
will be operating in its breakdown condition. Resistor RS is selected so to limit the maximum current
flowing in the circuit. With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, ( IL = 0 ),
and all the circuit current passes through the Zener diode which in turn dissipates its maximum
power. Also a small value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater diode current when the load
resistance RL is connected and large as this will increase the power dissipation requirement of the
diode so care must be taken when selecting the appropriate value of series resistance so that the
Zener’s maximum power rating is not exceeded under this no-load or high-impedance condition.
Load is connected in parallel with the Zener diode, so the voltage across RL is always the same as the
Zener voltage, (VR = VZ). There is a minimum Zener current for which the stabilization of the
voltage is effective and the Zener current must stay above this value operating under load within its
breakdown region at all times. The upper limit of current is of course dependent upon the power
rating of the device. The supply voltage VS must be greater than VZ. One small problem with Zener
diode stabilizer circuits is that the diode can sometimes generate electrical noise on top of the DC
supply as it tries to stabilize the voltage. Normally this is not a problem for most applications but the
addition of a large value decoupling capacitor across the Zener’s output may be required to give
additional smoothing. Then to summarize a little. A Zener diode is always operated in its reverse
biased condition. A voltage regulator circuit can be designed using a Zener diode to maintain a

17
constant DC output voltage across the load in spite of variations in the input voltage or changes in
the load current. The Zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting resistor RS connected in
series with the input voltage VS with the Zener diode connected in parallel with the load RL in this
reverse biased condition. The stabilized output voltage is always selected to be the same as the
breakdown voltage VZ of the diode.

2.6 RECTIFIER

Rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses
direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is known as
rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-
arc valves, copper and selenium oxide rectifiers, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers
and other silicon-based semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous electromechanical
switches and motors have been used. Early radio receivers, called crystal radios, used a "cat's
whisker" of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sulphide) to serve as a point-contact
rectifier or "crystal detector". Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components
of DC power supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems. Rectification may
serve in roles other than to generate direct current for use as a source of power. Because of the
alternating nature of the input AC sine wave, the process of rectification alone produces a DC current
that, though unidirectional, consists of pulses of current. Many applications of rectifiers, such as
power supplies for radio, television and computer equipment, require a steady constant DC current
(as would be produced by a battery). In these applications the output of the rectifier is smoothed by
an electronic filter (usually a capacitor) to produce a steady current. Rectifier circuits may be single-
phase or multi-phase (three being the most common number of phases). Most low power rectifiers
for domestic equipment are single-phase, but three-phase rectification is very important for industrial
applications and for the transmission of energy as DC (HVDC).

18
2.6.1 THREE PHASE DIODE RECTIFIER

Single-phase rectifiers are commonly used for power supplies for domestic equipment. However, for
most industrial and high-power applications, three-phase rectifier circuits are the norm. As with
single-phase rectifiers, three-phase rectifiers can take the form of a half-wave circuit, a full-wave
circuit using a centre-tapped transformer, or a full-wave bridge circuit.

Fig 2.8 –Three phase AC full-wave rectifier

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses
direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is known as
rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc
valves, copper and selenium oxide rectifiers, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and
other silicon-based semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous electromechanical
switches and motors have been used. Early radio receivers, called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker"
of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sulphide) to serve as a point-contact rectifier or
"crystal detector". Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC power
supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems. Rectification may serve in roles
other than to generate direct current for use as a source of power. As noted, detectors of radio signals
serve as rectifiers. In gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of a flame.
Because of the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave, the process of rectification alone
produces a DC current that, though unidirectional, consists of pulses of current.
Many applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for radio, television and computer equipment,
require a steady constant DC current (as would be produced by a battery). In these applications the
output of the rectifier is smoothed by an electronic filter (usually a capacitor) to produce a steady
current. A more complex circuitry device that performs the opposite function, converting DC to AC,

19
 is called an inverter. For a three-phase full-wave diode rectifier, the ideal, no-load average output
voltage is

2.6.2 RECTIFIER OPERATION

Fig 2.9 Rectification circuit

 Two diodes are connected to each stator lead. One positive the other negative.

 Because a single diode will only block half the the AC voltage.

 Six or eight diodes are used to rectify the AC stator voltage to DC voltage.

20
  Diodes used in this configuration will redirect both the positive and negative
polarity signals of the AC voltage to produce DC voltage. This process is called ‘Full -
Wave Rectification’.

At first you can see current pass through to the rectifier as it goes to the battery. In the second, you can
see the return path. Now, current passes through to the rectifier however, this time current has the
opposite polarity. In second circuit you can see the new return path. Even though it enters the rectifier
at a different location, current goes to the battery in the same direction.

2.7 BATTERY

Battery is essential to supply DC power for the alternator rotor and for the storage of generated power.
An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored
chemical energy into electrical energy. Each cell contains a positive terminal, or cathode, and a
negative terminal, or anode. Electrolytes allow ions to move between the electrodes and terminals,
which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work. Battery we used is 12V, 10 Ah rating.

Fig 2.10 Internal diagram of lead acid battery

21
The battery is a two-terminal device that provides DC supply to the inverter section when the AC
mains are not available. This DC is then converted into 220V AC supply and output at the inverter
output socket. It is pertinent to state that lead-acid batteries used in automobiles are very good for this
purpose as they provide good quality power for a long duration and can be recharged once the power
stored in them are consumed. The backup time provided by the inverter depends on the battery type
and its current capacity. Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the
electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the alkaline
battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable devices. Secondary (rechargeable batteries) can
be discharged and recharged multiple times; the original composition of the electrodes can be restored
by reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium ion batteries
used for portable electronics. The battery was selected based on the amount of time we wanted to
operate the system at full load. As mentioned in the specifications, we wanted to be able to power the
lights. Fulfilling the 12 V DC battery requirements, we found a unit from Universal Battery with 18
Ah. If the battery is discharged to 50% at most, this battery leaves us with 9 Ah. Our load of lighting,
music, and an iPod charger uses about 20 watts, but with an alternative appliance connected (e.g.
phone), the total power consumed could be estimated at 25 watts. With a 12 VDC battery and a 25 W
load, we have about 2 A of current, which gives us about 4.5 hours of use at full load – this is
consistent with our design specifications. The exact battery we selected is UB12180 (12V 10Ah). An
electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical
energy into electrical energy. Each cell contains a positive terminal, or cathode, and a negative
terminal, or anode. Electrolytes allow ions to move between the electrodes and terminals, which allows
current to flow out of the battery to perform work. A lead-acid battery charger is most popular though
it will very large size than others battery type. But them have advantage are : cheap, easy to buy and
long life if correctly uses.

2.7.1 CHARGING AND DISCHARGING

Over charging with high charging voltages generates oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis of
water, which is lost to the cell. Periodic maintenance of lead-acid batteries requires inspection of the
electrolyte level and replacement of any water that has been lost.

Due to the freezing-point depression of the electrolyte, as the battery discharges and the concentration
of sulfuric acid decreases, the electrolyte is more likely to freeze during winter weather when
discharged.

22
 Fig 2.11 Fully discharged: two identical lead sulphate plates

In the discharged state both the positive and negative plates become lead (II) sulphate (PbSO4), and
the electrolyte loses much of its dissolved sulfuric acid and becomes primarily water. The discharge
process is driven by the conduction of electrons from the negative plate back into the cell at the
positive plate in the external circuit

2.7.2 ION MOTION

During discharge, H+ produced at the negative plates moves into the electrolyte solution and then is
consumed into the positive plates, while HSO4 is consumed at both plates. The reverse occurs during
charge. This motion can be by electrically driven proton flow or Growth’s mechanism, or by diffusion
through the medium, or by flow of a liquid electrolyte medium. Since the density is greater when the
sulfuric acid concentration is higher, the liquid will tend to circulate by convection. Therefore a liquid-
medium cell tends to rapidly discharge and rapidly charge more efficiently than an otherwise similar
gel cell.

2.7.3 BATTERY CHARGER

A battery charger is a device used to put energy into a cell or (rechargeable) battery by forcing an
electric current through it. Lead -acid battery chargers typically have two tasks to accomplish. The
first is to restore capacity, often as quickly as practical. The second is to maintain capacity by
compensating for self-discharge. In both instances optimum operation requires accurate sensing of
battery voltage.

When a typical lead-acid cell is charged, lead sulphate is converted to lead on the battery’s negative
plate and lead dioxide on the positive plate. Over-charge reactions begin when the majority of lead
sulphate has been converted, typically resulting in the generation of hydrogen and oxygen gas. At
moderate charge rates, most of the hydrogen and oxygen will recombine in sealed batteries. In
unsealed batteries however, dehydration will occur. The onset of over-charge can be detected by
monitoring battery voltage. Over charge reactions are indicated by the sharp rise in cell voltage. The

23
point at which over-charge reactions begin is dependent on charge rate, and as charge rate is
increased, the percentage of returned capacity at the onset of over-charge diminishes. For overcharge
to coincide with 100% return of capacity, the charge rate must typically be less than 1/100 amps of its
amp - hour capacity. At high charge rates, controlled over-charging is typically as quickly as
possible. To maintain capacity on a fully charged battery, a constant voltage is applied. The voltage
must be high enough to compensate for self dis-charge, yet not too high as to cause excessive over-
charging.

24
2.8 RELAY

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays Automotive-style miniature relay, dust cover is
taken off use an electromagnet to mechanically operate a switch, but other operating principles are
also used, such as solid state relays. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-
power signal (with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where
several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph
circuits as amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitted it on
another circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform
logical operations. A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an
electric motor or other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no
moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated
operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits
from overload or faults

Fig2.12 Relay

25
2.9 CAPACITOR-INPUT FILTER

The capacitor-input filter, also called the pi filter due to its shape that looks like the Greek letter π, is
a type of electronic filter. Filter circuits are used to remove unwanted or undesired frequencies from a
signal .A simple pi filter, containing a pair of capacitors, an inductor, and a load .A typical capacitor
input filter consists of a filter or reservoir capacitor C1, connected across the rectifier output, an
inductor L, in series and another filter or smoothing capacitor, C2, connected across the load, RL. A
filter of this sort is designed for use at a particular frequency, generally fixed by the AC line
frequency and rectifier configuration. When used in this service, filter performance is often
characterized by its regulation and ripple.

1. The capacitor C1 offers low reactance to the AC component of the rectifier output while it
offers infinite resistance to the DC component. As a result the capacitor shunts an appreciable
amount of the AC component while the DC component continues its journey to the inductor L.

2. The inductor L offers high reactance to the AC component but it offers almost zero resistance to
the DC component. As a result the DC component flows through the inductor while the AC
component is blocked.

3. The capacitor C2 bypasses the AC component which the inductor had failed to block. As a
result only the DC component appears across the load RL. The component value for the inductor can
be estimated as an inductance that resonates the smoothing capacitor(s) at or below one tenth of the
minimum AC frequency in the power supplied to the filter (100 Hz from a full-wave rectifier in a
region where the power supply is 50Hz). Thus if reservoir and smoothing capacitors of 2200
microfarads are used, a suitable minimum value for the inductor would be that which resonates 2200
microfarads (μF) to 10 Hz, i.e. 115 mH. A larger value is preferable provided the inductor can carry
the required supply current. In general, the relationship between the resonant frequency (in hertz),
which should be less than or equal to one tenth of the minimum AC frequency, in this case 100 Hz,
the capacitance (in farads), and the inductance (in hernias) can be characterized by the following
resonance equation: f_0 = {1 \over {2 \pi \sort {LC}}}.

Comparison with other filters Capacitor input filters can provide extremely pure DC supplies, but
have fallen out of favour because inductors tend to be unavoidably heavy, which has led to the
often-preferred choice of voltage regulators instead.

26
 Fig 2.13 Capacitor-Input Filter

Fig 2.14 Capacitor-Input Filter -Charging and Discharging

27
 Advantages of pi filters:

 More output voltage

 Ripple-free output

Disadvantages of pi filters:

 Large size

 Heavy

 High cost

2.10 STEP-UP TRANSFORMER

The output of the alternator is 12V ac supply with a frequency of 50 Hz. This Ac supply is
step up to 230 V by using step-up transformer. The Voltage Transformer can be thought of as
an electrical component rather than an electronic component. A transformer basically is very
simple static (or stationary) electro-magnetic passive electrical device that works on the
principle of Faraday’s law of induction by converting electrical energy from one value to
another. On a step-up transformer there are more turns on the secondary coil than the primary
coil. The induced voltage across the secondary coil is greater than the applied voltage across
the primary coil or in other words the voltage has been “stepped-up”.

Fig 2.15 Step up transformer

The transformer does this by linking together two or more electrical circuits using a common
oscillating magnetic circuit which is produced by the transformer itself. A transformer operates on the
principals of “electromagnetic induction”, in the form of Mutual Induction.

28
Mutual induction is the process by which a coil of wire magnetically induces a voltage into another
coil located in close proximity to it. Then we can say that transformers work in the “magnetic
domain”, and transformers get their name from the fact that they “transform” one voltage or current
level into another. Transformers are capable of either increasing or decreasing the voltage and current
levels of their supply, without modifying its frequency, or the amount of electrical power being
transferred from one winding to another via the magnetic circuit. A single phase voltage transformer
basically consists of two electrical coils of wire, one called the “Primary Winding” and another called
the “Secondary Winding”. We will define the “primary” side of the transformer as the side that usually
takes power and the “secondary” as the side that usually delivers power. In a single-phase voltage
transformer the primary is usually the side with the higher voltage. These two coils are not in electrical
contact with each other but are instead wrapped together around a common closed magnetic iron
circuit called the “core”. This soft iron core is not solid but made up of individual laminations
connected together to help reduce the core’s losses. The two coil windings are electrically isolated
from each other but are magnetically linked through the common core allowing electrical power to be
transferred from one coil to the other. When an electric current passed through the primary winding, a
magnetic field is developed which induces a voltage into the secondary winding .The output of the
transformer is 230 V, 50 Hz ,single phase AC, which is fed to the load.

29
 CHAPTER- 3

LITERATURE REVIEW

[1]. Chen, C.-H., Chi, W.-C., and Cheng, M.-Y., “Regenerative braking control for light electric
vehicles,” in 2011 IEEE Ninth International Conference on Power Electronics and Drive
Systems (PEDS), pp. 631 – 636, Dec 2011 - In this paper, a cost effective single stage
bidirectional DC/AC converter is designed and implemented using a general full-bridge
inverter without any additional power switches or bulky passive components. According to
different driving conditions, three switching strategies are developed and analysed. These
switching strategies, which are named after the operating number of the power switches, are
called the single-switch, two-switches and three-switches control strategies. Different
performance indexes such as boost ratio, maximum voltage conversion ratio, braking torque,
etc., are proposed and compared among different switching strategies. Theoretical analysis
and experimental results have revealed that the cruising distance, braking torque, and
reliability can be improved effectively using a variable braking control strategy according to
the driving conditions. Since the additional power switches, passive components and costly
position sensors are not required, the proposed method is particularly suitable for various light
electric vehicles. [1]

[2]. Cholula S, Claudio A, and Ruiz J, “Intelligent Control of the Regenerative Braking
in an Induction Motor Drive”, Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on
Electrical and Electronics Engineering (ICEEE 2005), Mexico City, Mexico, pp. 302-308, 7-9
September 2005 - In this paper a novel regenerative dual-braking strategy is proposed for
utility and goods delivery unmanned vehicles on public roads, which improves their ability to
recover regenerative energy and consequently improves the fuel use of parallel hybrid
powertrain configurations for land unmanned vehicles where the priority is not comfort but
extension of their range. Furthermore, the analysis takes into account the power-handling
ability of the electric motor and the power converters. In previous research, a plethora of
regenerative braking strategies have been reported; in this paper, the key contribution is that
the vehicle electric regeneration is related to a fixed braking distance in relation to the energy
storage capabilities specifically for unmanned utility-type land vehicles where passenger
comfort is not a concern but pedestrian safety is of critical importance.
Furthermore, the power converter capabilities of the vehicle facilitate the process of
extending the braking time by introducing a variable-deceleration profile. The proposed
approach has therefore resulted in a regenerative algorithm which improves the energy
storage capability of the vehicle without considering the comfort since this analysis is

30
 applicable to unmanned vehicles. The algorithm considers the distance as the key
parameter, which is associated with safety; therefore, it allows the braking time period to be
extended, thus favouring the electric motor generation process while maintaining safety. [2]

[3]. Cikanek, S. and Bailey, K., “Regenerative braking system for a hybrid electric vehicle,” in
Proceedings of the 2002 American Control Conference, vol. 4,pp. 3129 – 3134, 2002 - In this
paper a novel regenerative dual-braking strategy is proposed for utility and goods delivery
unmanned vehicles on public roads, which improves their ability to recover regenerative energy
and consequently improves the fuel use of parallel hybrid powertrain configurations for land
unmanned vehicles where the priority is not comfort but extension of their range. Furthermore,
the analysis takes into account the power-handling ability of the electric motor and the power
converters. In previous research, a plethora of regenerative braking strategies have been
reported; in this paper, the key contribution is that the vehicle electric regeneration is related to
a fixed braking distance in relation to the energy storage capabilities specifically for unmanned
utility-type land vehicles where passenger comfort is not a concern but pedestrian safety is of
critical importance. Furthermore, the power converter capabilities of the vehicle facilitate the
process of extending the braking time by introducing a variable-deceleration profile. The
proposed approach has therefore resulted in a regenerative algorithm which improves the energy
storage capability of the vehicle without considering the comfort since this analysis is applicable
to unmanned vehicles. The algorithm considers the distance as the key parameter, which is
associated with safety; therefore, it allows the braking time period to be extended, thus
favouring the electric motor generation process while maintaining safety [3]

[4]. Dubey, G. K., Fundamentals of Electrical Drives. Alpha Science International Ltd., 2002.-
This paper presents the field oriented vector control scheme for synchronous reluctance
motor (SRM) drives, where current controller followed by hysteresis comparator is used.

The test motor has a star-connected wound stator and a segmental rotor of the multiple
barrier type with an external incremental encoder to sense rotor position. The magnetic
characteristics of this motor are described using 2D finite element method, which is used
firstly for rotor design of SRM. The field oriented vector control, that regulates the speed
of the SRM, is provided by a quadrature axis current command developed by the speed
controller. The simulation includes all realistic components of the system. This enables
the calculation of currents and voltages in different parts of the voltage source inverter
(VSI) and motor under transient and steady state conditions. Implementation has been
done in MATLAB/Simulink. Experimental results of the SRM control using TMS320F24X
DSP board are presented. Experimental results of closed loop speed control of the SRM
are given to verify the proposed scheme. [4]

CHAPTER-4

31
 ANALYSIS AND RESULT

4.1 ELECTRICAL SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

Fig.4.1.ELECTRICAL SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

32
4.2 CIRCUIT DISCRIPTION

In our design we use 230V, ¼ HP Capacitor start- run single phase induction motor as prime
mover. Prime mover is directly coupled with an alternator by using belt and pulley arrangement.
120VA, 12V, 10A, 300 rpm alternator is used. Output of the alternator is connected to a step-up
transformer. The transformer step up 12V AC into 230 V AC supply and this is fed into an
incandescent lamp. While we applying the brake, giving DC supply to rotor. The rotor will produce
flux. Due to the kinetic energy, the rotor will slowly rotate and come to rest. During this time an emf
will produce in the stator winding and fed to the step-up transformer and then fed to the load. The DC
supply is provided with 12 V 10Ah deep cycle lead acid battery and this battery is charging by using
rectified output of alternator. Three phase diode bridge rectifier is used as rectifier. The relay circuit
is used to control the braking system properly. Here we used a 12 V single pole double throw relay.
In an ordinary system, during braking energy will lost in the form of heat and noise. If we use this
system, we can conserve the energy loss due to braking. During braking, the traction motor
connections are altered turn the electrical generators. The motor fields are connected across the main
traction generator (MG) and the motor armatures are connected across the load. The MG now excites
the motor fields. The rolling locomotive or multiple unit wheels turn the motor armatures, and the
motors act as generators, either sending the generated current through on-board resistors (dynamic
braking) or back into the supply (regenerative braking).Compared to electro -pneumatic friction
brakes, braking with the traction motors can be regulated faster improving the performance of wheel
slide protection. For a given direction of travel, current flow through the motor armatures during
braking will be opposite to that during motoring. Therefore, the motor exerts torque in a direction
that is opposite from the rolling direction. Braking effort is proportional to the product of the
magnetic strength of the field windings, multiplied by that of the armature windings. Savings of 17%
are claimed for Virgin Trains. There is also less wear on friction braking components. The Delhi
Metro saved around 90,000 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) from being released into the atmosphere by
regenerating 112,500 megawatt hours of electricity through the use of regenerative braking systems
between 2004 and2007. It is expected that the Delhi Metro will save over100,000 tons of CO2 from
being emitted per year once its phase II is complete through the use of regenerative braking.

Another form of regenerative braking is used on some parts of the London Underground,
which is achieved by having small slopes leading up and down from stations. The train is slowed by
the climb, and then leaves down a slope, so kinetic energy is converted to gravitational potential
energy in the station. This is normally found on the deep tunnel sections of the network and not
generally above ground or on the cut and cover sections of the Metropolitan and District Lines

33
4.3 COMPARISON OF DYNAMIC BRAKING AND REGENERATIVE BRAKING

Dynamic brakes unlike regenerative brakes, dissipate the electric energy as heat by passing
the current through large banks of variable resistors. Vehicles that use Dynamic brakes ("rheostatic
brakes" in the UK), unlike regenerative brakes, dissipate the electric dynamic brakes include forklifts,
diesel-electric locomotives, and streetcars. This heat can be used to warm the vehicle interior, or
dissipated externally by large radiator-like cowls to house the resistor banks. The main disadvantage
of regenerative brakes when compared with dynamic brakes is the need to closely match the
generated current with the supply characteristics and increased maintenance cost of the lines. With
DC supplies, this requires that the voltage be closely controlled. The AC power supply and frequency
converter pioneer Miro Zoric and his first AC power electronics have also enabled this to be possible
with AC supplies. The supply frequency must also be matched (this mainly applies to locomotives
where an AC supply is rectified for DC motors).In areas where there exists a constant need for power
unrelated to moving the vehicle such as electric train heat or air conditioning, this load requirement
can be utilized as a sink for the recovered energy via modern AC traction systems. This method has
become popular with North American passenger railroads where Head End Power loads are typically
in the area of 500 kW year round. Using HEP loads in this way has prompted recent electric
locomotive designs such as the ALP-46 andACS-64 to eliminate the use of dynamic brake resistor
grids and also eliminates any need for any external power infrastructure to accommodate power
recovery allowing self-powered vehicles to employ regenerative braking as well. A small number of
steep grade railways have used 3-phase power supplies and 3-phase induction motors. This results in
a near constant speed for all trains as the motors rotate with the supply frequency both when
motoring and braking.

4.4 FEASIBILITY OF TECHNOLOGY AND OPERATIONAL NECESSITIES

Various types of trains can be equipped with regenerative braking: electric trains, hybrid diesel
locomotives and subway trains. The more frequently a train stops, the more it can benefit from
regenerative breaking. Therefore the technique is especially valuable for commuter trains and
subways, which both stop frequently. Electric railway systems can be either DC or AC powered. It is
much easier to implement regenerative breaking for AC powered systems. For DC powered systems,
there are two main barriers. Most DC powered systems use relatively low voltages and often the
generated electricity cannot be fed back into the public electricity grid. In very dense suburban DC
powered networks, however, regenerative breaking can be an effective way to reduce the electricity
demand. In all other cases, the effectiveness of regenerative braking is rather low but may be
enhanced by technological upgrades of vehicles and/or substations. These upgrades are associated
with relatively high investment costs. Railway systems working with AC power can implement

34
regenerative braking with almost no additional costs. Also the implementation of regenerative
braking in diesel powered locomotives poses no obstacle. Virtually all locomotives are diesel-
electric, so the capacity to do regenerative braking is available.

4.5 STATUS OF THE TECHNOLOGY AND ITS FUTURE MARKET POTENTIAL TOP

Regenerative braking is a mature technology. Within Europe, there is still a considerable difference
between countries in the share of rolling stock that is equipped with regenerative braking, but the
share is relatively high already. Regenerative breaking is relatively standard in new trains. It is also
used in major new high-speed trains. However, friction brakes are still needed as backup in the case
that the regenerative brakes fail. It is possible to use regenerative braking on these high speed trains
because most cars have their own electric motors, this is in contrast to trains in which only the
locomotive has electric motors. The fourth generation TGVs in France, which are expected to be
commissioned in 2010, will also be equipped with regenerative brakes, as will the German ICE 3
trains which are to be commissioned in 2012.

4.6 CONTRIBUTION OF THE TECHNOLOGY TO SOCIAL DEVOLEPMENT TOP

Contribution by the use of regenerative breaking to socio-economic development is expected to be

low. The Delhi Metro CDM project (DMRC, 2007) argues for marginally improved local
employment in the operation and maintenance of the trains, but does not go into details on this. The
effects of regenerative braking on air quality depend mainly on the way the electricity is produced. In
general, the introduction of regenerative braking on electric trains and subway trains will have no
direct effect on the local air quality. However, lowering the electricity demand will lower the
emission of air pollutants, like NO x, SO2 and particulate matter in power generation, if power
generation is based on fossil fuels.

For diesel powered locomotives, hybridization can have a positive direct effect on air quality,
depending on the usage pattern. Locomotives used solely on a marshalling yard can achieve very
high reductions in emissions, due to frequent need for braking. However, the reduction in local air
pollution will be limited when the locomotive is used in long-haul freight trains.

35
4.7 ELEMENT SPECIFICATIONS

Our design will provide all of the following:

 Single Phase Induction Motor: 230V, ¼ HP Capacitor start- run single phase induction motor

 Belt and pulley arrangement

 Alternator: 120VA, 12V, 10A, 300 rpm alternator

 Voltage Regulator: Zener diode is used to regulate the output voltage

 Rectifier: Three phase bridge rectifier. Diode used IN4007

Battery: 10Ah 12V DC deep cycle lead acid battery for compatibility,
convenience, and cost.

 Relay: 12V single pole double throw.

 Step-up transformer: 12V to 230V AC single phase transformer

 Load: 40W 230V incandescent bulb is connected as load.

36
4.8 RESULT

We construct the regenerative braking system by using the induction motor, alternator, rectifier,
battery, step-up transformer, relay and incandescent lamp. We successfully take the energy lost due
to braking and convert to 230 V single phase 50 Hz output supply and it is fed to the load.

37
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

In ordinary braking system there is a huge amount of energy wasted while braking. Generally we uses
brake shoe and hydraulic systems are used in locomotives, so the maintenance cost is high and also
those system will create noises and pollution. In our project we can reduce the wastage of energy
during the braking time. This is simple and cost effective way of braking. It can perform a fast and
controlled braking. The locomotives are normally designed for gradual braking. If we apply this
mechanism in electrical locomotives, we can obtain very good braking with less maintenance cost and
we gather electricity as by product from the system, then the electricity is fed into the bus.

38
 REFERENCES

[1]. Chen, C.-H., Chi, W.-C., and Cheng, M.-Y., “Regenerative braking control for light electric
vehicles,” in 2011 IEEE Ninth International Conference on Power Electronics and Drive
Systems (PEDS), pp. 631 – 636, Dec 2011

[2]. Cholula S, Claudio A, and Ruiz J, “Intelligent Control of the Regenerative Braking
in an Induction Motor Drive”, Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on
Electrical and Electronics Engineering (ICEEE 2005), Mexico City, Mexico, pp. 302-308, 7-9
September 2005.

[3]. Cikanek, S. and Bailey, K., “Regenerative braking system for a hybrid electric
vehicle,” in Proceedings of the 2002 American Control Conference, vol. 4,pp. 3129
– 3134, 2002.

[4]. Dubey, G. K., Fundamentals of Electrical Drives. Alpha Science International Ltd., 2002.

[5]. E.C. Ejiogu, and Y. Tanno, “Transient and Saturation Modeling of the Capacitor-

Excitation and Magnetic Braking of the Induction Motor”, Proceedings of IEEE

International Symposium on Industrial Electronics (ISIE'93), Budapest, Hungary, pp.
316-320, 01-03 June 1993.

[6]. George A. Kaufman and Mark J. Kocher, “Fail-Safe Dynamic Brake for Three-

Phase Induction Machines”, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. IA-20, No. 3,
pp. 1229-1237, September 1984.

[7]. Grantham C, “Zero-Sequence Dynamic Braking and Parameter Determination”,

Proceedings B of IEE Electric Power Applications 1983, Vol.130, No. 6, pp. 392-398,
November 1983.

39