Chapter 3:

WRITING PROCESS
 Introduction
 Pre-stages of Writing
i. Determining purpose
ii. Keeping readers in mind
iii. Appealing to readers
iv. Organizing and Planning outline
 Drafting
 Revising
 Evaluating
 Proofreading

OVERVIEW
  WHY DO WE NEED A
WRITING PROCESS?

 It can help writers organize

their thoughts.
 It can help writers avoid
frustration.
 It can help writers use their
time productively and
efficiently.

INTRODUCTION
 DETERMINING YOUR PURPOSE
 Information – to share information

 Analysis - essential to problem solving and decision making. For instance, you
may be asked to analyze options for a new procedures of

 Argument – good argument forms the basis for all writing

PRE-STAGES OF WRITING
 KEEPING READERS IN MIND…
 “Write for your readers, not for yourself.”
 Readers often have these four problems when reading any document:

1. Constant interruptions
 interrupted by other events or activities
 can cause the readers may have forgotten details of writing.

2. Impatience finding information they need

 many readers lose patience with vague or unorganized writing
 most of them want to know the significance of the document right away.

PRE-STAGES OF WRITING
3. A different background/ perspectives from the writer
 readers always expect a technically sophisticated response, but in language
they understand
 if readers do not learn from your document, you have failed in your objective.

4. Shared decision-making authority with others

 most documents have more than one reader
 thus, you must respond to the needs of many individuals who might have
different background and belief

PRE-STAGES OF WRITING
 APPEALING TO AUDIENCE
 Audience analysis is a way to understand readers.
 Four steps to determine your readers’ needs:

1. Write down what you know about your reader

 such as their background, personality, expectations, etc.

2. Talk with colleagues who have written to the same readers

 as your best source of information about your readers

PRE-STAGES OF WRITING
3. Find out who makes decisions
 identify decision makers ahead of time so that you can design the document
with them in mind
 know the needs of your most important reader.

4. Remember that all readers prefer simplicity

 readers of all background prefer concise and simple writing (Keep It Short and
Simple)

PRE-STAGES OF WRITING
 ORGANIZING AND PREPARING OUTLINE
 Outlines are one method for planning a piece of writing, especially long documents
 Purpose – to guide your writing of the draft
 Preparing outline:

1. Record your random ideas quickly

 just jot down any points and try to use only one piece of paper
 this is to help you to prepare the way for the next step, in which you begin to make
connections among points.

2. Show relationships
 using any brainstorming method, use these 3 steps:
i. Create the points that will become main sections
ii. Connect each main point with its supporting ideas, using lines or arrows
iii. Delete material that seems irrelevant to your purpose

PRE-STAGES OF WRITING
3. Draft a final outline
 once related points are clustered, it is transformed into a somewhat ordered
outline
 take time to focus on the depth and balance of your outline
 this step allows you to;
i. Refine the wording of your points
ii. Organize them in preparation for writing the draft

4. Consider where to use graphics

 develop graphics that complement your text

PRE-STAGES OF WRITING
 Brainstorming Techniques
Outlining
Free writing

Questioning
Looping

Interviewing /
Journaling Discussing
Clustering /
Listing
Mapping

Cubing
BRAINSTORMING TECHNIQUES
 WRITING INITIAL DRAFTS

 This stage should go quickly if you have planned well

 Yet many writers have trouble getting started – “writer’s block”
 The worst result of writer’s block is a tendency to delay the start of writing
projects, especially proposals; these delays can lead to rushed final drafts and
editing errors

DRAFTING
 DRAFTING PROCESSES

1. Schedule at Least a One-Hour Block of Drafting Time

 schedule an hour or two of uninterrupted writing time
 most writers can keep the creative ideas for at least an hour
if distractions are removed

2. Do Not Stop to Edit

 force yourself to get ideas from the outline as quickly as possible
 most writers have trouble getting back into their writing pace once they have
switched gears from drafting to revising
 avoid revising in drafting

DRAFTING
3. Begin with the Easiest Section
 it is not necessary to write the body of document chronologically from
beginning to end
 as the goal is to the first draft quickly – you may want to start with the section
that flows best for you
 later, you can piece together sections and adjust content

4. Write Summaries Last

 only after you have drafted the body should you write overview sections, such
as summaries
 you cannot summarize a report until you have actually completed the content

DRAFTING
 “The secret to editing your work is simple; you need to become its
reader instead of its writer.” - Zadie Smith
 Revision encompasses five tasks that transform early drafts into
final copy:

1. Adjusting content
2. Editing for style
3. Editing for grammar
4. Editing for mechanics
5. Reviewing layout and graphics

REVISING A DRAFT
 REVISION STEPS
1. Adjusting content
 go back through your draft to:
i. Expand sections that deserve more attention
ii. Shorten sections that deserve less attention
iii. Change the locations of sentences, paragraphs, or entire sections

2. Editing for style

 Style refers to changes that make writing more engaging, more interesting, and
more readable
 Such changes are usually matters of choice, not correctness
 For example, shorten paragraphs, change sentences’ voice, add headings, lists or
graphics, etc.

REVISING A DRAFT
3. Editing for grammar
 identify your main grammatical weaknesses
 focus on the particular errors that have given you problems in the past

4. Editing for mechanics

 mechanical errors are such as misspelled words, misplaced pages, incorrect page
numbers, missing illustrations and errors in figures.
 word-processing software can help prevent some of these errors, such as
misspellings.

5. Reviewing layout and graphics

 be sure that all illustrations are referred to in the text and they are placed
appropriately
 check for consistency in layout and design elements such as headings, fonts, list
formats, etc.

REVISING A DRAFT
 Academic writing style

Incorrect
Clarity Voice Conciseness
words

Active & Affect &

Vagueness Redundancy
passive effect

Absolute Positive & Circumlocution Between &

words negative (Indirectness) among

Expletives
(filler words)
 Clarity – inappropriate words

Absolute
Vagueness
words
Avoid unclear Nothing is certain in
words academia

E.g. The result is

E.g. It was a good
exactly proportional
analysis.
to reality.
 Voice

Active & passive Positive & negative

Active voice is used in

most disciplines Eliminates phrases like
“does not,” “will not.”
Passive voice is used
especially in Science
E.g. He usually comes
E.g. Saline was added late.
to Treatment A
Conciseness – text is shortened but meaning remains

Redundancy Circumlocution Expletives

Avoid long
circular Avoid filler words
Avoid repetition descriptions

E.g. For the

E.g. There are…
reason, in fact…

E.g. The end result

plans…
E.g. Because… E.g. It is…
 Incorrect words
Affect & Between &
effect among
Between –
Affect – influent comparing 2
things

Among –
Effect – cause comparing more
than 3 things
• Evaluating or criticizing your own writing is among one of
the most effective ways to improve your literary talents.
• This helps you understand where you’re going wrong or
what you can do better, making it easier to implement
changes within your writing style
• Self-discovery – what is wrong with my writing? How can I
improve my writing skills?

EVALUATING
 Development Organization Voice

• Clear • Central idea is clear • Engaging and

• Relevant details • Compelling purposeful

• Answer readers’ presentation • Consistent

questions • Well-paced • E.g. Narrative,

transition expository

• Satisfying conclusion

HOW TO EVALUATE
 Vocabulary Fluency Conventions

•Powerful and •Flow and rhythm •Spelling,

natural •Well-designed punctuation,

•Professional sentences capitalization,

•Choose the right paragraphing,

words etc.

HOW TO EVALUATE
 Read and Step away from
the computer for Read again
re-read a while

Read other Compare to Get to know

people’s another person’s what information
work is lacking
work
Get
Get opinions Take criticisms
second from peers well
opinion

TIPS FOR EVALUATING

 State your
Admit own flaws Know which area
opinion to and strengths to improve on
yourself
Explore Identify the areas
Determine on
your past that you lacked
how to get there
in the past
works

TIPS FOR EVALUATING

 Proofreading is the process of finding and correcting errors in
typing, spelling, punctuation, and mechanics.
 To increase the accuracy of your proofreading, you may need to
experiment with ways to keep yourself from relaxing into the
rhythm and content of your writing
 In order to proofread effectively, consider proofread your writing
for these three different areas:
1. Organization
2. Grammar
3. Mechanics

PROOFREADING
 MOST COMMON ERRORS

1. Spelling
2. Grammar
3. Punctuation
4. Verb agreement
5. Spacing errors between words or letters
6. Omissions of word from sentences

PROOFREADING
 TO PROOFREAD THOROUGHLY

1. PRINT what you have written (hard copy easier to read)

2. READ what you have written (to remind what you’ve written)
3. MAKE notes (to identify any flaw)
4. MAKE a reverse outline (to determine organization issue)
5. COLOUR-CODE your draft (eg: make different point with different colours)
6. CUT UP your draft (to check the transition) eg: reconstruction
7. CREATE a paragraph paper or abstract (to check the coherence)
8. PLAY one-on-one with your draft (to ensure each point supports the main idea)
9. TURN the tables (to adopt the role and opinions of audience)
10. SEEK the opinions of others

PROOFREADING
THE END!