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Editor’s note: This article is based not learn language by imitation. They development, and lies behind every
on a keynote address presented at the learn to talk by talking to people assessment of language. For this
2013 International Reading Recovery who talk to them; people who make reason, the following discussion of
Institute in Sydney, Australia. efforts to understand what they are language for teaching and learning
trying to say. will focus on the more easily describ-
able aspects of a far-more complex
The major characteristics of language
Language Development phenomenon:
and what children come to learn
In chapter 1 of By Different Paths without effort include these: 1. Pragmatics: Knowledge of
to Common Outcomes, Marie Clay conversations
• Language is a complex
points out that listening, taking turns, follow-
interrelation of subsystems.
Natural language learning occurs ing the gist of the argument,
• Language is multilayered and contributing appropriately,
for millions of children around
rule-governed. adopting rules of clarification
the world with seemingly no
effort. Indeed, a small child’s life • Language recognizes sensitivities. 2. Semantics: The meanings
across cultures is especially well What is the talk about? What
• Language develops recursively
adapted for language learning. do I understand about what
— not in a single trajectory.
(Clay, 2014, p. 5) I am listening to? How do I
Studies show, Clay continues, that check this?
when we provide preschool oppor- 3. Syntax: grammar, or the rules
tunities for our children, we have Children do not learn that govern the ways in which
changed the “natural” characteristics language by imitation. words are strung together
of the environment, and that there They learn to talk by 4. Morphology: The smallest units
are some gains and some losses. talking to people who of language to carry meaning
While increasing the child’s oppor-
tunities to play and socialize, time
talk to them; people This may be a single word like
and again it has been found that who make efforts to cat, or two morphemes like in
the word cats which is cat +
children have fewer opportunities to understand what they plural (two pieces of meaning
talk with adults than they experience are trying to say. or information).
when they are at home. For instance,
in school the adults are one person 5. Phonemic awareness: The
to many children, and the children sounds of language that matter
are in same-age groups, very unlike For standard English this is
If we consider the first characteristic,
more-naturalistic home settings. approximately 44–46 pho-
a complex interrelation of subsystems,
nemes and learned very early
For their language development to the reluctance on the part of teach-
in life.
progress, children require closeness ers to embrace this notion is under-
to a mature, more-knowledgeable standable. Linguistic analysis is the Frank Smith (1975) used to say,
speaker as a language resource. The most-frequent common denominator “Why don’t children grow up to
mature speaker provides the child of language study and the least- sound like the air-conditioning?”
with the opportunity to converse, understood by those of us who are They don’t because that sound
while also providing the appropriate not linguists. However, this variety doesn’t carry meaning. Children are
model of the language. Children do of systems is the marker of language born ready to interpret a wide range
of sounds for carrying meaning most-important aspect of the However, playmates of the same age
and quickly lose this range of abil- student’s experience. usually do not provide this kind of
ity as they grow accustomed to the modeling through extended linguistic
Importantly, children learn early in
language(s) of their community. The feedback.
their lives that language is not arbi-
developing brain is exceedingly effi-
trary. It is a shared activity and it is Children try out their language skills
cient; it discards what it doesn’t need
primarily social (Raban, 2012). We in different ways and they know
for survival. Its plasticity is notorious
talk to each other, we have someone they are getting close when they are
and extensive.
who listens to us—an audience—and better understood. It is only when
The following quotation from Clay’s we learn gradually to take account of children are known well, and their
work, as long ago as 1975, has the needs and interests of our audi- language-use listened to closely, that
informed all my later thinking about ence. Most of our language is sur- we can get inside the child’s frame
language learning, whether spoken rounded by a familiar context. This of reference and so support that
or written: helps the child to understand what child’s next moves forward with their
the language is about, although as I development.
Children do not learn about
will argue later, the child also needs
language on any one level of
to understand language apart from a Language Interaction
organization before they manipu-
physical context and focus more on Clay (2014) has pointed out the way
late units at a higher level. As
the ideational context that a more in which we respond to children’s talk
children learn language, spoken
sophisticated language user can pro- determines whether they will contin-
or written, there is a rich inter-
vide. I will call this decontextualized
mingling of language learning ue with their efforts to be understood
language, or language that conveys
across levels … a simplification or not. If children do not have oppor-
meanings apart from the immediacy
achieved by dealing first with tunities for conversations in their
of the everyday.
sounds of letters, then words and preschool years, then more of the
finally groups of words may be We use language for a good reason— language learning is left to schools.
easy for teachers to understand, with a purpose—to explain, to share, However, teachers are not very good
but children learn on all levels at to gain attention, to have our needs at spending time in conversation with
once. (p. 19) met. For example, “I want….” “I children because they are working
won’t…” “Can I…..?” “When…?” with large numbers of children at any
So while some teachers may be focus-
(Raban, 1999). one time.
sing on phonics, or a letter of the
week, or a word wall, or some other Rapid language development towards The richness and complexity of
single feature of language, children maturity, during the preschool years, language is that it works on many
are learning about language indepen- depends directly upon the amount of levels, frequently simultaneously. It
dently across all levels at once. With conversation that occurs between the develops recursively by
their attention focused elsewhere, child and the adults who know them • fitting new ideas to old,
they may fail to grasp the relevance well. By talking with their children,
or significance of their teacher’s families and caregivers provide these • taking turns and building
emphasis on a particular aspect of opportunities for rapid language meanings together,
linguistic complexity. development. These adults do not • extending the discourse to gain
correct the child’s immature forms, new understandings,
This is why it is so important to keep
rather they model correct forms
our focus on language levels within • actively engaging with the
through their replies to children’s
the context of a larger frame of mean- social world of language in use,
enquiries. For example,
ing, thus providing a context and and
supporting the student’s potential for Child: When tea?
understanding not only of language, • consolidating implicit
Mother: We’ll have tea when awareness with explicit
but also about what the language is
Daddy gets home. understanding.
signifying. In the end, it may be the
spent time in building an intellectual • gives listeners experience of Speaking and listening at school
understanding together, from what positive emotional satisfaction When children start to attend school,
was being experienced by the child. because someone is paying we see that there is the opportunity
attention (emotion), for problems and difficulties that
This kind of talk, called extended
we need to (and do) ameliorate for
discourse, clearly has features designed • extends meanings beyond
the young students. For instance,
to engage and support the child’s where you started from
oral language environments in busy
cognitive development. The exchange (cognitive), and
classrooms can be emotionally, lin-
will do this through elaboration,
• achieves a clearly understood guistically, cognitively, and socially
developing a depth of understanding,
shared purpose — typically challenging for students. This may
achieving a deferred purpose other
having something to show as well render some of them silent.
than in the here and now, establish-
a result of the exchange (social Many students remain very quiet,
ing links between ideas and experi-
and cognitive). hoping they will disappear under
ence, and fostering precision and
their teacher’s radar, not drawing
articulation of thinking. In addition,
Speaking and listening at home attention to themselves and hoping
such conversations will be emotion-
If we think of talk in the context of to survive this new and confronting
ally satisfying, because they will be
home environments, what do children experience.
getting closer towards understanding,
experience? They are talking with
and socially construed because it is The language environment of the
people they know, and they are usu-
being done together. classroom may well be strangely
ally talking to get things done, typi-
different from children’s entire
Catherine Snow (1983) reports from cally right away: “Can I….?” “Will
previous experience of language. For
her U.S. research that the foundation you…?” “Are you…?”
instance, they may know none of
for children’s school abilities can
Young children draw on their lin- the other students. They experience
be found in their home and their
guistic resources to make themselves being told to do things unquestion-
preschool language and literacy
understood, and exchanges are ingly. They might not understand
environments. Her research revealed
typically quite short. In the cut and what is being talked about, and they
the preschool years to be rich in
thrust of getting on with our daily are required to listen for long periods
critically important adult-child
lives, everyone knows each other of time. Exchanges are brief, rarely
exchanges, giving many opportunities
well, and communication is almost is talk about things that are visible
for contingent responding in which
always successful. around the room, and the other
the child is provided with responses
children are all of the same age as
that are linked to what they are talk- For some young children there can
they are, unlike the normal family
ing about. Such contingent respond- be experiences of extended discourse,
experience they know.
ing, or semantic contingency as referred where long exchanges are expected,
to by Snow, operates across a number perhaps over the family meal, or at So, given the complexity of spoken
of levels and bedtime with questions like “What language and the extensive range of
did you do today” or “What are you the language development of young
• keeps conversations flowing
planning to do tomorrow?” children, it is somewhat surprising
(social),
that some people think that the way
Children who experience these
• helps listeners engage in active in which young children learn to
opportunities for extended discourse
listening through responses read written language is to start with
are generally those who are more
that add to the meanings the sounds of letters and individual
successful at school (Burns, Griffin,
(cognitive & social), words. Catherine Snow always likes
& Snow 1999, p. 19).
to keep the balance, and reminds us,
• provides positive feedback
once again, of the role of language
that understandings are being
in literacy:
shared (emotional and
cognitive),
From their research, Nation and open questions, which are not about Child: Or the bricks house
Snowling (2004) also point out the student guessing what is in the
Teacher: Mmm. The house of
that oral language proficiency as teachers’ head; and asking genuine
bricks, yeah. So what
well as children’s phonological skills questions, questions to which the
was, what was the bit
influence the course of reading teacher could not know the answers.
you liked? … And you
development. There is a need to also provide stu-
would want to write
dents with a range of real contexts
Bearing these concerns in mind, our about? About the house
for talk — giving talk an audience, a
best teachers provide opportunities of bricks? About the
context, and a purpose.
for students to engage in the kinds of brick house? …What
learning activities that will promote Helpful strategies for teachers to use would you say?
talk, activities where everyone has to would include these:
Usually the teacher asks all the
take part. Students’ own intentions
• asking for clarification or questions, but it is important to
for the activity are taken into consid-
explanation — “How did that continually find ways that the stu-
eration and these are also discovered
happen?” dent can take on this role. Sometimes
through talk — allowing students’
by saying nothing, or and… and
intentions to be understood and • being cognitively ‘under’ — “I
mmm… for instance, teachers can
catered for, the context of the activity don’t understand how that
signal that they are NOT going to
to be clear and carefully resourced, happened. Can you explain it
fill the gap in the conversation, the
and the talk outcomes to be clearly to me?”
student must! Notice how this teacher
identified. • challenging students for clarity manages this opportunity:
For example, a teacher might say, — “How often did you have to
Child: At my old house I was
“When you have finished, I want you do that?”
sleeping …
to explain to the other group what • keeping silent at strategic
you did, why you did it, and how you Teacher: Mmm …
moments, thus encouraging
went about it.” others to talk Child: a- a- like at the middle
Engaging in this kind of discourse of the night or begin-
• being contentious – prompt-
can be a useful tactic giving students ning …
ing a rejoinder; asking “Does it
opportunities to further develop always happen like that?” Teacher: Yes …
their language.
• being a ‘skillful ignoramous’ Child: And my sister had her
and pretending not to under- first tooth or her sec-
The Teacher’s Role stand — “I don’t see how that ond and I went inside
Teachers need to be attending not
would work. Explain it to her room and I …
only to what they are talking about,
me again?” and I … took … and
but how they are using language for
I pulled it … and I
particular emotional, social, linguis- Teachers need to remember that they
opened the pillow and
tic, as well as cognitive purposes. are always acting as a model of how
… and
Special attention needs to focus on they want students to use language.
the interactive nature of language and English as a second language students Teacher: Oh, Jake!
learning through taking turns, not especially need this kind of support,
Child: And I stole … I stole
just the teacher one-way monologue. modeling correct form, rather than
… my sister’s money.
The social and structural, or lin- correcting student’s speech. See how
guistic, conventions of speaking and this teacher manages this exchange: Teacher: Did she find out?
listening need to be established, like Child: No. She was still sleep-
Teacher: So today we are going
who speaks when and the choice of ing before I stole it.
to write about the three
vocabulary. Importance needs to be little pigs and their
placed on the kinds of responses that Teacher: Oh.
house or…
extend and support student talk —
Child: And I put it under her and that socioeconomic status, per and are rich with vocabulary
pillow and then, then I se, is less important in predicting when their families and
was going to go, “Ahh, student’s attainment of literacy than caregivers are able to obtain
the tooth fairy came!” are their specific home and classroom and read good books with
experiences. them, and when their teach-
Teacher: Now what could you
ers provide classrooms with a
say about that in your Dickinson and Tabors (2001)
curriculum that is varied and
story today? elaborate further three significant
stimulating.
aspects of teachers’ language
Child: At the middle of the
curriculum. So what supports students achieve-
night I stole my sister’s
ment in school? Dickinson and Snow
money from the tooth 1. Exposure to varied vocabulary
(1987) show how teachers are now
fairy, maybe her second Knowing the ‘right word’ is
sensitive to language use for differ-
tooth. vital if one is to communicate
ent purposes across a wide spectrum
information clearly. Large
of opportunities. At one end of their
vocabularies have long been
Teacher Development spectrum is conversational talk. It is
known to be linked to reading
In Victoria, Australia, we are at the about the every day, about the here
success. They also signal that
beginning of a new pathway with and now, about what is happening in
students are building content
Reading Recovery teachers. We have the present. While at the other end
knowledge about the world,
begun to collect transcripts of talk of their spectrum is decontextualized
knowledge that is so critical
occurring during Reading Recovery talk. This is the language of books,
for later reading comprehen-
lessons in the hope that we can better written in fuller, denser text that
sion. However, this is no
understand what works to support takes no account of current contexts,
reason to shift attention away
children processing written language weaving its own context and events
from context, audience and
in increasingly sophisticated ways. through language.
purpose, or to focus specifi-
Wasik, Bond, & Hindman (2006)
cally or arbitrarily on building However, conversational language
point out:
vocabulary in isolation from alone will not lead to success in
• The ways teachers talk to chil- continuous text. school. Knowledge and experience
dren, both during book reading of decontextualized language—the
2. Opportunities to be part of
and outside of book reading [ital- language of books—becomes the
conversations that use extended
ics added] can affect children’s language of thought and cognitive
language skills (p. 70). discourse
activity, central to student progress
Extended discourse is talk
• Teachers need to understand through the school curriculum.
that requires participants
the impact of their language, Importantly, our experience of
to develop understandings
before they change their prac- language moves between these two,
beyond the here and now.
tice — they need to know what and the more highly educated we
It requires the use of several
works and why (p. 72). are the more likely we are to talk
sentences to build a linguistic
like a book. Therefore, the kinds of
Dickinson and McCabe (2001) are structure, such as explana-
language required to support literacy
helping teachers to understand tions, narratives, or ‘pretend
development are the kinds of lan-
better what statements like this talk’ about what might be.
guage found in books:
mean. They are finding that data 3. Home and classroom environ-
from multiple studies now confirm • The language goes on at length
ments that are cognitively
the interrelationships among language (more than a single sentence).
and linguistically stimulating
and print-based skills as students Students are most likely to • There is a development
begin formal literacy instruction, experience conversations that through the language that
their interrelationships not only include comprehensible and builds the meaning in a sys-
endure but strengthen with time, interesting extended discourse tematic and patterned way.
As we look further at our own work • Tell me why you think ‘x’ opportunities to ask questions, build
with students, we find there are a happened and ‘y’ followed. and extend vocabulary, and making
number of reported activities with connections with what the student
• Let’s think further about the
books that seem to be about the same already knows and is interested in.
story we just read.
idea of extending language through The key throughout this interactive
book reading. A particular example session is making meanings together.
Dialogic reading
for babies is conversational reading This activity is supported by Clay’s
During dialogic reading, Whitehurst
(Wasik & Sparling, 2004) which work (1993, p. 49) where she suggests
and colleagues (1994, p. 683) outline
engages families and caregivers to the following prompts for Reading
procedures and techniques which
read a book, ask a question, and start Recovery teachers to use:
also include questioning and giving
a conversation.
feedback. • How did you know it was … ?
There are also other book activities
They show how this can be achieved • What could you try?
with which teachers are familiar.
by asking ‘wh’ questions — who, • Do you know a word like that?
what, when, why, how, where; by
Shared book reading • What would you think it
following questions with another
This procedure involves going could be?
question — “Why do you think
through the book together for a
that?”; by repeating (modeling cor- • Do you know a word that
particular purpose (Holdaway,
rect form) and extending what the starts with those letters?
1979). In doing this, new words are
student has said; and by helping and
checked and understood, giving stu- • What do you know that
supporting the student where needed,
dents opportunities to use the words might help?
and always praising and encouraging
in their own sentences. Teachers
— “I like the way you did….” Also, as Clay has suggested (2005, p.
ask questions which do not have a
defined answer, and use language to Throughout this book reading, the 108), in Reading Recovery teachers’
explore the text and provide oppor- salience of students’ interests is always efforts to develop self-monitoring:
tunities for mapping the text onto paramount. In reporting further • Was that OK?
previous experience. work (Arnold & Whitehurst, 1994;
Whitehurst & Lonigan, 2001), the • Try that again.
The kinds of questions that can
PEER acronym has been elaborated • I like the way you worked
help and support the student while
to support teachers further: that out.
moving through the book together
with their teacher could include some Prompt — using questions to • Why did you stop there?
of these strategies, and teachers will prompt a reply,
• What else can you hear?
think of others that might include Evaluating — by saying how you (writing)
questions and prompting like liked the way they completed the
the following: • You know a word that starts
story or whatever,
like that. (reading)
• Tell me more about what is
Expands — by rephrasing and
happening on this page. • Does it look right and
adding information, again
sound right?
• Tell me more about that. modeling correct form,
Indeed, it is through talking with
• What do you think will Repeating — a prompt and
students that all teachers can find out
happen next? expanding on it
what students already know; discover
• What else? students’ thinking processes through
Interactive book reading
active listening; help students access
• Why do you think they Reading a book together has also
past experiences relevant to new
did that? been discussed by van Kleek (2006).
activities; develop and extend stu-
Interactive book reading clearly
• What part did you like best? dents’ thinking by building bridges
involves taking turns and taking
from known to new information; dents are saying and engage References
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The Marie Clay Literacy Trust.
Finally, the TALK framework has
Dickinson, D. K., & McCabe, A. (2001).
emerged from this review of the lit- Acknowledgement
Bringing it all together: The mul-
erature on language and early literacy This work was commissioned and
tiple origins, skills & environmental
and can inform the work of all teach- stimulated by Heather Turpin, supports of early literacy. Learning
ers who are developing their support Reading Recovery tutor (Catholic Disabilities Research & Practice, 16(4),
of children’s language and literacy Education Office–Melbourne) in 186–202.
development in the future: Victoria, Australia. Heather died in Dickinson, D. K., & Snow, C. E. (1987).
2013, and her commitment and Interrelationships among pre-reading
T (Time for talk)
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About the Author
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