REFRIGERATION

The removal of heat or cooling of a space, or substance below the environmental or ambient temperature.
Mechanical refrigeration is primarily an application of thermodynamics wherein the cooling medium, or
refrigerant, goes through a cycle so that it can be recovered for reuse.
 REFRIGERATION CYCLE

https://www.icoolrefrigeration.co.uk/refrigeration/what-is-refrigeration

COOLING PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT

A cooling system is used to reject heat from a process or plant. There are many types of cooling
systems available that are used in the oil and gas industry. To best optimize the efficiency of a cooling
system, a “systems approach” should be used to identify potential savings and performance
enhancement. This approach looks at the entire cooling system, including the pumps, motors, fans,
nozzles, fill, drift losses, evaporative losses, blow down, makeup rate, chemicals, flow rates,
temperatures, pressure drop, as well as operating and maintenance practices. By focusing on the whole
system as opposed to just individual components, the system can be configured to avoid inefficiencies
and energy losses. Cooling systems do not operate under one condition all the time and system loads
vary according to cyclical demands, environmental conditions, and changes in process requirements.

In order to determine whether efficiency gains in a cooling system may be achieved, one should
understand the types of systems and their strengths and shortfalls. Cooling systems are available in
many types of design and construction, each with its advantages and limitations. In general, all cooling
systems will utilize a combination of several of these design features. The main cooling system
principles are:

Open or closed system, designates whether the coolant is allowed to contact the environment or not.
Open systems – process medium is in contact with the environment. Only applied to a wet system but
may be a once through or recirculated design.

 Forced and natural draft cooling towers, cross flow towers (water/air)
 Cooling ponds use evaporation to discharge heat, prior to reuse in the process.
 Some systems such as a wet surface air cooler combine open and closed design.

Closed systems - process media is inside tubes or heat exchanger and is not in contact with the
environment. May be a wet or dry system and may be a once through or recirculated design 1.

 Heat exchangers of the shell & tube or plate & frame type
 Tubed fan cooler - fluid in tubes, air blowing over the tubes for cooling

Once through or recirculated design. Designates whether the primary coolant is returned to its original
source or returned to the process for reuse. A direct cooling system may contain one of these design
features whereas an indirect system may contain both.

Once through – coolant passes through heat exchanger once before returning to its source.

 River/lake/ocean/sea to process and return back to source.

 This is the easiest and most efficient system to use although high discharge temperatures must
fall within permissible limits.
 Sensitive to fouling, scale, corrosion, and fish intake. Uses large amount of water and risks
putting additives into water source.

Recirculated – primary coolant is reused whereby heat is absorbed in one exchanger and then
transferred to a second coolant in secondary exchanger.

 Eliminates environmental impacts to water supply

Direct or indirect systems, also known as primary and secondary systems. This term indicates where
the primary process media is discharging heat directly to the environment or to a secondary media.

Direct – system with one heat exchanger or cooling tower, and only the process media and a coolant.

Indirect – there are at least two heat exchangers, and a closed secondary coolant between the process
media and the primary coolant. Indirect cooling systems are applied where leakage of process
substances into the environment must be strictly avoided2.

 Efficiency is not as high as direct due to extra heat exchanger stage

 Common in nuclear plants or with hazardous chemicals

Wet or dry cooling system, refers to whether or not cooling water or ambient air is used as primary
cooling media.

Dry – uses forced air over tubing with fluid process media

 Only applied to closed systems

 Typical in areas without cooling water source available
 Tubed fan coils Fin/fan coolers – fluid in tubes, air blowing over the tubes for cooling
Wet – involves either the use of the process fluid being cooled with air in an open cooling tower, or
being cooled by water in a closed heat exchanger.

 Cooling towers – Evaporative heat transfer. Include cross-flow cooling towers, hyperbolic towers.
The fluid to be cooled is in contact with cooling air flow and there are some evaporative losses.
 Shell and tube or plate and frame heat exchangers

The type of cooling system chosen may also reduce or eliminate environmental impacts. An air/water
cooling tower may be used instead of a once through cooling system to minimize water usage or
thermal water pollution. Or a fin fan cooler could reduce a plant’s water consumption especially in dry
locations. The air and water permits will generally specify certain design features such as the type of
cooling system, maximum permissible withdrawal volume & discharge temperature for once through
systems, cooling tower drift rate, and other permits may specify water consumptive use, cooling water
discharge temperature, noise levels, etc.

When selecting a cooling system, a Best Available Technologies (BAT) evaluation should be
performed, (this is also referred to as Best Available Techniques) 3. BAT evaluation includes an
integrated examination of the heat flows within the plant, as improving plant efficiency and reducing
heat rejection demands directly reduces the demands on the cooling system.

Application of Technology

Efficiency gains are available with each cooling system design. New systems have the most potential
for optimization using the latest technology, although existing systems have potential as well but will
generally be limited by layout and construction issues. The type of cooling system selected requires
extensive evaluation at the design stage of a project using many design inputs including costs, layout
and size, water availability, energy consumption, energy efficiency, ambient conditions, seasons and
weather, and many others depending on the project. Annual variations in local water and air
temperatures have the largest influence on the efficiency of the cooling system. System efficiency is a
function of the costs of the energy and resource input needed to operate the system vs the amount of
cooling achieved. Electricity is used to operate fans and pumps, and other costs incurred include make
up water costs as well as regulatory costs and penalties.

Cooling towers – Wet evaporative systems are limited by the wet bulb air temperature and dry systems
are limited by the dry bulb air temperature both which fluctuate throughout the year. These limitations
may cause a plant to run at reduced capacity or run at lower cooling efficiency. Cooling capacity may
be increased by adding additional cooling cells or by correcting design sizing errors.

Fans and pumps – Fans, blowers, and pumps may be idled or slowed during times of favorable
weather conditions or low plant load to reduce energy consumption Variable Speed Drives (VSDs; also
called Adjustable Speed Drives, or ASDs) are commonly used on fan, blower and pump motors
because they greatly improve cooling system energy efficiency at partial loads, relative to continual
operation. A simple treatment using affinity laws suggests that halving the speed of a pump or fan will
reduce its energy demand by 7/8ths. Once through systems - These systems may be subject to cost
penalties due to heat rejection limit violations. Alternatively they may experience reduced cooling
capability due to low water levels or by avoiding discharge temperature penalties, which leads to lower
plant efficiency and capacity.

Automation – Modern controls offer ways to improve efficiency by continuous monitoring of key system
parameters with automated adjustments to pumps and fans.
Cooling medium temperature – The efficiency of cooling systems depends on the temperature of the
medium to which the heat is being expelled. Cooler mediums are easier to transfer heat to, so less
cooling medium flow is necessary, reducing pumping/blowing energy demands. In many cases, the
temperature of water sources is lower than the surrounding air temperature, so using water-based
cooling systems can be more energy efficient.

Exchanger approach temperature – The temperature difference between the cooled working fluid (as
it leaves the cooler) and the incoming cooling medium is called the approach temperature4. It is
important for designers to not specify approach temperatures any smaller than required, as smaller
approach temperatures require greater cooling capacity (e.g. larger cooling equipment, higher flow
rates). Water cooled systems tend to have smaller approach temperatures than air cooled systems,
because it is easier to reject heat into water than air. Hence water-cooled systems may be preferable
in situations where small approach temperatures are needed, both in terms of cost and energy
efficiency.

Offshore cooling systems – Cooling systems on offshore facilities often use seawater as the cooling
medium, given its plentiful availability and low, steady temperature. Such systems, however, must resist
corrosion from this salt water.

http://www.ipieca.org/resources/energy-efficiency-solutions/uncategorised/cooling-systems/

DIRECT EXPANSION SYSTEMS

The direct expansion system in HVAC has been growing rapidly due to its ability to get rid of
most duct work and piping. The popularity of this system is because the installation work has
been made easier hence reducing the cost of the overall system.

The DX System works in such a way that the evaporator is located in the space to be
refrigerated. When the refrigerant in the evaporator coil expanded, it will cool the space by
absorbing the heat from it. The mini splits, window air conditioner and packaged
units are examples of such system.

Advantages of Direct Expansion System

 Low installation costs.

 Ease to test, adjust and balance the system.
 Minimum ceiling or wall space needed.
 Low energy consumption.
 Low maintenance costs.
 Individual section can be operated without running the entire system in the building.
 Comfort under varying load conditions.
 Low noise level (NC 35).
 Good relative humidity control.
Direct Expansion System Low Side

The low side is the low pressure part of the refrigeration system. The part is also called low
side pressure, suction pressure, vaporizing pressure or simply low pressure. The part is made
up of:

 suction line
 flow control
 evaporator

Direct Expansion System High Side

The high side is the high pressure part of the refrigeration system. It is also called condensing
pressure, discharge pressure or simply high pressure. This part is made up of:

 compressor
 discharge line
 condenser
 receiver
 liquid line

https://www.airconditioning-systems.com/direct-expansion-system.html

CHILLED WATER SYSTEMS

Chilled Water System Basics - Chilled water systems work much
the same way as direct expansion systems work. The exception is
they use water in the coil rather than refrigerant. Technically
speaking, water can be classified as a refrigerant. Chilled Water
systems can be rather complex and many chilled water systems are
found in commercial and industrial applications. There are some
chilled water systems used in residential applications.
Chilled Water System Basics
However, chilled water systems in residential HVAC systems are extremely rare. A typical
chiller uses the process of refrigeration to chill water in a chiller barrel. This water is pumped
through chilled water piping throughout the building where it will pass through a coil. Air is
passed over this coil and the heat exchange process takes place. The heat in the air is absorbed
into the coils and then into the water. The water is pumped back to the chiller to have the heat
removed. It then makes the trip back through the building and the coils all over again.

How a Chilled Water System Works - Chilled Water System Basics

The chiller basically removes heat from the water. It is used as a refrigerant to remove heat
from the building. The chilled water circulates
through a chilled water loop and through coils
located in air handlers. Chilled water systems
include other HVAC equipment designed to
exchange heat such as computer room air
conditioners. The chilled water absorbs the heat
from the building. It then returns to the chiller where
the chiller removes the heat from the water using
the refrigeration process. Some chilled water loop
arrangements are very complex while others are
simple. Control of the chilled water from pressure to
velocity, to volume, is up to the control system
controlling the pumps and valve actuators in the
system.
Residential Chiller

Chillers range in size from smaller than 5 tons all the way up to several hundred tons. Chillers
can be found in residential applications, commercial buildings, and industrial process
applications.
Chillers and Cooling Towers - Chilled Water System Basics
Many chillers have cooling towers where the heat removed in the chiller barrel is transferred
to another barrel. It is the condenser barrel where the refrigerant is condensed and sent back
to the evaporator barrel to remove the heat. The process is in reverse in the condenser barrel.
The water absorbs heat from the refrigerant and allows it to condense.

The water is then transferred to a cooling tower where the heat in this water is removed to the
atmosphere. Once the heat is removed from the water it is pumped back to the chiller barrel
to absorb more heat from the refrigerant. Some chillers do not have a condenser barrel to
remove the heat. The refrigerant is pumped into a condenser coil where a fan blows across
the coil and removes the heat. These chillers are cheaper to purchase upfront but not as
efficient to run as those with the condenser barrels. The upfront costs are less but the energy
costs are more over the long run. One bonus to an air cooled chiller is that it does not require
a cooling tower and therefore the maintenance costs associated with maintaining a cooling
tower.
Chilled Water System Basics - Chilled Water and Direct Expansion
Chilled water systems provide comfort to mainly commercial
buildings and are typically cheaper to operate than Direct
Expansion (DX) systems. While many buildings have DX
systems in the way of large rooftop units, the cost of
installation is generally cheap for the DX systems because all
that is required to install them is ductwork and electrical
service to the unit. With chilled water systems, chilled water
piping must be installed throughout the building and this can
be far more expensive to install over the plain old DX rooftop
units which supply conditioned air to a VAV system that has electric reheat in them.
Of course, adding state of the art controls like direct digital controls can improve any system
and take energy management to a whole new level of control and savings. So whether your
building utilizes chilled water or DX systems it will save energy dollars by adding a state of the
control system like DDC or direct digital controls to make it work as efficiently as possible. In
the picture, below left, a chilled water pipe had to be relocated. The gate valve that shut the
water off to that section of the loop was broken and could not be closed.
Pipe Freeze Machine
To prevent water from flooding
all over the floor and in the
space where the relocation of
the chilled water piping was
necessary, a piping freeze
machine was used to stop the
flow of water so that the
chilled water pipe could be cut
and re-soldered to accommodate its new location.
Pipe freezing also allows the new piping to be
soldered into place because it prevents water flow
inside the pipe. Copper pipe cannot be soldered if it has water inside it. For years plumbers
and HVAC technicians used bread or a mechanical stop to keep water out of the pipe so it
can be soldered. The bread rolled into a ball and inserted into the pipe, would prevent the
water from forming around the solder joint allowing it to be soldered.

Later, when full flow is restored, the bread breaks up and is caught in a strainer where it can
be removed from the system. With the freeze machine, once the water thaws, there is no
bread to contaminate the system or plug the strainers.
https://highperformancehvac.com/chilled-water-system-basics/

HEAT REJECTION
Heat rejection is the excess heat from a cooling system which is removed by the condenser/cooling tower.
Heat rejection is the total amount of heat energy which is transferred from the cool side to the warm side,
plus the work carried out by the compressor.
A cooling system transfers an amount of energy from the cool side to the warm side, along with the power that is fed to
the compressor in order to transfer the energy.
Most of the added energy is transferred to the coolant via the work carried out by the compressor. Thus, the amount of
energy to be removed from the warm side of the cooling system is the sum of the transferred energy and the added
energy. This total amount of heat energy is called heat rejection and is removed by the condenser/cooling tower.

https://www.grundfos.com/service-support/encyclopedia-search/heat-rejection.html