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Laboratory for Flow Control, Division of Energy and Environmental Systems, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, N13 W8 Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-8628, Japan
ABSTRACT
Frictional drag reduction due to bubble lubrication was investigated by measuring liquid films creeping along a wall within a two-phase turbulent boundary layer.
We developed noninvasive time-resolved ultrasonic pulse echography for imaging a liquid film at a profiling rate of 3 kHz and a spatial resolution of 50 μm. Various
film patterns were obtained for a 4-m-long flat-bottom model ship towed in a 100-m-long water tank, where a drag reduction rate of 30% was recorded for maximum
air injection. We found that the liquid-film thickness ranged from 50 to 150 wall units of the single-phase turbulent boundary layer; this film was thicker than the
buffer layer depth. With an increase in the air injection flow rate, the average thickness decreased close to the buffer layer limit while the skewness and kurtosis of the
probability density function of the film thickness increased. A sudden transition of the film form was detected according to the kurtosis, allowing the monitoring of
the criteria of the coalescence of dispersed bubbles into large elongated bubbles via ultrasonic pulse echography.
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: park@eng.hokudai.ac.jp (H.J. Park).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2018.12.025
Received 2 July 2018; Received in revised form 13 December 2018; Accepted 21 December 2018
Available online 22 December 2018
0894-1777/ © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
H.J. Park et al. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 103 (2019) 66–77
in that they do not disturb the film flow, which is sensitive to dis- model ship [35] during the operation of BDR. The final section of this
turbance. Among the listed measurement principles, ultrasound is re- paper discusses the correlation between the liquid film forms and the
latively easy to apply to a ship and it can be used to measure the film drag reduction performance.
thickness through a solid plate; i.e., nothing protrudes into the
boundary layer. Furthermore, in application to sea-sailing ships, elec-
tronic instruments are influenced by minerals and impurities in sea- 2. Experimental facility
water to destabilize the measurement. Other instruments of direct
contact type are often damaged by strong shear force on the hull, re- Fig. 2(a and b) shows schematic diagrams of a flat-bottom model
sulting in a limited duration of measurement. Applying of neutron or ship used in the measurements. The model ship is made of transparent
photon to the ship is infeasibly difficult for permanent installation be- acrylic plates having a length (L) of 4.0 m, height (H) of 0.5 m, and
cause of lack of enough interior spaces. Our previous paper [34] re- width (W) of 0.6 m. x, y, z coordinates are defined as the streamwise
ported the measurement principle of ultrasonic pulse echography for distance from the leading edge of the bow, the vertical depth from the
imaging bubbles in the wall proximity. It used only a single ultrasonic bottom plate, and the spanwise distance from the center of the ship. To
transducer installed at inside surface of ship hull and very simple maintain the one-dimensional spatial development of a turbulent
measurement principle. They give strong durability and allow real-time boundary layer on the plate, a leading edge and two side walls are
monitoring on the measurement. The present study applied the tech- adopted for the ship. The leading edge has a 45° bevel that minimizes
nique to the measurement of a liquid film that flows along a flat-bottom front-edge stagnation (Fig. 2(c)). The two side walls protrude 20 mm
from the bottom plate and are installed with side plates of the ship that
prevent effects of bow-generated splashing waves on flow into the
boundary layer. Air is pumped by a compressor and injected at
x = 0.7 m through 42 holes each having a diameter of 5 mm into the
boundary layer via an isothermal chamber to maintain constant tem-
perature (Fig. 2(d)). There are three measurement ports on the bottom
Table 1
Techniques for measuring the thickness of a film flow.
Signal source Measurement principle Authors
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H.J. Park et al. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 103 (2019) 66–77
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the model ship; (a) overall view, (b) side view, (c) details of the bow, (d) details of the bubble injector, and (e) details of the
measurement port.
plate at x = 1.1, 2.3, and 3.5 m. Each port has a shear stress sensor [35] Table 2
and an ultrasonic transducer (see Fig. 2(e)). The transducer is mounted Parameters of the measurement instruments.
in refractive-index-matching material at a tilt angle of θ = 8° approxi- Ultrasonic pulse generator
mately 28 mm from the sensor. For this setting, the propagation line of Ultrasonic basic frequency (fu) 4 MHz
the ultrasonic wave emitted from the transducer crosses the plate–water Number of cycle 4 –
interface at a distance of 25 mm from the sensor in the downstream Pulse repetition frequency 3.2 kHz
Voltage for ultrasonic emission 150 V
direction. The transducer is connected to an ultrasonic velocity profiler
(UVP-DUO MX, MET-FLOW S.A.) that generates an ultrasonic pulse and Ultrasonic transducer
Ultrasonic beam diameter 5 mm
a data logger (DIG-100M1002-PCI, CONTEC) that records ultrasonic
Divergence half-angle 2.2 deg.
echo signals. The index-matching material prevents multiple reflections
Data logger for recording ultrasonic echo
at the plate–water interface by reducing the difference in acoustic im-
Sampling frequency (fs) 50 MHz
pedance against water. Recording time 336 ms
The air flow rate is controlled by a flow controller, consisting of a Range of voltage ±2 V
thermometer, two pressure sensors, a servo valve, and a flowmeter as Resolution of voltage 4 mV
shown in Fig. 3. Controller system linked with a personal computer
maintains a fixed air flow rate even if the air pressure in the isothermal
chamber fluctuates. In terms of sailing the model ship, experiments for approximately 7 s. Information of the measurement system and
were performed using a towing train mounted on a water tank with towing facility is summarized in Tables 2 and 3.
length of 100 m and depth of 4 m at Hiroshima University, Hiroshima,
Japan. The train tows the model ship at a fixed speed (Umain) within the 3. Experimental conditions
range 0–3.0 m/s. The train can maintain the maximum speed, 3.0 m/s,
Fig. 4 shows the relationship between the frictional coefficient (Cf)
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of the synchronized system for multiple measuring instruments.
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H.J. Park et al. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 103 (2019) 66–77
Table 3 is similar to the length of our model ship. He found that the drag was
Dimensions, performance, and conditions of the towing test facility. almost extinguished at hA > 3 mm, where hA is the apparent air layer
Water tank thickness defined as
Length in towing direction 100 m QA
Depth 3.5 m hA =
Width 8.0 m WUmain (5)
Temperature of water 29 °C
Here W denotes the spanwise width of bubble injection. This quantity is
Properties of water estimated from the temperature often used to summarize the overall drag reduction rate of a ship hull
Density of water (ρ) 996 kg/m3
[38]. We here suppose that drag almost extinguished at hA ∼ 3 mm
Kinematic viscosity of water (ν) 0.847 × 10−6 m2/s
Speed of sound in water (c) 1507 m/s because the air film covered the whole plate. In the present experi-
ments, therefore, hA was set at 0.23 mm < hA < 2.08 mm because the
Towing train
Towing speed (Umain) 0–3.00 m/s air film did not cover the whole ship bottom.
The maximum mileage in the tank 80 m Sample snap images taken near the forward, mid-ship, and aft
measurement ports are shown in Figs. 5–7. The figures show that the
bubble shape depended on the experimental conditions Umain and QA.
When both parameters were set low, bubbles were tiny and spherical.
Under these conditions, bubbles were smaller than 8 mm, which is the
maximum bubble size possible in turbulent shear [39,40]. At higher QA,
the bubbles grew through coalescence owing to their increased mutual
contact. At maximum QA, film-like, large bubbles covered a wide area
of the hull and there were capillary waves on the bubbles. An increase
in Umain tended to elongate the bubbles. Additionally, by comparing
images taken at different locations, we confirm that states of bubbles
traveling in the turbulent boundary layer varied even for the same
experimental conditions. However, it is impossible to estimate the li-
quid-film thickness of individual bubbles from the images.
Fig. 8(a) shows an example of the time series of the raw echo am-
plitude distribution as bubbles are injected. The measurement was
made at the forward measurement port (x ∼ 1.1 m) for the experi-
mental conditions Umain = 2.0 m/s and QA ∼ 1.67 m3/s. Here, both
horizonal and vertical axes represent time. The vertical axis depicts the
echo signal of an individual pulse on the order of microseconds, and the
Fig. 4. Friction coefficient as a function of the Reynolds number [35], where repetition result is blown up on the horizontal axis on the order of
the two curves represent the Blasius friction law for laminar flows and the milliseconds. There was electronic noise generated by ultrasonic pulse
empirical friction coefficient for turbulent flows [36].
emission within 10.00 μs of the emission; i.e., tf < 10.00 μs. To avoid
the erroneous detection of bubbles from an echo with noise, a certain
and Reynolds number (Rex) measured for the model ship, where we distance, h, between the tip of the transducer and the bottom surface
define was secured for space to attenuate the noise. The gas–liquid interfaces
2 w0 allow the total reflection of the ultrasonic wave because of the very
Cf = large gap in acoustic impedance between air and water phases, and the
2
Umain (1)
echo signal should thus vary. Such variation appears around
and tf ∼ 20.00 μs in the example result. By subtracting the average echo
xUmain distribution measured under the single-phase condition from that of
Rex = bubbly flows, it is possible to detect the location of the upper surface of
(2)
the bubbles. The location detected by subtraction is shown in Fig. 8(b),
Here, τw0 is the shear stress in a single-phase flow measured using the where a gray line indicates the interface of the bottom plate.
shear stress sensor; τw0 ranged from 0 to 15 Pa in the test. In the figure, Considering a tilt angle of the transducer θ = 8°, the thickness of the
solid lines indicate the Blasius friction law for laminar boundary layers liquid film between the ship bottom and bubbles is calculated as
and the empirical friction coefficient proposed by Schlichting for tur-
bulent boundary layers [36]; these are respectively expressed as t f c cos
y= h
2 (6)
Cf = 1.328Rex 1/2
(3)
where h is the vertical distance between the tip of the transducer and
and the wall interface as seen in Fig. 2(e). Here, the spatial resolution and
0.558Cf 1/2 spatial accuracy are respectively evaluated as
Cf e = Rex 1 (4)
c / fs
Cf measured for the model ship approximately obeys Schlichting’s curve y= 15 µm
2 (7)
at Rex > 2 × 106. To ensure turbulent conditions, experiments were
performed at Umain > 2.0 m/s, and the corresponding minimum Rex at and
the forward measurement port (x = 1.1 m) was 2.6 × 106.
c/4fu
To generate bubbly flows beneath the ship bottom, the flow rate of y 50 µm
2 (8)
the air volume (QA) supplied to the bubble injector was set in the range
of 0.42–2.50 × 10−3 m3/s. Tokunaga [37] investigated frictional drag The maximum amplitude of the echo from the bubble surface varies
with bubble injection using a flat plate having a length of 3.5 m, which with the shape and size of bubbles [34]. If the maximum echo
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H.J. Park et al. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 103 (2019) 66–77
Fig. 5. Snap images of bubbles taken near the forward measurement port at x ∼ 1.1 m for various air flow rates and main-flow velocities, where hA is the corre-
sponding apparent air layer thickness.
Fig. 6. Snap images of bubbles taken near the mid-ship measurement port at x ∼ 2.2 m for various air flow rates and main-flow velocities, where hA is the corre-
sponding apparent air layer thickness.
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H.J. Park et al. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 103 (2019) 66–77
Fig. 7. Snap images of bubbles taken near the aft at x ∼ 3.3 m for various air flow rates and main-flow velocities, where hA is the corresponding apparent air layer
thickness.
amplitude is sufficiently high, the bubble surface will be detected at the maximum is located at a quarter and three quarters of a single cycle of
rising edge of the echo waveform. In contrast, the surface is barely the ultrasonic pulse. Therefore, the accuracy is determined as ap-
detected when the amplitude reaches the maximum value or cannot be proximately 50 μm for the current specifications. Here, we neglect un-
detected from the waveform. If the maximum amplitude is higher than certainty of the measurement caused by curvature of the upper surface
a threshold value for surface detection, the surface is detected within 1/ of a bubble, because almost bubbles have large sizes comparing with
4fu seconds from appearance of the echo waveform because the the ultrasonic beam diameter excepting the lowest QA condition and
Fig. 8. Example times series of ultrasonic measurement results; (a) raw echo amplitude distribution and (b) detected upper surface of bubbles, where a gray line
indicates the interface of the bottom plate.
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H.J. Park et al. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 103 (2019) 66–77
2
l= = =
u w Umain Cf (9)
where uτ is the friction velocity. For 2 < Umain < 3 m/s, the wall unit
is from 8 to 10 μm. The turbulent boundary layer obeys the universal
velocity profile law at 104 < Re < 107, a viscous sublayer exists from
0 to 5 wall units, a buffer layer exists from 5 to around 50 wall units,
and a log-law region exists beyond 50 wall units from the wall. The
liquid film interface appearing at the buffer layer border means that the
connecting log-law region is replaced by the air phase with less net
momentum. We also find that the liquid film has an asymmetric form in
the main flow direction in that the front part (left side in the figure) is
thick. A sharp fluctuation is detected by carefully observing the film at
t ∼ 50 ms. This fluctuation is attributed to the capillary wave standing
on the film subject to strong shear. A small bubble is also visible at cf.
3 ms < t < 9 ms, resulting in arch-like plots because of the spherical
interface.
Fig. 9. Example ultrasonic measurement results, where the streamwise length and thickness in the figure are converted from the time and time of flight in Fig. 8.
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H.J. Park et al. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 103 (2019) 66–77
0.18
hL hA Umain QA
= (0.01Frmax + 0.02) , Frmax = , hA =
h max h max gh max WUmain
(10)
where hmax is the maximum thickness of air bubbles that can be kept
beneath a flat plate in quiescent water [41]. Thus, hmax already ac-
counts for the surface tension of the gas–liquid interface. The right-
hand side of Eq. (10) gives the maximum Froude number Frmax and the
apparent air layer thickness hA. These parameters, hmax and Frmax, are
obtained from dimension analysis and are employed in the fitting
equation. Two numerical constants 0.01 and 0.02 are obtained for a
linear function assumed for the factor to hA. The effect of the traveling
distance was negligible compared with the effects of other parameters,
and we thus ignored it in the function. Three constants appearing in Eq.
(10) were determined employing the least-squares approach and all the
data obtained. Fig. 12 shows the relationship between hL and hA, where
symbols are measurements and solid curves are calculated using Eq.
(10). Coefficient of determination R2 between all average data and the
empirical equation is 0.79 and the figure confirms that the fitting
function represents well the average liquid-film thickness, which varies
with hA.
3
n xi x¯
Skewness =
(n 1)(n 2) (11) Fig. 11. Thickness of the liquid film between the ship bottom and bubbles
versus the gas flow rate QA, where vertical bars and gray lines indicate standard
and deviations and 1000 μm respectively; (a) Umain = 2.0 m/s, (b) 2.5 m/s and (c)
3.0 m/s.
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H.J. Park et al. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 103 (2019) 66–77
Figs. 5–7, the state of stress can be identified using skewness and kur-
tosis.
A sudden jump in values in the actual data (Fig. 13) is detected in
the forward part at QA > 1.5 × 10−3 m3/s. This indicates that small
spherical bubbles transform into air-cavity-type bubbles owing to
bubble coalescence. This transition further shapely occurs in the high-
speed case that Umean = 3.0 m/s.
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H.J. Park et al. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 103 (2019) 66–77
Fig. 13. Skewness and kurtosis of the probability density function of the liquid-film thickness, where zero values indicate a normal distribution.
Fig. 14. Example statistical characteristics of the liquid-film thickness above various types of bubble; (top) shapes of bubbles and (bottom) skewness and kurtosis; (a,
f, g) sketches of bubbles, (b–e) bubbles observed in a channel flow [10].
echography can sense liquid film profiles at a sampling frequency of reduction rate higher than 50%, bubbles left the liquid film with a
3.2 kHz and spatial resolution of 50 μm. This specification allowed us to thickness comparable to the buffer layer border. In contrast, for greater
quantitatively monitor film profiles during the passage of individual drag, bubbles left liquid films protruding into the log-law region of the
bubbles. We targeted the bubbly two-phase turbulent boundary layer boundary layer. The statistical analysis of the probability density
that has a spatial development beneath a 4-m-long flat-bottom model function of the liquid-film thickness revealed a morphological transi-
ship towed in a 100-m-long water tank. Measurements revealed that the tion of the film behavior from a dispersed bubble state to air-cavity-type
liquid film had a thickness in the range from 500 to 1200 μm, which is bubbles via the computation of skewness and kurtosis. These higher-
50 to 150 wall units of the single-phase turbulent boundary layer. As moment values of the liquid film have not be sensed by optical imaging
the air flow rate was increased to reduce drag, the average liquid-film but were quantitatively monitored for the first time with the present
thickness decreased as represented by Eq. (10). In the case of a drag time-resolved ultrasonic pulse echography.
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H.J. Park et al. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 103 (2019) 66–77
Fig. 15. Drag reduction rate, where bars indicate standard deviations; (a) forward and (b) mid-ship and aft measurement locations [35].
Fig. 16. Drag reduction rate versus liquid-film thickness, where bars indicate standard deviations in both directions; (a) forward and (b) mid-ship and aft mea-
surement locations.
Conflict of interest [9] A. Kitagawa, K. Hishida, Y. Kodama, Flow structure of microbubble-laden turbulent
channel flow measured by PIV combined with the shadow image technique, Exp.
Fluids 38 (2005) 466–475.
We wish to confirm that there are no known conflicts of interest [10] Y. Oishi, Y. Murai, Horizontal turbulent channel flow interacted by a single large
associated with this publication. bubble, Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 55 (2014) 128–139.
[11] S.A. Mäkiharju, C. Gabillet, B.G. Paik, N.A. Chang, M. Perlin, S.L. Ceccio, Time-
resolved two-dimensional X-ray densitometry of a two-phase flow downstream of a
Acknowledgment ventilated cavity, Exp. Fluid 54 (2013) 1561.
[12] H.J. Park, Y. Tasaka, Y. Oishi, Y. Murai, Vortical structures swept by a bubble
This work was supported by the Fundamental Research Developing swarm in turbulent boundary layers, Chem. Eng. Sci. 116 (2014) 486–496.
[13] Y. Murai, S. Ohta, A. Shigetomi, Y. Tasaka, Y. Takeda, Development of ultrasonic
Association for Shipbuilding and Offshore (REDAS), and JSPS KAKENHI void fraction profiler, Meas. Sci. Tech. 20 (2009) 114003.
under grant numbers 17 K14583 and 17H01245. We acknowledge Dr. [14] H.J. Park, Y. Tasaka, Y. Oishi, Y. Murai, Drag reduction promoted by repetitive
Oishi at Muroran Institute of Technology and Prof. Yasukawa at bubble injection in turbulent channel flows, Int. J. Multiphase Flow 75 (2015)
12–25.
Hiroshima University for their support relating to the experiments.
[15] V. Sobolík, O. Wein, J. Čermák, Simultaneous measurement of film thickness and
wall shear stress in wavy flow of non-Newtonian liquids, Collect. Czechosl. Chem.
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