Vinith Chauhan - Microwave and Radar Engineering With Lab Manual-University Science Press PDF

Microwave
and
Radar Engineering
With Lab Manual
MICROWAVE
AND
RADAR ENGINEERING
With Lab Manual
By
VINITH CHAUHAN
[M.Tech., MBA]
Head and Asst. Prof.
Department of ECE and EIC
St. Margaret Engineering College
Neemrana, Alwar, Rajasthan
(An Imprint of Laxmi Publications Pvt. Ltd.)

An ISO 9001 : 2008 Company
BENGALURU z CHENNAI z COCHIN z GUWAHATI z HYDERABAD
JALANDHAR z KOLKATA z LUCKNOW z MUMBAI z RANCHI z NEW DELHI
BOSTON (USA) z ACCRA (GHANA) z NAIROBI (KENYA)
MICROWAVE AND RADAR ENGINEERING WITH LAB MANUAL
© by Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.

All rights reserved including those of translation into other languages. In accordance with the Copyright (Amendment) Act, 2012,
no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise. Any such act or scanning, uploading, and or electronic sharing of any part of this
book without the permission of the publisher constitutes unlawful piracy and theft of the copyright holder’s intellectual property. If
you would like to use material from the book (other than for review purposes), prior written permission must be obtained from the
publishers.
Typeset at ABRO Enterprises, Delhi

First Edition : 2015
ISBN 978-93-83828-65-4
Limits of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: The publisher and the author make no representation or warranties with respect to the
accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and speciﬁcally disclaim all warranties. The advice, strategies, and activities
contained herein may not be suitable for every situation. In performing activities adult supervision must be sought. Likewise, common
sense and care are essential to the conduct of any and all activities, whether described in this book or otherwise. Neither the publisher
nor the author shall be liable or assumes any responsibility for any injuries or damages arising herefrom. The fact that an organization
or Website if referred to in this work as a citation and/or a potential source of further information does not mean that the author or
the publisher endorses the information the organization or Website may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers
must be aware that the Internet Websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written
and when it is read.
All trademarks, logos or any other mark such as Vibgyor, USP, Amanda, Golden Bells, Firewall Media, Mercury, Trinity, Laxmi appear-
ing in this work are trademarks and intellectual property owned by or licensed to Laxmi Publications, its subsidiaries or afﬁliates.
Notwithstanding this disclaimer, all other names and marks mentioned in this work are the trade names, trademarks or service
marks of their respective owners.
& Bengaluru 080-26 75 69 30

& Chennai 044-24 34 47 26, 24 35 95 07
& Cochin 0484-237 70 04, 405 13 03
& Guwahati 0361-254 36 69, 251 38 81
Branches
& Hyderabad 040-27 55 53 83, 27 55 53 93

& Jalandhar 0181-222 12 72
& Kolkata 033-22 27 43 84
Published in India by
& Lucknow 0522-220 99 16
& Mumbai 022-24 91 54 15, 24 92 78 69
UNIVERSITY SCIENCE PRESS

(An Imprint of Laxmi Publications Pvt.Ltd.)
& Ranchi 0651-220 44 64
An ISO 9001:2008 Company

113, GOLDEN HOUSE, DARYAGANJ,
NEW DELHI - 110002, INDIA
Telephone : 91-11-4353 2500, 4353 2501
Fax : 91-11-2325 2572, 4353 2528 C—
www.laxmipublications.com info@laxmipublications.com
D edicated to
My Parents
and
My Daughter
Riddhima
Contents
Preface .................................................................................................................... (xiii)

Acknowledgement ................................................................................................... (xiv)
Syllabus .......................................................................................................... (xv)—(xvi)
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVE ENGINEERING 1–11

1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Microwave Frequency Range ................................................................................. 2
1.3 Historical Resume of Microwave Engineering ......................................................... 3
1.4 Characteristic Features of Microwaves .................................................................... 4
1.5 Advantages of Microwaves ..................................................................................... 4
1.6 Applications of Microwaves ................................................................................... 6
1.7 Low Frequencies vs Microwaves ............................................................................ 9
1.8 Microwave Transmission Media ............................................................................ 10
1.9 Microwave Source ............................................................................................... 10
1.10 Safety in Microwaves .......................................................................................... 10
Review Questions ............................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 2 MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINES 12–138

2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 13
2.2 Multiconductor Transmission Lines ....................................................................... 14
2.3 Rectangular Waveguide ........................................................................................ 16
2.4 Waveguide Parameters ........................................................................................ 20
2.5 Solutions of Wave Equation in Rectangular Waveguide ......................................... 21
2.6 Expression for Phase Velocity, Group Velocity and Guide Wavelength .................. 35
2.7 Advantages of Having only the Dominant (TE10) Mode ........................................ 38
2.8 Waveguide as High Pass Filter ............................................................................. 38
2.9 Power Transmission in Rectangular Waveguide .................................................... 58
2.10 Power Losses in Rectangular Waveguide .............................................................. 61
2.11 Field Patterns for Rectangular Waveguide ............................................................ 71
(vii)
(viii)
2.12 Excitation of Modes in Rectangular Waveguide .................................................... 74

2.13 Comparison between Waveguide and Two-wire Transmission Line ....................... 78
2.14 Circular Waveguide .............................................................................................. 79
2.15 Why TEM Mode is not Possible in Waveguide? ................................................... 91
2.16 Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Circular Waveguides .................... 91
2.17 Field Pattern for Circular Waveguide ................................................................... 92
2.18 Methods of Excitation of Modes in Circular Waveguide ........................................ 94
2.19 Elliptical Waveguide ........................................................................................... 104
2.20 Materials for Waveguide .................................................................................... 105
2.21 Advantages of Waveguide .................................................................................. 105
2.22 Disadvantages of Waveguide .............................................................................. 106
2.23 Planar Transmission Lines ................................................................................. 107
2.24 Microstrip Line .................................................................................................. 110
2.25 Parallel Strip Lines ............................................................................................ 126
Keywords .......................................................................................................... 132
Review Questions ............................................................................................. 133
Objective Type Questions ................................................................................. 136
CHATER 3 MICROWAVE COMPONENTS 139–215

3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 140
3.2 S-Matrix Representation of Network .................................................................. 140
3.3 Advantages of S-Matrix ..................................................................................... 147
3.4 Waveguide Tees ................................................................................................ 147
3.5 Waveguide Bends, Corners and Twists ............................................................... 155
3.6 Hybrid Tee (Magic Tee) ..................................................................................... 157
3.7 Rat-race Junction (Magic Ring) .......................................................................... 162
3.8 Directional Coupler ........................................................................................... 164
3.9 Isolators and Circulators .................................................................................... 179
3.10 Circulator .......................................................................................................... 182
3.11 Impedance Matching Devices ............................................................................. 188
3.12 Microwave Attenuators ...................................................................................... 192
3.13 Phase Shifters ................................................................................................... 196
3.14 Matched Loads .................................................................................................. 198
3.15 Waveguide Coupling .......................................................................................... 200
3.16 Waveguide Transitions ....................................................................................... 204
3.17 Waveguide Discontinuities .................................................................................. 205
3.18 Slotted Line Carriage ........................................................................................ 207
3.19 VSWR Meter .................................................................................................... 208
3.20 Wave Meter ...................................................................................................... 209
(ix)
3.21 Summary of Transmission Line Components ..................................................... 211

Keywords .......................................................................................................... 212
CHAPTER 4 CAVITY RESONATORS 216–239

4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 216
4.2 Cavity Resonator ............................................................................................... 217
4.3 Mode of Cavity Resonators ............................................................................... 218
4.4 Rectangular Cavity Resonator ............................................................................ 220
4.5 Circular Cavity Resonator .................................................................................. 229
4.6 Re-entrant Cavities ............................................................................................ 230
4.7 Tuning of Cavity Resonator ............................................................................... 235
4.8 Applications of Cavity Resonator ....................................................................... 236
Keywords .......................................................................................................... 237
CHAPTER 5 MICROWAVE MEASUREMENTS 240–293

5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 240
5.2 Low Frequency vs Microwave Measurement ....................................................... 241
5.3 Microwave Test Bench-General Measurement Set-up .......................................... 242
5.4 High Frequency Limitation of Ordinary Diode and Bipolar Transistors ................ 248
5.5 Microwave Power Measurement ......................................................................... 249
5.6 Measurement of Impedance ............................................................................... 257
5.7 Network Analyser .............................................................................................. 262
5.8 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio Measurement ....................................................... 263
5.9 Microwave Frequency or Wavelength Measurement ............................................ 270
5.10 Measurement of Attenuation .............................................................................. 272
5.11 Measurement of Radiation Pattern of Antenna .................................................. 273
5.12 Detection of Microwave Signals ......................................................................... 281
5.13 Microwave Communication Link ........................................................................ 284
Keywords .......................................................................................................... 288
(x)
CHAPTER 6 MICROWAVE TUBES 294–400

6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 295
6.2 Limitations of Conventional Tubes at High Frequencies ...................................... 296
6.3 Klystron ............................................................................................................ 301
6.4 Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier ........................................................................... 302
6.5 Mathematical Analysis of Two Cavity Klystron ................................................... 304
6.6 Multicavity Klystron Amplifier ............................................................................ 329
6.7 Reflex Klystron .................................................................................................. 331
6.8 Travelling Wave Tube ........................................................................................ 352
6.9 Helix Travelling Wave Tube ............................................................................... 352
6.10 Several Slow Wave Structures ........................................................................... 356
6.11 Purpose of Attenuator ....................................................................................... 357
6.12 Small Signal Analysis of TWT ........................................................................... 357
6.13 Gain of TWTA .................................................................................................. 366
6.14 Efficiency Improvement of TWT ........................................................................ 373
6.15 Comparison between TWT Amplifier and Klystron Amplifier .............................. 374
6.16 Advantage of TWT Amplifier Over Klystron Amplifier ....................................... 375
6.17 Performance of TWTA ...................................................................................... 375
6.18 Introduction to Magnetron ................................................................................. 376
6.19 Magnetron ........................................................................................................ 376
6.20 Advantages of Cavity (Travelling Wave) Magnetron ............................................. 377
6.21 Cavity or Travelling Wave Magnetron ................................................................ 378
6.22 Mathematical Analysis of Cavity Magnetron ....................................................... 382
6.23 Mode Jumping and Mode Separation ................................................................ 385
6.24 Frequency Pushing and Pulling .......................................................................... 387
6.25 Cavity Magnetron Angular Frequency ................................................................ 387
6.26 Backward Cross Field Oscillator (BWO) .............................................................. 391
6.27 Forward Wave Crossed Field Amplifier (FWCFA or CFA) ................................... 393
6.28 Comparison of Various Microwave Tubes ........................................................... 395
Keywords .......................................................................................................... 396
CHAPTER 7 MICROWAVE SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE 401–479

7.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 402
7.2 Pin Diode ......................................................................................................... 402
7.3 Varactor Diode .................................................................................................. 414
7.4 Tunnel Diode (Esaki Diode) ............................................................................... 418
(xi)
7.5 Transferred Electron Devices (Gunn Diode) ........................................................ 432

7.6 Avalanche Transit Time Devices ........................................................................ 448
7.7 IMPATT Diode .................................................................................................. 448
7.8 TRAPATT Diode ............................................................................................... 456
7.9 Functions of Semiconductor Devices .................................................................. 460
7.10 Microwave Transistors ....................................................................................... 460
7.11 Advantages of Unipolar Transistor Over Bipolar Transistor ................................. 461
7.12 GaAs vs Si ....................................................................................................... 461
7.13 Microwave Bipolar Transistor (BJT) .................................................................... 461
7.14 Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET) ............................................................... 464
7.15 Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MESFET) ....................................... 466
7.16 Applications and Advantages of Various Solid State Devices .............................. 468
7.17 Performance Characteristics of Microwave Transistors ........................................ 469
7.18 MASER ............................................................................................................. 469
7.19 Parametric Amplifier ......................................................................................... 473
Keywords .......................................................................................................... 474
CHAPTER 8 PRINCIPLES OF RADAR 480–532

8.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 481
8.2 Basic Radar Concepts ....................................................................................... 481
8.3 Basic Radar System .......................................................................................... 482
8.4 Signal Routing in Radar .................................................................................... 484
8.5 Information Available from Radar System .......................................................... 484
8.6 Radar Frequencies ............................................................................................. 485
8.7 Advantages and Limitations of Radar ................................................................. 488
8.8 Radar Block Diagram ........................................................................................ 488
8.9 Radar Range Equation ....................................................................................... 489
8.10 Factors Affecting Radar Performance/Prediction of Radar Performance ............. 494
8.11 Range Ambiguity ............................................................................................... 500
8.12 False Alarm ...................................................................................................... 501
8.13 Doppler Effect ................................................................................................... 502
8.14 Classification of Radar ....................................................................................... 506
8.15 Common Parameters of Radar Pulse ................................................................. 507
8.16 Pulse and CW Radar ......................................................................................... 509
8.17 Simple Continuous Wave (CW) Radar ................................................................ 510
8.18 Frequency Modulated CW Radar ....................................................................... 512
8.19 Moving Target Indicator (MTI) Radar ................................................................. 515
(xii)
8.20 Blind Speed in MTI Radar ................................................................................ 518

8.21 Pulsed Doppler Radar ....................................................................................... 521
8.22 Limitations of MTI and Pulsed Doppler Radar ................................................... 525
8.23 Comparison between MTI and Pulsed Doppler Radar ........................................ 525
8.24 Applications Radar ............................................................................................ 526
8.25 Different Types of Radar ................................................................................... 528
Keywords .......................................................................................................... 529
CHAPTER 9 RADAR TRANSMITTERS AND RECEIVERS 533–580

9.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 534
9.2 Radar Transmitter ............................................................................................. 534
9.3 Division of Radar Transmitters ........................................................................... 535
9.4 Radar RF Sources ............................................................................................. 536
9.5 Vacuum Tube Transmitter .................................................................................. 537
9.6 Solid State Transmitter ...................................................................................... 537
9.7 Vacuum Tube vs Solid State Transmitter ............................................................ 538
9.8 Radar Receiver .................................................................................................. 540
9.9 Front End Amplifier .......................................................................................... 541
9.10 Modulators ........................................................................................................ 543
9.11 Mixer ................................................................................................................ 548
9.12 Duplexer ........................................................................................................... 550
9.13 Receiver Protector ............................................................................................. 554
9.14 Receiver Noise .................................................................................................. 554
9.15 Radar Antenna .................................................................................................. 557
9.16 Feed Systems for Paraboloid Reflector ............................................................... 560
9.17 Radar Display ................................................................................................... 564
9.18 Types of Radar Display ..................................................................................... 565
9.19 Radar Clutter .................................................................................................... 568
9.20 Types of Radar Clutter ...................................................................................... 570
9.21 Radar Equations for Surface Clutter ................................................................... 570
9.22 Sea Clutter ....................................................................................................... 572
9.23 Clutter Reduction .............................................................................................. 574
9.24 Land Clutter ...................................................................................................... 575
9.25 Radome ............................................................................................................ 575
Keywords .......................................................................................................... 576
Microwave Engineering Lab ........................................................ 581– 617

Preface
M
icrowave Engineering has been used extensively since World War II when the sources
were based on vacuum tubes. Microwaves are playing a vital role in communication
engineering such as radar system, satellite communication, TV broadcasting and mobile
communication, and have wide coverage in defense, medical, domestic and industrial applications.
A through knowledge of microwave engineering and its application is very necessary for B.Tech.
students pursuing course in Electronics and Communication Engineering.
This book is intended for all students for B.Tech., sixth semester of Electronics and
Communication Engineering, studying in different colleges affiliated to Uttar Pradesh Technical
University Lucknow, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak and other Indian Universities. It can
also be used as a reference tool for engineers and managers working in the various areas that
contribute to development, procurement, manufacture and applications of Microwave and Radar
Engineering.
The contents of the book is divided into nine chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the subject with
its background, advantages, and applications. Chapter 2 explains the various microwave transmission
line such as rectangular waveguide, circular waveguide, and planar transmission line. Chapter 3
deals with various microwave components like E-plane tee, H-plane tee, magic tee, directional
coupler, isolator and circulator. Chapter 4 is concentrated on explanation of various resonating
structures at microwave frequencies. Chapter 5 describes the measurement of various quantities
like wavelength, VSWR, impedance, attenuation, power, and radiation pattern at the microwave
frequencies. Chapter 6 discusses the basic microwave tubes like klystron, travelling wave tube,
magnetron, and BWO. These tubes are used in amplification and generation of microwave signals.
Chapter 7 deals with the microwave semiconductor devices like PIN diode, tunnel diode, varactor
diode, Gunn diode, IMPATT, and TRAPATT. Chapter 8 gives the basic principle, block diagram,
radar range equation, and types of radar. Chapter 9 explains the various components of radar
transmitter and receiver including radar antennas, display, and radar clutter. In addition, this book
also contains the laboratory manuals for Microwave lab, this will give clear ideas of conducting
experiments in the laboratory.
Students will find it easy, well-organized, lucid and self-explanatory. Each chapter contains a
large number of bottom box and comments, after each topic, which helps the students to understand
the basic concept. At the end of each chapter keywords, objective type questions, and previous
years UPTU/MDU exam based question has been given for self assessment.
Any suggestion for the improvement of the book would be cordially and thankfully accepted
with due regards.
—Author
(xiii)
Acknowledgement
I
sincerely thanks the management of St. Margaret Engg. College, Neemrana for the constant
encouragement and for providing the necessary facilities for completion of this book. I wish to
express my unlimited gratitude and thanks to Mr. Naveen Goswami (Managing Director, SMEC
Neemrana), Dr. Vivek Anand (Principal, SMEC Neemrana) and Prof. H.S. Yadav (Dean, SMEC
Neemrana) for their kind co-operation, consistence encouragement and support.
I would like to extend my thanks to Mr. K.M. Rai (Asst. Prof., SMEC Neemrana), Mr. F.B.
Sharma (Asst. Prof., GMEC, Ajmer), Mr. Hawa Singh (Asst. Prof., SMEC Neemrana), Mr. Manoj
Pandey (Asst. Prof., Amity University, Gurgaon), Mr. P.K. Nathaney (Asst. Prof., SMEC Neemrana),
Mr. Rahul Tayagi (Asst. Prof., SMEC Neemrana), Mr. Imran Ali (Asst. Prof., SMEC Neemrana),
Mr. Shashank Kumar (Asst. Prof., SMEC Neemrana) and all respected person who have directly
and indirectly helped me in my earnest efforts to accomplish this book.
Last but not the least, I would like to thanks my wife Mrs. Jaya Chauhan, who extended to
me generously all help, support and active assistance while writing this book.
—Author
(xiv)
Syllabus
Uttar Pradesh Technical University, Lucknow

EEC 603: Microwave Engineering
Unit Topics
1 Rectangular Waveguide: Field Components, TE, TM Modes, Dominant TE10

mode, Field Distribution, Power, Attenuation, Circular Waveguides: TE, TM modes.
Wave Velocities. Micro strip Transmission line (TL), Coupled TL, Strip TL, Coupled
Strip Line, Coplanar TL, Microwave Cavities.
2 Scattering Matrix, Passive Microwave Devices: Microwave Hybrid Circuits. ,

Terminations, Attenuators, Phase Shifters, Directional Couplers: Two Hole directional
couplers, S Matrix of a Directional coupler, Hybrid Couplers, Microwave Propagation
in ferrites, Faraday Rotation, Isolators, circulators. S parameter analysis of all
components.
3 Microwave Tubes: Limitation of Conventional Active Devices at Microwave

frequency, Two Cavity Klystron, Reflex Klystron. Magnetron, Travelling Wave Tube,
Backward.
Wave Oscillators: Their Schematic, Principle of operation, Performance
Characteristic and their applications.
4 Solid State Amplifiers and Oscillators: Microwave Bipolar Transistor, Microwave

tunnel diode, Microwave Field-effect Transistor, Transferred electron devices,
Avalanche.
Transit—Time Devices: IMPATT Diode, TRAPPAT Diode.
5 Microwave Measurements: General set-up of a microwave test bench, Slotted

line carriage, VSWR Meter, microwave power measurements techniques, Crystal
Detector, frequency measurement, wavelength measurements, Impedance and
Reflection coefficient, VSWR, Insertion and attenuation loss measurements,
measurement of antenna characteristics, microwave link design.
(xv)
Syllabus
Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak

EE-302-F Microwave and Radar Engineering
Unit Topics
1 Waveguides: Introduction, comparison with transmission lines, propagation in TE

and TM mode, rectangular waveguide, TEM mode in rectangular waveguide,
characteristic impedance, introduction to circular waveguides and planar transmission
lines.
2 Microwave Components and Tubes: Directional couplers, tees, hybrid ring, S

parameters, attenuators, cavity resonators, mixers and detectors, matched load,
phase shifter, wave meter, Ferrite devices: Isolators, circulators. Limitation of
conventional tubes; Construction, operation and properties of Klystron amplifier,
reflex Klystron, magnetron, TWT, BWO, crossed field amplifiers.
3 Microwave Solid State Devices and Measurements: Varactor diode, Tunnel

diode, Schottky diode, GUNN diode, IMPATT, TRAPATT and PIN diodes. MASER,
parametric amplifiers. Power measurement using calorimeter and bolometers
measurement of SWR, frequency, wavelength and impedance. Microwave bridges.
4 Radar: Block Diagram and operation, Radar Frequencies, Simple form of Radar
Equation, Prediction of Range Performance, Pulse Repetition frequency and Range
Ambiguities, Applications of Radar.
(xvi)
CHAPTER
1
Introduction to Microwave Engineering
Introduction
INSIDE THIS CHAPTER
Microwave Frequency Range

Historical Resume of Microwave Engineering
Characteristic Features of Microwaves
Advantages of Microwaves
Applications of Microwaves
Low Frequencies Vs Microwaves
Microwave Transmission Media
Microwave Source
Safety in Microwaves
Review Questions
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The word “Microwave” indicate itself, an electromagnetic wave having very short wavelength. The
microwave frequencies is generally used for those wavelength measured in centimeters. The
microwave frequencies band ranging approximately from 1 GHz to 300 GHz (30 cm to 1 mm).
The shortest wavelengths or highest frequencies are not clearly defined. At its high frequency edge,
it overlaps the infrared region. Sometimes higher frequencies (extending up to 600 GHz) are also
called microwaves. These waves present several interesting and usual features not found in other
portions of the electromagnetic frequency spectrum. These features make microwaves uniquely
suitable for several useful applications.
¾ Microwave spectrum ranging approximately from 1 GHz to 300 GHz.

¾ “Microwave” indicate, an EM wave having very short wavelength, generally in
order of cms.
1
2 Microwave Engineering
1.2 MICROWAVE FREQUENCY RANGE
The microwave frequency range includes ultra-high frequency (UHF) (0.3 – 3 GHz), super high
frequency (SHF) (3 – 30 GHz) and extremely high frequency (EHF) (30 – 300 GHz) signals. The
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) recommended microwave band as shown in
Table 1.1
Table 1.1. IEEE microwave frequency bands.
Band designation Frequency range in GHz
L band 1–2
S band 2–4
C band 4–8
X band 8 – 12
Ku band 12 – 18
K band 18 – 27
Ka band 27 – 40
Millimeter 40 – 300
Submillimeter > 300
Above 300 GHz, the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by Earth-atmosphere is so great

that it is effectively opaque (not transmitting light), until the atmosphere becomes transparent again
in the so called infrared and optical window frequency ranges.
Table 1.2 shows the various band of Radio spectrum and their application and Fig. 1.1 shows
the electromagnetic radio frequency spectrum.
Table 1.2. Radio spectrum and their application.

Band Frequency Wavelength Application
ELF 30–300 Hz 10–1 Mm Communication with submaries
VLF 3–30 kHz 100–10 km Long distance point-to-point communications
LF 30–300 kHz 10–1 km Point-to-point marine communication, time standard frequency
broadcast
MF 300–3000 kHz 1000–100 m Broadcasting and marine communication
HF 3–30 MHz 100–10 m Moderate and long distance communication of all types
VHF 30–300 MHz 100–1 m Television, FM service, aviation and police
UHF 300–3000 MHz 100–10 cm Short distance communication including Radar
SHF 3–30 GHz 10–1 cm Radar, microwave and space communication
EHF 30–300 GHz 10–1 mm Radar, microwave and space communication
Introduction to Microwave Engineering 3
f/Hz l/m
Gamma rays
21
10 –12
10
X-rays
18
10 –9
10
Ultraviolet
15
Visible light 10 –6
10
Infrared
12
Submm waves 10 –3
10
Millimeter waves EHF
SHF
Microwaves 9
10 UHF
1
Radio waves VHF
RF waves HF
6
10 3 MF
10
LF
VLF
3
10 6
10
Fig. 1.1. Electromagnetic spectrum.
¾ X-band (8–12 GHz) is normally used in laboratories.

¾ At microwaves, the wavelength of signal becomes comparable smaller than
physical size of component.
1.3 HISTORICAL RESUME OF MICROWAVE ENGINEERING
As already stated, microwaves are electromagnetic waves. Hence the history of microwave embodied
in the evolution of electromagnetic waves. There are some pioneers who have laid the foundations
of microwave engineering. Some of them are worth mentioning and described as follows.
In 1864, James C. Maxwell, the founder of the electromagnetic theory of radiation,
described the properties of electromagnetic fields in terms of 20 equations. These equations are
known as Maxwell’s Equations. He had predicted theoretically the existence of electric and magnetic
field associated with electromagnetic wave propagation.
In 1893, Heinrich Hertz first conducted an experiment to show that a parabolic antenna
fed by a dipole on excitation by a spark discharge, sends a signal by wave motion to a similar
receiving arrangement at a distance. He gave a strong experiment support for the theoretical
conclusions drawn by Maxwell for electromagnetic field.
In 1893, William Thomson, developed the waveguide theory for propagation of microwaves
in a guided structure, Later, in 1897, Lodge established the mode properties of propagation of
electromagnetic waves, in free space and in a hollow metallic tube known as the waveguide.
In 1895 – 1898, Sir J.C. Bose, generated millimeter waves using a circuit developed in
his laboratory and used these waves for communication. He also developed microwave horn
antennas which are still considered to be useful feeds for reflector antennas.
In 1937, Bross developed microwave vacuum tube Klystron. Kompfner (1944) developed
the microwave travelling tube, Perey Spencer (1946) built the microwave oven for domestic
cooking.
Some of the modern devices were developed after 1950, Deschamps (1953) developed the
microstrip antenna, J.B. Gunn (1963) developed the Gunn diode for microwave generation using
solid-state material such as GaAs.
1.4 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF MICROWAVES
The main characteristic features of microwaves originate from the small size of wavelengths in
relation to the sizes of components or devices commonly used. Since the wavelengths are small,
the phase varies rapidly with distance, so the techniques of circuit analysis and design, of
measurements and of power generation, and amplification at these frequencies are distinct from
those at lower frequencies. For dealing with these small wavelengths, methods of circuit
representations and analysis need to be modified. The phase difference caused by the interconnection
between various components or various parts of single components is not negligible.
So, analysis based on Kirchhoff’s laws and voltage-current concepts are not adequate to
describe the circuit behavior at microwave frequencies. It is necessary to analyse the circuit or the
component in terms of electric and magnetic fields associated with it.
¾ Microwaves are characterized by small size of wavelength and large bandwidth.

¾ At microwaves, phase varies rapidly with distance results the standing wave.
¾ At microwave frequencies, KVL, KCL and Ohm’s law are not adequate to describe
the circuit behavior.
1.5 ADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVES (MDU 2008)
When it comes to communication related applications, microwave frequency band has distinct
advantage over the low frequency bands. Some of unique advantages of microwave frequencies
over low frequencies include the following:
1. Increased bandwidth.
2. Improved directivity of antenna.
3. Reduced fading effect and higher reliability.
4. Low attenuation.
5. Lower power requirements.
1. Increased Bandwidth
Microwave frequencies usually refers to frequency band of 1 GHz to 300 GHz which is very large
compare to the signal bandwidth that we encounter such as 4 kHz for speech, 15 kHz for music
and 5 MHz for video. We find that this bandwidth is a very-very small fraction of the frequencies
in microwave frequency band. Availability of such a large bandwidth implies that a large amount
of information can be packaged in microwave frequency band. In the other words, it means higher
channel capacity, which is also evident from the Shannon-Hartly law
FG S IJ
The channel capacity, C = B log2 1 +
H N K ...(1.1)
where, C = Channel capacity,

B = Bandwidth of channel,
S
= Signal to noise ratio.
N
2. Improve Directivity of Antenna

Another advantage offered by microwave frequencies, again due to higher value of frequency or
shorter wavelength is higher directivity for a given antenna size. As frequency increase directivity
increases and beamwidth decreases. Hence the beamwidth of antenna radiation pattern is
proportional to λ/D, where λ is wavelength and D is diameter of the antenna. At microwave
frequencies, antenna size of several wavelength lead to smaller beam widths and an extremely
directed beam, just the same way as an optical lens focuses light rays. Small antenna size and high
directivity makes it practical to operate radar system at these frequencies.
3. Reduced* Fading Effect and Higher Reliability

Fading effect due to variation in transmission medium is more effective at low frequency. Due to
line of sight (LOS) propagation and high frequencies, there is less fading effect and hence a
microwave link are more reliable than lower frequency link.
4. Low Attenuation
Microwave frequencies suffer lower attenuation as they propagate through the ionised layer
surrounding the earth and also as they propagate through the atmosphere. This makes microwave
frequency band more attractive not only for terrestrial but also for extra-terrestrial communication
link.
5. Lower Power Requirements

Transmitter and receiver power requirements at microwave frequencies are also relatively smaller
than low frequency band.
¾ Microwaves have larger bandwidth (1 GHz to 300 GHz) compare to common bands.
¾ Greater bandwidth provides more room for information to be packed into the
transmission.
¾ Approximately fifteen hundred FM radio channel or fifty television channel could
be broadcast in microwave frequency band.
¾ At microwaves, directivity increases and beamwidth decreases.
¾ *Fading is a phenomenon in which the received signal strength is reduced due to
atmospheric effects like rain, wind and ground reflections.
1.6 APPLICATIONS OF MICROWAVES (MDU 2008)
Microwave technology has found applications in all major areas. In addition to the use of microwaves
in point to point communication, television broadcast services via satellite, radar systems, electronic
warfare, microwaves have a large range of consumer, industrial, biomedical, chemical, military and
scientific research applications. Broadly the applications can be in the areas listed below.
1.6.1 Communication Related Application

1. Radar System
Small antenna size and the property of reflection of microwaves from metallic surface make it
practical to operate radar systems at these frequencies. Radar is an electronic method of detecting
the presence of object at ranges and in circumstances where other means of detection are not
possible. Operation of the radar is based on the measurement of time it takes for a pulse
transmitted from an antenna to reflected by the object to be detected and return at the antenna
and the receiver.
Also, in many radars, a shift in the frequency of reflection signal caused by the doppler effect
can be recorded and velocity of the target can be calculated from this measurement. The reflection
from the object to be measured is significant only when the wavelength is much smaller than the
size of the object. For this reason, the radar could not become practicable at lower frequency and
had to wait for the development of microwave technology during the second world war period.
Today, radars constitute about 70 per cent of microwave equipments.
2. T.V. Broadcasting
Microwaves are used in broadcasting for television and for studio to transmitter links. However, as
remote broadcasting become more popular. TV stations saw an advantage in having field production
van equipped with microwave dishes, so that news, stories, athletic events, civic meeting etc. could
be covered live.
3. Satellite Communication
In satellite communication system the information is transmitted at microwave frequency through
a highly directional antenna from ground station to the satellite, which receives the signal through
an on board antenna, shifts the frequency and amplifier it by means of a low-noise wide-band
amplifier (transponder). Then this received signal is retransmitted towards the earth at frequency
2 GHz lower than the uplink frequency. The usual uplink frequency is 6 GHz and downlink
frequency is 4 GHz covering the C band. Satellites are used to handle the long distance telephone
traffic, to relay TV signals across oceans and to provide national TV cables directly to the home
(DTH).
4. Mobile Communication
Mobile communication is an important application of microwaves. The demand for mobile data
communication services has been growing at very rapid rate along with the explosive growth in
mobile telephony. The mobile base stations are connected to a mobile switching center which is
connected to a public switching telephone network (PSTN) to provide the connectivity to all
subscriber.
1.6.2 Microwave Weapons

Microwaves as Directed Energy Weapons (DEW) is an emerging military application of microwaves.
Microwave weapons have been described by some as the weapons of 21st century. While conventional
weapons rely on either the kinetic or chemical energy of a projectile to infect casualties and target
damage, a Directed Energy Weapon (DEW) produces there effects by depositing energy on the
target. Microwave DEW is emerging as a more potent player, the other being Laser based DEW.
Microwave-based DEW’s can be aimed at computers, electronics devices and even human being.
These have very strong physical and psychological effects and can be effectively used for military
activities.
1.6.3 Medical Applications

Microwaves are used for both diagnostic as well therapeutic purpose. Use of microwaves and
detection techniques for monitoring, imaging and sensing of biological and physiological functions
of human body are very common. Detection of neurology activity in brain, detection of breast
cancer, lung water are some example. Treatment of cancer is widely known application of microwave
energy.
1.6.4 Radio Astronomy and Remote Sensing Applications

The microwave radiometers are used to map atmospheric temperature, moisture condition in
soils and crops and other remote sensing applications.
1.6.5 Commercial and Industrial Applications

Microwaves heating have a large number of industrial applications including:
(a) Drying machines in food, textile and paper industry for drying cloths, printing material,
potato chips etc.
(b) Rubber industry, plastic industry, chemical industry for curing of rubber and material
processing.
(c) Mining and public works for breaking rocks, tunnel boring, drying and breaking concrete.
(d ) Agricultural applications include microwave warming of plant, heating of Corn field,
drying of cotton seed.
Microwaves has many other industrial application like drying inks, sterilizing pharmaceuticals,
sensing moisture of material, detecting cracks in metals etc.
(e) Microwave Oven: The most important commercial application of microwaves are
microwave ovens, is a popular home appliance with millions of homes mainly because this
type of oven cooks food very quickly and is very efficient in their use of electricity. A
microwave oven uses heating effect of microwaves to heat and cook food. The commonly
used frequency for the purpose is 2.5 GHz. The choice of this value is governed by the
fact that water, fats, sugars absorb radio waves in this band.
Operation of Microwave Oven

The basic parts of a microwave oven include a source of microwave energy, which is usually a
magnetron tube. A central section which contains a set of timers, a circuit to govern the power
output, and various safety and protection circuits and high voltage section which feed the microwaves
tube to generate microwave energy. Figure 1.2 shows the basic construction feature of microwave
oven.
Horn Rotating Cavity

metallic magnetron
blade
Power
supply
Plastic
ceiling Temperature
Food sensor
Control
circuit
Motor Rotating table
Fig. 1.2. Construction of microwave oven.

The microwave energy generated is feed to the cooking area by a waveguide. Microwave
energy gets reflected from metal walls and also reflects off the door with the help of a special metal
screen and thus reaches the food from all direction and microwave energy is absorbed by the food
and water. When they absorbed the energy, they get directly converted in atomic motion, which
in turn produces heat. Cooking in microwave oven is different then conventional oven. In conventional
oven, the heat has to conduct from outside to the middle and the process takes time with the result
that outside portion of food stuff may even burn before the inside gets even warm. In case of
microwave cooking, microwave penetrates the food and excites water and fat molecules uniformly
through the food. As the molecules are all excited together, there is heat everywhere all at once.
Various applications of microwave signals are shown in Fig. 1.3.
Microwave Applications
Communication Radar Industrial and Heating

Biomedical
Terrestrial Civilian Process control Industrial

Military
Satellite Drying Household
Air traffic control Navigation
Curing
Aircraft navigation Surveillance
Waste treatment
Space vehicles Guidance of
weapons Treatment of tumours
Law enforcement
Monitoring
Ship safety
Imaging
Remote sensing Electronic warfare
Mining
Fig. 1.3. Some applications of microwave.
¾ Microwaves has found application in all major area like communication, Industrial,
biomedical chemical, military and scientific research application.
¾ Several industrial applications involve microwave heating.
¾ Microwave signals are also used for industrial application such as food, rubber,
plastic, chemical and mining.
¾ Microwave radiation has also found some applications for medical hyperthermia or
localized heating of tumours.
1.7 LOW FREQUENCIES VS MICROWAVES
The electronics technology for microwaves has sort of lagged behind its low frequency counter
part. The knowledge for low frequency electronics is rich and relatively easy infact, what makes
designer’s or engineer’s life easy at low frequency and bit more difficult at microwave frequencies
is the size of signal’s wavelength. The wavelength of a low frequency signal is very large as
compared to the size of components processing them with the result that phase difference between
the signals at different test point is extremely small. Most importantly, this extremely small phase
difference implies that a standing wave, which is caused by the interference of forward signal and
its reflection, cannot be formed. Consequently, the solution of Maxwell’s Equations are greatly
simplified. Tools like Ohm’s law and network theorems come very handly and make low frequency
design relatively much easier.
On the other hand, a microwave circuit is not easy to analyse. At microwave frequencies,
the wavelength of the signal is comparable or sometimes even smaller than the physical dimensions
of the microwave components. The finite phase difference between the forward and reflected
waves leads to formation of standing wave. Also, high frequency effect such as capacitive coupling,
dielectric loss, radiation loss etc. make the microwave circuit design rather difficult and tedious. So,
analysis based on Kirchhoff’s laws and voltage-current concepts are not adequate. To describe the
circuit behavior at microwave frequencies, it is necessary to analyse the circuit or the component
in terms of electric and magnetic field associated with it. For this reason microwave engineering
is also known as electromagnetic engineering or applied electromagnetic.
Another important characteristic of microwaves is that they can propagate through the
ionosphere with minimum attenuation. Electromagnetic radiation of frequency up to few tens of
MHz cannot penetrate the ionosphere. These waves are reflected back towards earth. Microwave
can, however, go through the ionosphere and only suffer some reflection.
¾ At microwaves, KVL, KCL and Ohm’s law are not adequate to describe the circuit
behavior.
¾ At microwave frequencies, the wavelength of the signal is comparable or sometimes
even smaller than the physical dimensions of the microwave components.
¾ At microwaves, analysis of circuit or component is perform in term of electric and
magnetic field, i.e., field theory.
¾ Ionosphere*: A region above earth’s surface extending from 70 km to 500 km.
1.8 MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION MEDIA
At the microwave frequencies, the transmission medium are waveguides, stripline, microstrip line
and dielectric rods. A waveguides does the same job at microwaves which the transmission lines
like co-axial line, parallel wire line usually do at relatively lower frequencies. A waveguide is nothing
but a hallow metallic tube of uniform cross-section through which energy is transmitted in the form
of electromagnetic waves. The waveguide can be considered to be a boundary which confines the
waves to the space enclosed by boundary walls. There are two popular types of waveguide are
rectangular waveguide and circular waveguide. Other microwave transmission medium like strip
line, microstrip line and dielectric rod are used at higher microwave frequency.
1.9 MICROWAVE SOURCE
There are two type of microwave source one is microwave tube and other is solid-state source.
The microwave tubes are the vacuum tubes based devices operated on motion of electron in
vacuum under the influence of controlling electric or magnetic field and include the klystron,
magnetron, travelling wave tube. A solid-state source includes the field-effect transistor, tunnel
diode and Gunn diode.
1.10 SAFETY IN MICROWAVES
It should be noted that microwave signals fall within the non-ionized portion of the EM spectrum,
below the ionizing portion where X, gamma and cosmic rays reside. Microwave energy thus has
insufficient energy to ionize atoms and so is unable to change to DNA composition of human tissue
or cause cancer. However, the debate about safety of microwave link whether the heating effect
of microwaves has an adverse effect on humans or could accelerate the growth of cancerous cells.
The eyes and the testes are vulnerable because they have a low blood flow and therefore do not
efficiently dissipate the additional heat. The FCC has specified that the safety power density limit
for human exposure is 1 mW/cm2. It should be noted that in the case of microwave links the
output power, even with highly directional antennas, is very low (typically a few hundred watts) and
the signal strength falls off by the square of the distance. Once one is a few meters away from
a microwave antenna, the signal strength is very low and thus is considered to be no risk to the
general population.
For maintenance personnel, especially those who may climb the towers that the antennas are
mounted on, the risks are considered higher and the limits set are more stringent. Some telecoms
equipment transmits kilowatts of power and therefore it is often recommended that maintenance
personnel wear beeper to warn them of excessive power density levels and if necessary get the
transmit power of some equipment turned down at a site during maintenance work. Technical staff
should also ensure in a laboratory environment that they never look directly into a transmitting
horn feed or antenna and do not walk across the beam of an operating microwave link for
excessive periods.
R
1. Describe the advantages of microwave communication.
2. Describe the application of microwaves.
3. Explain the characteristics of microwave signals.
4. Explain the difference between microwave communication and low frequency communication.

CHAPTER
2
Microwave Transmission Lines
Introduction
Multiconductor Transmission Lines
Rectangular Waveguide
Waveguide Parameters
Solutions of Wave Equation in Rectangular Waveguide
Expression for Phase Velocity, Group Velocity and Guide Wavelength
Advantages of having only the Dominant (TE10) Mode
Waveguide as High Pass Filter
Power Transmission in Rectangular Waveguide
INSIDE THIS CHAPTER
Power Losses in Rectangular Waveguide

Field Patterns for Rectangular Waveguide
Excitation of Modes in Rectangular Waveguide
Comparison between Waveguide and Two-Wire Transmission Line
Circular Waveguide
Why TEM Mode is not Possible in Waveguide?
Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Circular Waveguide
Field Pattern for Circular Waveguide
Methods of Excitation of Modes in Circular Waveguide
Elliptical Waveguide
Materials for Waveguide
Advantages of Waveguide
Disadvantages of Waveguide
Planar Transmission Lines
Microstrip Line
Parallel Strip Lines
Keywords
Review Questions
Objective Type Questions
12
Microwave Transmission Lines 13
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The microwave circuits and devices form a section of microwave transmission line that are broadly
known as waveguide. The microwave signal travel as electromagnetic wave and many of propagation
concepts are same as transmission line. This chapter attempts to bridge the gap between
electromagnetic theory and microwave circuits. Conventional open wire lines are not suitable for
microwave transmission because high radiation losses that occur when the wavelength becomes
smaller than the physical length of these conventional open wire at high frequency. Waveguides
have the advantages of high-power-handling capability and low loss, but are bulky and expensive.
Coaxial lines have high bandwidth but it is difficult to fabricate complex microwave circuits with
them. Planar transmission lines were used much later and provided a very convenient system for
fabrication of complex microwave circuits. They include microstrip line, strip line, slot lines,
coplanar and many other structures.
Type of Microwave Transmission Lines: Microwave transmission lines may be divided
into following three category:
1. Multiconductor Line
(a) Co-axial lines
(b) Strip and microstrip line
(c) Slot line
(d) Coplanar lines.
2. Single Conductor Line or Waveguide
(a) Rectangular waveguide
(b) Circular waveguide.
3. Open-boundary structure
(a) Dielectric rod
(b) Open waveguide.
Mode of Propagation: In the microwave transmission line there are following possible
mode of propagation:
1. TEM Mode (Transverse Electromagnetic Mode).
2. TE Mode (Transverse Electric Mode).
3. TM Mode (Transverse Magnetic Mode).
4. HE Mode (Hybrid Mode).
1. TEM Mode (Transverse Electromagnetic Mode): In the TEM mode, electric field,
magnetic field and the direction of signal propagation are all mutually perpendicular to
each other same as the electromagnetic wave travels in free space. Hence both electric
and magnetic fields are purely transverse to the direction of propagation, i.e., there is no
electric and magnetic field component in the direction of propagation. If we consider the
direction of wave propagation in z-axis then there will no electric and magnetic field
component in the z-direction.
EZ = HZ = 0
In the coaxial line the mode of propagation is TEM mode.
2. TE Mode (Transverse Electric Mode): Only the electric field is purely transverse to
the direction of propagation and the magnetic field is not purely transverse, i.e., there is
no electric field component in the direction of propagation.
EZ = 0, HZ ≠ 0
TE mode is possible in the waveguide.
3. TM Mode (Transverse Magnetic Mode): Only magnetic field is purely transverse to
the direction of propagation and the electric field is not purely transverse, i.e., there is
no magnetic field component in the direction of propagation.
HZ = 0, EZ ≠ 0
TE mode is possible in waveguide.
4. HE Mode (Hybrid Mode): In general combination of TE and TM mode is called HE
mode. Here neither electric nor magnetic fields are purely transverse to the direction of
propagation.
EZ ≠ 0, HZ ≠ 0
HE mode is possible in open-boundary structure.
Ø Conventional open wire line is not suitable for microwave transmission due to high
radiation loss.
Ø Mode of propagation in coaxial line is TEM.
Ø Mode of propagation in waveguide is TE or TM.
Ø Open-boundary structure support HE mode.
2.2 MULTICONDUCTOR TRANSMISSION LINES (MDU 2008; UPTU 2003)
2.2.1 Coaxial Line

The coaxial line consist of two concentric conductor-one is the solid conductor (inner conductor)
with diameter d and other is the hollow metallic conductor (outside) with diameter D. There is
insulating material with dielectric constant ∈r between inner and outer conductor as shown in
Fig. 2.1.
P ro te ctio n Ja cke t O uter C e ntre
con du ctor D ie le ctric con du ctor
core
(a ) C o axia l lin es a nd TE M w a ve fie ld (b ) C ro ss-section vie w

Fig. 2.1. Coaxial line.
The two conductor acts as two lines of transmission line structure. It can be seen in this case
the field remain confined between the two conductor, therefore the radiation loss will be minimum.
The coaxial line support the TEM mode of propagation as shown in Fig. 2.2. From Fig. 2.2, we
can say about electric field and magnetic field line that.
E lin e
H lin e
Fig. 2.2. TEM mode of propagation in co-axial line.

• Electric field line touch the nearest conductor at right angle.
• Magnetic field lines will be in form of circular loop around the current carrying conductor.
Coaxial line can operate well up to 40 GHz due to development of precision connectors for
smaller diameter coaxial cables.
2.2.2 Strip and Microstrip Line

Strip line: Strip-type transmission lines which are planar transmission lines, are extensively used
in design and construction of complex microwave system and components. Strip lines can be
fabricated by employing printed circuit technologies (photolithograpy, chemical etching etc.) and
are easily integrated with other passive and active microwave device. A planar geometry implies
that the characteristics of the line can be determined from the dimensions in a single plane. Strip-
lines are essentially modification of the coaxial lines. Strip line consists of a central thin conducting
strip of width w which is greater than its thickness t, placed inside the low loss dielectric substance
of thickness b/2 between two wide ground plates as shown in Fig. 2.3.
Mode of propagation in strip line is TEM.
G ro un d p la n e
Îr w
t b
C e nte r
con du ctor
G ro un d p la n e E lectric fie ld line

M ag ne tic fie ld line
Fig. 2.3. Strip line.
The dominant mode for strip line is TEM mode and field are confined within transmission
line with no radiation.
Microstrip line: Microstrip line has asymmetrical configuration. It is nothing but a parallel
plate transmission line having dielectric substrate, one face of which is metallised ground plane and
the top face has a thin conducting strip of certain width ‘w’ and thickness ‘t’ as shown in Fig. 2.4.
The top ground plane is not present in a microstrip as compared to a strip line.
G ro un d p la n e
G ro un d p la n e
E lectric fie ld line

M ag ne tic fie ld line
Fig. 2.4. Microstrip line.

Modes on microstrip lines are only quasi-TEM mode so the field lines are not completely
confined within the transmission line. So the radiation loss in microstrip line will more.
Mode of propagation in microstrip line is quasi-TEM.
Ø In coaxial line field lines confined between the two conductor so radiation loss will
be minimum.
Ø Strip line and microstrip line are planar transmission lines.
Ø Strip line has low radiation loss.
Ø Strip line has symmetrical configuration.
2.3 RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE
A rectangular waveguide is a hollow metallic tube with a rectangular cross-section. The conducting
walls of rectangular waveguide confine the electromagnetic field and guide the electromagnetic
wave.
At microwave frequencies (above 1 GHz), the losses in the two-wire transmission system will
be very high and hence it cannot be used at microwave frequencies. Hence microwave signal are
propagated through the waveguide in order to minimize losses. The walls of the waveguide are
usually made of copper alloy (generally brass) or aluminium. The inside surface of waveguide is
coated with a thin layer of either gold or silver in order to improve the conductivity of the walls
and to ensure that the inside surface is smooth which reduces the losses inside the waveguide.
Consider a rectangular waveguide situated in the rectangular co-ordinate system with its
breadth along x-axis, width along y-axis and the wave is assumed to propagate along the positive
z-direction. Waveguide is filled with air as dielectric as shown in Fig. 2.5.
Ø Waveguide is hollow conducting tube.

Ø Materials generally preferred for waveguide are brass and aluminium.
Y
W a ve g uide
–z
n
a tio
ag
op
pr
a ve
b
W
X
O a
Fig. 2.5. Rectangular waveguide.
2.3.1 Waveguide Mode (MDU 2009; UPTU 2004)

There will in general be infinite number of possible electric and magnetic field configuration or field
pattern inside the waveguide if there was no upper limit for the frequency of the signal to be
transmitted. Each of these field configuration is called mode. These modes correspond to solutions
of Maxwell’s equation for particular waveguide. The electric and magnetic field in waveguide which
make up these mode patterns must satisfy the following physical laws:
1. At the surface of conductor, the electric field cannot have a component parallel to the
surface. In other words, the electric field must always be perpendicular to the surface at
a conductor.
2. Magnetic field is always parallel to the surface of the conductor. In other words, magnetic
field cannot have component perpendicular to the surface.
In general, there are two types of modes in waveguide.
(a) Transverse Electric (TE) Mode.
(b) Transverse Magnetic (TM) Mode.
(a) Transverse Electric (TE) Mode: In transverse electric mode there is no electric field
component in the direction of propagation, i.e., electric field lines are entirely transverse
to the direction of propagation whereas magnetic field has a component in the direction
of propagation. If z is the direction of propagation as shown in Fig. 2.6.
For TE mode
Ez = 0, Hz ≠ 0
(b) Transverse Magnetic (TM) Mode: In transverse magnetic mode there is no magnetic
field component in the direction of propagation, i.e., magnetic field lines are entirely
transverse to the direction of propagation whereas electric field has a component in the
direction of propagation.
Magnetic field is always parallel to the surface of the conductor.
For TM mode
Hz = 0, Ez ≠ 0
The electric and magnetic field lines are shown in Fig. 2.6.
n
a ti o
ag
ld op ld
f ie pr f ie
tic e ic
av et
ne W n
ag ag
M M
ld ld
fie fie
c c
tri tri
ec ec
El El
TE m od e TM m o de
Fig. 2.6. Mode of propagation in waveguide.

For various propagation mode, both TM and TE are designated by two subscript m and n
i.e., TEmn and TMmn. These subscript may defined as:
m = No. of half wave variations of electric (for TE mode) or magnetic field (for TM mode)
across the wider dimension ‘a’.
n = No. of half wave variation of electric (for TE mode) or magnetic field (for TM mode)
across the narrow dimension ‘b’.
For example, in TE10 mode, which is the simplest mode, there is only one-half wave variation
of electric field along the wide dimension ‘a‘ and there is no electric field variation along the narrow
dimension ‘b’. It may be mentioned that these subscript notation is only for rectangular waveguide.
In circular waveguide, the subscripts are there but they do not carry the same meaning as they
do in case of rectangular waveguide. Waveguide mode pattern in rectangular and circular waveguide
are discussed further in the later part of chapter.
Ø Possible electric and magnetic field configurations or field patterns inside the
waveguide are known as modes of propagation.
Ø Electric field must always be perpendicular to the surface of the conductor.
Ø Subscript ‘m’ represent the no. of half wave variations of field across the wider
dimension ‘a’.
Ø Subscript ‘n’ represent the no. of half wave variations of field across the narrow
dimension ‘b’.
2.3.2 Properties and Characteristics of Waveguides

Some important properties and characteristics of waveguides are given below:
1. The conducting walls of the waveguide confine the electromagnetic fields and thereby
guide the electromagnetic wave through multiple reflection as shown in Fig. 2.7. Thus a
number of distinct field configurations or modes can exist in waveguides.
M ultip le re fle ctio ns

W a lls of the
w a ve gu id e
l0
l0
z W a lls of the
w a ve gu id e
Fig. 2.7. Illustrating plane wave reflected in a waveguide.
2. When the waves travel longitudinally down the waveguide, the plane waves are reflected
from wall to wall as shown in Fig. 2.7. This process results in a component of either
electric or magnetic field in the direction of propagation of the resultant wave. Thus only
TE and TM waves can propagate through the waveguide.
3. TEM waves cannot propagate through the waveguide since it required an axial (inner)
conductor for axial current or an axial displacement current to support a transverse
magnetic field.
4. It is clear from Fig. 2.7 that the wavelength inside the waveguide (called guide wavelength
λg which will be discussed later) is quite different from the free-space wavelength λ0
because of multiple reflections from the walls of the guide. λg will always be greater than
λ0 (this will be proved later).
5. When the wavelength inside the waveguide differs from that outside the guide, the velocity
of wave propagating inside the waveguide must also be different from that through free
space. In the free space, waves travels with the velocity of light c = 3 × 108 m/s. But
the physical velocity inside the waveguide will be less than c.
6. In a 2 wire lossless transmission line, all frequency signals are allowed to propagate but
in a waveguide, there exists a cut-off frequency (fc) below which propagation is not
possible, i.e., all frequencies above fc are allowed to propagate and hence waveguide acts
as a high-pass filter.
Ø Electromagnetic wave propagate in waveguide through multiple reflection.

Ø The propagating wavelength inside the guide is called guide wavelength.
Ø Waveguide may consider as high pass filter.
2.3.3 Dominant and Degenerate Mode of Rectangular Waveguide

(UPTU 2011, 2010; MDU 2004)
A given waveguide has a definite cut-off frequency for each allowed mode. If the frequency of input
signal is above the cut-off frequency for a given mode, the electromagnetic energy can be transmitted
through the guide for that particular mode without attenuation so waveguide may consider as high
pass filter, otherwise the electromagnetic energy with a frequency below the cut-off frequency
for that particular mode will be attenuated.
Dominant Mode: The dominant mode in particular waveguide is the mode having the
lowest cut-off frequency (highest cut-off wavelength). It is advisable to choose the dimensions of a
guide in such a way that, for a given input signal, only the energy of dominant mode can be
transmitted through the guide. The minimum cut-off frequency for a rectangular waveguide is
obtained for dimension a > b for m = 1 and n = 0, i.e., TE10 mode is the dominant mode
for rectangular waveguide.
Degenerate Mode: Some of the higher order modes, having the same cut-off frequency are
called Degenerate Mode. It is seen that in rectangular waveguide possible TEmn and TMmn mode
both (m ≠ 0 and n ≠ 0) are always degenerate mode. In square guide (a = b) all the TEpq, TEqp,
TMpq and TMqp modes are together degenerate. Waveguide dimensions are, therefore, selected
such that higher order modes are not supported in the operating band and thus only desire mode
propagate through the guide.
Degenerate modes are higher mode having same cut-off frequency.
The walls of the waveguides can be considered as nearly perfect conductors. Therefore, the
boundary conductions require that electric field be normal, i.e., perpendicular to the waveguide
walls. The magnetic field must be tangential, i.e., parallel to the waveguide walls. Because of these
boundary conditions a zero subscript can exist in the TE mode but not in the TM mode. For
example TE01, TE10, TE20, TE30 etc. mode can exist in a rectangular waveguide but TM10, TM01,
TM20, TM02 etc. mode cannot exist in rectangular waveguide.
Ø Dominant mode has lowest cut-off frequency.

Ø TE10 is dominant mode for rectangular waveguide.
Ø Zero subscript is not possible in TM mode.
2.4 WAVEGUIDE PARAMETERS (UPTU 2011)
Important waveguide parameters include

1. Guide wavelength (λg )
2. Phase velocity (vp )
3. Group velocity (vg )
1. Guide Wavelength ( λ g ): Guide
wavelength, wavelength of the travelling
wave propagating inside the waveguide,
is always different from the free space lg
wavelength (λg). Guide wavelength (λg ) is
defined as the distance travelled by the
wave in order to undergo a phase shift
of 2π radians or 360° inside the
waveguide as shown in Fig. 2.8. Fig. 2.8. Guide wavelength in
waveguide.
It is related to the phase constant β by
2π
λg = ...(2.1)
β
2. Phase Velocity (vp ): The rate at which the wave changes its phase with respect to guide
wavelength (λg ) is defined as phase velocity (vp).
λg λg
Phase velocity (vp) = =
Unit time t
2πf ⋅ λ g 2πf
= λgf = =
2π 2π λ g
ω
Since vp = = λg f ...(2.2)
β
Phase velocity is also sometimes referred to as the D.C. velocity of wave propagation
inside the waveguide.
3. Group Velocity (vg): The rate at which the wave actually propagates inside the waveguide
is defined as the group velocity. Thus, group velocity is the actual physical velocity with
which the wave propagates inside the waveguide and is given by
dλ g dω
vg = = ...(2.3)
dt dβ
Group velocity is also sometimes referred to as the A.C. velocity of wave propagation
inside the waveguide. Group velocity is less than c, while phase velocity can be greater
than c.
Ø Guide wavelength is distance travelled by the wave, to undergo a phase shift of 2π π

radians.
Ø The rate at which the wave changes its phase with respect to guide wavelength (λ λ g)
is defined as phase velocity.
Ø Group velocity is the actual physical velocity with which the wave propagates inside
the waveguide.
2.5 SOLUTIONS OF WAVE EQUATION IN RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE
For the solutions of wave equation in rectangular waveguide we consider the rectangular co-
ordinate system and assuming that the walls are perfectly conducting and dielectric inside the
waveguide is lossless (σ = 0). However, for simplicity of the solution to wave equation in three
dimensions plus a time varying variable only the sinusoidal steady-state or frequency domain
solution will be given. Figure 2.9 shows the rectangular co-ordinate system of the rectangular
waveguide.
The electric and magnetic wave equations in frequency domain are given by
∇2E = γ2E ...(2.4)
2 2
∇ H = γ H ...(2.5)
These are called the vector wave equations Y
γ = jωµ (σ + jω ∈) = α + jβ
–z
where, γ = Propagation constant,
α = Attenuation constant,
β = Phase constant,
σ = Conductivity of medium in mhos/meter, b
∈ = Dielectric permittivity in farad/meter, O a

X
µ = Magnetic permeability in henry/meter, Fig. 2.9. Co-ordinates of a
ω = Angular frequency. rectangular waveguide.
Rectangular co-ordinates are the usual right hand system. The rectangular component of E
or H satisfy the complex scalar wave equations or Helmholtz equation
∇2ψ = γ2ψ ...(2.6)
The Helmholtz equation in rectangular co-ordinates is
∂2 ψ ∂2ψ ∂2ψ
+ + = γ2ψ
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z2
It is a inhomogeneous linear partial differential equation in three dimensions. By using the
method of separation of variable, solution may assumed in the form of
ψ = X(x) ⋅ Y(y) ⋅ Z(z) ...(2.7)
where, X(x) = Function of the x-co-ordinate only,
Y(y) = Function of the y-co-ordinate only,
Z(z) = Function of the z-co-ordinate only.
Substituting equation (2.7) in equation (2.6)
d2 X d2 Y d2 Z 2
2
⋅Y⋅Z+ 2
X⋅Z+ 2
X⋅Y = γ ⋅X⋅Y⋅Z ...(2.8)
dx dy dz
Divide the equation (2.8) to the resultant of the equation (2.7), i.e., XYZ, we get
1 d2 X 1 d2 Y 1 d2 Z
+ + = γ2 ...(2.9)
X dx 2 Y dy2 Z dz2
Since the sum of three terms on the left-hand side is constant and each term is independently
variable. It follows that each term must be equal to a constant.
2 2 2
Let the three terms be −kx , − ky and − kz respectively then the separation equation is given
by
−kx2 − k y2 − kz2 = γ2 ...(2.10)

The general solution of each differential equation in equation (2.9)
[comparing equations (2.9) and (2.10)]
d 2X
= −k2x X ...(2.11)
dx 2
d 2Y
= −k2y Y ...(2.12)
dy 2
d2 Z
= −k2z Z ...(2.13)
dz2
will be in the form of
X = A sin (kx x) + B cos (kx x) ...(2.14)
Y = C sin (ky y) + D cos (ky y) ...(2.15)
Z = E sin (kz z) + F cos (kz z) ...(2.16)
The total solution of the Helmholtz equation in rectangular co-ordinates from equation (2.7) is
ψ = [A sin (kx x) + B cos (kx x)] [C sin (ky y)
+ D cos (ky y)] [E sin (kz z) + F cos (kz z)] ...(2.17)
The propagation of wave is assumed in the positive z-direction. It should be noted that the
propagation constant γg in the waveguide differs from the intrinsic propagation constant γ of the
dielectric.
From equation (2.10)
Let γg2 = γ2 + k2x + k2y ...(2.18)
γ2g = γ2 + kc2 ...(2.19)
where kc = k2x + ky2 is called the cut-off wave number.
We know that for a lossless dielectric

γ2 = −ω2µ∈ ...(2.20)
Then, from equation (2.19),
γg = − ω 2 µ ∈ + kc2
γg = ± j ω 2 µ ∈ − kc2 ...(2.21)
There are three cases for the propagation constant γg in the waveguide.
Case I: When ωc2µ∈ = kc2 there will be no wave propagation in the guide, from
equation (2.21), γg = 0. This is the critical condition for cut-off propagation. Then cut-off frequency
is expressed as
From equation (2.18),
γ2 + kx2 + ky2 = 0 [Since γ2 = −ω2µ∈]
ωc2µ∈ = kx2 + ky2
1
fc = k x2 + ky2 ...(2.22)
2π µ ∈
Case II: When ω2µ∈ > kc2, the wave will be propagating in waveguide.
γg = ± j ω 2µ ∈− kc2
kc2
γg = ± jω µ ∈ 1 −
ω 2µ ∈
Since ωc2µ∈ = kc2
ω 2c
γg = ± jω µ ∈ 1 −
ω2
γg = ± jω µ ∈
Ff I
1− G J c
2
HfK ...(2.23)
γg = ± jβ g
This means that the operating frequency must be above the cut-off frequency in order for a
wave to propagate in the waveguide.
Case III: If ω2µ∈ < kc2, the wave will be attenuated
γg = ± ω µ ∈ j + 1 −
F fc2 I
GH f 2 JK
γg = ± ω µ ∈
Ff I2
2
GH f JK
c
−1 ...(2.24)
Thus, γg = ± αg
This means that if the operating frequency is below the cut-off frequency, the wave will decay
exponentially with respect to a factor of −αg z and there will be no wave propagation because the
propagation constant is a real quantity.
Therefore the solution to the Helmholtz equation in rectangular co-ordinates is given by
ψ = [A sin (kx x) + B cos (kx x)] [C sin (ky y) + D cos (kyy)]e− jββ gz ...(2.25)
Ø In solution of wave equation, the propagation of wave is assumed in the positive

z-direction.
Ø The system of propagation in waveguide is in accordance with ‘Field theory’.
2.5.1 TE Mode in Rectangular Waveguide (UPTU 2011; MDU 2001)

The TEmn mode in rectangular guide are characterized by Ez = 0. In other words, the z-component
of the magnetic field Hz must exist in order to have energy transmission in the waveguide.
The Helmholtz equation is
∇2Hz = γ2Hz
has a solution in the form of [from equation (2.25)]
Hz =
LMA sin
FG mπx IJ + B cos
FG mπx IJ OP × LMC sin
FG nπy IJ + D cos
FG nπy IJ OP e − jβ g z
...(2.26)
N m
H a K m
H a KQ N n
HbK n
H b KQ
will be determined in accordance with the given boundary conditions, where
mπ
kx = , m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
a
nπ
, ky = n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
b
For a lossless dielectric, Maxwell’s curl equations in frequency domain are
∇ × E = − j ωµH ...(2.27)
∇ × H = jω∈E ...(2.28)
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × E =
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ex Ey Ez
Components of equation (2.27) rectangular co-ordinates are

∂E z ∂E y
− = −j ωµHx ...(2.29)
∂y ∂z
∂E x ∂E z
− = −j ωµHy ...(2.30)
∂z ∂x
∂E y ∂E x
− = −j ωµHz ...(2.31)
∂x ∂y
Similarly components of equation (2.28) in rectangular co-ordinates are
∂H z ∂H y
− = j ω∈Ex ...(2.32)
∂y ∂z
∂H x ∂H z
− = j ω∈Ey ...(2.33)
∂z ∂x
∂H y ∂H x
− = j ω∈Ez ...(2.34)
∂x ∂y
Ø If wave is propagating in z-direction, then electric field component in z-direction

is
Ez = Eoz ⋅ e−γ
−γz
= Eoz e− jββ gz
Differentiating w.r.t. ‘z’, we get
∂E z
= Eoz e−γ
−γz
−γ
−γ)
(−γ
∂z
∂E z
−γ
−γ)
= Ez(−γ
∂z
Thus we can define an operator
∂
= −γ = − jβ
βg
∂z
∂
By substituting = − jβ g and Ez = 0. The above equations are simplified to
∂z
βg Ey = −ωµHx ...(2.35)
βg Ex = ωµHy ...(2.36)
∂E y ∂E x
− = −j ωµHz ...(2.37)
∂x ∂y
∂H z
+ jβ g H y = j ω∈E ...(2.38)
∂y x
∂H z
− jβ g H x − = j ω∈Ey ...(2.39)
∂x
∂H y ∂H x
− = 0 ...(2.40)
∂x ∂y
Now solving above six equations for Ex, EY, Hx and H Y in terms of Hz.
Substitute the value of HY f rom equation (2 .36), HY = ~ E

Wll x•
in equation (2.38), we get
{)H z + jp~ E
l
()y Wll X
()H"
()y
jE
X
[ro E- Wll
p~
{)H z = j.!;_ [rozl..l e - pz]
()y Wll g
Now replacing (ro 2 1..l e -P~ = kn·. we get
*From equation (2. 19)

--cor: -JJ.erand
~
k2
r
c
Since 2
1g = -jfig
then k2 lfig2 + C02JI.E
c
k2 C02JI.E - f3g2
c
Wll ()H z
Ex
1·k2
c
()y
_ jrol..l {)H z
EX = k2
.. .(2.41)
c
()y
From equation (2.36), by replacing value of Ex, we get
H pg jrol..l ()H z
y - roll . k2 .--ay ...(2.42)
c
...(2.43)
Now substitute the value of Hx from equation (2.35), i.e. , Hx = - ~ E

roll y
in equation (2.39),
we get
p~ - roe
1.E [ -
Y roll
l ()H"
dX
LM β 2
g − ω 2µ ∈ OP ∂H z
jE y =
MN ωµ PQ ∂x
2
where ω µ∈ − βg2 = kc2
ωµ ∂H z
Ey = j ...(2.44)
kc2 ∂x
Replacing the value of Ey, in equation (2.35), we get
β g ωµ ∂H z
Hx = − j
ωµ kc2 ∂x
jβ g ∂H z
Hx = − ⋅ ...(2.45)
kc2 ∂x
Therefore field equation for TE mode in rectangular waveguide is
− jωµ ∂H z
Ex = ...(2.46)
kc2 ∂y
jωµ ∂H z
Ey = ...(2.47)
kc2 ∂x
Ez = 0 ...(2.48)
jβ g ∂H z
Hz = − ...(2.49)
kc2 ∂x
jβ g ∂H z
Hy = − ...(2.50)
kc2 ∂y
Hz =
LMA sin
FG mπx IJ + B cos
FG mπx IJ OP × LMC sin
FG nπy IJ + D cos
N m
H a K m
H a KQ N n
HbK n
H b KQ
...(2.51)
where kc2 2
= ω µ∈ − βg2
Differentiating equation (2.26) with respect to x and y and then substituting the result in
equation (2.45) through equation (2.51) gives a set of field equations.
The boundary conditions are applied to the newly found field equations in such a way that
either the tangent component of electric field E or normal component of magnetic field H vanishes
at the surface of conductor.
Ø At the surface of waveguide, the tangent component of electric field will be vanish.
Ø At the surface of waveguide, the normal component of magnetic field will be
vanish.
Apply the boundary condition,

At y = 0 and b
Ex = 0
∂H z
Then = 0 [From equation (2.46)]
∂y
Hence Cn = 0 [In equation (2.26)]
At x = 0 and a
Ey = 0
∂H z
Then = 0 [From equation (2.47)]
∂x
Hence, Am = 0 [In equation (2.26)]
It is generally concluded that normal derivative of Hz must vanish at the conducting surface,
that is, at the waveguide walls
∂H z ∂H z ∂H z
⇒ = = 0 ...(2.52)
∂n ∂x ∂y
Therefore, the magnetic field in the positive z-direction is given by, substituting Cn = 0 and
Am = 0 in equation (2.26),
Hz = B mD n cos
FG mπx IJ cos FG nπy IJ e − jβ g z
H a K HbK
where, BmDn = Hoz is amplitude constant
Hz = H oz cos
...(2.53)
H a K HbK
Substitution of equation (2.53) in equation (2.46) through equation (2.51) gives the TEmn field
equation in rectangular waveguides
Ex = −
jωµ
⋅
∂ FG
H oz cos
mπxFG
cos
IJ
FG IJ
nπy − jβ g z
e
IJ
kc2 ∂y H a H b K
H K K
Ex = +
jωµ nπ
H cos G
F mπx IJ sin FG nπy IJ e − jβ g z
k 2
c
b H a K HbK
oz
Ex = E cos G
...(2.54)
ox
H a K HbK
Similarly, we can find out Ey, Ez, Hx, Hy and Hz
Hence the field equation for TEmn mode for rectangular waveguide is given by
Ex = Eox cos
FG mπx IJ sin FG nπy IJ e − jβ g z
...(2.55)
H a K HbK
Ey = Eoy
F mπx IJ cos FG nπy IJ e
sin G
− jβ g z
...(2.56)
H a K HbK
Ez = 0 ...(2.57)
Hx = H ox sin
...(2.58)
H a K HbK
Hy = H oy sin
...(2.59)
H a K HbK
Hz = Hoz
F mπx IJ sin FG nπy IJ e
cos G
− jβ g z
H a K HbK
= Hoz
cos G
− jβ g z
...(2.60)
H a K HbK
Cut-off frequency: (MDU 2007; UPTU 2004)
The cut-off wave number kc is defined as
kc = kc2 + ky2
mπ nπ
where, kx = and ky = ,
a b
kc =
FG mπ IJ + FG nπ IJ
2 2
. ...(2.61)
H aK HbK
γg2 = γ2 + kc2
for the cut-off condition, there will be no wave propagation in waveguide
i.e., γg2 = 0
We know that propagation constant for lossless dielectric γ2 = −ω2µ∈
Then, kc2 = ωc2µ∈
(Replacing ω by cut-off angular frequency ωc )
kc = ω c µ ∈
or
2 2
= ω c µ ∈ = 2πfc µ ∈
H a K HbK
fc =
1 FG mIJ + FG nIJ
2 2
...(2.62)
2 µ∈ H a K H bK
1
We know that = c = velocity of light (if dielectric is air)
µ∈
fc =
c FG m IJ + FG n IJ
2 2
...(2.63)
2 H a K Hb K
In term of wavelength (c = f λ)
2
λc = ...(2.64)
FG m IJ + FG n IJ
2 2
H a K Hb K
Ø The dimensions of waveguide determine the longest wavelength, and hence lowest
frequency called cut-off frequency.
Ø Cut-off frequency is a function of the modes and waveguide dimensions.
Ø For dominant TE10 mode, m = 1 and n = 0, cut-off wavelength is λ c = 2a.
Propagation constant (or phase constant here β g ):

γg = ± j ω 2 µ ∈ − kc2 = α + jβ g
Therefore, βg = ω 2 µ ∈ − kc2
F1 − k I 2
βg = ω µ ∈ GH ω µ ∈JK 2
c
F1 − k + k I
2
x
2
y
βg = ω µ ∈ GH ω µ ∈ JK 2
F F mπ I + F nπ I I 2 2
GG GH a JK GH b JK JJ
βg = ω µ ∈
GG1 − ω µ ∈ JJ 2
H K
F mI F n I
π G J +π G J
2
2
2
2
βg = ω µ ∈ 1−
H a K H bK
4π 2 f 2 µ ∈
FG mIJ + FG nIJ 2 2
βg = ω µ ∈ 1−
H a K H bK ⋅
1
4µ ∈ f2
FG mIJ + FG nIJ
2 2
where
H a K H bK = fc2
4µ ∈
βg = ω µ ∈ 1 −
FG f IJ c
2
...(2.65)
HfK
or βg = ω µ ∈
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
...(2.66)
Hλ K c
where c = fλo, λo is free space wavelength.

Ø Propagation constant is a measure of the attenuation and the phase shift of

incident wave travelling from source to load.
Ø Phase constant (ββg) is the imaginary part of propagation constant. It is measure of
the velocity at which a point of constant phase is propagated.
Ø Unit of phase constant (β
βg ) is rad/m.
Characteristic Wave Impedance

Wave impedance of a wave as seen along the direction of propagation is defined as the ratio
of the strength of electric field along one transverse direction to the strength of magnetic field along
the other transverse direction given by
Zz = Wave impedance along z-direction
The characteristic wave impedance of TEmn mode is
Ex Ey
ZTE = = −
Hy Hx
From equations (2.50) and (2.46), we get
ωµ
ZTE =
βg
Substitute the value of βg, we get
ωµ
ZTE =
ω µ ∈ 1−
FG f IJ
c
2
HfK
µ
ZTE = ∈
1−
FG f IJ
c
2
HfK
η
ZTE = ...(2.67)
Ff I
1− G J c
2
HfK
µ
where η = = 120π is intrinsic impendance in an unbounded dielectric.
∈
η
or ZTE = ...(2.68)
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
Hλ K c
Ø Wave impedance is the ratio of electric field strength along one transverse direction
to the magnetic field strength along other transverse direction.
2.5.2 TM Mode in Rectangular Waveguide (UPTU 2011)

For TM (transverse-magnetic) mode, the magnetic field exists only along transverse directions and
no component along the direction of propagation.
But electric field can exist along all the directions.
Thus for a TM mode, Hz = 0, Ez ≠ 0.
The Helmholtz equation for E in the rectangular co-ordinates is given by
∇2Ez = γ2 Ez ...(2.69)
Solution of the Helmholtz equation [similar to equation (2.25)] is in the from of
Ez =
LMA sin
FG mπx IJ + B cos
FG mπx IJ OP LMC sin
FG nπy IJ + D cos
...(2.70)
N m
H aK m
H b KQ N n
HbK n
H b KQ
The boundary condition of Ez require that the field vanishes at the waveguide walls, since the
tangent component of the electric field Ez is zero on the conducting surface. Since equation (2.70)
is valid for all values of x varying from 0 to a, to satisfy this we must have
Bm ⇒ 0
Similarly equation (2.70) is valid for all values of y varying from 0 to b, to satisfy this we must
have
Dn ⇒ 0
Thus the solution of Helmholtz equation [eqn. (2.70)] reduces to
Ez = E oz sin
...(2.71)
H a K HbK
Let Eoz = Am ⋅ Cn
In equation (2.71), if either m = 0 or n = 0.
Then Ez = 0, since sin 0° = 0
Thus field intensities will vanish. So TM01 or TM10 mode is not possible in rectangular
waveguide. (UPTU 2007, 2004, 2003)
Ø If either m = 0 or n = 0, the field intensities will vanish. So, TM01 or TM10

mode is not possible in rectangular waveguide.
The field equations, after expanding ∇ × E = −j ω∈H and, ∇ × H = jω∈E are

∂E z ∂E y
− = −j ωµHx ...(2.72)
∂y ∂z
∂E x ∂E z
− = −j ωµHy ...(2.73)
∂z ∂x
∂E y ∂E x
− = −jωµHz ...(2.74)
∂x ∂y
∂H z ∂H y
− = jω∈Ex ...(2.75)
∂y ∂z
∂H x ∂H z
− = jω∈Ey ...(2.76)
∂z ∂x
∂H y ∂H x
− = jω∈Ez ...(2.77)
∂x ∂y
∂
With the substitution = −jβg and Hz = 0, the above equations are simplified to
∂z
∂E z
+ jβ g E y = −jωµH ...(2.78)
∂y x
∂E z
jβ g E x + = jωµHy ...(2.79)
∂x
∂E y ∂E x
− = 0 ...(2.80)
∂x ∂y
βg Hy = ω∈Ex ...(2.81)
−βg Hx = ω∈Ey ...(2.82)
∂H y ∂H x
− = jω∈Ez ...(2.83)
∂x ∂y
As we have solved in case of TE mode, similarly we can solve these six equations for Ex, Ey,
Hx and Hy in terms of Ez
jβ g ∂E z
Ex = − ...(2.84)
kc2 ∂x
jβ g ∂E z
Ey = − ...(2.85)
kc2 ∂y
Ez = E oz sin
...(2.86)
H a K HbK
jω ∈ ∂ E z
Hz = ...(2.87)
kc2 ∂y
jω ∈ ∂E z
Hy = − ...(2.88)
kc2 ∂x
Hz = 0 ...(2.89)
where βg2 2
− ω µ∈ = −kc 2
Now differentiating equation (2.71) with respect to x and y and substituting in

equations (2.84), (2.85), (2.87) and (2.88), we get field equations for TMmn mode in rectangular
waveguide
Ex = Eox cos FG mπx IJ sin FG nπy IJ e − jβ g z

...(2.90)
H a K HbK
Ey = Eoy
sin G
− jβ g z
...(2.91)
H a K HbK
 mπ x  n π y  − jβ g z
Ez = Eoz sin  sin  e
 a   b 
...(2.92)
 mπ x  n πy  − jβ g z
Hx = Hox sin  cos  e
 a   b 
...(2.93)
 mπ x  n πy  − jβ g z
Hy = Hoy sin  sin  e
 a   b 
...(2.94)
Hz = 0 ...(2.95)
Now we can find the various TM-mode characteristic similarly as we have done in TE mode
case. Some of TM mode characteristics equations are identical to those of the TE modes, but some
are different. For convenience, all are given below
Cut-off frequency
fc =
1 FG m IJ + FG n IJ
2 2
...(2.96)
2 µ∈ H a K Hb K
Cut-off wavelength
2
λc = ...(2.97)
FG m IJ + FG n IJ
2 2
H a K Hb K
Propagation constant
βg = ω µ ∈ 1 −
FG f IJ c
2
...(2.98)
HfK
Guided wavelength
λ0
λg = ...(2.99)
Ff I
1− G J c
2
HfK
Phase velocity
vc
vp = ...(2.100)
1−
FG IJfc
2
HfK
Characteristic wave impedance
βg
ZTM =
ω∈
ZTM = η 1 −
FG f IJ c
2
...(2.101)
HfK
where η = µ ∈ is the intrinsic impedance.
2.5.3 Comparison Between TE and TM Mode

Table 2.1 shows comparison between TE and TM mode of waveguide
Table 2.1. Comparison between TE and TM mode.
S.No. TE mode TM mode
1. It is tansverse electric mode. It is transverse magnetic mode.

2. There is no electric field component in the There is no magnetic field component in the
direction of propagation, there is only direction of propagation, there is only electric
magnetic field component in direction of field component in direction of propagation.
propagation.
3. Dominant mode is TE10 mode. Dominant mode is TM11 mode.
4. Cut-off frequency of dominant mode is less Cut-off frequency of dominant mode is more
than TE11 mode. than TE10 mode.
5. TE01 and TE10 modes exists. TM01 and TM10 modes does not exist.
6. Cut-off wavelength for dominant mode is Cut-off wavelength for the dominant mode is
2a. 2ab
a2 + b2
2.6 EXPRESSION FOR PHASE VELOCITY, GROUP VELOCITY AND

GUIDE WAVELENGTH (MDU 2009)
2.6.1 Expression for Phase Velocity (vp )

We know that phase velocity
ω
vp =
β
Phase constant (β) is given [From equation (2.65)]
β = ω µ ∈ 1−
FG f IJc
2
HfK
or β = ω µ∈
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
Hλ K c
1
Then vp =
µ ∈ 1−
Fλ Io
2
GH λ JK
c
When the dielectric is air, then

1 1
= = c
µ∈ µ o ∈o
c
vp = ...(2.102)
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
Hλ K c
c
or vp = ...(2.103)
Ff I
1− G J c
2
HfK
Ø Group velocity is the actual physical velocity of wave inside the waveguide.
2.6.2 Expression for Group Velocity (MDU 2009)

We know that group velocity
dω
vg =
dβ
and β = ω µ ∈ 1−
FG f IJ c
2
HfK
β = ω µ∈
Fω I
1− G J c
2
HωK
ω 2 − ω 2c
β = ω µ∈
ω2
β = µ ∈ ω 2 − ω 2c
Differentiating with respect to ω, we get
dβ 1
= µ∈ 2ω
dω 2 ω 2 − ω 2c
dω 1 ω 2 − ω c2
Then vg = = ...(2.104)
dβ µ∈ ω
1 1
If dielectric is air, = = c
µ∈ µ o ∈o
vg = c 1 −
FG ω IJ c
2
HωK
vg = c
Ff I
1− G J c
2
...(2.105)
HfK
Fλ I
1− G 0
2
or vg = c
H λ JK c
...(2.106)
Consider the product of vp and vg from equations (2.102) and (2.106)
c
⋅c 1−
Fλ I
o
2
vpvg =
Fλ I GH λ JK
c
1− o
GH λ JK
c
Thus relation between vp and vg is

vpvg = c2 ...(2.107)
Ø In waveguide, group velocity is lesser than phase velocity.
λg )
2.6.3 Expression for Guide Wavelength (λ (UPTU 2011; MDU 2003)
We know that
c
vp = λ g ⋅ f = λ g ⋅ ...[2.108 (a)]
λo
c
Since vp = ...[2.108 (b)]
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
Hλ K c
Substituting vp, we get

c c
= λg ⋅
λo
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
Hλ K c
λ0
λg = ...(2.109)
1−
Fλ I 0
2
GH λ JK
c
Since the denominator n of equation (2.109) is less than 1, we can conclude that the
wavelength inside the waveguide is greater than the wavelength outside the waveguide, i.e.,
λg > λo .
From equation [2.108 (a)], the phase velocity is the product of wavelength (λg) and frequency (f)
and since λg > λ, it appears as phase velocity (vp) is greater than speed of light. This appears to
contradict the law that no signal can be transmitted faster than the speed of light. In waveguide
also, it is found that intelligence or modulation does not travel at a velocity (vp). vp is termed as
the velocity of phase or phase velocity. When a modulated carrier travels through a waveguide,
the modulation envelope travels with a velocity much less than that of carrier and even less than
the speed of light. The velocity of modulation envelope is called group velocity (vg).
Equation (2.109) may be written as

λ2o
λ2g =
F1 − λ I 2
GH λ JK o
2
c
λ2gλ2c − λ2gλ2o = λ2oλ2c

Dividing λ2g λ2c λ2o, we get
1 1 1
− =
λ2o λ2c λ2g
1 1 1
+ =
λ 2g λ c2 λ o2
Ø Relation between phase velocity and group velocity is vpvg = c2, where c = velocity
of light.
Ø Wavelength inside the waveguide is greater than the wavelength outside the
waveguide.
2.7 ADVANTAGES OF HAVING ONLY THE DOMINANT (TE10) MODE

(UPTU 2006)
In practice, the dimensions of the waveguide and operating frequency are so chosen that only the
dominant mode (TE10 mode) propagates through the waveguide. The advantages of having only
TE10 mode are as follows:
1. There cannot be any interference with other modes and hence noise and distortion are
minimized when only TE10 mode propagates through the waveguide.
2. The cut-off wavelength (λc = 2a) depends only on the larger dimension ‘a’ of the waveguide
and is independent of the other dimension.
3. It is very easy to excite TE10 mode inside the waveguide as compared to other modes
which require complicated arrangement.
Ø For dominant mode, noise and distortion will be minimum.

Ø Dominant mode is very easy to excite inside the waveguide.
2.8 WAVEGUIDE AS HIGH PASS FILTER (MDU 2007)
For a rectangular waveguide at lower frequencies
ω2µ∈ <
2 2
H a K HbK
The wave is completely attenuated and there is no phase change. The wave can not propagate.
At higher frequencies
2
ω µ∈ >
2 2
H a K HbK
The wave propagates because the phase changes. Therefore, frequency above cut-off
frequencies will pass and other will be attenuated hence waveguide acts as high pass filter.
Example 2.1. Show that the TM01 and TM10 modes in rectangular waveguide do not
exist.
Solution. We know that field equation for TM modes are [from equations (2.84) to (2.89)]
− jβ g ∂E z
Ex =
kc2 ∂x
− jβ g ∂E z
Ey =
kc2 ∂y
Ez = E oz sin
H aK HbK
jω ∈ ∂ E z
Hx =
kc2 ∂y
jω ∈ ∂E z
Hy = −
kc2 ∂x
Hz = 0
For TM01 mode (m = 0, n = 1)
b g FGH πby IJK e

Ez = E oz sin 0 sin
− jβ g z
, Since 0° = 0
Thus, Ez = 0
Ex = 0
Ey = 0 [ Ez = 0]
Similarly, for magnetic field equation
Hz = 0
jω ∈ ∂E z
Hx = = 0
kc2 ∂y
jω ∈ ∂E z
Hy = = 0
kc2 ∂x
Above equations shows that there are no magnetic and electric field component in all
rectangular co-ordinate.
So TM10 mode does not exist in rectangular waveguide.
For TM10 mode (m = 1, n = 0)

Substitute the value of m and n in field equations, we get
Ez = E oz sin
FG πx IJ sin b0g e − jβ g z
= 0
H aK
β g ∂E z
Ex = − = 0
kc2 ∂x
β g ∂E z
Ey = − = 0
kc2 ∂y
Hz = 0
jω ∈ ∂E z
Hx = = 0
kc2 ∂y
jω ∈ ∂E z
Hy = = 0
kc2 ∂x
All the field component are zero. So TM10 does not exist in rectangular waveguide.
Example 2.2. An air-filled rectangular waveguide has dimensions of a = 6 cm and

b = 4 cm. The signal frequency is 3 GHz. Compute the following for the TE10 and TM11
modes:
(a) Cut-off frequency
(b) Wavelength in the waveguide
(c) Phase constant and phase velocity
(d) Group velocity in the waveguide. (UPTU 2011, 2007; MDU 2009)
Solution. Given a = 6 cm
b = 4 cm
f = 3 GHz
(a) We know that cut-off frequency of waveguide
c m2 n2
fc = +
2 a2 b2
For TE10 mode (m = 1, n = 0)
3 × 108 F 1 I 2
fc =
2 GH 6 × 10 JK
−3
fc = 2.5 GHz
For TM11 mode (m = n = 1)
3 × 108 F 1 I +F 1 I 2 2
fc =
2 GH 6 × 10 JK GH 4 × 10 JK
−3 −3
fc = 4.5 GHz
(b) Wavelength in the waveguide

Guided wavelength for waveguide
λo
λg =
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
Hλ K c
c
f
λg =
Ff I
1− G J c
2
HfK
For TE10 mode, fc = 2.5 GHz
3 × 108
3 × 109
λg =
1−
FG 2.5 IJ 2
H3K
λ g = 0.1786 m
For TM11 mode, fc = 4.5 GHz
Cut-off frequency is 4.5 GHz for TM11 mode and the signal frequency is 3 GHz which is less
than the cut-off frequency so signal will not propagate for TM11 mode.
(c) Phase constant
β g = ω µ o ∈o 1−
FG f IJ
c
2
HfK
ω f FG IJ 2 LM 1 OP
βg =
c
1− c
f H K MN3 c = µo ∈ PQ
o
βg =
2π × 3 × 109
1−
FG 2.5 IJ 2
3 × 108 H3K
For TE10 mode, fc = 2.5 GHz and f = 3 GHz
β g = 6.28 × 10 × 0.56
β g = 34.97 rad/m
Cut-off frequency is more than signal frequency so signal will not propagate for TM11 mode,
i.e., βg = 0
Phase velocity:
We know that phase velocity
rn
c
Ffi)
For TE10 mode, fc 2.5 GHz
3x108 3x 108
0.56
}1-(~sr
vP = 5.36 x 108 m/s
Propagation of signal is not possible, i.e., up = 0
(d) Group velocity
We know that the relation between group velocity and phase velocity is
c2
For TE10 mode,
(3 X 108 )
2
v =
g 5.36 X 108
v g = 1.68 x 108 m/ s.
Example 2.3. The dimensions of a rectangular waveguide are a = 2 .5 em and b = 1 em.
The signal frequency is 8.6 GHz. The determine the following:
(a) Possible modes
(b) Cut-off frequencies.
Solution. For TE mode
Given a = 2.5 em
b = 1 em
f = 8.6 GHz
The condition for wave to propagate is
fc < f
For propagation in waveguide, signal frequency should greater than cut-off frequency. We
know that
fc =
c FG mIJ + FG nIJ
2 2
2 H a K H bK
For TE01 mode (m = 0, n = 1)
3 × 108 F 1 I 2
fc =
2 GH 1 × 10 JK −2
= 15 GHz
Since fc > f, TE10 mode does not propagate.
For TE10 mode
TE10 is dominant mode for rectangular waveguide for dominant mode
λc = 2a = 5 cm
c 3 × 108
fc = = = 6 GHz
2a 5 × 10−2
Since fc < f, TE10 mode is possible
For TE11 mode (m = 1, n = 0)
c 1 1
fc = 2
+ 2
2 −2 −2
e2.5 × 10 j e1 × 10 j
= 16.16 GHz
In rectangular waveguide zero subscript, i.e., m = 0, n = 0 is not possible.
Since fc > f, so TE11 mode is not possible.
We can show that other higher mode has fc > f. So only TE10 mode is possible.
For TM mode
We know that subscript 0, i.e., m = 0 or n = 0 is not possible in waveguide. So TM01 and
TM10 are not possible.
Now for TM11 mode, cut-off frequency will be same as the TE11 mode. So TM11 mode and
other high modes are not possible.
From the above analysis we conclude that only TE10 mode is possible.
Example 2.4. A rectangular waveguide has a = 4 cm and b = 3 cm. Find all the possible
modes of propagation at signal frequency of 5 GHz.
Solution. The condition for the wave to propagate along a waveguide is
fc < f
Case 1: For TE mode
TE01 mode (m = 0, n = 1)
fc =
c FG mIJ + FG nIJ
2 2
2 H a K H bK
3 × 108 F 1 I 2
=
2 GH 3 × 10 JK −2
fc = 5 GHz
Since TE01 mode does not satisfy the condition fc < f. For the TE10 mode cut-off frequency
fc is equal to the signal frequency (5 GHz). So TE01 mode is not possible.
TE10 mode (dominant mode)
For dominant mode
λc = 2a
c 3 × 108
fc = =
2a 8 × 10−2
fc = 3.7 GHz
Since fc < f, TE10 mode is possible.
For TE11 mode (m = 1, n = 1)
fc =
c FG mIJ 2
+
FG nIJ 2
2 H aK H bK
3 × 108 F 1 I +F 1 I 2 2
=
2 GH 4 × 10 JK GH 3 × 10 JK
−2 −2
fc = 6.25 GHz
Since for TE11 mode, fc > f, TE11 mode is not possible.
Case 2: For TM mode. We know that TM10 and TM01 are not possible in rectangular
waveguide. For TM11 mode and higher mode fc will be same as TE mode so there are not possible
TM mode in waveguide. From the above analysis we conclude that only TE10 mode is possible.
Example 2.5. For a dominant mode in an air filled rectangular waveguide, for a signal
frequency of 9 GHz and guide wavelength is 4 cm. Determine the dimension of the waveguide.
(UPTU 2004)
Solution. Given Mode = TE10
f = 9 GHz
λg = 4 cm
Guide wavelength for rectangular waveguide
λo
λg =
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
Hλ Kc
c
λo =
f
3 × 108
= = 3.333 cm
9 × 109
Microwave Transmission Lines
Now using above equation

3.33
4
1-(3~3r
4 1-(3~3r 3.33
11.11
t..Zc --
0.305
A.c 6.03 em
For dominant mode
A.c 2a
6.03
~
a = = 3.015 em
2 2
a "' 3 em
For standard rectangular waveguide we consider
a 2b
3
b
2
b = 1.5 em.
Example 2 . 6. A rectangular waveguide is filled by dielectric material of E r = 9 and has
inside dimensions of 7 x 3.5 em. It operates in the dominant TE 10 mode. Then determine
(a) Cut-off frequency
(b) Phase ve locity in the guide at frequency of 2 GHz
(c) Guide wavelength A.9 at the same frequency. (MDU 2010)
Solution. Given
Mode = TE10 , a = 7 em, b = 3.5 em, Er = 9 , f = 2 GHz
(a) The cut-off frequency <fc):
c
2~
For TE 10 mode, i.e., m = 1, n = 0
c 1
2-Je: ·-;
3 X 108
2J9 X 7 X 10- 2
0.714 GHz.
(b) Phase velocity (vp ):

ω c
vp = =
βg
∈r
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
Hλ K c
= c
∈r 1−
FG f IJ
c
2
HfK
3 × 108
=
9 1−
FG 0.714 IJ 2
H 2 K
vp = 1.07 × 108 m/s.
λ g):
(c) The guide wavelength (λ
λo λo
λg = =
∈r 1 −
λo
2
F I ∈r
Ff I
1− G Jc
2
λc GH JK H fK
c
f c
= =
∈r
Ff I
1−G J c
2
∈r
Ff I
1− G Jc
2
⋅f
H fK H fK
c
where = phase velocity (vp)
∈r
Ff I
1− G J
c
2
HfK
vp
So λg =
f
. × 108
107
λg =
2 × 109
= 0.0535 m
λ g = 5.35 cm.
Example 2.7. A rectangular waveguide operating in dominant mode having breath

10 cm for 2.5 GHz signal propagated in this waveguide. Determine the group, phase velocities
and guide wavelength.
Solution. In the waveguide the mode of propagation is dominant mode i.e., TE10 mode.
For TE10 mode
λc = 2a = 20 cm
λo
Guide wavelength λg =
1−
FG f IJ
c
2
HfK
λo
λg =
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
Hλ K c
c 3 × 108
where λo = = = 12 cm
f 2.5 × 109
12
λg =
1−
FG 12 IJ 2
H 20K
λ g = 15 cm.
c
Phase velocity vp =
1− c
f FG IJ 2
f H K
c
vp =
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
Hλ K c
3 × 108
vp =
1−
FG 12 IJ 2
H 20K
vp = 3.75 × 108 m/sec.
We know the relation between group velocity and phase velocity
vpvg = c2
c2
Group velocity vg =
vp
2
=
e3 × 10 j 8
. × 108
375
vg = 2.4 × 108 m/sec.
Example 2.8. The dominant mode TE10 is propagated in a rectangular waveguide of

dimensions a = 6 cm and b = 4 cm. The distance between a maximum and a minimum is
found to be equal to 4.47 cm with the help of travelling wave detector. Determine the signal
frequency.
Solution. Given Mode = TE10, a = 6 cm, b = 4 cm

Distance between maxima and minima = 4.47 cm
For TE10 mode, cut-off wavelength
λc = 2a = 12 cm
c 3 × 108
fc = =
λc 12 × 10−2
fc = 2.5 GHz
From the field pattern of TE10 mode, the distance between the maxima and minima will equal
λg
to , where λg is guide wavelength.
4
λg
So = 4.47
4
λg = 4 × 4.47 = 17.88 cm
λo
λg =
1− c
f
2
FG IJ
f H K
c
where λo =
f
3 × 108
f
17.88 × 10−2 =
F 2.5 × 10 I
1− G
9
2
H f JK
Taking square of both side
2
e3 × 10 j 8
f2
(17.88 × 10−2)2 = 2
1−
e25. × 10 j 9
f2
9 × 1016
319.69 × 10−4 =
f2
6.25 × 1018
1−
f2
. × 10−4
Ff 2
− 6.25 × 1018 I 9 × 1016
31969 GH f 2 JK =
f2
Solve for f, we get f ≈ 3 GHz.
Example 2.9. What are the dimensions of waveguide with the following specifications?
(i) At a frequency of 9 GHz the guide wavalength for TE10 mode is 87.57% of cut-
off wavelength
(ii) TE30 and TE12 modes have the same cut-off frequency.
Solution. First consider specification
λg = 0.8757 λc
We know that
λo
λg =
2
c
1 − λ o λc h
λoλc
0.8757 λc =
λ2c − λ2o
λ2c − λ2o =
FG λ IJ o
2
H 0.8757K
λ2c − λ2o = 1.3 λo2
λc2 = 2.3 λo2
λc = 1.52 λo
For TE10 mode
λc = 2a
Thus, 2a = 1.52 λ = 1.52 × c/f
2a = 1.52 × 3 × 108 / 9 × 109
a = 2.53 cm
Now consider the second specification
fc for TE30 mode =

c FG 3 IJ 2
2 H 2K
3c
=
2a
fc for TE12 mode =

c FG 1IJ + FG 2 IJ
2 2
2 H aK H b K
But fc for TE30 mode = fc for TE12 mode
3c
=
c FG 1IJ + FG 2 IJ
2 2
2a 2 H aK H b K
FG 3IJ 2
=
1
+
4
H aK a 2
b2
8 4
=
a2 b2
a = 1.41b
a 2.5
Thus, b = =
1.41 1414
.
b = 1.77 cm.
Example 2.10. Design a rectangular waveguide which at 10 GHz will operate in TE10
mode having safe factor 25% (f ≥ 1.25 fc). When the interior of guide is filled with air, it is
required that mode with the next higher cut-off will operate at 25% below its cut-off frequency.
(UPTU 2006)
Solution. Given
Operating frequency (f ) = 10 GHz
Operating mode = TE10
TE10 should operate, when f ≥ 1.25 fc
Higher cut-off mode should operate, when f < 0.75 fc
For a TE10 mode, the cut-off frequency (fc ) is
c
fc =
2a
But f ≥ 1.25 fc
Taking upper limit and substituting fc = c/2a, we get
f
= 1.25
c 2a
Since operating frequency ( f ) is 10 GHz. Thus,
e10 × 10 j × 2a
9
= 1.25
3 × 108
. ×3
125
a = = 0.01875 m
2 × 100
a = 1.875 cm
The next higher mode is TE01, for TE01 the cut-off frequency is
c
fc =
2b
and it is required that next higher cut-off should operate below its cut-off frequency, i.e.,
f ≤ 0.75 fc
Substituting the cut-off frequency (fc) for TE01, we get
10 × 109
≤ 0.75
c 2b
10 × 109 × 2b
≤ 0.75
3 × 108
Taking upper limit, we get

. ×3
075
b = = 0.01125 m
2 × 100
b = 1.125 cm
Dimensions of waveguide should be
a ≥ 1.875 cm
b ≤ 1.125 cm.
Example 2.11. Calculate the cut-off frequency of the following modes in a square
waveguide 4 cm × 4 cm
(i) TE10 (ii) TE11 (iii) TE22.
Solution. A square waveguide is a special case of rectangular waveguide, where a = b.
(i) For TE10 mode
λc = 2a = 8 cm
3 × 1010
fc =
8
fc = 3.75 GHz.
(ii) For TE11 mode
2
λc =
FG 1IJ + FG 1IJ
2 2
H aK H bK
λc = 2a = 4 2 cm
3 × 1010
fc =
4 2
fc = 5.303 cm.
(iii) For TE22 mode
2
λc =
FG 2IJ + FG 2IJ
2 2
H aK H b K
a 4
λc = = cm
2 2
2 × 3 × 1010
fc =
4
fc = 10.607 GHz.
Example 2.12. (a) A common air filled rectangular X band waveguide has the interior
dimensions a = 2.29 cm and b = 1.0 cm. Find the cut-off frequency of the lower order, non-
trival TM mode.
(b) If a source frequency which is twice the cut-off value found in (a), determine the
propagating constant for the mode. Also obtain the wavelength in the guide, phase velocity
and intrinsic wave impedance.
Solution. (a) The lower order non-trival mode for TM is TM11. Since 0 subscript is not
possible in TM mode
fc =
c FG mIJ + FG nIJ
2 2
=
3 × 108 b229
. g + b1g
2 2
2 H a K H bK 10−2 × 2 b2.29g × b1g

2 2
3 × 108 × 109
.
fc =
10−2 × 2
fc = 16.378 GHz.
(b) Source frequency = 2 × 16.378 = 32.736 GHz
Propagation constant
βg = ω µ ∈ 1 −
FG f IJ
c
2
HfK
1
= 2π × 32736
. × 109 ×
3 × 108
b g
1 − 0.5
2
β g = 189 π rad/m
Guided wavelength (λg) =

λo
=
. b
3 × 108 32726 × 109 g
0.866
1−
FG f IJ
c
2
HfK
3
=
32736
. × 10 × 0866
.
3
λg = = 0.016
283.5
λg = 1.06 cm
Phase velocity
ω 2π × 32736
. × 109
vp = =
βg 189 π
vp = 3.46 × 106 m/s
Intrinsic wave impedance
ZTM =
Ff I
η 1− G J c
2
= 120 π × 0.566
HfK
ZTM = 326.47 Ω .
Example 2.13. A rectangular hollow metal waveguide is required to be designed to

propagate a 9375 MHz signal is its TE10 mode that the guide wavelength equals the cut-off
wavelength. Calculate the value of ‘a’. Take b = a/2. Also calculate the cut-off frequency of
the next higher order mode. (UPTU 2007)
Solution. For TE10 mode, m = 1 and n = 0
Since guide wavelength is equal to cut-off frequency.
λ g = λc
but λg λc = λo2
Thus, λg = λc = λo
So fc = fo = 9375 MHz
For TE10 mode cut-off frequency is given by
c
fc =
2a
c 3 × 108
a = =
2 fc 2 × 9375 × 106
a = 0.016 m
To obtain the next higher order mode
fc =
c FG mIJ + FG nIJ
2 2
2 H a K H bK
Take b = a/2
fc =
c FG mIJ + FG 2nIJ
2 2
2 H aK H a K
c 1
fc = ⋅ m2 + 4n2
2 a
The next order mode should have m = 2 and n = 2, i.e., TE20 mode.
Cut-off frequency of TE20 mode is
c 1
fc = ⋅
2 a
b2g 2
3 × 108 × 2
fc =
2 × 0.016
fc = 18.75 × 109
fc = 18.75 GHz
Cut-off frequency of TE20 mode is 18.75 GHz.
Example 2.14. A rectangular waveguide is designed to operate in TE10 mode at a

frequency of 20 GHz. It is desired that frequency of operation to be at least 15% above cut-
off frequency of the propagating and 20% below cut-off frequency of next higher mode.
Determine the dimension of the waveguide. (UPTU 2006)
Solution. Given Mode = TE10

Operating frequency = 10 GHz
If operating frequency is 15% above the cut-off frequency, then
1.15 fc1 = 10 GHz
10
fc = GHz
1 115
.
where fc is the cut-off frequency of TE10 mode.
1
For dominant TE10 mode
fc c
1
=
2a
c
a =
2 fc
1
3 × 108 × 115
.
a =
2 × 10 × 109
a = 0.01725 cm
a = 1.725 cm
The another condition is that operating frequency is 20% below cut-off frequency of next
higher mode.
The next higher mode is TE11.
Thus, 0.80 fc2 = 10 GHz
where fc is the cut-off frequency of TE11 mode
2
10
fc = GHz
2
0.8
The cut-off frequency for TE11 mode is given by
fc =
c FG mIJ + FG nIJ
2 2
2 2 H a K H bK
Since m = n = 1
c 1 1
fc = 2
+
2
2 a b2
1 1 F2 f I c2
2
or
a2
+
b2
= GH c JK
Substituting the value of a and fc , we get
2
1
+
1 F 2 × 10 × 10 I 9
2
b1725
. g 2
b2
= GH 3 × 10 × 0.80JK 8
1
= 3583.8
b2
b = 0.0167 m = 1.67 cm
Thus, dimension of the waveguide are
a = 1.725 cm
b = 1.67 cm.
Example 2.15. Consider a length of air filled copper X-band waveguide with dimensions
a = 2.286 cm, b = 1.1016 cm. Find the cut-off wavelengths of the first three propagating
modes. What is the attenuation in dB of a 1 meter length of this guide, when operating at
a frequency f = 10 GHz?
Solution. Given
Dimensions a × b = 2.286 × 1.1016 cm
The free space wavelength is
c 3 × 108
λo = = = 3 cm
f 10 × 109
The condition for the wave to propagate along the waveguide is that λo < λc
For TE waves propagation
2
λc =
FG mIJ + FG nIJ
2 2
H a K H bK
For TE01 mode:
Cut-off wavelength for TE01 mode, m = 0, n = 1
λc = 2b = 2 × 1.016
1
= 2.032 cm
For TE01 mode, λo < λc condition is not satisfied hence TE01 mode will not propagate.
For TE10 mode: For TE10 mode m = 1, n = 0
λc = 2a = 2 × 2.286
2
λc = 4.572 cm
2
Since λo < λc. This mode is possible

For TE11 mode: For TE11 mode, m = 1, n = 1
2ab 2 × 2.286 × 1016
.
λc = =
3
a2 + b2 b2.286g + b1016
2
. g 2
4.64 4.64
= = = 0.7424 cm
5.22 + 10132
. 6.25
Since λo < λc condition is not satisfied this mode is not possible.
The attenuation is given as
α =
2 2
− ω 2µ ∈
H a K HbK
F 1× π I 2
e
+ 0 − 2π × 10 × 109
2
j × 4π × 10 −7 × 8.854 × 10 −12
α = GH 2.286 × 10 JK −2
= 0.0125 Np/m
Since 1 Neper = 8.686 dB
Thus attenuation (α) in dB/m is
α = 0.11 dB/m
Example 2.16. A air-filled rectangular waveguide has dimensions 1.5 × 1 cm. Determine
the amount of attenuation if the frequency of signal is 6 GHz and mode of propagation is
dominant mode.
Solution. Given a = 1.5 cm, b = 1.0 cm
Mode = TE10
f = 6 GHz
λc = 2a = 2 × 1.5 = 3 cm
c 3 × 108
fc = = = 10 GHz
2a 3 × 10−2
Thus fc > f, 6 GHz signal will not pass through the waveguide but wave gets attenuated.
Amount of attenuation, α =
2 2
− ω 2µ ∈
H a K HbK
where µ = 4π × 10−7 H/m
∈ = 8.854 × 10−12 F/m
ω = 2πf = 2π × 6 × 109 rad/sec
m = 1
n = 0
F π I 2
+ 0 − 2π × 6 × 109 × 4 π × 10 −7 × 8.854 × 10−12

α = GH 15. × 10 JK
−2 e j e j e j
= 43876.28 − 12 π b g 2
× 4 π × 08854
.
α = 167.5 Neper/m
Example 2.17. A 6 GHz signal is to be propagated in the dominant mode in a rectangular

waveguide. If group velocity is to be 90% of the free space velocity of light. What must be
the breath of the waveguide? What impedance will be offer to this signal, if it is correctly
matched?
Solution. Given
Operating frequency ( f ) = 6 GHz
Mode of propagation = TE10
Group velocity (vg) = 0.90 c
The group velocity is
vg = c 1 −
Fλ I o
2
GH λ JK c
Cut-off wavelength for dominant TE10 mode is

λc = 2a
and free space wavelength (λ) is
c 3 × 108
λ = = = 005
. m
f 6 × 109
If group velocity is 90% of the free space velocity (c ), then
0.90c = c 1 −
FG 0.05 IJ 2
H 2a K
1−
FG 0.05 IJ 2
= 0.81
H 2a K
0.05
= 0.447
2a
a = 0.0559 m
Breath of waveguide, a = 5.59 cm.
The impedance that would offer to signals is
η
ZTE =
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
Hλ K c
µ
where η = = 120 π is intrinsic impedance in an unbounded dielectric. Thus,
∈
120 π
ZTE =
005
.
1−
01118
.
120 π
ZTE =
0743
.
ZTE = 507.39 Ω .
Example 2.18. An air-filled hollow rectangular waveguide of 150 m long and is tapped
at the end with a metal plate. If a short pulse of frequency 7.2 GHz is introduced into the
input end of the guide. How long does it take the pulse to return to the input end? Assume
cut-off frequency fc is 6.5 GHz.
Solution. Given
Operating frequency ( f ) = 7.2 GHz
Cut-off frequency ( fc) = 6.5 GHz
Length of waveguide (L) = 150 m
The phase velocity inside waveguide is
c
vp =
1−
FG f IJ
c
2
HfK
3 × 108
vp =
1−
FG 65. IJ 2
H 72. K
vp = 6.975 × 108 m/s
We know that
Distance
Velocity =
Time
Thus, time taken by the pulse to return to the input end
2 × 150
t =
6.975 × 108
t = 530 × 10− 9 sec
2.9 POWER TRANSMISSION IN RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE
Power transmitted through a waveguide and power loss in the waveguide can be calculated by
using the complex pointing theorem. It is assumed that the waveguide is terminated in such a way
that there is no reflection from the receiving end or the guide is infinitely long as compared with
wavelength.
The power transmitted through a guide is given by
Ptr = z p ⋅ ds =
1
2 z
E × H * ⋅ dsb g
For a lossless dielectric, the time-average power flow through a rectangular waveguide is
Zg
Ptr =
1
2Z g z
a
E
2
da =
2 z
a
H
2
da ...[2.110 (a)]
Ex Ey
where Zg = = −
Hy Hx
|E|2 = |Ex|2 + |Ey|2

|H| = |Hx|2 + |Hy|2
For TEmn mode
We know that for TE mode
η η
Zg = Z TE = =
1−
FG f IJ c
2
1−
Fλ I o
2
HfK GH λ JK c
The power transmitted through a rectangular waveguide of dimension a and b is given by
1−
FG f IJ
c
2
HfK ab
Ptr =
2η z z FH
00
Ex
2
+ Ey
2 I dx dy
K
Fλ I
1− G 0
2
H λ JK ab
or Ptr =
2η
c
z z FH
00
Ex
2
+ Ey
2 I dx dy
K ...[2.110 (b)]
For TMmn mode

We know that for TM mode
Zg = Z TM = η 1 −
FG f IJ c
2
= η 1−
Fλ I o
2
HfK GH λ JK c
The average power transmitted through a rectangular waveguide is given by

a b
Ptr =
1
zz FE 2
+ Ey
2 I dx dy
FG f IJ
c
2
00
H x K
2η 1 −
HfK
ab
or Ptr =
Fλ I
1
0
2 z z FH
00
Ex
2
+ Ey
2 I dx dy
K [2.110 (c)]
2η 1 − G
H λ JK c
Ø Power transmitted through a waveguide and power loss in waveguide can be

calculated by using the complex pointing theorem.
2.9.1 Power Transmission for Dominant Mode

Assume that the waveguide is terminated in such a way that there is no reflection from the
receiving end. The power delivered in the direction of propagation, i.e., in the z-direction is
given by
LM
ab OP
Pt = Re
1
200MN zze
E × H * dx dy j
...[2.111 (a)]
PQ
where H * is complex conjugate. This equation gives the real part of the vector product of E and
H components. For the rectangular waveguide transmitted power is given by
ab
Pt =
1
zz
(E × H*x ) dx dy
200 y
...[2.111 (b)]
The field components of the dominant mode TE10 can be obtained by substituting m = 1 and
n = 0 in equations (2.55) to (2.60). Then
Ex = 0 Hx = H ox sin
FG πx IJ e − jβ g z
H aK
Ey = E oy sin
Hy = 0
H aK
Ez = 0 Hz = H oz cos
H aK
Now substituting the value of Ey and Hx in eqn. [2.111 (b)], we get
z z RST FG πx IJ e UV × RSH FG πx IJ e UV* dx dy

b a
1 − jβ g z − jβ g z
Pt = E oy sin sin
2 00
H aK W T oy
HaK W
z z RST F πx I UV × RSH F πx I UV dx dy
b a
1 − jβ g z + jβ g z
Thus, Pt = E oy sin G J e sin G J e ...[2.111 (c)]
2 00
H aK W T oy
H aK W
But we know that characteristic wave impedance (Zg) is
E oy
Zg = −
H ox
E oy
or Hox = −
Zg
βg
Since Zg =
ωµ
βg
Thus, Hox = − E oy
ωµ
Substituting the value of Hox in eqn. [2.111 (c)]. The Pt can be written as
1 2 βg
z z FGH IJK
ba
πx
Pt = E sin2 dx dy
2 oy ωµ 00
a
1 2 βg
z z FGH IJ
b a
1 2πx
Pt = E 1 − cos dx dy
2 oy ωµ 00
2 a K
1 2 βg LMb a b a
2π x OP
Pt = E
4 oy ωµ MNz z
00
zz
dx dy −
00
cos
a
dx dy
PQ
1 2 βg R| xy − a Lsin 2πx O
b, a
a U|
Pt = E
4 oy ωµ
S|0 2π MN a PQ
V|
T 0 W
1 2 β
Pt = E
4 oy ωµ
bab − 1g
1 2 βg
Pt = E ⋅ ab ...(2.112)
4 oy ωµ
2.10 POWER LOSSES IN RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE

(UPTU 2007, 2005; MDU 2005)
In the study of waveguide we assumed that waveguide walls are perfect conductor and dielectric
is also perfect. But both these assumptions are impractical as an electromagnetic wave propagating
through a waveguide suffer the power loss due to the one or more of the following reasons:
1. Cut-off phenomena (operating frequency is less than the cut-off frequency).
2. Losses in the dielectric.
3. Losses in the guide walls due to finite conductivity.
2.10.1 Cut-off Phenomena

If operating frequency is less than the cut-off frequency then signal will largely attenuated. In this
way the waveguide below cut-off resembles a filter consisting of reactive component (L and C) and
operating in the cut-off region. It should be mentioned that cut- 24
off attenuation is a reactive attenuation arising from the reflection
of electromagnetic energy and does not result in any dissipation
A tten ua tion , d B /m
of power. The attenuation constant arising from cut-off is given 16

b /a = 0 .5
by
TM 11
αcut-off
2π
1−
F I
λc
2
08
TE 1 0
=
λc GH JK
λo
...(2.113)
0
Figure 2.10 shows that the attenuation for dominant mode 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
due to finite conductivity of the waveguide walls is very high Fre qu e ncy, G H z
f = fc and decreases with frequency to a lowest value and
Fig. 2.10. Attenuation in a
increases again with frequency beyond that.
rectangular waveguide.
2.10.2 Losses in Dielectric

Now we shall consider power losses caused by dielectric attenuation. In a low-loss dielectric
(σ < µ∈), the propagation constant for a plane wave travelling in an unbounded lossy dielectric
is given by
σ µ
α = ...(2.114)
2 ∈
The attenuation caused by the low-loss dielectric in the rectangular waveguide for the TEmn
or TMmn modes is given by
ση
αg = , for TE mode ...(2.115)
2
2 1 − fc f c h
ση 2
αg = c 1 − c f f h , for TM mode
2
As f > fc, the attenuation constant in the guide approaches that for the unbounded dielectric
given by equation (2.114). However, if the operating frequency is below the cut-off frequency, i.e.,
f < fc, the attenuation constant becomes very large and propagation will not occur.
Now we shall consider power losses caused by the waveguide walls. When the electric and
magnetic intensities propagate through a lossy waveguide, then magnitudes may be given as
−α g z
E = E oz e ...(2.116)
−α g z
H = H oz e ...(2.117)
where Eoz and Hoz are the field intensities at z = 0. It is interesting to note that, for a low-loss
waveguide, the time-average power flow decreases proportionally to. Thus power transmission
through a waveguide is
−2α g z
Ptr = cP
tr + Ploss e h ...(2.118)
For Ploss ^ Ptr and 2α

α gz ^ 1
Ploss
+ 1 = 1 + 2αgz
Ptr
PL
Finally, we get αg = ...(2.119)
2Ptr
where PL is the power loss per unit length. Thus, the attenuation constant of the waveguide walls
is equal to the ratio of the power loss per unit length to twice the power transmitted through the
waveguide.
Since the electric and magnetic field intensities established at the surface of a low-loss guide
will decay exponentially with respect to the skin depth while the waves progress into the walls, the
surface resistance of the waveguide will is define as
1 αg
Rs = = = π fµ σ Ω/square ...(2.120)
σδ σ
where σ = Conductivity in mho/meter
δ = Skin depth or depth of penetration in meters
Power loss per unit length of guide is obtained by integrating the power density over the
surface of the conductor corresponding to the unit length of the waveguide and given by
PL =
Rs
2 zs
Ht
2
ds W/unit length ...(2.121)
where, Ht is the tangential component of magnetic intensity at the waveguide walls.

Now, substituting equations (2.121) and (2.110) in equation (2.119).
αg =
Rs z s
Ht
2
ds
...(2.122)
2Z g z a
H da
2
where |H| = |Hz| + |Hy|2

2 2
|Ht|2 = |Htx|2 + |Hty|2 ...(2.123)
Ø Attenuation of signal transmission in waveguide occur due to ohmic losses in

conducting walls and losses in dielectric.
Ø If operating frequency is less than the cut-off frequency then signal will largely
attenuated.
Ø Attenuation constant of the waveguide walls is equal to the ratio of the power loss
per unit length to twice the power transmitted through the waveguide.
Example 2.19. An air-filled waveguide with cross-section 2 × 1 cm transports energy

in the TE10 mode at the rate of 0.5 Hp. The impressed frequency is 30 GHz. What is the peak
value of electric field occurring in the waveguide?
Solution. Given
Waveguide cross-section = 2 × 1 cm
Impressed frequency ( f ) = 30 GHz
= 3 × 1010 Hz
Power delivered (Pt ) = 0.5 Hp (horse power)
= 0.5 × 746 (1 Hp = 786 J)
= 373 J
The phase constant (βg) is
βg = ω µ ∈ 1−G J
Ff I c
2
o
HfK o
βg =
ω Ff I
1− G J c
2
c H fK
The cut-off frequency (fc) for TE10 mode is
c 3 × 108
fc = =
2a 2 × 10−2
fc = 1.5 × 1010 Hz
Thus, βg =
2πf Ff I
1−G J c
2
c HfK
βg =
2π × 3 × 1010
1−
FG 15. IJ 2
3 × 108 H3K
β g = 193.5 π
β g = 608.81 rad/m
From equation (2.112) power delivered is
1 2 βg
Pt = E ⋅ ab
4 oy ωµ
For air dielectric µ = µ0, now substituting the value of Pt, βg, a and b, we get
1 2 608.81b ⋅ 10 −2
g −2
je j e2 × 10 j
373 = E oy
4 e
2π × 3 × 1010 4 π × 107 je
377 × 4 × 8 π × 1017
Eoy2 =
b608.81g e2 × 10 j −4
Eoy2 = 29.019 × 109

Eoy = 53.86 × 103 V/m
The peak value of the electric intensity is
Eoy = 53.86 kV/m
Example 2.20. A TE11 mode of 10 GHz is propagated in an air-filled rectangular
waveguide. The magnetic field in the z-direction is given by
FG IJ
Hz = H cos πx cos πy A m
FG IJ
o
6 6 H K H K
The phase constant β = 1.0475 rad/m. The quantities x and y are expressed in cm and
a = b = 6. Determine cut-off frequency fc, phase velocity vp, guided wavelength λg and
magnetic field intensity with y-direction.
Solution. Given
Operating frequency (f ) = 10 GHz = 1010 Hz
Phase constant (βg ) = 1.0475 rad/cm
= 1.0475 × 102 rad/m
Dimensions of waveguide = 6× 6
The cut-off frequency (fc) is
fc =
c FG mIJ + FG nIJ
2 2
2 H a K H bK
For TE11 mode
fc =
c FG 1IJ + FG 1IJ
2 2
2 H aK H bK
3 × 108 F 1 I +F
2
1 I 2
fc =
2 GH 6 × 10−2
JK GH 6 × 10−2
JK
3 × 108 1
fc = ×
2 3 × 10−2
Cut-off frequency fc = 8.66 GHz
The phase velocity (vg ) is
ω 2π × 10 × 109
vg = =
β 10475
. × 102
vg = 5.99 × 108 m/s
Phase velocity vg ≈ 6 × 108 m/s
The guided wavelength λg is
vg
λg =
f
6 × 108
λg = = 0.06 m
10 × 109
Guided wavelength λ g = 6 cm
The magnetic field intensity in the y-direction is, from equation (2.50)
jβ g ∂H z
Hy = −
kc2 ∂y
where kc2 = ω2µ∈ − βg2
2
e2π × 10 × 10 j − e10475 9
× 10 j 2
2
kc2 = . 2
e3 × 10 j 8
kc2 = 3.28 × 104

Now, substituting the value of Hz, we get
Hy = −
jβ g ∂
H o cos
LM
πx
⋅ cos
πy OP
2 ∂y
kc N6 6 Q
jβ g Hoπ πx πy
Hy = ⋅ cos ⋅ sin
kc2 6 6 6
Since kc2 = 3.28 × 104 and βg = 1.0475 × 102 rad/m
Then Hy =
e
j . 1.0475 × 102 j⋅ π
H o cos
πx
sin .
πy
.
4
3.28 × 10 6 6 6
Example 2.21. The dominant mode TE10 propagated in rectangular waveguide of

dimensions a = 2.25 cm and b = 1 cm. Assume an air dielectric with breakdown gradient
of 30 kV/cm and a frequency of 10 GHz. There is no standing waves in the guide. Determine
the average power that can be carried by waveguide.
Solution. From equation [2.110 (b)], average power transmitted through waveguide
1−
FG f IJ
c
H fK FE a b
I dx dy
Ptr =
2η H zz
00
x
2
+ Ey
2
K
For TE10 mode [from equations (2.55) and (2.56)]
Ex = 0
πx − jβz
Ey = E o sin e
a
πx
|Ey| = E o sin
a
1−
FG f IJ
c
2
HfK ab
Ptr =
2η zz
00
E 2o sin 2
πx
a
dx dy
After solving, we get
1−
FG f IJ
c
2
Ptr =
HfK ab ⋅ E 2o
4η
Since Eo = 30 kV/cm = 30 × 103/10−2
= 30 × 105 V/m
c 3 × 108
fc = = = 6.667 GHz
2a 2 × 2.25 × 10−2
f = 10 GHz
η = 120 π
1−
FG 6.667IJ 2
Then Ptr =
1 H 10 K e2.25 × 10 j e1 × 10 j e30 × 10 j −2 −2 5
2
4 120 π
Ptr = 106 W/m2.
Example 2.22. An air-filled rectangular waveguide has dimensions of a = 6 cm and
b = 4 cm. The guide transports energy in the dominant mode TE10 at a rate of 1 horse power
(746 J). If the frequency is 20 GHz. What is the peak value of electric field occurring in the
guide?
Solution. Given
Dimension of waveguide = 6 cm × 4 cm
Rate of power flow (Pt) = 1 Hp = 786 J
The cut-off frequency (fc) is
fc =
c FG mIJ + FG nIJ
2 2
2 H a K H bK
For TE10 mode
3 × 108 F 1 I 2
fc =
2 GH 6 × 10 JK −2
fc = 2.5 GHz
The propagation constant (βg ) is
βg = ω µ ∈ 1 −
FG f IJ
c
2
HfK
βg =
2π × 20 × 109
1−
FG 2.5 IJ 2
3 × 108 H 20 K
β g = 414.8 rad/sec
The average power flow is
1 2
Pt = E oy ⋅ ab
4Z g
Thus peak value of electric field is
4 Z g × Pt
Eoy =
ab
ωµ
where Zg =
βg
2π × 20 × 109 × 4π × 10−7
Zg =
414.8
Zg = 381 Ω
Now substituting the value of Zg, Pt, a and b, we get
4 × 381 × 746
Eoy =
4 × 10 −2 × 6 × 10 −2
Eoy = 53310 V/m
Thus peak value of electric field is
Eoy = 53.31 kV/m
Example 2.23. The electric field intensity of the dominant TE10 mode in a lossless
rectangular waveguide is
Ey = Eo sin
FG πx IJ
HaK
(a) Find the magnetic field intensity H.
(b) Compute the cut-off frequency and time-average transmitted power.
Solution. (a) For lossless waveguide, the field intensity for TE10 mode is
Ey = Eo sin FG πx IJ e − jβ g z
HaK
and Ex = Ez = 0
We know the Maxwell’s curl equation in frequency domain is
∇ × E = − jωµH
ux uy uz
∂ ∂ ∂
= − jωµ (Hxux + Hyuy + Hzuz)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ex Ey Ez
Since for TE mode, Ex = Ez = 0, then

ux uy uz
∂ ∂ ∂
= − jωµ (Hxux + Hyuy + Hzuz )
∂x ∂y ∂z
0 Ey 0
∂E y ∂E y
− ux +
u = − jωµ (Hxux + Hyuy + Hzuz )
∂z ∂x z
Compairing x, y and z-co-ordinate component, we get
1 ∂E y
Hx = +
jωµ ∂z
Hx =
1 ∂ FG
E sin
FG IJ IJ
πx − jβ g z
e
jωµ ∂z o H a H K K
Hx =
1
e F πx I
− jβ j E ⋅ sin G J ⋅ e
jβ g z
jωµ g o
H aK
β
g F πx I − jβ g z
Hx = − ⋅ E sin G J ⋅ e
ωµ o
HaK
βg
Hx = − Ey
ωµ
1 ∂E y
Similarly, Hz = −
jωµ ∂x
Hz = −
1 ∂ FG IJ IJ
E o sin
FG
πx − jβ g z
e
jωµ ∂x H K K
aH
Hz = −
1 π F πx I
⋅ E ⋅ ⋅ cos G J ⋅ e
− jβ g z
jωµ a o
HaK
Hz = j
E πo F πx I
cos G J e
− jβ g z
ωµa HaK
Thus magnetic field intensities are
βg
Hx = − Ey
ωµ
and Hz = j
Eo π
⋅ cos
πx − jβ z
⋅e g
FG IJ
ωµa a H K
(b) Cut-off frequency, for air dielectric is
fc =
c FG mIJ + FG nIJ
2 2
2 H a K H bK
For TE10 mode
c
fc =
2a
The time-average transmitted power is
a b
Pt =
1
2 zz
00
e
Re E y × H x ⋅ dx ⋅ dy j
Pt =
1
ab
zz E2o sin
FG πx IJ ⋅ β sin FG πx IJ dx ⋅ dy
g
2 00
H a K ωµ H a K
βg
Since = Zg, thus
ωµ
Pt =
1
ab
zz E2o sin 2
FG πx IJ dx ⋅ dy
2Z g 00
H aK
F 1 − cos 2πx I
z z GGGH 2 a JJJK dx ⋅ dy
ab
E2o
Pt =
2Z g 00
z FGH x − 2aπ ⋅ sin FGH 2πax IJK IJK ⋅ dy

b a
E2o
Pt =
4Z g 0 0
b
E2o
Pt =
4Z g zb
0
g
a − 0 dy
E2o b
Pt = ay 0
4Z g
E2o
Pt = ⋅ ab
4Z g
Thus, cut-off frequency is
fc =
c
2a
and time-average transmitted power is
Eo2
Pt = ⋅ ab ...(2.124)
4Z g
Example 2.24. The dominant mode TE10 is propagated in a rectangular waveguide of

dimensions a = 2.25 cm and b = 1 cm. Assume an air dielectric with breakdown gradient of
30 kV/cm and a frequency of 10 GHz. There are no standing wave in guide. Determine the
maximum average power that can be carried by the guide.
Solution. Given
Mode of operation = TE10
Waveguide dimensions = 2.25 cm × 1 cm
Breakdown gradient (∇V) = 30 kV/cm
We know that
E = − ∇V
= − 30 kV/cm
= − 3 × 106 V/m
The maximum power which can be carried is
ab
Pmax =
1
2 zz
00
d i
Re E × H * dx dy uz
After solving, we get (from eqn. (2.124), example 2.23)

2
E
Pmax = a ⋅b
4Z g
where Zg is wave impedance and
βg is phase constant
Since β g = ω µ o ∈o 1−
FG f IJ
c
2
HfK
βg =
ω f
1− c
FG IJ 2
c f H K
For TE10 mode
c 3 × 108
fc = =
2a 2 × 2.25 × 10−2
fc = 6.67 GHz
βg =
2π × 10 × 109
1−
FG 6.67 IJ
3 × 10 8 H 10 K
β g = 155 rad/m
ωµ 2π × 109 × 4 π × 10 −7
and wave impedance Zg = =
βg 155
Zg = 509 Ω
Substituting the value of βg and Zg, we get
2
Pmax =
e− 3 × 10 j 6
× 0.0225 × 0.01
4 × 509
6
Pmax = 10 W.
2.11 FIELD PATTERNS FOR RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE

(UPTU 2006, 2007)
2.11.1 Field Patterns for TE Mode

For TE mode, the electric field exists only at right angle to the direction of propagation, whereas
the magnetic field has a component in the direction of propagation as shown in Fig. 2.11. The
electric field is maximum at the centre of the waveguide and drops off simusodally to zero intensity
at the walls.
n
io
at
ag
op
pr
ld
of
f ie
n
io
tic
ct
ne
ir e
ag
D
M
ld
fi e
c
tr i
ec
El
TE m od e
Fig. 2.11. Field patterns for TE mode.
The magnetic field is in the form of closed loop which lies in planes normal to the electric
field, i.e., parallel to the top and bottom of the waveguide.
TE10 mode: Since m = 1, there is one-half sinusoidal variation of electric field with respect
to x (along dimension a) which is shown plotted in Fig. 2.12(a). Since the electric field intensity
is maximum at the centre, electric field lines are shown concentrated at the centre and decreasing
sinusoidally towards the side walls. Since n = 0, there is no variation of electric field along
y-direction.
Y
C o ncen tra te d
E lectric fie ld line s
Y
+ + – E lectric fie ld line s

+ + –
+ + + ++ – – M ag ne tic fie ld lo op s
– –
+ + + –––
++ + +++ + E lectric fie ld line s
+ + – p oin ting d ow n w ards
– E lectric fie ld line s
X lg /2 Z p oin ting u pw a rds
Sta cks o f m a gn etic

field loo ps
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.12. Field patterns for TE10 mode.
TE11 mode: Figure 2.13 shows the field pattern of TE11 mode.
Y Y
X
lg /2 Z
(a ) (b )
Fig. 2.13. Field pattern of TE11 mode.
Ø Electric field line must always be perpendicular to the surface at the conductor.
Ø Magnetic field line must always parallel to the surface of the conductor.
Ø The nomenclature TE10 indicates that there is one half wavelength in the ‘a’
dimension and zero half-wavelength in the ‘b’ dimension.
2.11.2 Field Patterns for TM Mode (UPTU 2006)

For TM mode, the magnetic field exists only at right angle to the direction of propagation, whereas
the electric field has a component in the direction of propagation as shown in Fig. 2.14.
Figure 2.14 shows that the electric field is radial and the magnetic field angular in x-y plane.
n
a t io
ag
op ld
pr fi e
e
av et
ic
W n
ag
M
ld
fi e
r ic
e ct
El
Fig. 2.14. Field lines for TM mode.
TM11 mode: In this mode, m = 1 and n = 1, where m = 1 represents one half-wavelength
variation of magnetic field along x-direction (a dimension) and n = 1 represents one half-wavelength
variation of magnetic field along y-direction (b dimension).
Figure 2.15 shows the field pattern for TM11 mode in the x-y plane and in the y-z plane.
Figure 2.15 (a) shows that the electric field is radial and the magnetic field annular in the
x-y plane. Figure 2.15 (b) shows the electric field lines along the direction of propagation of TM11
wave. It may be noted that whenever the electric field touches a well, it does so at right angles
and all intersections between electric and magnetic field lines are perpendicular.
Y
Z
X lg /2
a
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.15. Illustrating field patterns for TM11 mode.
TM21 mode: Figure 2.16 shows the field pattern for TM21 mode, where having two half-
wavelength variation along the x-direction and one half-wavelength variation along the y-direction.
Y lg /2
Y
X Z
(a ) (b )
Fig. 2.16. Field patterns for TM21 mode.
Figure 2.17 shows various field patterns for rectangular waveguide.
TE 1 0 TE 11
3 3
2 1
1 2
y z y z
x x 1
1
3 2 3 2
TE 2 1 TE 2 0
3 3 2
1
2 1
y z
x 1 1
2
3 3 2
TM 11 TM 2 1
3 3
2 2
1 1
y z y z
x x
1 1
3 2 3 2
Fig. 2.17. Various field patterns for rectangular waveguide.
2.12 EXCITATION OF MODES IN RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE

(UPTU 2011, 2010, 2009)
The field intensities of the desired mode in a waveguide

can be established by mean of a probe or loop-coupling
device. The method of excitation is selected such that
P ro be
the desired mode is excited and maximum power
transfer takes place into the waveguide. A probe (quite
often the central conductor of transmission line)
extending into the waveguide is the most common
R F P ow e r
method of excitation. If two or more probes are to be
used, care must be taken to ensure the proper phase Fig. 2.18. TE10 mode excitation.
relationship between the current in various antenna. The

location of the probe is chosen to produce lines of E and a
H field that are roughly parallel to the lines of E and H
b
field for the mode to be excited. For TE10 (dominant)
mode the probe location is shown in Fig. 2.18. Since the
E field component for this mode is along y and is maximum Axial
probe
at x = a/2, the probe is located in the middle of the
Fig. 2.19. TM11 mode excitation.
broad wall.
On the other hand if it were designed to excite TM11 mode, the appropriate orientation of
the probe will be in z-direction as shown in Fig. 2.19.
Similarly, depending upon the field configuration of the higher order modes, excitation
methods changes. Excitation of other higher mode TE20 and TM21 are shown in Fig. 2.20
a
b b
Longitudinal a
double probe
(a) TE20 (b) TM21
Fig. 2.20. TE20 and TM21 mode excitation.

In order to excite a TE10 mode in one direction of guide, the two exciting probe should be
arrange in such a way that the field intensities cancel each other in one direction and remain only
in the other direction as shown in Fig. 2.21. The two probe are placed a quarter wavelength apart
and their phases are in time quadrature. Phasing is compensated by use of an additional quarter
wavelength section of line connected to the probe feeder.
The field intensities radiated by two antennas are in opposite phase in left of antenna and
cancel each other. On the other hand, right hand region has the field intensities in phase and they
added together. The resulting wave propagate to the right in the waveguide.
1 R ig h t h an d
2
1 2 in p ha se
L eft h an d 2
o ut of ph ase R F in pu t
1
Fig. 2.21. TE10 mode excitation using two probe.
Ø The field intensities of the desired mode are usually excited through a probe or
loop-coupling device.
Ø The location of the probe is chosen to produce lines of E and H field that are
roughly parallel to the lines of E and H field for the mode to be excited.
Important Formulae for Rectangular Waveguide

For TE Mode
1. Cut-off frequency ( fc ) =
1 FG mIJ + FG nIJ
2 2
2 µ∈ H a K H bK
λc )
2. Cut-off wavelength (λ = 2
FG mIJ + FG nIJ
2 2
H a K H bK
βg ) =
3. Propagation constant (β ω µ ∈ 1− G J
Ff I c
2
(or phase constant)

HfK
= ω µ ∈ 1− G J
Fλ I o
2
Hλ K c
λo
λg )
4. Guided wavelength (λ =
1−
FG f IJ
c
2
HfK
λo
or λg =
1−
Fλ I o
2
GH λ JK
c
vc
5. Phase velocity (vp ) =
1−
FG f IJ
c
2
HfK
vc
or vp =
1−
Fλ I o
2
GH λ JK
c
6. Characteristic wave impedance (ZTE)

ω∈ η
=
βg
1−
FG f IJ
c
2
H fK
7. Field equations
Ex = E ox cos
H a K HbK
Ey = E oy
sin G
− jβ g z
H a K HbK
Ez = 0
Hx = H ox sin
H a K HbK
Hy = H oy cos G
H a K HbK
Hz = H oz cos G
F mπx IJ cos FG nπy IJ e − jβ g z
H a K HbK
For TM mode
1. Cut-off frequency (fc) =

1 FG mIJ + FG nIJ
2 2
2 µ∈ H a K H bK
2
λ c)
2. Cut-off wavelength (λ =
FG mIJ + FG nIJ
2 2
H a K H bK
β g) =
3. Propagation constant (β ω µ ∈ 1− G J
Ff I c
2
(or the phase constant)

HfK
= ω µ ∈ 1− G J
Fλ I o
2
Hλ K c
λo
λ g)
1−
FG f IJ
c
2
HfK
λo
or λg =
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
Hλ K c
vc
5. Phase velocity (vp) =
Ff I
1− G J c
2
HfK
vc
or vp =
1−
Fλ I o
2
GH λ JK
c
6. Characteristic wave impedance (ZTM)
=
βg
= η 1−
FG f IJ
c
2
ω∈ H fK
or ZTM =
Fλ I
η 1− G J o
2
Hλ K c
7. Field equations
Ex = E ox cos
FG mπx IJ sin FG nπy IJ e
− jβ g z
H a K HbK
Ey = E oy
sin G
− jβ g z
H a K HbK
Ez = E oz
sin G
− jβ g z
H aK HbK
Hx = H ox
sin G
− jβ g z
H a K HbK
Hy = H oy cos G
H a K HbK
Hz = 0.
2.13 COMPARISON BETWEEN WAVEGUIDE AND TWO-WIRE

TRANSMISSION LINE (MDU 2009, 2008)
Table 2.2. Comparison between waveguide and two-wire line.
S.No. Waveguide Two-wire transmission
1. Waveguide is a one conductor transmission This type of transmission system has two
system. conductors.
2. Mode of propagation is TE or TM mode. Mode of propagation is TEM mode.
3. Waveguide has a cut-off frequency, only There is no cut-off frequency. In the two-wire
waves having frequency greater than cut-off transmission line all frequency can pass through.
frequency will be propagated.
4. Power handling capacity of waveguide is Power handling capacity is less.
more.
5. The system of propagation in waveguide is Propagation in two-wire transmission line is in
in accordance with ‘Field theory’. accordance with ‘circuit theory’.
6. In waveguide several modes of propagation There are no such modes for the propagation of
are possible. wave.
7. In waveguide, no power is lost through Power loss because of radiation takes place as the
radiation as electric and magnetic fields are signal travel along the line.
confined to the space within waveguide.
Ø In waveguide, less power is lost through radiation as electric and magnetic fields
are confined to the space within waveguide.
2.14 CIRCULAR WAVEGUIDE
A circular waveguide is a cylindrical hollow metallic pipe

with uniform cross-section of finite radius ‘a’ as shown in
Fig. 2.22. The general properties of the modes in circular
waveguides are similar to those for rectangular waveguides.
Fig. 2.22. Circular waveguide.
The circular waveguides are easier to manufacture than
rectangular waveguides and easier to join. A unique property
of TM modes in circular waveguides is rapid decrease in attenuation with increasing frequency
which makes their application in long low-loss communication links.
Ø Circular waveguides are easier to manufacture.

Ø A circular waveguide is a cylindrical hollow metallic pipe with uniform cross-section
of finite radius.
2.14.1 Solutions of Wave Equation for Circular Waveguide

A cylindrical co-ordinate system of circular waveguide is shown in Fig. 2.23. In Fig. 2.23 ‘r’ is
called the radius vector which varies from ‘0’ to ‘a’ (radius of circular waveguide) and φ is called
the angle vector which varies from 0 to 2π. These two form the polar co-ordinates and ‘z’ varies
along the length of cylinder.
The electric and magnetic wave equations in frequency domain is given by
∇2E = γ2E ...(2.125)
Z
r
a
O Y
r
f
Fig. 2.23. Cylindrical co-ordinate system of circular waveguide.
∇2H = γ2H ...(2.126)
where γ = α + jβ = b g
jωµ σ + jωt
The scalar Helmholtz equation in cylindrical co-ordinates is given by
1 ∂
r
FG
∂ψ IJ
1 ∂2 ψ ∂2 ψ
+ 2 + 2 = γ2ψ ...(2.127)
r ∂r H
∂r r K ∂φ ∂z
By the method of separation, the solution is assumed in form of

ψ = R(r) ⋅ Φ(φ) ⋅ Z(z) ...(2.128)
where R(r) = A function of the r co-ordinate only,
Φ(φ) = A function of co-ordinate only,
Z(z) = A function of z co-ordinate only.
Substituting equation (2.128) in equation (2.127) and divide the resultant by (R ⋅ Φ ⋅ Z), we get
1 d
r
dRFG
+ 2
IJ
1 d2 Φ 1 d2 Z
+ = γ2 ...(2.129)
rR dr dr H K
r Φ dφ 2 Z ∂z2
In equation (2.129), sum of the three independent terms is a constant, each of the these
terms must be a constant. The third term is a function of z only and may be set equal to a
constant γg2.
1 d2 z
= γg2 ...(2.130)
Z dz2
where γg is propagation constant of the wave in waveguide.
d2 z
or = γg2z ...(2.131)
2
dz
This is a second order differential equation and solution of this equation is given by
− γ gz γ gz
z = Ae + Be ...(2.132)
Substituting equation (2.131) in the equation (2.129), we get
1 d
r
dRFG
+ 2
IJ
1 d2 Φ
+ γ 2g = γ2 ...(2.133)
rR dr dr H K
r Φ dφ2
Multiplying equation (2.133) by r2, we get
r d
r
FG
dR
+
IJ
1 d2 Φ
e
− γ 2 − γ 2g r2 = 0 j ...(2.134)
R dr H
dr K
Φ dφ2
1 d2 Φ
The second term is a function of φ only. So equating this term to a constant −n2,
Φ dφ2
we get
1 d2 Φ
= −n2 ...(2.135)
Φ dφ2
d2 Φ
= −n2Φ ...(2.136)
dφ2
This is a second order differential equation and solution of this equation is given by
b g
Φ = A n sin nφ + B n cos nφ b g ...(2.137)
Substituting equation (2.136) in equation (2.134), we get

r d
r
dR FG
− n2 − γ 2 − γ 2g r 2 = 0
IJ e j ...(2.138)
R dr dr H K
From the analysis of rectangular waveguide, we know that cut-off wave number
kc2 = γg2 − γ2. Substituting the value of kc in equation (2.138), and multiplying by R, we get
r
d
r
dR
+
FG IJ LMck rh 2 OP
− n2 R = 0 ...(2.139)
dr dr H K N c
Q
Equation (2.139) is a Bessel’s equation of order n and solutions of Bessel’s equation are
given as
R = CnJn (kcr) + DnNn (kcr) ...(2.140)
where Jn (kcr) = nth order Bessel function of first kind, representing a standing wave of cos (kcr)
for r < a as shown in Fig. 2.24
1 .0
J0
0 .8
J1
0 .6 J2
J3
Va lu e of J n (k c r)
0 .4
0 .2
0 .0
– 0.2
– 0.4
– 0.6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
A rg um e nt of J n (k cr)
Fig. 2.24. Bessel functions of the first kind.
Nn (kcr) = the nth order Bessel function of the second kind, representing a standing wave of
sin (kcr) for r > a as shown in Fig. 2.25.
0 .6
N0 N1 N2 N
3
0 .4
0 .2
0
Va lu e of J n (k c r)
– 0.2
– 0.4
– 0.6
– 0.8
– 1.0
– 1.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
A rg um e nt of N n (k c r)
Fig. 2.25. Bessel function of the second kind.
From equation (2.128) the solution of Helmholtz equation is given by

ψ = R(r) ⋅ Φ(φ) ⋅ Z(z) ...(2.141)
Substituting the solution of R, Z and Φ from equations (2.140), (2.132) and (2.137) in
equation (2.141), we get the total solution of Helmholtz equation
− jβ g z
ψ = C n J n (kcr ) + D nN n (kcr ) A n sin (nφ) + B n cos (nφ) e ...(2.142)
From Fig. 2.25, it is clear that at r = 0, however, kcr = 0 and the function Nn(kcr) approaches
infinity. So, Dn becomes zero as the field should be finite at r = 0 (on the z-axis). Therefore, the
solution of the Helmholtz equation becomes
− jβ g z
ψ = C n ⋅ J n (kcr) A n sin(nφ ) + B n (nφ) e ...(2.143)
Also, by using the trigonometry identity, the two sinusoidal terms become
LM
A 2n + B 2n cos nφ + tan −1
FA n
I OP
An sin (nφ) + Bn cos (nφ) =
MN GH B n
JK PQ
Since FnCn = ψo ...(2.144)
Substituting equation (2.144) into equation (2.143), the solution of the Helmholtz equation
is reduced to
− jβ g z
c h b g
ψ = ψ o J n kcr cos nφ e ...(2.145)
Ø Dominant mode for the circular waveguide is TE11.

Ø Jn (kcr) is nth order Bessel function of first kind and representing a standing wave
of cos (kcr) for r < a.
Ø Nn (kcr) is nth order Bessel function of the second kind and representing a standing
wave of sin (kcr) for r > a.
2.14.2 TE Modes in Circular Waveguides

It is assumed that the waves in a circular waveguide are propagating in the positive z-direction.
Figure 2.23 shows the co-ordinates of circular waveguide.
The TEnp modes in the circular waveguide are characterized by Ez = 0, i.e., the z-component
of magnetic field Hz must exist in the guide for the transmission of electromagnetic energy.
Helmholtz equation for Hz in circular waveguide is given by
∇2 Hz = γ2 Hz ...(2.146)
From equation (2.145), the solution is given by
− jβ g z
c h b g
Hz = H oz J n kcr cos nφ e ...(2.147)
which is subject to the given boundary conditions.
For a lossless dielectric, Maxwell’s curl equations in frequency domain are given by
∇ × E = − jωµH ...(2.148)
∇ × H = jω∈E ...(2.149)
Writing ∇ × H and ∇ × E in the determinant form and solving E and H along r, φ and
z-direction, we get
1 1
a aφ a
r r r z
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × E = = − jωµ ar Hr + aφ H φ + az H z
∂r ∂φ ∂z
Er rE φ Ez
1 1
a aφ a
r r r z
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × H = = jω ∈ ar Er + aφ E φ + az E z
∂r ∂φ ∂z
Hr rH φ Hz
Expanding the determinants and equation the coefficients of the units vectors ar, aφ, az on
both side, we can get six equations similar to equations obtained in the case of rectangular
waveguide
1 ∂E z ∂E φ
− = − j ωµHr ...(2.150)
r ∂φ ∂z
∂E r ∂E z
− = − j ωµHφ ...(2.151)
∂z ∂r
1 ∂ 1 ∂E r
r ∂r
e j
rE φ −
r ∂φ
= − j ωµHz ...(2.152)
1 ∂H z ∂H φ
− = j ω∈Er ...(2.153)
r ∂φ ∂z
∂H r ∂H z
− = j ω∈Eφ ...(2.154)
∂z ∂r
1 ∂ 1 ∂H r
r ∂r
e j
rH φ −
r ∂φ
= j ω∈Ez ...(2.155)
Ø If wave travelling along positive ‘z’ direction.

Then Ez = Eoze−γ−γz
. Differentiating w.r.t. ‘z’, we get
∂Ez
= Eoz ⋅ e−γ
−γz
−γ
−γ)
(−γ but Eoze−γ
−γz
= Ez
∂z
∂Ez
= − Ez γ
∂z
∂
Hence we can define an operator = − γ = − jβ
βg
∂z
Here also the wave is assumed to propagate through z-direction so that operator
∂
= − γ = −jβg can be used in equations (2.150) to equation (2.155) and for TE mode the
∂z
z-component of electric field Ez is zero.
∂
So, solving above six equations in term of Hz considering operator = −jβg and Ez = 0.
∂z
∂
From equation (2.151), put Ez = 0 and = −jβg, we get
∂z
−jβg Er − 0 = −jωµHφ
βg
or Hφ = Er ...(2.156)
ωµ
From equation (2.153) and equation (2.156)
1 ∂H z βg ∂
+ jβ g E = jω∈Er, since = −jβg
r ∂φ ω⋅µ r ∂z
1 ∂H z F βI 2
r ∂φ
GG ωµ JJ
= jE r ω ∈ −
g
H K
1 ∂H z
= Er
eω µ ∈− β j ⋅ j
2 2
g
r ∂φ ωµ
where ω 2 µ ∈ − β 2g = kc2
1 ∂H z j ⋅ kc2
= E
r ∂φ ωµ r
ωµ 1 ∂H z
Er = ⋅
jkc2 r ∂φ
jωµ 1 ∂H z
Er = − ...(2.157)
kc2 r ∂φ
βg − jωµ 1 ∂H z
Hφ = ⋅ ⋅
ωµ kc2 r ∂φ
− jβ g 1 ∂H z
Hφ = ...(2.158)
kc2 r ∂φ
∂
From equation (2.150), put Ez = 0, and = −jβg, we get
∂z
j βg Eφ = − jωµHr
βg
Hr = − Eφ ...(2.159)
ωµ

−β g ∂H z
− jβ g ⋅ Eφ − = jω∈Eφ
ωµ ∂r
LM β
2 O ∂H z
− ω ∈P j
g
Eφ =
MN ωµ PQ ∂r
LM β − ω µ ∈OP
2
g
2
∂H z
Eφ
MN ωµ PQ j =
∂r
Since β 2g − ω 2 µ ∈ = −kc2
kc2 j ∂H z
−E φ =
ωµ ∂r
ωµ ∂H z
Eφ = −
j kc2 ∂r
jωµ ∂H z
Eφ = − ...(2.160)
kc2 ∂r
βg jωµ ∂H z
Hr = − ⋅ ⋅
ωµ kc2 ∂r
jβ g ∂H z
Hr = − ...(2.161)
kc2 ∂r
So, values of Er, Eφ, Hr and Hφ in term of Hz is given as
jωµ 1 ∂H z
Er = − 2 ...(2.162)
kc r ∂φ
jωµ ∂H z
Eφ = ...(2.163)
kc2 ∂r
Ez = 0 ...(2.164)
− jβ g ∂H z
Hr = ...(2.165)
kc2 ∂r
− jβ g 1 ∂H z
Hφ = ...(2.166)
kc2 r ∂φ
− jβ g z
c h b g
Hz = H oz J n kcr cos nφ e ...(2.167)
Boundary Conditions
Now applying boundary conditions, the φ component of electric field Eφ which is tangent
to the inner surface of the circular waveguide at r = a must vanish (Eφ = 0). Thus from
equation (2.163).
f
∂H z
i.e., = 0
∂r r=a
a
∂H z − jβ g z
∂r
c h b g
= H oz Jn′ kc a cos nφ e = 0 ...(2.168)
Fig. 2.26. Boundaries
r=a
condition for TE mode.
where indicates the derivative of Jn
As Hoz and cos (nφ) cannot be zero, we must have
J′(kca) = 0 ...(2.169)
Since the Jn are oscillatory function, then J′n(kca) are also oscillatory functions. The
equation (2.169) has infinite number of solutions and hence infinite number of mode are present
inside the circular waveguide. Table 2.3 tabulates a few roots J′n(kca) of for some lower order n.
Here ‘n’ represents the order of Bessel function and p is the root of equation (2.168). Thus, the
general TE mode will be denoted by TEnp mode.
′ .
Table 2.3. Eigen Values of X′np
Order (n) X′n X′n X′n

1 2 3
0 3.832 7.016 10.174

1 1.841 5.331 8.536
2 3.054 6.706 9.971
Table 2.3 shows the Eigen values X′np for different value of ‘n’ and ‘p’. Since X′np is nothing
but the value of kca at which equation (2.168) is satisfied, we have
X′np = kca ...(2.170)
′
X np
or kc = ...(2.171)
a
Subscripts n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... represents the number of full cycles of field variation in one
angular revaluation through 360° and p = 1, 2, 3, 4, ... represents number of zeroes of along
the radius excluding the zeroes on the axis.
Ø Electric field component Eφ which is tangent to inner surface at r = a must vanish,

i.e., Eφ = 0.
Ø Subscripts p = 1, 2, 3, ... represents the number of zeroes of J′′n (kca) along the
radius excluding the zero on the axis.
Ø The cut-off wave number (kc) of a mode is that for which the mode propagation
constant vanishes.
Ø Subscripts n = 0, 1, 2, ... represents the number of full cycles of field variation
in one angular revolution through 360°.
Propagation constant:
Propagation constant βg is given by
βg = ω 2 µ ∈ − kc2
Substituting equation (2.171), we get
βg = 2
F X′ I
ω µ ∈− G
np
2
...(2.172)
H a JK
Cut-off wave number
The cut-off wave number of a mode is that for which the mode propagation constant
vanishes, i.e., βg = 0. Thus from equation (2.169)
ω 2c µ
F X′ I
∈− G
np
2
0 =
H a JK
′
X np
= ωc µ ∈
a
′
Xnp
kc = = ωc µ ∈ ...(2.173)
a
Cut-off frequency
′
X np
= 2πfc µ∈
a
′
X np
fc = ...(2.174)
2πa µ ∈
For air-filled waveguide (µr = ∈r = 1)
1 1
= = c
µ∈ µ o ∈o
The cut-off frequency for air-filled waveguide is
′
c Xnp
fc = ...(2.175)
2πa
In term of wavelength,
Cut-off wavelength
2πa
λc = ...(2.176)
′
X np
Phase velocity
ω
vp =
βg
Substituting equation (2.172), we get
ω
vp =
ω
F X′ I
µ ∈ 1− G
np
2
⋅
1
H a JK 2
ω µ∈
Using equation (2.175)
1 µ∈
vp =
1−
FG f IJ
c
2
HfK
1 1
Since = = c, if dielectric is air
µ∈ µ o ∈o
c
vp = ...(2.177)
Ff I
1− G J c
2
HfK
Guide wavelength
The guide wavelength for TE modes in circular waveguide is given by
vp
λg =
f
λo
λg = ...(2.178)
1−
FG IJ
fc
2
H Kf
where λo = c/f is free space wavelength
Wave impedance
ωµ
Zg =
βg
Substituting βg from equation (2.172), we get
η
Zg = ...(2.179)
Ff I
1− G J c
2
HfK
µ
where η = is intrinsic impedance in an unbound dielectric.
∈
Er Eφ ωµ
Ø Zg = = − = is wave impedance for circular waveguide.
Hφ Hr βg
2.14.3 TM Modes in Circular Waveguides (UPTU 2010)

For a TM mode, Hz = 0 and Ez ≠ 0 and the Helmholtz equation for Ez in a circular waveguide
is given by
∇2Ez = γ2Ez ...(2.180)
Its solution is given by [similar to equation (2.147)]

− jβ g z
c h b g
Ez = E oz J n kcr cos nφ e ...(2.181)
which is subject to the given boundary conditions.
The boundary condition requires that the tangential component of electric field Ez at r = a
vanishes. Thus equation (2.181) should equal to zero.
Then, we get
Jn (kca) = 0 ...(2.182)
Since are oscillatory functions and equation (2.182) has infinite number of solution and hence
infinite number of roots. Table 2.4 tabulates a few of them for some lower order n (where
p = 1, 2, 3, ...).
Table 2.4. Eigen Values of Xnp.
Order (n) Xn Xn Xn
1 2 3
0 2.405 5.52 8.654

1 3.832 7.061 10.174
2 5.13 8.417 11.62
For a lossless dielectric, Maxwell’s curl equation in frequency domain are given by
∇ × E = − j ωµH ...(2.183)
∇ × H = j ωµE ...(2.184)
Now we can write the six equations in cylindrical co-ordinates as similarly written in TE mode
case
1 ∂E z ∂E φ
− = −j ωµHr ...(2.185)
r ∂φ ∂z
∂E z ∂E z
− = −j ωµHφ ...(2.186)
∂z ∂r
1 ∂ 1 ∂E r
r ∂r
e j
rE φ −
r ∂φ
= −j ωµHz ...(2.187)
1 ∂H z ∂H φ
− = j ω∈Er ...(2.188)
r ∂φ ∂z
∂H r ∂H z
− = j ω∈Eφ ...(2.189)
∂z ∂r
1 ∂ 1 ∂H r
r ∂r
e j
rH φ −
r ∂φ
= j ω∈Ez ...(2.190)
∂
By replacing by −j βg and the z component of magnetic field Hz by zero, we can solve
∂z
above six equation for Er, Eφ, Hr, Hφ in terms of Hz.
jβ g ∂E z
Er = − ...(2.191)
kc2 ∂r
jβ g 1 ∂ E z
Eφ = − ⋅ ⋅ ...(2.192)
kc2 r ∂φ
− jβ g z
c h b g
Ez = E oz J n kcr cos nφ e ...(2.193)
jω ∈ 1 ∂E z
Hr = ...(2.194)
kc2 r ∂φ
jω ∈ ∂ E z
Hφ = ...(2.195)
kc2 ∂r
Hz = 0 ...(2.196)
2 2 2
where kc = ω µ∈ − βg
As we have done in TE mode case, we can find out TM-mode characteristic equations. Some
of the TM-mode characteristic equations are identical to those of the TE modes, but some are
different. For convenience, all are shown here
βg = 2
FX I
ω µ ∈− G
np
2
H a JK ...(2.197)
Xnp
kc = = ωc µ ∈ ...(2.198)
a
Xnp
fc = ...(2.199)
2πa µ∈
ω c
vp = = ...(2.200)
βg
Ff I
1− G J c
2
HfK
λo
λg = ...(2.201)
1−
FG IJ
fc
2
H K
f
Zg = Z TM =
βg
= η 1−
FG f IJ
c
2
...(2.202)
ω∈ HfK
Ø For TM mode, boundary condition requires that the tangential component of electric
field Ez at r = 0 vanishes, i.e., Ez = 0.
2.14.4 Dominant Mode in Circular Waveguide (MDU 2009)

It should be noted that the dominant mode having lowest cut-off frequency (or highest cut-off
wavelength) in a circular waveguide, is the mode of TE11 that has the smallest value of product,
kca = 1.841, as shown in Table 2.3.
Thus, for TE11 mode, cut-off wavelength is
2πa
λc =
′
X11
2πa
λc = ...(2.203)
1841
.
2πa
Ø For dominant TE11 mode, λ c = .
1.841
2.15 WHY TEM MODE IS NOT POSSIBLE IN WAVEGUIDE?

(UPTU 2011, 2007, 2004, 2003)
Ampere’s law states that the line integral of H about any closed path is equal to the current
enclosed by that path.
z H ⋅ dl = I
where I is the current that must be supported by the center conductor of a coaxial line. Thus we
can say that TEM mode can exist in the two conductor system. We can understand this fact in
other word as explain below.
Hollow waveguide cannot support a TEM mode, since in two dimensions the cross-section
of such a waveguide is an area completely enclosed by a conducting wall. It is a well-known result
that the electrostatic field within such space must be zero. This is the principle of Faraday cage.
An electrostatic field can only be established if we have at least two separate conductors between
which an electrostatic potential can be established. This clearly demonstrates that the TEM mode
can only exist in the two conductor system—not in the hallow waveguide because the center
conductor does not exist.
Ø TEM mode is not possible in waveguide.

Ø TEM mode requires an axial conductor for axial current flow.
2.16 ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS OF

CIRCULAR WAVEGUIDES (UPTU 2006; MDU 2005)
2.16.1 Advantages of Circular Waveguide

The main advantages of circular waveguides include the following:
1. Circular waveguides are easier to manufacture.
2. Circular waveguides are easier to interconnect.
3. TE01 mode in circular waveguides suffers lowest attenuation per unit length of the waveguide
and is therefore preferred for long distance waveguide transmission. Theoretically, for
TE0m mode in circular waveguides, attenuation decreases indefinitely with increasing
frequency. Of course, for this the waveguide should be perfectly circular and there should
be no deformations.
2.16.2 Disadvantage of Circular Waveguide

The main disadvantages of circular waveguide include the following:
1. The plane of polarization rotates as the wave travels through the circular guide due to
roughness and discontinues which in turn affects the received signal.
2. Due to existence of infinite number of modes the probability of interference with dominant
mode is very much.
3. For same cut-off wavelength, circular waveguides have a larger cross-section and thus
occupy more space or compared to rectangular waveguides.
Ø TE01 mode in circular waveguides suffers lowest attenuation per unit length of the
guide.
2.16.3 Application of Circular Waveguides

Following are some application of the circular waveguide.
1. Circular waveguides are used for short and medium distance broadband communication.
2. TE10 mode is suitable for long distance waveguide transmission above 10 GHz.
3. Circular waveguides are used in rotating joints in radars to connect to the horn antenna
feeding a parabolic reflector.
2.17 FIELD PATTERN FOR CIRCULAR WAVEGUIDE
In circular waveguide, same general rules apply as for rectangular waveguide petterns. For TEnp
or TMnp mode, subscripts n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... represent the number of full cycles of field variation
in one angular revolution through 360° and p = 1, 2, 3, ... represents the number of zeroes of
along the radius excluding the zeroes on the axis.
2.17.1 Field Pattern for TEnp Mode

Figure 2.27 shows the patterns of electric and magnetic field in circular waveguides for dominant
mode, i.e., TE11 mode. As seen from Fig. 2.27 (a), the electric field lines are curved and meet
at right angles the inner surface of the waveguide. Figure 2.27 (b) shows the longitudinal view of
field pattern.
Ø Subscript ‘n’ represents the number of full cycle of field variation in one revolution
through 2ππ rad of φ .
Ø Subscript p indicates the number of zeroes of Eφ , i.e., J′′n (X′′np r/a) along the radial
of a waveguide.
lg /2
+
+
+ + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + +
+
(a ) (b )
M ag ne tic fie ld lo o ps
++++ M ag ne tic fie ld in to th e pag e
M ag ne tic fie ld a w ay from th e pag e
Fig. 2.27. Field pattern for TE11 mode in circular waveguide.
2.17.2 Field Pattern for TMnp Mode

Figure 2.28 shows the patterns of electric and magnetic field in circular waveguide for TM01 mode.
As seen from Fig. 2.28 (a), the electric field lines are radial and magnetic field loops are concentric.
Figure 2.28 (b) shows the longitudinal view of the field pattern.
lg /2
+ + + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
+ + +
+ +
+ + +
+ +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + + + +
(a ) (b )
M ag ne tic fie ld lo o ps
++++ M ag ne tic fie ld in to th e page
M ag ne tic fie ld a w ay from th e pag e
Fig. 2.28. Field pattern for TM01 mode in circular waveguides.

Other higher TM mode field patterns are shown in Fig. 2.29.
TM 0 1 TM 0 2 TM 11
D istrib ution s
b elow a lo n g
th is p la ne
TE 0 1 TE 11
D istribu tion s
b elo w a lo ng
th is p la ne
Fig. 2.29. Various field patterns.
2.18 METHODS OF EXCITATION OF MODES IN CIRCULAR

WAVEGUIDE
Since the electric field is generated with a polarization parallel to the electric current and the
magnetic field perpendicular to a loop of electric current, various TE and TM modes can be
generated in a circular waveguide by coaxial line probes or loops as shown in Fig. 2.30. In
Fig. 2.30 (a) coaxial line probe excites the TE10 dominant mode in a rectangular waveguide which
is converted to TE11 dominant mode in the circular waveguide through the transition length in
between them.
11
TE 01
de
TM
de
ui
eg
ui
C o axia l pro be
eg
av
av
w
ar
w
ul
ar
irc
ul
irc
C
C
01
TM
a
1 0
TE
e
gu .
l
ve ect
id
xia
wa R
a
Co
b
M
TE
(a ) (b )
TE 1 0 0° 1 80 ° TE 1 0
R e cta ng ular R e cta ng ular

w a ve gu id e w a ve gu id e
C ircu la r w a ve gu id e
(c)
Fig. 2.30. Methods of excitation of TE and TM modes in circular waveguides.
In Fig. 2.30 (b), a longitudinal coaxial line probe directly excites the symmetric TM01 mode.
TE01 mode is excited by means of two diametrically oppositely placed longitudinal narrow slots
parallel to the broad wall of the connected retangular waveguide as shown in Fig. 2.30 (c).
Ø In circular waveguide, various modes can be generated through coaxial probes or

loops.
Important Formulae for Circular Waveguide

For TE Mode
′
X np
1. Cut-off wave number (kc) =
a
= ωc µ ∈
′
X np
2. Cut-off frequency (fc) =
2 πa µ ∈
c
3. Phase velocity (vp ) =
1−
FG f IJ
c
2
HfK
c
=
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
Hλ K c
λo λo
λg )
4. Guided wavelength (λ = =
1−
FG f IJ
c
2
Fλ I
1−G J o
2
HfK Hλ K c
βg ) 2
F X′ I
ω µ ∈− G
np
2
5. Propagation constant (β =
H a JK
ωµ
6. Characteristic wave impedance (Zg ) =
βg
η
=
1−
FG f IJ
c
2
HfK
η
=
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
Hλ K c
E J G
F X ′ r I sin bnφg e
np − jβ g z
H a JK
7. Field equations Er = or n
Eφ =
F X ′ r I cos bnφg e
E J′ G
np − jβ g z
oφ
H a JKn
Ez = 0
Hr = −
E oφ F X ′ r I cos bnφg e
np − jβ g z
Zg
Jn GH a JK
E or F X ′ r I sin bnφg e
np − jβ g z
Hφ =
Zg
Jn GH a JK
F X ′ r I cos bnφg e
np − jβ g z
Hz = H oz Jn GH a JK
For TM Mode
X np
1. Cut-off wave number (kc ) =
a
= ωc µ ∈
X np
2. Cut-off frequency (fc ) =
2πa µ ∈
c
3. Phase velocity (vp) =
1−
FG f IJ
c
2
HfK
c
=
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
Hλ K c
λo
λg )
1−
FG f IJ
c
2
HfK
λo
λg =
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
Hλ K c
β g) 2
FX I
ω µ ∈− G
np
2
5. Propagation constant (β =
H a JK
βg
6. Characteristic wave impedance (Zg) =
ωµ
= η 1−
FG f IJ c
2
H fK
= η
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
Hλ K c
J G
F X r I cos bnφg e
np − jβ g z
7. Field equations Er = E or
H a JK
n
J G
F X r I sin bnφg e
np − jβ g z
H a JK
Eφ = E o φ n
F X r I cos bnφg e
np − jβ g z
Ez = E oz Jn GH a JK
E oφ
J G
F X r I sin bnφg e
np − jβ g z
Hr =
Zg n
H a JK
E or
J′ G
F X r I cos bnφg e
np − jβ g z
Hφ =
Zg n
H a JK
Hz = 0.
Example 2.25. Calculate the ratio of the cross-section of a circular waveguide to that
of a rectangular one if each is to have the same cut-off wavelength for its dominant mode.
Solution. Let r is the radius of circular waveguide. For the dominant (TE11) mode in the
circular waveguide, the cut-off wavelength is given by
2πa 2πr
λc = =
′
X11 1841
.
λc = 3.41 r
For the dominant mode (TE10) in rectangular waveguide of dimensions a × b the cut-off
wavelength is given by
λc = 2a
If the two cut-off wavelength are to be the same, then
2a = 3.41 r
a = 1.705 r
The cross-sectional area of a circular waveguide is given by
Ac = πr2
and cross-sectional area of a rectangular waveguide is given by
a a2
Ar = a × b = a × =
2 2
(for standard waveguide, we assume a = 2b)
Since a = 1.705 r
Ar =
b1705
. rg
2
2
Ar = 1.45 r2
The ratio of the areas will be
Ac πr2
=
Ar . r2
145
Ac
= 2.17
Ar
Example 2.26. An air-filled circular waveguide of 2 cm inside radius is operated in the

TE01 mode.
(a) Compute the cut-off frequency.
(b) If the guide is to be filled with a dielectric material of ∈r = 2.25, to what value must
its radius be changed in order to maintain the cut-off frequency at its original value?
(Given X′01 = 3.832)
Solution. (a) The cut-off frequency for E mode is given by
′
X np
fc =
2πa µ o ∈o
1
Since = velocity of light (c)
µ o ∈o
For n = 0 and p = 1, X′01 = 3.832
3.832 × 3 × 108
Then fc =
. × 2 × 10 −2
2 × 314
fc = 9.15 GHz.
(b) If the waveguide is filled with a dielectric material for ∈r = 2.25, then the new cut-off
frequency fc, ∈r will be
fc ′
X np
fc , ∈ r = = ...(a)
∈r 2πa∈ ∈r µ o ∈o
In order to maintain the new cut-off frequency fc, ∈r at it original value
′
X np
fc = ...(b)
2πa µ o ∈o
Radius should be changed as, from equations (a) and (b)
a 2
a∈ = =
∈r 225
.
a∈ = 1.33 cm.
The new radius with dielectric loading will be 1.33 cm.
Example 2.27. A TE11 wave is propagating through a circular waveguide. The diameter
of the guide is 10 cm and waveguide is air-filled.
(a) Find the cut-off frequency
(b) Find the wavelength λg in the guide for a frequency of 3 GHz.
(c) Determine the wave impedance in the guide. (UPTU 2011, 2010)
Solution. Given Radius a = 5 cm
X′11 = 1.841
(a) The cut-off frequency for TE11 mode is given by
′
X11 1841
. × 3 × 108
fc = =
2πa µ o ∈o . × 5 × 10 −2
2 × 314
fc = 1.76 GHz.
(b) Signal frequency f = 3 GHz

Guided wavelength λg is given by
λo c f
λg = =
Ff I
1− G J c
2
Ff I
1− G J c
2
H fK HfK
3 × 1010 3 × 109 10
λg = =
0.81
1 − 176
. 3 b g 2
λ g = 12.35 cm.
(c) The guided wave impedance is given by
ωµ η
Zg = =
βg 2
1 − fc fc h
377 377
Zg = =
0.81
b
1 − 176
. 3 g 2
Ω.
Zg = 4.65 kΩ
Example 2.28. An air-filled circular waveguide is to be operated at a frequency of

6 GHz and is to have dimensions such that fc = 0.8 f for the dominant mode. Determine:
(a) The diameter of the waveguide
(b) The guided wavelength λg and the phase velocity vp in the guide.
Solution. Given
Mode = TE11
Frequency f = 6 GHz
Cut-off frequency fc = 0.8 f = 0.8 × 6
= 4.8 GHz
(a) The radius of waveguide for TE11 anode is given by
′
X 11
a =
2πfc µ o ∈o
For n = p = 1, X′11 = 1.841
1841
. × 3 × 1010
a = = 183
. cm
2 × π × 4.8 × 109
The diameter of waveguide is
d = 3.66 cm
(b) The phase velocity vp is given by
c
vp =
2
c h
1 − fc f
For air filled waveguide

1
c = = velocity of light c
µ 0 ∈0
3 × 108 3 × 108
vp = =
0.6
b
1 − 4.8 6 g 2
vp = 5 × 108 m/sec
The guided wavelength is given by
λo c f
λg = =
c h
1 − fc f
2
b
1 − 4.8 6 g
2
3 × 1010 6 × 109
λg =
0.6
λ g = 8.33 cm.
Example 2.29. An air-filled circular waveguide having an inner radius of 1 cm is excited
in dominant mode at 9 GHz. Determine:
(a) The cut-off frequency of dominant mode
(b) Guide wavelength
(c) Wave impedance
(d) The bandwidth for operation in dominant mode only. (MDU 2009)
Solution. Given a = 1 cm
f = 9 GHz
The dominant mode is TE11, n = 1 and p = 1
c 3 × 108
Then λo = = = 3.33 cm
f 9 × 109
(a) The cut-off frequency of dominant mode (TE11) is
′
X 11 ′
cX 11
fc = =
µ o ∈o 2πa 2πa
3 × 108 × 1841
.
fc =
. × 1 × 10−2
2 × 314
fc = 8.795 GHz.
(b) Guide wavelength is
λo
λg =
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
Hλ K c
3
λg =
1−
FG 3 IJ 2
H 3.41K
c 3 × 108
Since λc = = = 3.41 cm
fc 8795
. × 109
3
λg =
0.226
λg = 6.31 cm.
(c) The wave impedance is
Zg = 120π × λg / λo
Zg = 120π × 6.31/3
Zg = 792.9 Ω .
(d) Bandwidth = [fc of next higher order mode (TM01)] − [fc of TE11]
c × X 01
BW = − 8.795 × 109
2πa
3 × 1010 × 2.405
= − 8.795 × 109
2 × 314
. ×1
= 11.49 × 109 − 8.795 × 109
BW = 2.695 GHz.
Example 2.30. The dominant mode is transmitted through a circular waveguide, the
guide wavelength is 13.33 cm. The frequency of microwave signal is 3.75 GHz. Then determine:
(a) Cut-off frequency (b) Inner radius of the guide
(c) Phase velocity (d) Group velocity
(e) Phase constant (f) Wave impedance
(g) Bandwidth for operation in dominant mode only. (MDU 2004)
Solution. Given
Mode of propagation = dominant mode (TE11)
Guide wavelength (λg) = 13.33 cm
The free space wavelength (λo) will be
c 3 × 1010
λo = =
f . × 109
375
λo = 8 cm
We know that
λo
λg =
1−
Fλ I o
2
GH λ JK
c
8
13.33 =
F 8I
1−G J
2
Hλ K c
L F 8I 2 OP
. g M1 − G J
b1333 2
= (8)2
MN H λ K c
PQ
λc = 10 cm
c 3 × 1010
(a) Cut-off frequency fc = =
λc 10
fc = 3 GHz.
(b) We know that cut-off wavelength for dominant TE11 mode is
2πa
λc =
1841
.
Thus inner radius (a) =

b1841
. g cλ h = b1841
. g b10g
c
2π 2π
a = 2.93 cm.
c
(c) Phase velocity vp =
1−
Fλ I o
2
GH λ JK c
3 × 108
vp =
1−
FG 8 IJ 2
H 10K
vp = 5 × 108 m/sec.
2
(d) Group velocity vg =

c2
=
3 × 108 e j
vp 5 × 108
vg = 1.8 × 108 m/sec.
2π 2π
(e) Phase constant β = =
λg 13.33 × 10 −2
β = 47.1 rad/m.
( f ) Wave impedance
ηo 120 π
ZTE = =
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
1−
FG 8 IJ 2
Hλ K c
H 10K
Z TE = 628.33 Ω .
(g) Bandwidth = [fc for TM01 mode] − [fc for TE11 mode]
BW =
FG
c 2.405
−
c 1841
. IJ FG IJ
2π a H 2π a K H K
=
c
2πa
b
2.405 − 1841
. g
=
3 × 108
2π × 2.93 × 10 −2
b2.405 − 1841
. g
BW = 0.191 GHz.
Example 2.31. A circular waveguide has a cut-off frequency of 9 GHz in dominant

mode.
(a) Find the inside diameter of the guide if it is air-filled.
(b) Determine the inside diameter of the guide if the guide is dielectric filled. The
relative dielectric constant is ∈r = 4.
Solution. TE11 is dominant mode in circular waveguide, for a circular waveguide
X′11 = 1.841
(a) The cut-off frequency is
′
X11 ′ .c
X11
fc = =
2πa µ o ∈o 2πa
′ .c
X11
Inner radius a =
2πfc
1841
. × 3 × 108
a =
. × 9 × 109
2 × 314
a = 0.0098 m
a = 0.98 cm
The diameter of waveguide is
D = 1.96 cm.
(b) If the guide is filled with a dielectric of ∈r = 4. The radius of the guide is
aair
a∈ =
∈r
0.98
a∈ =
4
a∈ = 0.49 cm
The diameter of the dielectric loaded guide is
D∈ = 0.98 cm.
2.19 ELLIPTICAL WAVEGUIDE
An elliptical waveguide has characteristics resembling those of rectangular waveguide, but its
bandwidth is narrower. Typically it is made in long lengths or is assembled in desired sections with
an adaptive flange to rectangular waveguide. Elliptical waveguides find application in antenna
feeds. Figure 2.31 shows an elliptical waveguide.
Fig. 2.31. Elliptical waveguide.
2.20 MATERIALS FOR WAVEGUIDE
The waveguides are usually made of aluminium, copper or alloy of copper like brass.
The choice of material is essentially a compromise between high conductivity to minimise
losses, corrosion and, sometimes, high-temperature survival, and ease of manufacture (welding,
brazing, machining etc.). In food and pharmaceutical processing, surface hardness and scratch
resistance are important to avoid bacterial traps.
Aluminium is relatively low cost, and has a high electrical, and thermal conductivity. It is
widely used for waveguides transmitting high power, with an upper limit, without forced cooling.
Copper and brass are not often used in industrial microwave plant except in relatively low-power
laboratory equipment. The cost is very high and performance of copper relative to aluminium is
marginal, brass has poor conductivity in comparison. Stainless steel should not used for the
waveguide. Stainless steel has low electrical and thermal conductivity and so is liable to hot spots
and wasted power. Inside surface of waveguide is coated with thin layer of either gold or silver in
order to improve the conductivity of walls of waveguide and to ensure that the inside surface is
smooth which reduces the losses inside the waveguides.
2.21 ADVANTAGES OF WAVEGUIDE
Waveguides have several advantages over two-wire and coaxial transmission lines. For example,
the large surface area of waveguides greatly reduces copper (I2R) losses. Two-wire transmission
lines have large copper losses because they have a relatively small surface area. The surface area
of the outer conductor of a coaxial cable is large, but the surface area of the inner conductor is
relatively small. At microwave frequencies, the current carrying area of the inner conductor is
restricted to a very small layer at the surface of the conductor by an action called skin effect. Skin
effect tends to increase the effective resistance of the conductor. Although energy transfer in
coaxial cable is caused by electromagnetic field motion, the magnitude of the field is limited by the
size of the current carrying area of the inner conductor. The small size of the center conductor
is even further reduced by skin effect and energy transmission by coaxial cable becomes less
efficient than by waveguides. Dielectric losses are also lower in waveguides than in two-wire and
coaxial transmission lines. Dielectric losses in two-wire and coaxial lines are caused by the heating
of the insulation between the conductors. The insulation behaves as the dielectric of a capacitor
formed by the two wires of the transmission line. A voltage potential across the two wires causes
heating of the dielectric and results in a power loss. In practical applications the actual breakdown
of the insulation between the conductors of a transmission line is more frequently a problem than
is the dielectric loss.
This breakdown is usually caused by stationary voltage spikes or nodes which are caused by
standing waves. Standing waves are stationary and occur when part of the energy travelling down
the line is reflected by an impedance mismatch with the load. The voltage potential of standing
waves at the points of greatest magnitude can become large enough to breakdown the insulation
between transmission line conductors.
The dielectric in waveguide is air, which has much lower dielectric loss than conventional
insulating materials. However, waveguides are also subject to dielectric breakdown caused by
standing waves. Standing waves in waveguides cause arcing which decreases the efficiency of
energy transfer and can severally damage the waveguide. Also since the electromagnetic field are
completely contained within the waveguide, radiation losses are kept very low.
Power handling capability is another advantage of waveguides. Waveguides can handle more
power than coaxial lines of the same size because power-handling capability is directly related to
the distance between conductors.
Ø Copper and dielectric losses are lower in waveguides than in two-wire and coaxial
transmission lines.
Ø Power handling capability is another advantage of waveguides.
2.22 DISADVANTAGES OF WAVEGUIDE
Physical size of the primary lower-frequency limitation of waveguides. The width of a waveguide
must be approximately a half-wavelength at the frequency of the wave to be transported. For
example, a waveguide for use at 1 MHz would be about 500 feet wide. This makes the use of
waveguides at frequencies below 1 GHz increasingly impractical. The lower frequency range of any
system using waveguides is limited by the physical dimensions of the waveguides.
Waveguides are difficult to install because of their rigid, hollow-pipe shape. Special couplings
at the joints are required to assure proper operation. Also, the inside surfaces of waveguides are
often plated with silver or gold to reduce skin effect losses. These requirements increase the costs
and decrease the practicality of waveguide systems at any other than microwave frequencies.
Ø Physical size of waveguide becomes very large at lower frequency (less than
1 GHz).
Ø Waveguides are difficult to install because of their rigid, hollow-pipe shape.
Ø The inside surface of the waveguides are often plated with silver or gold to reduce
skin effect losses.
2.23 PLANAR TRANSMISSION LINES
In 1895, Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose studied the propagation of microwaves and millimeter
waves in closed structures resembling circular and rectangular waveguides. He was the first to
demonstrate a microwave horn antenna. In 1897, Lord Rayleigh showed mathematically the
possibility of propagation of electromagnetic waves in circular and rectangular waveguides. As a
matter of fact early microwave system relied heavily on waveguides and coaxial lines. Waveguides
have the advantages of high-power-handling capability and low loss, but are bulky and expensive.
Coaxial lines have high bandwidth but it is difficult to fabricate complex microwave circuits with
them. Planar transmission lines were used much later and provided a very convenient system for
fabrication of complex microwave circuits. They include microstrip line, strip line, slot lines,
coplanar and many other structures.
Planar transmission lines are compact, low cost and are capable of easy integration in the
form of planar structure. In many cases even active microwave circuits can be integrated. The first
planar transmission line was the flat strip coaxial line developed during World War II, and then the
stripline was developed. Microstrip line was first developed at ITT laboratories. The earlier microstrip
line used a thick dielectric substrate which accentuated the non-TEM mode popular compared to
other planar lines. This also reduces the frequency dependence of the line.
Microwave circuits and technology utilizing waveguides went through a silent but rapid
development during the Second World War. Substantial progress was also achieved in the development
of techniques for microwave power generation and amplification leading to the emergence of
klystrons, magnetrons, travelling wave tubes, etc. The 1950s saw the entry of a new era of
microwave semiconductor device technology. Solid state devices were introduced promising an
encouraging future for microwave applications.
A number of devices were developed for performing a variety of microwave function such
as power generation, mixing, switching, amplification, etc. These include the PIN diode, gunn
diode, schottky barrier diode, gallium arsenide field effect transistor (GaAs FET) and silicon bipolar
transistor. The availability of small size semiconductor devices made it necessary to look for
transmission media compatible with these devices. The answer was realized in the form of planar
transmission lines. Also the miniaturization of microwave circuit has been taken place through the
development of planar transmission line which are flat two or multi conductor transmission lines
having low profile and light weight. This geometry allows control of the characteristic impedance
of the line by defining the dimensions in a single plane and is therefore suitable for microwave
integrated circuits. The complete transmission line circuit can be fabricated in one step by thin film
technology and photolithography techniques. There are quite a few geometries which are formed
in various configuration and on different substrates. These structures are shown in Fig. 2.32 and
are known as:
(i) Microstrip line
(ii) Shielded strip line
(iii) Slot line
(iv) Coplanar strip
(v) Coplanar waveguide
(vi) Inverted microstrip
(vii) Suspended microstrip
(viii) Fin line

(ix) Non-radiative dielectric guide
(x) Non-radiative insular dielectric guide
er er
M icrostrip S h ie ld ed strip lin e

er er
S lot line C o plan ar strips

er
er
C o plan ar w aveg uide In ve rte d m icrostrip

Top strip
D ie le ctric ( er )
er
A ir ( e0 )
G ro un d p la ne
S u sp e nd ed m icrostrip Fin lin e

e2
e0 e0
M eta l g ro un d
M eta l g ro un d
er e1
e0 e0
N o n-ra diative N o n-ra diative insu la r

d ielectric gu id e d ielectric gu id e
Fig. 2.32. Various planar transmission lines.
Ø Integration of passive and active component is difficult in the waveguide.

Ø Miniaturization of microwave circuit has taken place through the development of
planar transmission line.
Ø Planar transmission has flat two or multi-conductor with dielectric substrate on the
single plane.
Ø Planar transmission lines are compact, light weight and capable of easy integration
of solid state devices.
Ø Planar transmission lines are suitable for microwave integrated circuits.
Ø Planar transmission lines suitable for MICs because characteristic impedance of
line can be controlled by defining the dimensions in a single plane.
2.23.1 Advantages of Planar Transmission Lines

The basic advantages of planar transmission lines are:
(a) Small size and weight.
(b) Small weight.
(c) Economically efficient.

(d) High reliability.
(e) High stability.
(f) Easy access for component mounting.
(g) The impedance Zo can be controlled by defining the dimension in a single plane.
(h) Passive circuit design is possible easily by changing the dimensions of the one plane only.
Some of the features of planar transmission lines are:
• Easy access to top surface which makes it very convenient to mount discrete devices
(active and passive) on it.
• Radiation losses and outside interference need to be taken into account due to their open
structure.
• As the field extends outside the dielectric, it makes exact analysis very difficult.
Ø In the planar transmission line, field lines extends outside the dielectric this makes
the exact analysis very difficult.
Ø Due to open structure radiation losses and outside interference is more in planar
transmission line.
2.23.2 Materials for Planar Transmission Line

For the fabrication of planar transmission lines, in general, we need two basic categories of
materials.
1. Substrate Materials: A substrate of planar transmission lines is a piece of substance on
which conductor strips are built. The ideal substrate materials should have the following
characteristics:
(i) High dielectric constant.
(ii) Dielectric constant should remain constant over the frequency range of interest and
over the temperature range of interest.
(iii) High resistivity and dielectric strength.
(iv) High purity and constant thickness.
(v) High thermal conductivity.
The use of high dielectric constant materials reduces the size of the circuit and radiation
losses are minimized.
The most of common substrate material are Alumina, Barylalia, Sapphire and Duroid,
other substrates which are used are Quartz, Rutile (Titanium dioxide), Si, GaAs, InP,
Ferrite/garnet and Teflon etc.
Ø Fabrication of planar transmission line is easy and complete circuit can be fabricate
in one step by thin film technology and photolithography techniques.
Ø Fabrication process is similar to the making of printed circuit board for low frequency.
2. Conductor Materials: The requirements for a conductor material are:

(i) High conductivity (Low resistance)
(ii) Minimum resistance variation with temperature.
(iii) Good adhesion to the substrate.

(iv) Good etchability and solderability.
(v) Compatibility with the photo-etching method used to define the conductor pattern.
Duroid is registered trademark of the Rogers corporation.
In order to achieve these characteristics, a combinations of metals are used to form both
the conductor pattern and the ground plane. Generally used conductor materials are gold
(Au), silver (Ag), copper (Cu), aluminium (Al) and chromium (Cr), etc.
Duroid is registered trademark of the Rogers corporation.
2.23.3 Disadvantages of Planar Transmission Lines

These are certain disadvantages in the planar transmission lines given below:
(i) Low power handling capability due to small size.
(ii) There are also radiation losses from the open structure like microstrip, losses from the
open structure like microstrip, slot and coplanar lines. This loss is reduced by confining
the field lines more in the dielectric substrate of a high dielectric constant.
(iii) The circuit design using these configurations should be very accurate since matching
screws and short-circuit plungers cannot be used in planar transmission line circuits.
(iv) The design of some active devices are also limited because of low Q (of the order 100).
Power handling capability of planar transmission line is low due to small size.
Planar transmission lines required accurate circuit design because matching devices
like screw and plunger cannot be used.
2.24 MICROSTRIP LINE (UPTU 2011)
Microstrip lines consists of conductive strip of a width ‘w’ and thickness ‘t’ and a wider ground
plane, separated by a dielectric layer of thickness ‘h’ as shown in Fig. 2.33. Microstrip is the most
popular microwave transmission line, especially for microwave integrated circuits.
tor
uc
ip
Str
nd
y
Co
w t
Conductor strip t w
h er
h er
0
Dielectric substrate
Ground strip
(a) Cross-section view (b) Side view
Fig. 2.33. Microstrip line.
Approximate distributions of electric and magnetic fields in a microstrip line are shown in
Fig. 2.34.
E -fie ld
E E
(a ) E lectric fie ld distrib utio n
H
H -field
H
er H
(b ) M ag ne tic fie ld d istrib utio n
E -fie ld
H -field
(c) C o m bin e d e le ctric a nd m ag ne tic fie ld d istrib utio n
Fig. 2.34. Field distribution of microstrip line.

Figure 2.34 (a) shows the electric field lines. As we know that electric lines will moves towards
the nearest conductor (in this case ground plane) so there will be more concentration of electric
field in the dielectric region below the strip, most of the energy of the wave is concentrated in the
dielectric region.
Figure 2.34 (b) shows the magnetic field lines. As we know that a current carrying conductor
will produce a magnetic field circularly around the conductor and the direction of magnetic field
lines (clockwise or anti-clockwise) depends on the direction of flow of current in the conductor
(inward or outward direction). So there will be circular magnetic field line around the strip conductor.
Figure 2.34 (c) shows the complete field pattern of the microstrip line, the electric field lines
remain partially in the air and partially in the lower dielectric substrate. This makes the mode of
propagation not pure TEM, we may say the quasi-TEM mode.
Thus, the theory of TEM-coupled lines applies only approximately. Due to open structure and
presence of discontinuity, the microstrip line radiates electromagnetic energy. The radiation loss
is proportional to the square of the frequency. The use of the thin and high dielectric materials
reduces the radiation loss of the open structure where the field are mostly confined inside the
dielectric. Following are the same specific feature of microstrip lines:
1. Because of easy access to the top surface, it is very convenient to mount active or passive
devices and to make minor adjustments after the circuit has been fabricated.
2. Due to open structure and presence of discontinuity, the microstrip line radiates
electromagnetic energy. So care has to be taken to minimize the radiation loss or
interference due to nearby conductors. To ensure that fields are confined near the strip,
use of high dielectric substrates is necessary.
3. Since some portion of field extends outside the dielectric, this makes the mode of
propagation quasi-TEM and microstrip line considered as a mixed dielectric transmission
structure.
Due to this reason, exact analysis of the microstrip line becomes very difficult.
Ø Fields lines lie partially in the air and partially in the dielectric substrate.
Ø In microstrip, it is convenient to mount active or passive devices because of open
structure.
Ø Microstrip lines are most widely used in microwave integrated circuit (MIC) because
it offers a simple geometry, easy fabrication and easy incorporation of active and
passive device.
Ø Radiation losses in microstrip line is more.
2.24.1 Effective Dielectric Constant

Since the propagation field lines in a microstrip lie partially in air and partially inside the homogeneous
dielectric substrate. So one might suspect that the actual value of dielectric constant (permittivity)
of the microstrip line must lie somewhere between 1 and εr, which is termed as the effective
dielectric constant (permittivity) εeff of the microstrip line, and satisfies the relations.
1 < εeff < εr ...(2.204)
For the very wide strip width (w/h >> 1) as shown in Fig. 2.35 (a), most of the electric fields
in the dielectric and εeff approximately approaches the permittivity of the material εr, i.e.,
εeff ≈ εr
w h w h
er er
(a ) E xtre m e ly w ide (w >> h) m icrostrip lin e (b ) E xtre m e ly n arrow (w << h ) m icrostrip lin e
Fig. 2.35. Microstrip lines of different strip width.

For the very narrow strip width (w/h << 1) as shown in Fig. 2.35 (b), the field is almost
equally shared by the air (εr = 1) and the dielectric substrate so the εeff approximately approaches
1
ε +1
εeff ≈
2 r
c h ...(2.205)
So the effective dielectric constant (εeff) for an microstrip line can be related to the relative
dielectric constant of the dielectric substrate. Digiacomo and his coworkers discovered an empirical
equation for the effective relative dielectric constant of microstrip line by measuring the propagation-
delay time and the relative dielectric constant of several dielectric substrate.
The empirical equation for effective relative dielectric constant is given by

εeff = 0.475 εr + 0.67 ...(2.206)
where εr is the relative dielectric constant. Figure 2.36 shows the effective dielectric constant (εeff)
a function of relative dielectric constant (εr) for microstrip line.
E ffe ctive dielectric co nstan t ee ff

5 ee ff = 0 .47 5 er + 0.67
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
R e la tive dielectric co nstan t er
Fig. 2.36. Effective dielectric constant (eeff ) as a function of relative

dielectric constant for microstrip line.
It may be noted that for microstrip line, the phase velocity and guide wavelength are given
by
c
Phase velocity vp =
ε eff
λo
Guide wavelength λg =
ε eff
The phase velocity and guide wavelength depends upon the effective dielectric constant,
which is a function of w and h. This factor has to be taken into account while designing microstrip
circuits.
Ø Exact analysis of the microstrip line is difficult because the mode of propagation
is quasi-TEM.
Ø For extremely wide (w >> h) microstrip, εeff ≈ εr.
Ø For extremely narrow (w << h) microstrip.
1
ε eff ≈ c
ε +1
2 r
h
2.24.2 Characteristic Impedance

There are many relations which can be used to calculate characteristic impedance and as a function
of the dimensions and substrate permittivity.
Several different methods for determining the characteristic impedance of a microstrip line
have been developed. The field-equation method was employed by several authors for calculating
an accurate value of the characteristic impedance. However, it requires the use of a large digital
computer and is extremely complicated. Another method is to derive the characteristic impedance
equation of a microstrip line from a well-known equation and make some changes. This method
is called comparative or indirect method. This method gives approximate formula for characteristics
and discussed below.
The cross-section of microstrip line is rectangular as shown in Fig. 2.37(a). The rectangular
conductor of width w and thickness t can be transformed into an equivalent conductor of wire-over-
ground transmission line [Fig. 2.37(b)].
w
t
d
er h h er
(a ) M icro strip line (b ) W ire -over-gro un d
Fig. 2.37. Microstrip to wire-over-ground transmission line transform.

Springfield discovered an empirical equation for microstrip to equivalent circular conductor
and equation is
FG
d = 0.67 w 0.8 + t IJ ...(2.207)
wH K
where d = Diameter of the wire-over-ground,
w = Width of the microstrip conductor,
t = Thickness of the microstrip conductor.
The well-known equation of the characteristic impedance of a wire-over-ground transmission
line is given by
60 4h
Zo = ln , for h >> d ...(2.208)
εr d
and empirical equation for effective relative dielectric constant is given by [from equation (2.206)
εeff = 0.475 εr + 0.67 ...(2.209)
Substituting equations (2.207) and (2.209) in equation (2.208), we get the characteristic
impedance of microstrip line
Zo =
60 LM ln
4h OP
r
F
0.475 ε + 0.67 M 0.67 w 0.8 + t I
GH w JK PPQ
MN
Zo =
87 L 5.98 h OP, bh < 0.8 wg
ln M ...[2.210(a)]
ε + 141
r . N 0.8 w + t Q
where εr = Relative dielectric constant of substrate dielectric,

h = Height from the microstrip line to the ground,
w = Width of the microstrip conductor,
t = Thickness of microstrip conductor.
The variation of microstrip characteristic impedance with w/h is shown in Fig. 2.38.
This equation is suitable only when the ratio of the thickness to width is between 0.1 and
0.8, i.e., only for narrow microstrip line.
For Wide microstrip line
The characteristic impedance for wide microstrip line was derived by Assadourian and is
given by
377 h
Zo = , For w >> h ...[2.210(b)]
εr w
2 00
C h ara cteristic im p ed a nce V s
1 80 w / h fo r pa ram e tric va lue s o f er
1 60 er = 1 w
h
1 40 2
1 20 3
C h ara cteristic im p e da nce
4
1 00
6
8
80 10
12
60 15
20
40 40 30
50
70
20 90
0
0 .1 .2 .3 1 .0 2 5 1 0.0 .2 0 5 0.0 1 00 .0
w/h
(a) Wide strip approximation (w/h > 1.0)

4 20
4 00 C h ara cteristic im p ed an ce
V s/ w /h for param etric value s of er
3 80 er = 1
3 60
3 40 w
3 20
3 00 2 h
2 80
2 60
3
C ha ra cteristic im p ed an ce
2 40
2 20 4
2 00
6
1 80
1 60 8
10
1 40
12
1 20 15
1 00 20
30
80 40
60 70 50
40 90
20
0
0 .01 0 .2 0 .3 0 .10 .2 .5 1 .0
w /h
(b ) N a rrow strip a pp roxim a tio n (w /h <1 .0 )
Fig. 2.38. Variation of Zo characteristic impedance with w/h.
Ø Comparative method is used for calculating the approximate value of Zo.

Ø Comparative method is suitable for narrow microstrip line.
2.24.3 Losses in Microstrip Line (UPTU 2011)

In a practical microstrip line the propagation loss is primarily due to the two types of dissipative
losses, one is conductor loss and other is dielectric loss.
In addition there will radiation loss due to open structure of microstrip line.
Since for the non-magnetic dielectric substrate material two types of loss exist in microstrip
lines which provide attenuation of signal.
1. Dielectric loss in the substrate.
2. Ohmic loss in the strip conductor and the ground plane due to finite conductivity (conductor
loss).
The total attenuation constant can be expressed as
α = αd + αc ...(2.211)
where αd and αc are the dielectric and ohmic attenuation constants.
In additions to the dielectric and ohmic losses, microstrip line also has radiation losses.
From ordinary transmission line theory, the power carried by a wave travelling in the positive
z-direction is given by
V I* 1
P = ⋅ = VI *
2 2 2
1
= V e − αz I + e − αz
e j
2 +
1
= V I e −2αz
2 + +
2
V+
Since V+ I+ =
Zo
2
1 V+
Then P = e −2αz
2 Zo
P = Po e−2αz ...(2.212)
2
V+
where Po = is the power at z = 0
2Z o
From equation (2.212), the attenuation constant α can be expressed as (differentiating w.r.t. z)
dP
= −2αPoe−2αz
dz
Since P(z) = Power at distance z
dP dz
or α = − = αd + αc ...(2.213)
2P z bg
The gradient of power in the z-direction, i.e., dP/dz in equation (2.213) can be further
expressed in terms of the power loss per unit length dissipated in the resistance and the power
loss per unit length in the dielectric.
1
Since P = VI *
2
−
dP
= −
d 1
VI *
FG IJ
dz dz 2 H K
=
1 FG IJ
−
dV
I* +
1
−
FG IJ
dI *
V
2 H K
dz 2 dz H K
1
=
2
bRIg I * + 12 bσV *g V
1 2 1 2
= I R+ V σ
2 2
= Pc + Pd ...(2.214)
where Pc = Power loss per unit length in conductor,
Pd = Power loss per unit length in dielectric,
σ = Conductivity of dielectric substrate board.
Substituting equation (2.214) into equation (2.213), we get

Pc + Pd
α = = αd + αc
2P z bg
Pc Pd
So αd + αc = +
2P z bg 2P z bg
After comparing, we get
Dielectric attenuation constant
Pd
αd = ...(2.215)
2P z a f Np cm
Ohmic attenuation constant
Pc
αc = Np cm ...(2.216)
2P z af
1. Dielectric Losses in Microstrip Line: Dielectric loss is due to the finite loss tangent
of the dielectric substrate. The dielectric attenuation constant is given by
σd
µ
αd = Np cm ...(2.217)
2 ε
where σd is the conductivity of the dielectric substrate in mho/cm and dielectric loss
tangent is given by
σd
tan δ = ...(2.218)
wε
From equation (2.217) and (2.218), the dielectric attenuation constant is expressed by
w
αd = µε tan δ Np/cm ...(2.219)
2
If the loss tangent, tan δ, is independent of frequency, the dielectric attenuation per
wavelength is also independent of frequency. Moreover, if the dielectric substrate conductivity
is independent of frequency, as for a semiconductor, the dielectric attenuation per unit is
also independent of frequency.
The commonly used substrate materials for microstrip lines are polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTEE)/taflon, RT Duroid, alumina and sapphire, etc. Alumina is most widely used for
frequencies up to 20 GHz. At higher frequencies, sapphire is used.
Since the microstrip line is a non-magnetic mixed dielectric system, the upper dielectric
above the microstrip conductor is air, in which no loss occurs, after consider this, Pucel
and his co-workers give an expression for attenuation constant as
qσ d µo
αd = 4.34 dB cm
ε eff εo
µo
Since = 377 Ω
εo
qσ d
αd = 1634
. × 103 dB cm ...(2.220)
ε eff
where q is dielectric filling factor and defined as

ε eff − 1
q = ...(2.221)
εr − 1
2. Ohmic Losses in Microstrip Line: Ohmic loss in the strip conductor and the ground
plane is due to finite conductivity. For most microstrip substrates, ohmic or conductor loss
is more significant than dielectric loss. The current density in the conductors of a microstrip
line is concentrated in a sheet that is approximately a skin depth thick inside the conductor
surface and exposed to the electric field. Both the strip conductor thickness and the
ground plane thickness are assumed to be at least three or four skin depths thick. The
current density in the strip conductor and the ground conductor is not uniform in the
transverse plane. The microstrip conductor contributes the major part of the ohmic loss.
Figure 2.39 shows the current density J for a microstrip line.
J 1 (x)
B o tto m of strip
Top o f strip
x
0
J 2 (x)
G ro un d p la ne
0
x
Fig. 2.39. Current distribution on microstrip conductor.

Because of mathematical complexity, exact expressions for the current density of
microstrip line with non-zero thickness have never been derived. After approximations,
for the conducting attenuation constant of wide microstrip is calculated
8.686 R s w
αc = dB cm , for >1 ...(2.222)
Z ow h
π fµ
where Rs = is the surface skin resistance in Ω square
σc
1
Since δ = is the skin depth in cm
πfµσ c
1
Then Rs = Ω square
δσ c
δc = Conductivity of conductor strip
Figure 2.40 shows the variation in αc substrate (dielectric) height

w
h
50
t/h =
20 0 .00 5
0 .01 0
10 0 .02 0
ac Z o h/R s dB
1 w/h
0 .1 0 .4 1 .0 5 .0
Fig. 2.40. Variation of attenuation constant with w/h.
Ø Ohmic and dielectric losses are exist in microstrip line.

Ø Alumina is most widely used dielectric substrate for frequencies up to 20 GHz.
Ø In microstrip, over the low loss dielectric predominate sources of losses are non-
perfect conductors.
Ø Conductor loss increases as the frequency increases.
Ø In microstrip, it is assumed that both thickness of strips conductor and ground
conductor are assumed to at least 3 and 4 times skin depth.
3. Radiation Losses in Microstrip Line: Microstrip lines also have radiation loss due to
open structure and any current discontinuities in the strip conductor. The radiation loss
depends on the substrates thickness and dielectric constant, as well as its geometry.
Lewin has calculated the radiation loss for microstrip line using the approximations.
(a) TEM mode of transmission
(b) Substrate thickness much less than the free space wavelength
(c) Neglect of radiation from the transverse electric (TE) field component parallel to strip
(d) Uniform dielectric in the neighborhood of the strip.
Lewin’s results show that the ratio of radiated power to total dissipated power for an
open microstrip line is
Prad
= 240 π
2 h F I F cε h 2
eff
Pt λo GH JK Z o
...(2.223)
ε eff + 1 ε eff − 1 ε eff + 1

where F (εeff) = − ln is a radiation factor
ε eff 2ε eff ε eff ε eff − 1
εeff is the effective dielectric constant,
λo is free space wavelength,
h is height of dielectric substrate,
Zo is characteristic impedance of line.
In view of equation (2.223), the radiation loss decreases when the characteristic impedance
increases. For lower dielectric constant substrates, radiation is significant at higher impedance
levels. For higher dielectric constant substrates, radiation becomes significant until very
low impedance levels are reached.
Alternatively, equation (2.223) can be expressed as
Prad Rr
= ...(2.224)
Pt Zo
The ratio of radiation resistance Rr to the real part of the characteristic impedance Zo of
the microstrip line is equal to a small fraction of the power radiated from a open-circuit
discontinuity.
From equation (2.223), the radiation resistance Rr can be expressed as
Rr = 240 π 2
F h I F cε h
2
GH λ JK
o
eff
...(2.225)
Ø Microstrip lines also have radiation loss due to open structure and discontinuities
in strip conductor.
Ø Radiation loss depends on the substrate’s thickness and dielectric constant.
2.24.4 Quality Factor of Microstrip Line

Almost all microwave integrated circuit require very high quality resonant circuits. The quality factor
(Q) of a microstrip line is very high, but it is limited by the radiation losses of the substrates and
with low dielectric constant. Here we only consider the wide strip line (w/h > 1).
From equations (2.222) and [2.210(b)], the ohmic attenuation constant and characteristic
impedance of a wide strip line are given by
Ohmic attenuation constant
8.686 R s
αc ≈ dB cm ...(2.226)
Z ow
Characteristic impedance
377 h
Zo = Ω ...(2.227)
εn w
and the wavelength in the microstrip line is given by
λg =
c
εr
30
= cm ...(2.228)
fGHz ε r
where fGHz is the frequency in GHz.
Since relation between quality factor Qc and ohmic attenuation constant is given by
27.3
Qc = ...(2.229)
αc
where αc is in dB/λg from equation (2.226).
8.686 R s
αc in dB/λg =
Zo w λ g
8.686 R s λ g
αc = in dB λ g ...(2.230)
Zo w
Now substituting the value of αc from equation (2.230) in equation (2.229), we get
27.3 Z ow
Qc = ...(2.231)
8.686 R s λ g
Now substituting the value of characteristic impedance from equation (2.227) and guide
wavelength from equation (2.228) in equation (2.231), we get
27.3 × 377 × h × fGHz × ε r × w
Qc =
8.686 × R s × 30 × ε r × w
F hIf
= 395
. GH R JK
s
GHz ...(2.232)
where h is measured in cm and radiation resistance Rs is expressed as

πfµ
Rs =
σ
Since µ = 4π × 10−7 henry per meter = 4π × 10−9 henry per cm
π × f × 4π × 10 −9
Rs =
σ
fGHz
= 2π Ω square ...(2.233)
σ
Substituting equation (2.233) in equation (2.232), finally, we get the quality factor Qc of a
wide microstrip line
39.5 × h × fGHz × σ
Qc = . h σ fGHz
= 628
2π × fGHz
where σ is the conductivity of dielectric board in mho/cm
or Qc = 0.628 h σ fGHz ...(2.234)
where σ is conductivity of dielectric board in mho/m.
For a copper strip,
σ = 5.8 × 107 mho/m and Qc becomes
Qc = 4780h fGHz ...(2.235)
Similarly, quality factor Qd is related to the dielectric attenuation constant
27.3
Qd = ...(2.236)
αd
where αd is in dB/λg
Ø Q-factor of microstrip line is very high but it is limited by the radiation losses and
with low dielectric constant.
Ø For a copper strip, σ = 5.8 × 107 mho/m.
2.24.5 Remedy for Reducing the Radiation Loss

Because of open configuration, radiation losses in the microstrip lines become very high at higher
frequencies. To reduce the radiation losses, the complete microstrip circuit is usually placed in a
metal enclosure as shown in Fig. 2.41.
M eta l e nclo sure
A ir » 2h
w
L ow -loss dielectric (er )

h
Fig. 2.41. An enclosed microstrip configuration used to prevent radiation losses.
Ø Radiation losses in microstrip line can reduce by using a metal enclosure.
2.24.6 Limitations of Microstrip Line

Apart from the advantages, microstrip lines has the following limitations:
(i) Most of the field in a microstrip is concentrated in the dielectric substrate, a slight
change in substrate dielectric constant due to temperature variation or batch to batch
variation changes the impedance and guide wavelength considerably.
(ii) At higher frequencies, particularly into the millimeter wavelength range, losses (including
radiation) increase greatly.
(iii) Circuit dimensions at high frequencies are very small and results in fabrication problems.
(iv) The conductor losses in the microstrip increases with an increase in frequency. It can
safely be used in the range up to about 50 GHz.
(v) Thinner substrate provides high frequency operation but then the quality factor Q
becomes low.
Figure 2.42 shows photography of various microstrip circuit.
Fig. 2.42. Photograph of some microstrip circuit.
Ø At higher frequencies, radiation and conductor losses are more.

Example 2.32. A microstrip line has the following parameters

Relative dielectric constant εr = 5.23
Height from the strip to ground h = 0.8 mils
Thickness of the conductor strip t = 2.8 mils
Width of the microstrip w = 10 mils
Find the characteristic impedance Zo.
Solution. The characteristic impedance for narrow microstrip is given by
Zo =
87 FG 5.98 h IJ
ln
ε + 141
r . H 0.8 w + t K
Zo =
87
ln G
F 5.98 × 0.8 IJ
5.23 + 1.41 H 0.8 × 10 + 2.8 K
= 27.49 Ω
Ø Mils is an English unit 1 mils ≈ 0.0254 mm.
Example 2.33. A microstrip line is constructed of copper conductor and nylon phenolic
board has the following parameter.
Frequency = 25 GHz
Dielectric thickness h = 19 mils (0.4836 mm)
Width w = 25 mils (0.635 mm)
Strip thickness t = 2.8 mils (0.071 mm) [Given σc = 5.8 × 107 mho/m]
(i) Characteristic impedance Zo
(ii) Dielectric filling factor q
(iii) Dielectric attenuation constant αd
(iv) Surface skin resistance Rs
(v) Conductor attenuation constant αc.
Solution.
(i) The characteristic impedance is
Zo =
87
ln
FG 5.98 h IJ
ε + 141
r . H 0.8 w + t K
Zo =
87
ln G
F 5.98 × 0.4836 IJ
4.19 + 141
. H 0.8 × 0.635 + 0.071K
Zo = 59 Ω .
(ii) Dielectric filling factor q is
ε eff − 1
q =
εr − 1
From equation (2.222), effective dielectric constant is

εeff = 0.475 εr + 0.67
εeff = 0.475 × 4.19 + 0.67 ≈ 2.66
2.66 − 1 166
.
Then filling factor q = =
. −1
419 319
.
q = 0.52.
(iii) The dielectric attenuation constant is
qσ d
αd = 1634
. × 103 ⋅ dB cm
ε eff
1634
. × 103 × 0.52 × 10 −8
=
2.66
αd = 5.2 × 10− 6 dB/cm.
(iv) Surface skin resistance is given by
πfµ o
Rs =
σc
π × 25 × 109 × 4π × 10 −7
=
5.8 × 107
Rs = 41.19 × 10− 3 Ω .
(v) Conductor attenuation constant is
8.68 R s
αc =
Z ow
. × 10 −3
8.68 × 4119
=
59 × 0.0635
αc = 0.1 dB/cm.
Example 2.34. Since modes on the microstrip lines are quasi-TEM, form the theory of
lossless lines show that, L and C of the microstrip line are given by
Zo Z ε
L = = o r
vp vo
1 εr
C = =
Zo vp Z ovo
where vo = velocity of light
vp = phase velocity.
Solution. We know from transmission line theory
1 L
vp = and Z o =
LC C
1 L 1
Zo × vp = × =
LC C C
1
C =
Z ov p
vo
Since we know that vp =
εr
1 εr
Then C = =
Z ov p Z o vo
Inductance L can be calculated as
L
Zo C
=
vp 1
LC
L
= × LC = L
C
Zo
Thus, L =
vp
vo
Since vp =
εr
Zo
L =
vo εr
Zo Zo ε r
Thus, L = = Hence proved.
vp vo
2.25 PARALLEL STRIP LINES (UPTU 2011)
Parallel strip line consists of a low loss dielectric sandwiched between two parallel conductor strips
as shown in Fig. 2.43. The strip width is w, the separation is h, and the relative dielectric constant
of the dielectric slap is εrd. Usually, its width is much greater than the conductor spacing (w >> h)
and the metal thickness is quite small (t << h). Therefore, it is assumed that the significant fields
lie in the dielectric region between the conductors and that they are uniform. In a microwave
integrated circuit a parallel strip line can be easily fabricated on dielectric by using printed circuit
technology.
Con
t duc
to r
O
X
h ed = e0erd Z D ie
le c t
ric h
Con m,
d u c d ed
to r
w
w
(a) Cross-section view (b ) S ide vie w
Fig. 2.43. Parallel strip lines.

The mode of propagation in the parallel strip line is quasi-TEM mode. A sketch of the
electric and magnetic fields is shown in Fig. 2.44.
E lin es
H lin es
w
Fig. 2.44. Field distributions in parallel strip line.
Consider a wave propagating in the positive z-direction in a lossless parallel strip (R = G = 0).
The electric field is in the y-direction, and the magnetic field is in x-direction. At high frequencies,
the skin depth in the conductors is small compared to its thickness, most of the current and charge
resides on the inner surface of the conductors (that is, the surface in contact with dielectric). For
these conditions, the capacitance per unit length is given by
We know that the parallel-plate capacitance formula is
A
C = εd ...(2.237)
h
where h = Separation distance
A = Area of strip, i.e., the product of the conductor length and
its width
= w × length
From equation (2.237), the capacitance per unit length is given by

w
C = εd
Fm ...(2.238)
h
where C = Capacitance per unit length
εd = Permittivity of the dielectric slap
And the inductance along the two conducting strips can be written as
µ ch
L = Hm ...(2.239)
w
where µc is the permeability of the conductor.
The series resistance for both strips is given by
2R s
R =
w
2 πfµ c
R = Ωm ...(2.240)
w σc
πfµ c
where Rs = is the conductor surface resistance in Ω square
σc
σc = Conductivity of conductor in/m
And shunt conductance of parallel strip line is given by
σ dw
G = Á m ...(2.241)
h
where σd is the conductivity of the dielectric substrate.
Ø Parallel strip line consists of two parallel strips separated by a dielectric slab.
Ø Mode of propagation in parallel strip line is quasi-TEM.
Ø A parallel strip line is similar to a two conductor line.
Ø Fabrication of parallel strip line is simple.
2.25.1 Characteristic Impedance of Parallel Strip Line

Lossless Strip Lines: The characteristic impedance of a lossless parallel strip line (R = G = 0) is
L
Zo =
C
From equation (2.238) and equation (2.239), we get
h µc h µ o µr
Zo = =
w εd w ε o ε rd
Since µ o ε o = 377 Ω
377 h
Zo = ohm, for w >> h ...(2.242)
ε rd w
The phase velocity along a parallel strip line is

ω 1
vp = =
β LC
Substituting equation (2.238) and equation (2.239), we get
1 1 1
vp = = =
µ cε d µ o µ r ε o ε rd µ o ε o ⋅ ε rd
vo
vp = 1 µ oε o = vo ...(2.243)
ε rd
Lossy Strip Lines: The characteristic impedance of a lossy parallel strip line is
R + jωL
Zo = ...(2.244)
G + jωC
At microwave frequencies (R << ωL and G << ωC), equation (2.244) can be approximated as
L 377 h
Zo = = ohm ...(2.245)
C ε rd w
For w F h.
2.25.2 Attenuation Losses in Parallel Strip Lines

The propagation constant of a parallel strip line at microwave frequencies can be expressed as
γ = bR + jωLg bG + jωLg
γ = b jωg LC FGH1 + jωRL IJK FGH1 + jωGL IJK
2
...(2.246)
At microwave frequencies, R << ωL and G << ωC. By using binomial expansion, the propagation
constant can be expressed as
γ ≈ jω LC
LMFG1 + 1 R IJ FG1 + 1 G IJ OP
NH 2 jωL K H 2 jωL K Q
γ ≈
LF 1 R + 1 G IJ OP
jω LC MG1 + (neglecting higher order terms)
NH 2 jωL 2 jωL K Q
1 LF C LI O
γ = M
2 MHG R +G J + jω LC P
PQ
N L CK
γ = α + jβ ...(2.247)
Thus the attenuation and phase constants are given by
1 LMF R C
+G
L I OP Np m
α =
2 MNGH L C JK PQ ...(2.248)
α = αc + αd
β = ω LC rad m
1 C
where αc = R is a attenuation constant for conductor
2 L
1 L
αd = G is a attenuation constant for dielectric
2 C
Now substituting the value of distributed elements from equations (2.238) to (2.241), we get
1 πfε d
αc = Np m ...(2.249)
h σc
188.5 σ d
αd = Np m ...(2.250)
ε rd
These equation assumes non-magnetic conductors and dielectric. From equation (2.249), the
attenuation due to the conductors is proportional to f.
Ø Attenuation due to the conductors is proportional to f.
Example 2.35. A losses dielectric filled parallel strip line has characteristic impedance
of 50 ohm and h = 3 mm. Calculate:
(i) the required width of the conductor strip,
(ii) the strip-line inductance,
(iii) the strip-line capacitance,
(iv) the phase velocity of the wave in parallel strip line.
(εo = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m, εrd = 6, µc = 4π × 107 H/m)
Solution.
(i) The width w of the conducting strip is
377 h 377 × 3 × 10−3
w = =
ε rd Z o 6 × 50
−3
w = 9.24 × 10 m.
(ii) The strip-line inductance is given by
µc h 4π × 10−7 × 3 × 10−3
L = = For µc = µo
w 9.24 × 10−3
L = 0.41 µ H/m.
(iii) The strip-line capacitance is
ε dw ε o ε rd w
C = =
h h
−12
8.854 × 10 × 6 × 9.24 × 10−3
C =
3 × 10−3
C = 163.62 pF/m.
(iv) The phase velocity is

vo 3 × 108
vp = =
ε rd 6
vp = 1.22 × 108 m/s.
Example 2.36. A lossless parallel strip line has a characteristic impedance of 50 ohms.
How must the dimensions be changed to reduce Zo to 20 ohm without affecting the attenuation?
Solution. From equation (2.258),
377 h
w50 = , for Z o = 50 Ω
ε rd 50
377 h
w20 = , for Z o = 20 Ω
ε rd 20
w50
Keeping h constant, the ratio of is
w20
w50 20
=
w20 50
5
w20 = w
2 50
1
To reduce Zo to 20 ohm, the width of the strip w20 will be 2 times the w50.
2
Example 2.37. A gold parallel strip line has the following parameters.
Relative dielectric constant of polyethylene
εrd = 2.25
Strip width w = 25 mm
Separation distance d = 5 mm
Calculate:
(i) Characteristic impedance of the strip line
(ii) Strip-line capacitance
(iii) Strip-line inductance
(iv) Phase velocity.
Solution.
(i) The characteristic impedance Zo is
377 h
Zo =
ε rd w
377 × 5 × 10 −3
Zo =
2.25 × 25 × 10−3
Zo = 50.27 Ω .
(ii) The strip-line capacitance is

ε dw ε o ε rdw
C = =
h h
−12
8.854 × 10 × 2.25 × 25 × 10−3
C =
5 × 10 −.3
C = 100 pF/m.
(iii) The strip-line inductance is
µ ch
L = , for µ c = µ o (Non-magnetic dielectric)
w
4 π × 10 −7 × 5 × 10−3
L =
25 × 10−3
L = 0.25 µ H/m.
(iv) The phase velocity is
vo 3 × 108
vp = =
ε rd 2.25
8
vp = 2 × 10 m/s.
K EYWORDS
• Waveguide: Waveguide consists of a hollow metallic tube of either rectangular or circular cross-
section used to guide electromagnetic wave.
• Guided wavelength: It is the distance travelled by the electromagnetic wave to undergo a phase
shift of 2π radians as it propagates in waveguide.
• Dominant mode: Dominant mode for a waveguide of given dimensions and geometry is the one
that has the highest cut-off wavelength.
• Propagation constant: It is a measure of the attenuation and the phase shift of the incident wave
travelling from source to load.
• Attenuation constant: Real part of complex quantity “propagation constant”. It is a measure of
attenuation due to absorption of signal as it propagates through the line.
• Phase-shift constant: Refers to imaginary part of propagation constant. It is measure of the
velocity at which a point of constant phase is propagated.
• Characteristic impedance: Characteristic impedance of a transmission line depends upon the
geometry and the material properties. It is would be the input impedance of the line if it is infinitely
long.
• Characteristic wave impedance: Equivalent of characteristic impedance in waveguide.
• Group velocity: Refers to the velocity of propagation of electromagnetic wave in a waveguide.
It is relevant when a modulated wave is propagating in the waveguide. The velocity of propagation
of modulation envelope is the group velocity and it is less than the velocity of propagation of
electromagnetic waves in free space.
• Cut-off wavelength: The cut-off wavelength is defined as the highest wavelength beyond which
the wave is completely attenuation.
• TE mode: In TE mode, there is no electric field component in the direction of propagation.

• TM mode: In TM mode, there is no magnetic field in the direction of propagation.
• TEM mode: In the TEM mode, electric field, magnetic field and the direction of signal propagation
are all mutually perpendicular to each other.
• HE mode: Here neither electric nor magnetic fields are purely transverse to the direction of
propagation.
• Wave impedance: Wave impedance of a wave as seen along the direction of propagation of the
wave is defined as the ratio of the strength of electric field along one transverse direction to the
strength of magnetic field along the other transverse direction.
• Phase velocity: It is the velocity at which a point of constant phase is propagated.
• Reflection coefficient: It is ratio of amplitude of reflected signal to that of incident signal.
• Dielectric waveguide: A type of waveguide, in which the wave travels due to total internal
reflection at the boundary between two dielectric materials.
• Discontinuities: By either necessity or design, microwave networks, often consists of transmission
lines with various type of discontinuities like open end, gap in strip, step change in width, T-section
etc.
• Inverted microstrip: The inverted microstrip differs from the suspended microstrip in that the
strip conductor is situated on the lower surface of the dielectric substrate facing the ground plane.
• Microstrip line: Microstrip line consists of a single dielectric substrate with ground plane on one
side and a strip on the other side.
• Mils: Mils is an English unit. (1 mils ≈ 0.0254 nm.)
• Parallel strip line: Parallel strip line consists of two perfect parallel strips separated by a perfect
dielectric slab of uniform thickness.
• Shielded strip line (strip line): A shielded strip line has its strip conductor embedded in a
dielectric medium and its top and bottom ground plans have no connection.
• Slot line: In slot line, a slot is etched from the conducting layer on one surface and other surface
is without any conductor layer.
• Suspended microstrip: A variant of the microstrip, which incorporates an air gap between the
substrate and the ground plane is called the suspended microstrip.
4
1. Describe the method of designating the mode of transmission in rectangular waveguide.
(UPTU 2005; MDU 2009)
2. When the dominant mode is propagated in an air-filled standard rectangular waveguide, the guide
wavelength at a frequency of 9 GHz is 4 cm. Calculate width of the guide. (UPTU 2004)
3. The dimension of a rectangular waveguide are 2.5 cm × 1 cm. The frequency is 8.6 GHz, find
(i) Group velocity
(ii) Phase velocity
Assume TE10 mode of propagation. (UPTU 2005)
4. What is the maximum power that can be transmitted by rectangular guide 1.5 cm × 0.75 cm
at 45 GHz? (UPTU 2005)
1 1 1
5. Prove that 2 + 2 = 2 , where λg, λc and λo are guided wavelength, cut-off wavelength and
λg λc λo
free space wavelength. (UPTU 2006; MDU 2003)
6. What do subscripts m and n denote in rectangular and circular waveguides? Why is TM01 mode
not possible in rectangular waveguides whereas it does exist in circular waveguides?
(UPTU 2007, 2004, 2003)
7. Discuss the various factors that determine the amount of attenuation in a waveguide.
(UPTU 2007, 2005)
8. Why TEM mode does not exist in rectangular waveguides? Which is the dominant mode of
propagation waveguide and why? (MDU 2007; UPTU 2006)
9. A rectangular waveguide is designed to operate in TE10 mode at a frequency of 10 GHz. It is
desired that frequency of operation to be at least 15% above cut-off frequency of the propagating
and 20% below cut-off frequency of next higher mode. Determine the dimension of the wave.
(UPTU 2006)
10. How TE10 and TM11 mode can excited in rectangular waveguide? (UPTU 2007, 2006)
11. Give the physical structure and field distribution of microstrip line. Why can a pure TEM mode not
be propagated in a microstrip line? (UPTU 2004)
12. An air-filled circular waveguide have an inner radius of 1 cm, is excited in dominant mode at
10 GHz. Find
(i) the cut-off frequency of dominant mode
(ii) guide wavelength
(iii) wave impedance. (MDU 2002; UPTU 2007, 2004]
13. Define the various field component present in TE11 mode in cylindrical waveguide.
(UPTU 2006)
14. What are the salient features at TE11 and TM01 mode in cylindrical waveguide? (UPTU 2006)
15. A rectangular hollow metal waveguide is required to be designed to propagate, a 9375 MHz is its
TE10 mode that the guide wavelength equals the cut-off wavelength, calculate the value of ‘a’. Take
b = a/2. Also calculate the cut-off frequency of the next higher order mode. (UPTU 2007)
16. An Air-filled rectangular waveguide has dimensions 6 cm × 4 cm. It propagates a signal at a
frequency of 5 GHz. Compute the following for TM11 mode. (UPTU 2007; MDU 2008)
(i) Cut-off frequency (ii) Guide wavelength
(iii) Phase constant (iv) Phase velocity
(v) Group velocity (vi) Wave impedance.
17. Derive the field component present in TM11 mode of propagation in rectangular waveguide and
draw its field pattern. (UPTU 2008)
18. A rectangular air-filled copper waveguide with dimension 2.28 cm and 1.01 cm is operated at
9.2 GHz with a dominant mode. Find cut-off frequency, guide wavelength, phase shift, phase
velocity and characteristic impedance. (MDU 2007; UPTU 2008)
19. A rectangular waveguide is to be operated in the frequency range 7.5 to 10 GHz. Calculate the
inside dimensions so that the following design criteria are satisfied.
(i) There is only one mode of propagation
(ii) Lowest usable frequency is 10% above the cut-off
(iii) Highest usable frequency is 5% below the frequency where next higher mode can propagate.
(UPTU 2007)
20. When the dominant mode is propagated in an air-filled standard rectangular waveguide, the guide
wavelength at a frequency of 9 GHz, is 4 cm. Calculate width of the guide. (UPTU 2003)
21. Discuss the attenuation characteristics of the circular waveguide. Why does TE10 mode show a very
low loss at higher frequencies? (UPTU 2003)
22. An air-filled rectangular waveguide of cross-section 1 cm × 2 cm is operating in TE10 mode at a

frequency of 12 GHz. What is the maximum power handling capacity of the guide, if the dielectric
strength of the medium is 3 × 106 V/m? (UPTU 2003)
23. An air-filled circular waveguide having an inner radius of 1 cm, is excited in dominant mode at
10 GHz. Find
(i) the cut-off frequency of dominant mode
(ii) guide wavelength
(iii) wave impedance
(iv) bandwidth for operation in dominant mode only (UPTU 2003)
24. Explain various losses present in waveguides. How cut-off attenuators work?
(UPTU 2008; MDU 2004)
25. A rectangular air-filled copper waveguide with dimension 2.28 cm and 1.01 cm is operated at
9.2 GHz with a dominant mode. Find cut-off frequency, guide wavelength, phase shift, phase
velocity and characteristic impedance. (UPTU 2009)
26. What are the various ways the electromagnetic waves can be coupled to waveguide? How
TE10 mode can be excited in rectangular waveguide? (UPTU 2011, 2009; MDU 2010)
27. Show that TEM mode cannot exist in circular waveguide. (MDU 2010)
28. A shielded strip line has the following parameters
Dielectric constant of insulator (polystyrene)
εr = 2.56
Strip width w = 25 mils
Strip thickness t = 14 mils
Shield depth d = 70 mils
Calculate the following:
(i) The K factor
(ii) The fringe capacitance
(iii) The characteristic impedance of the line.
29. Explain parallel, strip line and its distributed parameters, characteristics impedance and attenuation
losses.
30. A lossless parallel strip line has a conducting strip width w. The substrate dielectric separating the
two conducting strips has a relative dielectric constant εrd of 6.0 and a thickness d of 4.0 mm.
Calculate:
(i) The required width w of the conducting strip in order to have characteristic impedance of
(ii) The strip line capacitance
(iii) The phase velocity of the wave in the parallel strip line.
31. Explain the following about microstrip line:
(i) Static parameters and characteristic impedance
(ii) The effective microstrip permittivity and effective relative permittivity
(iii) Losses in a microstrip
(iv) Limitation of microstrip.
32. A microstrip line is to be designed on alumina substrate having relative dielectric constant εr = 8.2.
The w/h ratio is 0.95. Compute the effective relative dielectric constant, the characteristic impedance
Zo, the phase velocity and guide wavelength.
33. What do you mean by microstrip lines? Define along with neat diagrams. List all the advantages
and disadvantages of microstrip lines over strip lines.
34. Explain clearly the structure of field lines in the strip lines and microstrip lines.
35. What are slot lines and how do they differ from microstrip lines?
36. A shielded strip line has the following parameters.
Relative dielectric constant of the insulator polyethylene
£rd 2.25
Strip width w 2 mm
Strip thickness t 0.5 mm
Shield dep th 4 mm
Calculate:
(i) K factor
(ii) Fringe capacitance
(iii) Characteristic impedance.
3 7. Compare the characteristics of waveguide, strip line and microstrip lines.
1. The co-axia l cable belongs to

(a) TEM mode of transmission lines
(b) Quasi-TEM mode of transmission lines
(c) Non-TEM mode of transmission lines
(d) None of these.
2. A waveguide can be considered to be equivalent to a
(a) low pass filter (b) high pass filter
(c) band pass filter (d) band reject filter.
3. One of the following modes does not exist in waveguide
(a) TEM (b) TE 11
(c) TE10 (d) TM 01 .
4. For a given rectangular waveguide, the cut-off frequency for TE10 mode is always
(a) higher than for the TE11 mode (b) lower than that for TE11 mode
(c) equal to that for the TE11 mode (d) 200 MHz.
5. The dominant mode in rectangular waveguide is
(a) TE10 (b) TE 11
(c) ™ o1 (d) ™11·
6. In a rectangular waveguide with wide and narrow dimensions as a and b respectively, the cut-off
wavelength (/.,) for TEmn modes is given by
2a 2
(a) (b)
2a 2
(c) (d)
7. The characteristic impedance of an air dielectric rectangular waveguide made from a non-magnetic
material depends upon
(a) the cut-off wavelength (b) the guide wavelength
(c) the dimensions of the waveguide (d) the propagating mode.
8. If λo is the free space wavelength and λc is the cut-off wavelength, then the guide wavelength λg
will be
λo
(a) λg = λoλc (b) λg =
1−
Fλ Ic
2
GH λ JK
o
λo
(c) λg = (d) None of these.
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
Hλ K c
9. The phase velocity (vp ) and group velocity (vg ) are related as
vp
(a) vgvp = c2 (b) = c
vg
vg vg
(c) vp = (d) = c.
1 + c2 vp
10. The most dominant transverse electric mode in circular waveguide is

(a) TE10 mode (b) TE01 mode
(c) TE11 mode (d) TE20 mode.
11. When the free space wavelength equal to the cut-off wavelength
(a) The group velocity equal phase velocity (b) Phase velocity becomes zero
(c) Group velocity becomes zero (d) Group velocity becomes infinite.
12. Figure 2.45 shows the longitudinal and cross-sectional views of a certain mode in an rectangular
waveguide. The type of mode is
(a) insufficient data (b) TE10 mode
(c) TM10 mode (d) TE01 mode.
L on gitud in al vie w C ro ss-section al vie w

Fig. 2.45
13. Which one of the following quantities has the same dimension in both electromagnetic and
electrostatic system?
(1) Current (2) Electric energy
(3) Electric power
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3.
14. Which one of the following modes has the characteristic that attenuation becoming less as the
frequency is increased and is attractive at microwave frequencies for circular cylindrical waveguides?
(a) TE11 (b) T01
(c) TE01 (d) Higher order mode.
15. A signal propagated in a waveguide has a full wave of electric intensity change between the two
farther walls and no component of the electric field in the direction of propagation. The mode is
(a) TE11 (b) TE10
(c) TM22 (d) TE20.
16. When a particular mode is excited in a waveguide these appears an extra electric component in
the directions of propagation. The resulting mode is
(a) Longitudinal electric (b) Transverse electromagnetic
(c) Transverse magnetic (d) Transverse electric.
17. A disadvantage of microstrip with respect to strip line circuits is that the former
(a) Do not lend themselves to printed-circuit technique
(b) Are more likely to radiate
(c) Are bulkier
(d) Are more expensive and complex to manufacture.
18. Which one of the following statements is not true for strip line when compared to a waveguide?
(a) It can be directly connected to semiconductor microwave devices
(b) It is much smaller is size
(c) It has a smaller bandwidth
(d) Losses are less.
19. The transmission system using two ground planes
(a) Microstrip lines (b) Elliptical waveguide
(c) Parallel-wire line (d) Strip line.
20. Indicate the false statement. An advantage of strip line over waveguides is its
(a) small bulk (b) greater bandwidth
(c) higher power-handling capability (d) greater compatibility with solid-state devices.
21. Indicate the false statement. An advantage of strip line over microstrip line is its
(a) Easier integration with semiconductor devices
(b) Lower tendency to radiate
(c) Higher isolation between adjacent circuits
(d) Higher Q.
22. A microstrip line is analogous to
(a) Balun (b) Waveguide
(c) Flatted coaxial line (d) Parallel line.
A NSWERS
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (b)
7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (c) 11. (c) 12. (b)
13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (b) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (c)
19. (d) 20. (b) 21. (a) 22. (d).
qqq
CHAPTER
3
Microwave Components
Introduction
S-Matrix Representation of Network
Advantages of S-Matrix
Waveguide Tees
Waveguide Bends, Corners and Twists
Hybrid Tee (Magic Tee)
Rat-race Junction (Magic Ring)
Directional Coupler
INSIDE THIS CHAPTER
Isolators and Circulators

Circulator
Impedance Matching Devices
Microwave Attenuators
Phase Shifters
Matched Loads
Waveguide Coupling
Waveguide Transitions
Waveguide Discontinuities
Slotted Line Carriage
VSWR Meter
Wave Meter
Summary of Transmission Line Components
Keywords
Review Questions
139
3.1 INTRODUCTION
A microwave network is formed when several microwave devices and components are coupled
together by transmission line like waveguide, stripline, microstrip line. Microwave networks and
circuit use many types of microwave passive components such as waveguide junctions, joints,
corners, posts and screws, cavity resonator directional couplers, ferrite device, phase shifter etc.
All these components must be built with low standing wave ratio, lower attenuation, lower insertion
losses and other desirable characteristics to achieve the desired transmission of microwave signal.
3.2 S-MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF NETWORK (UPTU 2011)
At low frequencies the physical length of the network is much smaller than the wavelength of the
signal transmitted. Therefore, the measurable input and output variables are voltage and current
which can be related in terms of the impedance parameters (Z-Parameters), or admittance parameter
(Y-parameter), or hybrid parameters (h-parameters) or ABCD parameter. For a two port network
Z-parameter
LMV OP = LZ OP LMI OP
MNV PQ MNZ
1 Z12 1
Q MNI PQ
11
Z 22 ...(3.1)
2 21 2
Y-parameter
LMI OP = LY OP LMV OP
MNI PQ MNY
1 Y12 1
Q MNV PQ
11
...(3.2)
2 21
Y22 2
h-parameter
LMV OP = Lh OP LM I OP
MN I PQ MNh
1 h12 1
Q MNV PQ
11
...(3.3)
2 21
h22 2
ABCD parameter
LMV OP = LA −B OP LMV OP
MN I PQ MNC
1 1
1
−D Q MN I PQ
2
...(3.4)
These parameters can be measured under short or open circuit condition for use in the
analysis of the circuit.
At microwave frequencies the physical length of the component or line is comparable to or
much larger than the wavelength. Thus, the voltage and current are not well-defined at a given
point for a microwave circuit, such as a waveguide system. Measurement of Z, Y, h and ABCD
parameters is difficult at microwave-frequencies due to following reasons:
Non-availability of terminal voltage current measuring equipments.
Active devices, such as transistors and diodes, makes the circuit unstable for short or open
circuit.
Short-circuit and open circuit are not easily achieved for a wide range of frequency.
Microwave Components 141
So, microwave networks are analysed using a new parameter called S-parameter or scattering
parameter which linealy relate the reflected wave’s amplitude with those of incident waves. However,
many of the circuit analysis techniques and circuit properties that are valid at low frequencies are
also valid for microwave circuits. Thus, for network analysis S-parameter can be related to the Z
or Y or ABCD parameters.
At microwave frequencies voltages, currents and impedances cannot be measured in a direct
manner. These quantities are known as secondary, or derived quantities. The parameter that is
directly measurable is the transmission coefficient through a circuit of junction. This is relative
measurement of amplitude and phase of the transmitted wave as compared with those of
the incident wave. In other words, the directly measurable quantities are the amplitudes and
phase angle of the waves reflected or scattered from a junction relative to the incident wave
amplitude and phase angles. The scattered-wave or reflected wave amplitudes are linearly related
to the incident-wave amplitudes. The martix describing this linear relationship is called the scattering
matrix.
The incident and reflected amplitudes of microwaves at any port are used to characterise a
microwave network. The amplitudes are normalised in such a way that the square of any of these
variables gives the average power in that wave will be
1
Input power at the nth port Pin = |a |2 ...(3.5)
2 n
1
Reflected power at the nth port Prn = |b |2 ...(3.6)
2 n
where an and bn represent the normalised incident wave amplitude and normalised reflected wave
amplitude at the nth port.
In a two-port network we can express the normalised wave by
Vi1
a1 = ...(3.7)
Z0
Vi2
a2 = ...(3.8)
Z0
Vr1
b1 = ...(3.9)
Z0
Vr2
b2 = ...(3.10)
Z0
where a’s represents normalised incident wave and b’s represent normalised reflected wave at the
corresponding parts. Here, the total voltage wave is the sum of incident and reflected wave Vi and
Vr respectively.
V1 = Vi1 + Vr1 ...(3.11)
V2 = Vi2 + Vr2 ...(3.12)
Ø Measurement of Z, Y, h and ABCD parameters is difficult at microwave frequencies.

Ø At microwave frequencies the physical length of component or line is comparable to
or much larger than the wavelength. Thus voltage and current are not well defined
at a given point.
Ø Scattering parameters are related to the reflected wave’s amplitude with those of
incident waves.
Ø At microwave frequencies voltage, current and impedance cannot be measured in a
direct manner. These quantities are known as secondary or derived quantities.
3.2.1 Significance of Scattering Matrix

In order to understand the significance of scattering matrix, let us consider a junction of “n”
number of transmission line or port as shown in Fig. 3.1. Let the ith port (i can be any line from
1 to n) be terminated in a source, the first line be terminated in an impedance other than its
characteristic impedance Z0, i.e., the remaining lines from 2nd to nth lines in impedance equal
to Z0 i.e., ZL = Z0.
1 st line
ZL ¹ Z0
a1
b1
ai
ith lin e
2 nd line
a2
an ZL = Z0
bi b2 = 0
bn
n th line
=
0
ZL = Z0
Fig. 3.1. Junction of n number of transmission line.
Let ai be the incident wave (either voltage or current wave) at junction due to source
connected at the ith line. This divides itself among the (n – 1) number of transmission lines with
a1 going into 1st line, a2 into 2nd line, a3 into 3rd line and an into nth line.
Since, the transmission lines from 2 to n are terminated in Z0, there will be perfect matching
and the waves are completely absorbed without causing any reflections.
Therefore, the reflected wave b2 into the junction from 2nd line, b3 into the junction form
3rd line and so on upto bn into the junction from nth line will all be equal to zero.
i.e., b2 = b3 = ..... = bn = 0
If bi represents the wave going back to the source, then the contribution to b1 will be only
from the reflected wave b1 from the 1st line, due to mismatch since the first line is terminated
in an impedance ZL ≠ Z0.
bi = b1 = (reflection coefficient) a1
bi = (Si1) a1 ...(3.13)
where, Si1 = Reflection or scattering coefficient of the 1st line due to the source connected
at the ith line (The first subscript i denotes the source connected at ith line and
the second subscript 1 denotes that load connected to the 1st line).
Ø Scattering parameters can be directly measured by using network analyser.
When all the n – 1 number of lines are terminated in an impedance other than characteristic
impedance Z0, i.e., then there will be reflections from all the lines. Then the total contribution to
the outward travelling wave in the ith line due to mismatch at all the lines, is given by
bi = Si1a1 + Si2a2 + Si3a3 + ... + Sinan ...(3.14)
Since i can be any line from 1 to n, by allowing i to vary, we get
b1 = S11a1 + S12a2 + S13a3 + ... + S1nan
b2 = S21a1 + S22a2 + S23a3 + ... + S2nan
b3 = S31a1 + S32a2 + S33a3 + ... + S3nan
® ® ® ® ®
bn = Sn1a1 + Sn2a2 + Sn3a3 + ... + Snnan
Above set of equations can be represented in the matrix from as
LMb OP
1 LMS 11 S12 S13 ... S1n OP LMa OP
1
MMb PP
2 MMS21 S22 S 23 ... S2n PP MMa PP
2
...(3.15)
=
MMbM PP
3
MMSM
31 S32
M
S 33
M
...
M
S3n
M
PP MMaM PP
3
MNb PQ
n
MNS
n1 Sn2 Sn3 ... S nn PQ MNa PQ
n
or [b] = [S] [a] ...(3.16)

where [b] represents the column matrix corresponding to reflected waves.
[a] represents the column matrix corresponding to incident waves.
[S] represents the “scattering matrix” corresponding to reflection coefficients which is
n × n equal matrix.
Two port network: As an example, let us consider a two port network as shown in
Fig. 3.2.
In pu t
O utpu t
a1 a2
P o rt 1 P o rt 2
Zg
D e vice ZL
Vg b1 b2
Pi
Pi – Pr
Pr
Fig. 3.2. Two port network.

For a two port network as shown in Fig. 3.2 the relationship between incident and reflected
waves are expressed in terms of scattering parameters Sij, scattering or reflection coefficient
corresponding to the input power applied at the ith port and output power coming out of jth port.
[>] represents the column matrix corresponding to reflected waves.

b1 = S11a1 + S12a2 ...(3.17)
b2 = S21a1 + S22a2 ...(3.18)
or
LMb OP
1 =
LMS 11 S12 OP LMa OP
1
...(3.19)
Nb Q
2 NS 21 S22 Q Na Q
2
The physical significance of S parameter can be described as

[S] represents the “scattering matrix” corresponding to reflection coefficients which is n × n
equal matrix.
b1
1. S11 =
a = 0 ...(3.20)
a1 2
Reflection coefficient Γ1 at port (1) when port (2) is terminated with matched load (a2 = 0).
b2
2. S22 =
a = 0 ...(3.21)
a2 1
Reflection coefficient Γ2 at port (2) when port (1) is terminated with matched load (a1 = 0).
b1
3. S12 =
a = 0 ...(3.22)
a2 1
Reverse transmission coefficient with input perfectly terminated.
b2
4. a = 0 S21 = ...(3.23)
a1 2
Forward transmission coefficient with output perfectly terminated.
Insertion Loss. Whenever any device is inserted in the path of RF energy, there will be
power loss inside the device due to attenuation and in addition some power may be reflected by
device back to source. These two losses contribute to insertion loss by device.
For a multiport networks or components, the S-parameters equations are expressed.
LMb OP
1 LMS 11 S12 L S1n OP LMa OP1
MMb PP
2 MMS 21 S22 L S2n PP MMa PP
2
= ...(3.24)
MMNbM PPQ
n
MMNSM
n1
M
Sn2 L
M
Snn
PPQ MMNaM PPQ
n
In microwave devices or network various losses can be expressed in term of S-parameter when
the ports are matched terminated. In a two port network if power input at port (1) is Pi, power
reflected at the same port is Pr and the output power at port (2) is P0 then various losses can be
defined.
1. Insertion loss (in dB):
Incident power to device
= 10 log10
Power coming out of device
Pi (1 / 2)|a1|2 |a1|2
= 10 log10 = 10 log10 = 10 log10
P0 (1 / 2)|b2|2 |b2|2
1
= 20 log10
|b2|/|a1|

1
IL (dB) = 20 log10
|S12|
2. Transmission Loss or Attenuation (dB):
Input power − Input power (reflected)
= 10 log10
Transmitted power to loads
Pi − Pr
= 10 log
10
P0
1
where, Input power, Pi = |a |2
2 1
1
Reflected power at the input, Pr = |b1|2
2
1
Transmitted power to the load, P0 = |b2|2
2
|b1|2
1−
|a1|2
TL (dB) = 10 log10
|b2|2
|a1|2
From equations (3.20) and (3.23)
1 −|S11|2
TL (dB) = 10 log10
|S11|2
Input power
3. Reflection Loss (dB) = 10 log10
Input power − Reflected power
2
Pi − Pr a1
= 10 log10 = 2 2
P0 a1 − b1
1
= 10 log10
2
b1
1− 2
a1
1
Reflection Loss (dB) = 10 log10
1 −|S11|2
Ø Sii represents the reflection coefficient due to the reflection from the junction back
to the source connected at ith line.
Ø Attenuation loss is measure of power loss due to signal absorption in device.
Ø Inseration Loss: Whenever any device is inserted in the path of RF energy, there
will be power loss inside the device due to attenuation and in addition some power
may reflected by device back to source. These two losses contributes to insertion
loss by device.
3.2.2 Properties of S-matrix (UPTU 2011)

1. [S] is always a square matrix of order (n × n).
2. [S] is a symmetric matrix.
i.e., Sij = Sji
3. [S] is a unitary matrix
i.e., [S] [S]* = [I]
where, [S]* = Complex conjugate of [S]
[I] = Unit matrix.
4. For perfect matched network diagonal elements will be zero. For an ideal N-port
network with matched termination, Sii = 0, since there is no reflection from any port.
Therefore, under perfect matched conditions the diagonal element of [S] will be zero.
5. Symmetry of [S] for a reciprocal network. A reciprocal device has the same
transmission characteristics in either direction of a pair of ports and is characterised by
a symmetric scattering matrix.
Sij = Sji, (i ≠ j)
6. The sum of the products of each term of any row (or column) multiplied by the complex
conjugate of corresponding terms of any other row (or column) is zero.
n
∑ S ik Sij* = 0, (k ≠ j) k = 1, 2, 3, ... n
1= 1
j = 1, 2, 3, ... n
7. Phase shift property. Complex S-parameters of a network are defined with respect
to the position of port or reference planes. For a two-port network with unprimed
reference planes 1 and 2 as shown in Fig. 3.3, the S-parameters have definite complex
values.
[S] =
LMS11 S12 OP
NS 21 S 22 Q
l1 l2
D e vice
S
1 1' 2 2'
Fig. 3.3. Illustrating phase shift property of |S|.
When the reference planes 1 and 2 are shifted outwards to 1′ and 2′ by electrical phase shift
φ1 = β1l1 and φ2 = β2l2 respectively, then the new wave variable are a1ejφ1, a2ejφ2, and b2e–jφ. The
new S matrix S′ is given by
[S′] =
LMe − jφ1
0 OP [S] LMe − jφ1
0 OP ...(3.25)
− jφ 2 − jφ 2
MN 0 e PQ MN 0 e PQ
This property is valid for any number of ports therefore for n ports, the S-matrix will be
LMe− jφ1
0 ... 0 OP
− jφ 2
[S′] = MM 0 e ... 0 PP
MM 0M M M
− jφ n
PP
N 0 e Q
When reference planes are changed, the S-coefficients vary in phase.
LMe− jφ1
0 ... 0 OP
− jφ 2
[S] = MM 0 e ... 0 PP ...(3.26)
MM 0M M M
− jφ n
PP
N 0 e Q
The above property is called phase shift property, applicable to a shift of reference planes.
Ø Diagonal elements is zero for an ideal n-port network with matched termination.
Ø If a microwave junction satisfies reciprocity condition then [S] is equal to their
corresponding transpose.
Ø For lossless network, the sum of products of each term of any one row or any
column of [S] matrix with its complex conjugate is unity.
3.3 ADVANTAGES OF S-MATRIX
The following are the advantages of S-matrix over Z-matrix or Y-matrix.

1. In microwave techniques the source remains ideally constant in power, regardless of
circuit changes. Besides frequency measurements, the only possible measurement
parameters are VSWR, power and phase. These are essentially measurements of b/a,
|a|2 and |b|2. Such a direct correspondence is not possible with Z or Y matrix
representations.
2. The unitary property of S-matrix helps a quick check of the power balance of lossless
structures. No such immediate check is possible with Z or Y matrix.
3. S-matrix is defined for a given set of reference planes only. If the reference planes are
changed, the S-coefficients vary only in phase. This is not the case in Z or Y matrix,
because voltage and current are functions of complex impedance and therefore both
magnitude and phase change in Z or Y matrix.
Ø By using S-parameter, we can directly measure the VSWR, power and phase.
3.4 WAVEGUIDE TEES
In microwave circuits a waveguide junction with three independent ports is referred to as tee
junction. This type of junction forms an English alphabet “T”. There are several types of Tee
junctions. There are following type of Tee junctions.
1. E-plane tee (Series Tee).

2. H-plane tee (Parallel Tee).
3. E-H plane tee (Hybrid Tee or Magic Tee).
3.4.1 E-Plane Tee (Series Tee) (UPTU 2010; MDU 2009)

An E-plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis of its side arm is parallel to the E-field of the
main guide. A rectangular slot is cut along the broader dimension of a long waveguide and side
arm is attached as shown in Fig. 3.4(a), where ports (1) and (2) are the main arms and port (3)
is the E-arm (side arm).
Operation of E-plane tee

When dominant mode (TE10) is made allowed to propagate into port (3), the two outputs at the
ports (1) and (2) will have the same magnitude and phase shift of 180°. So, electric field change
their directions when they come out from ports (1) and (2) as shown in Fig. 3.4(c) S13 = –S23.
(3 )
S ide a rm
(E -a rm )
(2 )
(3 )
(2 )
(1 ) P lan e of sym m e try

a rm (1 )
a in
M
(a ) E -p la ne te e (b ) E lectrica l eq uiva le nt
(3 ) In pu t (3 ) O utpu t
O utpu t (1 ) (2 ) O utpu t In pu t (1) (2 ) In pu t
(c) In pu t at po rt (3 ) (d ) In pu ts at po rts (1) an d (2)

Fig. 3.4. E-plane tee junction.
In general the power fed to port (3) will split into two parts at the output of ports (1) and
(2) and power out of port (3) is proportional to the phasor difference between power from port
(1) and (2) as shown in Fig. 3.4(d). When powers entering the main arms (ports 1 and 2) are in
the phase opposition, maximum energy comes out of port (3).
Ø In E-plane Tee, axis of side arm is parallel to the E-field of main arm.
Ø In E-plane Tee, input power at part (3) divides equally between parts (1) and (2)
with phase shift of 180°.
Ø By analogy with voltage relationship in the series circuit, E-plane junction is also
called a series junction.
Ø E-plane Tee works as a power divider or power splitter.
S-matrix of E-plane (MDU 2007; UPTU 2008)

There are 3 port so [S] is a 3 × 3 matrix
LMS 11 S12 S13 OP

[S] = MMS 21 S 22 S 23 PP
NS 31 S 32 S 33 Q
If the E-plane tee is perfectly matched with the help of screw tuners or inductive or capacitive
windows at the junction.
S33 = 0 ...(3.27)
[The tee can not be matched to all three arms thus S11 = S22 ≠ 0]
When the waves are fed into port (3) (side arm) the wave appearing at port (1) and port (2)
of the collinear (main) arm will be in opposite phase and in the same magnitude.
S13 = –S23 ...(3.28)
From symmetrical property for reciprocal network [property (5)].
Thus, Sij = Sji [ j ≠ i]
S12 = S21
S13 = S31
S23 = S32 ...(3.29)
By using equations (3.27), (3.28) and (3.29). S-matrix becomes
LMS 11 S12 S13 OP
[S] = MMS
12 S 22 − S13 PP ...(3.30)
NS
13 − S13 0 Q
From unitary property (property-3)
[S] [S]* = [I]
LMS 11 S12 S13 OP LMS *

11
*
S12 *
S13 OP LM1 0 OP
0
MMS
12 S 22 − S13 PP MMS *
12
*
S 22 *
− S13 PP = MM0 1 0PP
NS
13 − S13 0 Q NS *
13 − S13*
0
Q N0 0 1 Q
Here we can obtain nine equations, but only four would be sufficient. Considering the product
of 1st row and 1st column, we get
|S11|2 + |S12|2 + |S13|2 = 1 [R1C1] ...(3.31)
The product of 2nd row and 2nd column yields
|S12|2 + |S22|2 + |S13|2 = 1 [R2C2] ...(3.32)
The product of 3rd row and 3rd column yields
|S13|2 + |S13|2 = 1 [R3C3] ...(3.33)
And finally considering 3rd row and 1st column, we get
*
S13S11 − S13S*12 = 0 [R3C1] ...(3.34)
Equating equations (3.31) and (3.32), we get
S11 = S22 ...(3.35)
From equation (3.33), we get

2|S13|2 = 1
1
S13 = ...(3.36)
2
S13 S*11 – S13 S12
*
= 0
* *
S13 [S11 – S12 ] = 0
Since, we must have
⇒ S*11 = S*12
Taking out complex conjugates, i.e., we get
or S11 = S12 = S22 [from equation (3.35)] ...(3.37)
Now substituting equation (3.37) in equation (3.32)
1
|S11|2 + |S11|2 + = 1
2
1
2|S11|2 =
2
1
S11 = = S22 = S12 [From equation (3.37)] ...(3.38)
2
Now substituting the values of S11, S22, S12 and S13 in equation (3.30), we get
LM 1 1 1 OP
MM 2 2 2 P
1 P
[S] = MM 12 1
2
−
2P
P ...(3.39)
MM 1 1 P
− 0 P
MN 2 2 PQ
Actual view and equivalent circuit of E-plane Tee is shown in Fig. 3.5
P o rt (3 )
P o rt (1) P o rt (2)
(a) Actual view of E-plane tee (b) Equivalent circuit of E-plane tee
Fig. 3.5. Actual view and equivalent circuit of E-plane tee.

Ø For E-plane tee, S13 = –S23 because signals at port (1) and port (2) will be in
opposite phase and in same magnitude.
Ø In E-plane tee, port (3) is also called the difference arm.
Example 3.1. Show that E-plane acts as a 3 dB splitter.

Solution. We know that
[b] = [S] [a]
From S-matrix of E-plane
LMb OP
1
LM 1 1 1 OP LMa OP
1
MM PP MM 2 2 2 P M P
1 P M P
MMb PP =
2 MM 12 1
2
− P Ma P
2P M P
2
MM PP MM 1 PM P
0 P M P
1
−
3 MNb PQ MN 2 2 PQ MNa PQ
3
1 1 1
b1 = a1 + a2 + a3 ...(3.40)
2 2 2
1 1 1
b2 = a + a − a3 ...(3.41)
2 1 2 2 2
1 1
b3 = a1 − a2 ...(3.42)
2 2
If input is fed to port (3) and outputs are at port (1) and port (2)
i.e., a3 ≠ 0 and a1 = a2 = 0 ...(3.43)
By using equation (3.40) to equation (3.43), we get
1
b1 = a3 ...(3.44)
2
1
b2 = − a3 ...(3.45)
2
b3 = 0 ...(3.46)
So, an input at port (3) in equally divided between ports (1) and (2) but introduces a phase
shift of 180° between the two output. Hence, E-plane tee acts as a 3 dB splitter.
3.4.2 H-Plane Tee (Shunt Tee) (MDU 2008)

H-plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis of its side arm is parallel to the H field of main
guide (collinear arms) as shown in Fig. 3.6. As all three arms of H-plane tee lie in the plane of
magnetic field, the magnetic field divides itself into the arms. Therefore, this is also called a current
junction.
P lan e of
sym m etry
M ain arm
(1 )
(2 )
(2 )
S ide a rm
(H -a rm )
(1 )
(3 ) (3 )
(a ) H -p la ne te e (b ) E lectrica l eq uiva le nts

Fig. 3.6. H-plane tee junction.
Operation
It can be seen that if two input waves are fed into port (1) and port (2) of the collinear arm, the
output wave at port (3) will be in phase and additive as shown in Fig. 3.7 (a). On the other hand,
if the input is fed into port (3), the wave will split equally into port (1) and port (2) in phase and
in the same magnitude as shown in Fig. 3.7(b), S13 = S23.
(3 ) O utpu t (3 ) In pu t
(1 )
(2 )
(1 )
(2 )
O u tp ut
O u tp ut
In pu t
In pu t
(a ) (b )
Fig. 3.7. Operation of H-plane tee.
Ø In H-plane tee, axis of side arm is parallel to the H-field of main guide.
Ø H-plane tee is also called as current junction.
Ø In H-plane tee, port (3) is called the sum arm.
S-matrix of H-plane Tee

There are 3 ports so S-matrix will be order of 3 × 3
LMS 11 S12 S13 OP

[S] = MMS 21 S 22 S 23 PP
NS 31 S 32 S 33 Q
Because of plane of symmetry of the junction scattering coefficients S13 and S23 must be
equal.
S13 = S23
From the symmetric property Sij = Sji

S12 = S21, S23 = S32, S13 = S31
Since port (3) is perfectly matched to the junction
S33 = 0
With these properties [S] matrix become
LMS 11 S12 S13 OP

[S] = MMS
12 S 22 S P
13
...(3.47)
NS
13 S13 0 PQ
For unitary property

[S] [S]* = I
LMS 11 S12 S13 OP LMS *

11
*
S12 *
S13OP LM1 0 OP
0
MMS12 S 22 S P MS
13
*
12
*
S 22 *
S13 P = MM0 1 0PP ...(3.48)
NS S13 0 PQ MS * *
S13 0 P N0 0 1 Q
13 N 13 Q
*
S11S11 + S12S*12 + S13S*13 = 1 [R1C1] ...(3.49)
2 2 2
or |S11| + |S12| + |S13| = 1 ...(3.50)
Similarly |S12|2 + |S22|2 + |S13|2 = 1 [R2C2] ...(3.51)
2 2
|S13| + |S13| = 1 [R3C3] ...(3.52)
S13S*11 + *
S13S12 = 0 [R3C1] ...(3.53)
2|S13|2 = 1
1
S13 =
2
Comparing equations (3.50) and (3.51), we get
S11 = S22 ...(3.54)
S13(S*11 + S*12) = 0
Since S13 ≠ 0, we must have S*11 + S*12 = 0. Taking out complex conjugates.
S11 = –S12 ...(3.55)
|S11|2 + |–S11|2 + |S13|3 = 1
1
2|S11|2 = 1 – |S13|2, Since S13 =
2
1
S11 = = S22 ...(3.56)
2
Now using equations (3.55) and (3.56)

1
S12 = − ...(3.57)
2
Substituting for S11, S12, S13 and S22 in equation (3.47), we get the S-matrix of H-plane tee.
LM 1 −
1 1 OP
MM 2 2 2P
1 P
[S] = MM− 12 1
2 2P
P ...(3.58)
MM 1 1
0 P
P
MN 2 2 PQ
The actual photograph and equivalent circuit of H-plane tee is shown in Fig. 3.8.
Port (3)
Port (1) Port (2)
(a) Actual photograph of H-plane tee (b) Equivalent circuit of H-plane tee
Fig. 3.8. Actual photograph and equivalent circuit of H-plane tee.
¾ In H-plane tee S13 = S23 because waves at port (1) and port (2) will be in same
phase and in same amplitude.
3.4.3 Comparison between E-plane and H-plane Tee

Comparison between E-plane and H-plane tee is given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1. Comparison between E-plane and H-plane tee.
S.No. E-plane tee H-plane tee
1. Axis of side arm is parallel to the E-field Axis of side arm is parallel to the H-field
of main guide of main guide
2. E-plane tee is a voltage junction H-plane tee is a current junction
3. S-matrix of E-plane tee S-matrix of H-plane tee
LM 1 1 1OP LM 1 −
1 1 OP
MM 2 2 2PP MM 2 2 2 PP
[S] = MM 12 1
2
−
1
2P
P [S] = MM− 12 1
2
1
2P
P
MM 1 P MM 1 P
0 P 0 P
1 1
−
MN 2 2 PQ MN 2 2 PQ
3.5 WAVEGUIDE BENDS, CORNERS AND TWISTS (UPTU 2007)
Waveguide bends, corners and twists are used to change the direction of waveguide to any desired
angle.
Waveguide Bends
In order to change the direction of power flow or to join a straight waveguide with another
waveguide or components, which are not in its way, the waveguide bends are required. The bend
may be in H-plane or E-plane as shown in Fig. 3.9.
(a ) H -b en d (b ) E -b en d
Fig. 3.9. Waveguide bends.
If the bend is in the direction of the wide dimension, the H lines are affected (H-bend) and
if the bend is in the direction of narrow dimension, the E lines are attached (E-bend). The bending
radius must be at least 2λg to avoid SWR greater than 1.05. Sharp 90° bends create total reflection
resulting in infinite SWR. Therefore bends have to be gradual. A H-plane shown in Fig. 3.9(a) is
a piece of smoothly bent waveguide, bent in a plane parallel to the magnetic field for the dominant
mode. In order to keep the reflection in the bend small, its length is made several wavelengths as
also the radius of curvature. Alternatively, if this is undesirable because of size, or if the bend must
be sharp, it is possible to minimize reflections by making the mean length of the bend an integral
number of guide wavelength (λg), in which case some cancellation of reflections take place. It must
be noted that sharper the bend greater is the mismatch introduced. Figure 3.9(b) shows the bend
in the E-plane. Sometimes H-bend is called Hard-bend and E-band as Easy-bend. Actual view of
H-bend and E-bend are shown in Fig. 3.10.
Fig. 3.10. View of H-bend and E-bend.
Microwave Corners
At lower frequencies a bend may have to be very long and for 90° sharp bends (which create total
reflection) in such cases, a corner would be preferred. The corner may be in H-plane or E-plane
as shown in Fig. 3.11.
In order to minimise the reflections, the mean length L must be an odd number of quarter
wavelength. So that reflected waves from both ends of the waveguide are completely cancelled.
λg
L = (2n + 1) · n = 0, 1, 2, .....
4
For E-plane and H-plane corner, there is some change of voltage breakdown at that corner.
If a corner is simply a 90° corner, a part of it is cut, and the corner is said to be “mitered”,
as shown in Fig. 3.11. Figure 3.11(a) shows a mitered corner in H-plane and Fig. 3.11(b) shows
a mitered corner in E-plane. The respective dimensions C1 and C2 depend on the wavelength and
if correctly chosen, reflections will be almost completely eliminated. H-plane corner is normally
preferred in practice because of the risk of voltage breakdown across the distance in the E-plane
corner which would normally be small in such a corner.
L = λg /4
L = λg /4
C2
C1
(a ) H -corn e r (b ) E -co rne r
Fig. 3.11. Waveguide mitered corners.

Figure 3.12 shows the double mitered corner. In these corners, both inside and outside
corner surfaces are cut and the thickness of the corner is same as that of the straight position of
the waveguide.
L
L
(a ) H -corne r (b ) E -co rne r
Fig. 3.12. Waveguide double mitered corners.
Microwave Twister
To change the direction of polarization, twisters can be used and whose length is two or more
wavelength. Waveguide twists may be of 90° or 45° and can be incorporated along with
bends also. Reflection can be minimized by making the twist as smooth and gradual as possible.
Figure 3.13 shows 45° and 90° rectangular twist. Actual view of waveguide twist is also shown
in Fig. 3.14.
4 5º Tw ist
9 0º Tw ist
Fig. 3.13. Waveguide twist. Fig. 3.14. Actual view of twist.
Ø Waveguide bends, corners and twists are used to change the direction of propagation
of microwave signals.
Ø For H-bend, bend is in the direction of the wide dimension.
Ø For E-bend, bend is in the direction of the narrow dimension.
Ø At lower frequencies, where bends becomes very long, corners are used.
Ø For sharp bend, waveguide corners are used.
Ø Corner dimesions depend on wavelength and if correctly chosen, reflection will be
almost completely eliminated.
Ø Waveguide twists are used to change the direction of polarization.
3.6 HYBRID TEE (MAGIC TEE) (UPTU 2011, 2010, 2004)
A magic tee or Hybrid tee is an interesting variation to tee

junction. It is a combination of E-plane and H-plane tee a D iffe re nce ( ∆) arm
shown in Fig. 3.15. Arm (3) which is parallel to the lines of (4 ) E -a rm
magnetic field, in combination, with arms (1) and (2) forms
an H-plane tee, while arm (4) which is parallel to the line of
electric field, forms an E-plane tee with arms (1) and (2).
Common arms (1) and (2) are called collinear main arms. (1 )
(2 )
The name “Magic tee” is derived from the manner in which
the power divides among its various arms.
H -a rm
3.6.1 Operation (3 ) S u m ( Σ) a rm
1. If two waves of equal magnitude and the same Fig. 3.15. Hybrid tee (Magic tee).
phase are fed into port (1) and port (2), the output
will be zero at port (4) and additive at port (3).
2. If a wave is fed into port (3) (H-arm), it will be divided equally between port (1) and
port (2) of the collinear arms and will not appear at port (4) (E-arm).
3. If a wave is fed into port (4), (E-arm) it will produce an output of equal magnitude and
opposite phase at port (1) and port (2). The output at port (3) is zero, i.e., S34 = S43
= 0.
4. If a wave is fed into one of the collinear arm at port (1) or port (2). It will not appear
in the other colinear arm at port (2) or port (1) because the E-arm causes a phase delay
while the H-arm causes a phase advance, i.e., S12 = S21 = 0.
Ø Hybrid tee is a combination of E-plane and H-plane tee.

Ø Hybrid tee is also known as E-H plane tee.
Ø In magic tee, E-arm works as difference (∆ ∆ ) arm, H-arm works as sum (Σ Σ ) arm.
Ø If all four ports are perfectly matched to junction then hybrid tee is called magic
tee.
3.6.2 S-Matrix of Magic Tee (UPTU 2007)

[S] is a 4 × 4 matrix
LMS 11 S12 S13 S14 OP

[S] = MMS 21 S22 S23 S24 PP ...(3.59)
MMSS
31 S32 S33 S34
PP
N 41 S 42 S 43 S 44 Q
Because of E-plane tee section
S24 = –S14 ...(3.60)
Because of H-plane tee section
S23 = S13 ...(3.61)
Because of geometry of junction an input at port (3) cannot come out of port (4). Similarly
input at port (1) can’t come out of port (2) since they are isolated ports and vice versa.
S12 = S21 = 0 

S34 = S43 = 0  ...(3.62)
From symmetric property, i.e., Sij = Sji, we get
S12 = S21, S13 = S31, S23 = S32
S14 = S41, S24 = S42, S34 = S43 ...(3.63)
If all ports are perfectly matched to junction
S11 = S22 = S33 = S44 = 0 ...(3.64)
Substituting equation from (3.60) to (3.64) in (3.59), we get
LM 0 0 S13 S14 OP
MM 0 0 S13 −S14 PP
[S] = ...(3.65)
MMNSS 13
14
S13
− S14
0
0
0
0
PPQ
From unitary property
[S] [S]* = I
LM 0 0 S13 S14 OP LM 0 0 *
S13 *
S14 OP LM1 0 0 0OP
MM 0 0 S13 −S14 PP MM 0 0 *
S13 −S14*
PP MM0 1 0 0 PP
=
* *
MMSS
13 S13
−S14
0 0
PP MMSS 13 S13 0 0
PP MN00 0 1 0
PQ
N14 0 0 QN *
14 −S14*
0 0 Q 0 0 1
|S13|2 + |S14|2 = 1 [R1C1] ...(3.66)

2 2
|S13| + |S14| = 1 [R2C2] ...(3.67)
2 2
|S13| + |S13| = 1 [R3C3] ...(3.68)
2 2
|S14| + |S14| = 1 [R4C4] ...(3.69)

1 1
S13 = and S14 = ...(3.70)
2 2
The [S] of magic tee is obtained by substituting equation (3.70) in equation (3.65)
LM 0 0
1 1 OP
MM 2 2 P
1 1 P
MM 0 0
2
−
2P
P
[S] = ...(3.71)
MM 1 1
0 0 P
P
MM 2 2 PP
MM 12 −
1
0 0 P
PQ
N 2
Ø In Hybrid tee, an input at port (3) cannot come out of port (4). Similarly, input
at port (1) cannot come out of port (2) i.e., S12 = S21 = 0 and S34 = S43 = 0.
3.6.3 Applications of Magic Tee (MDU 2009)

Magic tee has several applications and is commonly used for mixing, duplexing and impedance
measurement.
1. As Impedance Measurement Bridge

A magic tee is frequently employed in
microwave impedance measuring bridges. (4 ) M atch ed
D e tecto r
These bridges are similar to low frequency
wheatstone bridges. As shown in Fig. 3.16
a typical microwave impedance bridge
designed by using a magic tee. (1 )
R e feren ce
ZL (2 )
Im p ed an ce
Power from a matched source is fed in
the H-arm (3) of the magic tee. A standard Im p ed an ce to
b e m e asure d
variable impedance is connected to port (1)
as reference impedance and arm (2) is M icrow ave
G en e rato r
terminated in the impedance to be measured.
A matched detector is connected to port (4) (3 )
(E-arm) to receive power reflected from arm Fig. 3.16. Magic tee as impedance measurement
(1) and arm (2). These powers will be out of bridge.
180° phase. The reference impedance is
adjusted so as to have no signal in the detector. Under this condition the power reflected from the
reference impedance and reaching the detector (half of the reflected power) equals the power
reflected from the unknown impedance reaching the detectors. Because the two powers are out
of 180° phase and the length of two ports are equal (when bridge is balanced) then
ΓR = ΓL
Z R − Z0 Z L − Z0
or =
Z R + Z0 Z L + Z0
Z *R − 1 Z *L − 1
= ...(3.72)
Z *R + 1 Z *L + 1
ΓR and Z*R are respectively the reflection coefficients and normalized impedance for the reference
impedance, whereas ΓL and Z*L are the respective quantities for the given unknown impedance. By
using equation (3.72) we can determine ZL in term of ZR.
2. As Antenna Duplexer
A duplexer system couples two circuits to
A n te nn a
the same load but avoids mutual coupling.
A typical duplexing system is shown in (4 ) E -a rm
Fig. 3.17(a). The same antenna is used for

the transmitter as well as receiver but the (1 ) R e ce iver Tra nsm itter (2 )
transmitter power is kept out of the receiver
and vice versa. In this system, the receiver
and transmitter are connected to arms (1)
and (2) respectively. H-arm (arm 3) is M atch ed
terminated in a matched load and E-arm (4) Term in a tio n
is connected to matched antenna. In this (3 ) H -arm
case, power received by the antenna is Fig. 3.17 (a) Magic tee as antenna duplexer.
coupled to the receiver and matched
termination due to the coupling properties
of magic tee.
In this case, half of the received power reaches the receiver where it is processed and other
half which goes to the H-arm (3) is absorbed by matched termination.
During transmission, half of the transmitter power reaches to antenna where it is radiated
into free-space and other half goes into H-arm (3) is completely absorbed by the matched termination.
Ø A duplexer system couples two circuit to the same load but avoids mutual coupling.
3. As a Mixer
A balanced microwave mixer is used in A n te nn a
super-heterodyne receiver. A magic tee can (4 ) E -a rm
be also used in microwave receiver as a fi
mixer where the signal and local oscillator M atch ed
(1 ) M ixer (2 )
are fed into E- and H-planes as shown in Term in a tio n
f0
Fig. 3.17(b). Half of the local oscillator power
and half of the received power from antenna
goes to the mixer where both signal are IF = f i ~ f 0
L ocal
mixed to generate intermediate frequency. O scilla to r
IF = fi ~ F0. But the local oscillator power
(3 ) H -a rm
is prevented from reaching the antenna by
Fig. 3.17 (b) Magic tee as a mixer.
the isolation properties of E- and H-arms.
4. Magic tee as E-H Tuner for Impedance Matching

Figure 3.18 shows an E-H tuner with shorting plates inserted into the E- and H-arms of a magic
tee. These shorting plates act as E- and H-plane stubs. The position of these shorting plungers can
be adjusted so that a wide range of load impedance may be matched to reduce the VSWR of a
waveguide system connected to the collinear arms.
P o rt (4)
S h ortin g
p lu ng er
P o rt (2)
E -a rm
P o rt (3)
P o rt (1)
H -a rm
S h ortin g
p lu ng er
Fig. 3.18. Magic tee as E-H tuner.

Actual view and equivalent circuit of magic tee is shown in Fig. 3.19.
P o rt (4)
P o rt (1) P o rt (2)
P o rt (3)
(a) Actual view of a magic tee (b) Equivalent circuit of a matched magic tee
Fig. 3.19. Actual view and equivalent circuit of magic tee.
Example 3.2. The collinear ports (1) and (2) of magic tee are terminated by impedances
of reflection coefficients ρ1 = 0.5 and ρ2 = 0.6. The difference port (4) is terminated by an
impedance with reflection coefficient of 0.8. If 1 watt power is fed at sum port (3), calculate
the power reflected at port (3) and power divisions at the other ports.
Solution. [S] of magic tee is

LMb 1
OP LM 0 0
1 1 OP LMa 1
OP
2 2
MM PP MM PM PP
1 1 P M
MMb 2 PP MM 0 0
2
−
2 M
PP Ma 2 PP
=
MMb PP MM 1 1
0
PM
0 P Ma
PP
MM 3
PP MM 2 2 PP MM 3
PP
MMb PP MM− 12 1
0 0 P Ma PP
N 4
Q N 2 PQ MN 4
Q
Here, a1 = ρ1b1, a2 = ρ2b2, |a3|2 = 1 W and a4 = ρ4b4, ρ is reflection coefficient. Then
a1 = 0.5 b1, a2 = 0.6 b2, |a3|2 = 0.1 W or a3 = 1 b3, a4 = 0.8 b4
LM OP LM 1 1OP LM 0.5b OP
MM b PP 1
MM 0 0
2 2 P M 1
PP
1 1 P M
MM b P MM 0 0 − P M 0.6b
2P M
PP
MM PPP
2 2
2
=
MM 1 PM PP
0 P M 1.0b
1
MM b PP3
MM 2 2
0
PP MM 3
PP
MM b P MM− 12 1
0 0 P M 0.8b PP
N PQ 4
N 2 PQ MN 4
Q
Similarly for b1, b2 and b3, we get
p1 = |b1|2 = 0.4309 W
p2 = |b2|2 = 0.5738 W
p3 = |b3|2 = 0.3065 W
p4 = |b4|2 = 0.00797 W.
3.7 RAT-RACE JUNCTION (MAGIC RING)
Magic ring or rat-race is a four port junction as shown in Fig. 3.20. The four arms or ports are
connected in the form of an angular ring at proper distance. These ports are separated by proper
electrical length to sustain standing waves. For proper operation it is necessary that the mean
circumference of the total race should be 1.5 λg and that each of four ports be separated from
its neighbour by a distance of λg/4.
(2 ) λg /4 (3 )
λg /4 λg /4
(1 ) (4 )
Tota l circu m fere nce

3λg /4 = 1.5 lg
Fig. 3.20. Magic ring.
Ø Circumference of the total race should be 1.5 λ g.
3.7.1 Operation
When power is fed into port (1), it splits equally (in clockwise and anti-clockwise directions) into
ports (2) and (4) and nothing enters in port (3). At ports (2) and (4), the powers combine in phase
but port (3) cancellation occurs due to λg /2 path difference.
At port (3):
λg λg λg
Distance covered by clockwise wave (l1) = + =
4 4 2
3λ g λg
Distance covered by anti-clockwise wave (l2) = + = λg
4 4
λg
So path difference (l2 − l1) = λ g −
2
We know that
2π
Phase difference = × path difference
λg
2π λ g
Thus, phase difference = × = π ⇒ 180°
λg 2
Thus both waves are cancel out.
For similar reasons any input applied at port (3) is equally divided between ports (2) and (4)
but the output at port (1) will be zero. The rat race can also be used for combining two signals
or dividing a single signal into two equal halves. If two unequal signals are applied at port (1), an
output proportional to their sum will emerge from ports (2) and (4) while a differential output will
appear at port (3).
So, operation of magic ring is such that
port (1) is connected to port (2) and port (4) only
Hybrid ring is used primarily in high-power radar and communication system to perform the
function of duplexer. The hybrid ring couples microwave energy from the transmitter to the
antenna and allow no energy to reach the receiver. During receiving, the hybrid ring couples
energy from antenna to receiver and allow no energy to reach the transmitter. Photograph of
magic ring is shown in Fig. 3.21.
Fig. 3.21. Photograph of magic ring.
Ø Hybrid ring overcomes the power limitation of the magic tee.

Ø Hybrid ring is used primarily in high-power radar and communication system to
perform the function of duplexer.
Ø As a practical application in radar transmitter is connected to port (1), antenna to
port (2), receiver to port (3), and matched load to port (4) of magic ring.
3.7.2 S-Matrix of Rat-Race

If all ports are perfectly matched
S11 = S22 = S33 = S44 = 0
From the operation of magic ring, we get
S13 = 0, S24 = 0
S31 = 0, S42 = 0
The scattering matrix of a rat-race junction can be written as given below in ideal conditions.
LM 0 S12 0 S14 OP
MMS21 0 S 23 0 P
P
[S] = ...(3.73)
MM 0 S 32 0 S P
34
P
MNS
41 0 S 43 0 PQ
3.8 DIRECTIONAL COUPLER (UPTU 2010, 2005, 2004; MDU 2010)
A directional coupler is a four port waveguide junction as shown in Fig. 3.22. It consists of primary
waveguide [having port (1) and port (2)] and secondary waveguide [port (3) and port (4)].
P rim a ry w a ve gu id e
In c id e n t R e ce iv e d
(1 ) (2 )
pow er pow er
B a ck F o rw ard
(3 ) (4 )
pow er c o u p le d
pow er
S e co n da ry w aveg uide
Fig. 3.22. Directional coupler.
With matched termination at all its ports, the properties of an ideal directional coupler will
be as follows:
1. A portion of wave travelling from port (1) to port (2) is coupled to port (4) but not to
port (3). [case 1]
2. A portion of wave travelling from port (2) to port (1) is coupled to port (3) but not to the
port (4).
3. A portion of wave travelling from port (3) to port (4) is coupled to port (2) but not to the
port (1).
4. A portion of wave travelling from port (4) to port (3) is coupled to port (1) but not to
port (2).
Here we will take the case 1:
Ideally no part should come out of port (3). But practically a small portion of input power
at port (1) is coupled to port (3).
A directional coupler is characterized by the following parameters:
1. Directivity (D): It is the ratio of forward coupled power (P4) to back power (P3) in the
secondary waveguide and expressed in dB.
D =
Forward coupled power P4 c h in dB
Back power P3 c h
P4
D = 10 log10 dB ...(3.74)
P3
Ideally, back power to port (3) should be zero (P3 = 0). Therefore, directivity is ∞.
Directivity is a measure of how well the directional coupler differentiate between forward
and reverse travelling power.
2. Coupling factor (C): It is the ratio of input power [Power entering to port (1)] (P1) to
forward coupled power (P4) and expressed in dB.
C =
Input power P1 c h in dB
Forward coupled power P4 c h
P1
C = 10 log10 dB ...(3.75)
P4
The coupling factor is a measure of how much of the incident power is being sampled.
3. Isolation (I): It is defined as the ratio of incident power (input power) (P1) to the back
power (P3) in dB.
I =
c h
Input power P1
in dB
Back power cP h3
P1
Isolation = 10 log10 dB ...(3.76)
P3
Isolation is equal to the sum of coupling factor and directivity in dB.
We know that
P
Isolation = 10 log10 1
P3
P1 P4
Isolation = 10 log10 ⋅
P3 P4
I = D + C [in dB] ...(3.77)
4. Insertion loss (IL): It specifies the total output power from all ports relative to the input
power. The output power is less than input power from two reasons.
(i) Some of the input power is absorbed.
(ii) Some gets reflected due to mismatch.
Output power from all ports
Insertion loss = in dB
Input power
P2 + P3 + P4
= 10 log10 dB ...(3.78)
P1
5. Bandwidth: Bandwidth is the range of frequencies within which the performance, with
respect to some characteristrics, falls within specific limits.
6. Frequency Sensitivity: The maximum peak to peak variation in the coupling factor that
may be expected over a specified frequency band is called the frequency sensitivity.
Ø In most of directional coupler only three out of four ports are used, the unwanted
port is normally terminated in a matched load built into it.
Ø Directional coupler is a reciprocal four port matched device. Isolation is equal to
the sum of coupling factor and directivity in dB.
Ø Coupling factor is a measure of how much of the incident power is being sampled.
Ø Bandwidth is the range of frequencies within which the performance with respect
to some characteristics, falls within specific limits.
3.8.1 Two-Holes Directional Coupler (UPTU 2011; MDU 2010)

A two-holes directional coupler consists of two waveguides, the main and auxiliary (secondary)
waveguide with two-holes common between them as shown in Fig. 3.23. The spacing between
the centers of two-holes must be
L = b2n + 1g λ4 ,g
n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
λg = Guide wavelength
λg
For n = 0, the holes are at a distance , operation of two-holes directional coupler can
4
be summarized as follows:
Pi lg /4
In cide nt (B ) R e ce ived
(1 ) (2 )
p ow e r P 1 (A ) p ow e r P 2
B a ck Fo rw a rd
(3 ) (4 )
p ow e r P 3 cou pled P 4
Fig. 3.23. Two-holes directional coupler.

1. At the port (4) [forward coupled port], waves from hole A and B are in same phase,
because waves from hole A and B travel an equal distance (λg /4) hence they add up
contributing to P4.
2. At the port (3) [Back power port], waves from hole A and B are out of phase by 180°
λg λg λg 2π λ g
(input power will have to travel a distance of + = ⇒ φ = × ⇒ 180°
4 4 2 λg 2
when its comes back from hole B compared to input power leakage through hole A) at
the position of the hole A and therefore they cancel each other and making back power
P3 = 0 (ideally).
The number of holes can be one (Bethe-hole) or more than two (multi-hole coupler). The
degree of coupling is determined by size and location of the holes in waveguide walls. For multi-
hole coupler, holes may be more than two but it has to be an even number of holes. In general
greater the number of coupling mechanisms, wider the frequency bandwidth and greater the
directivity.
Ø In two-hole directional coupler, the spacing between the center of holes must be
(2n + 1)λ λ g /4 where n = 0, 1, 2, ...
Ø In most of directional coupler, only three of four ports are used, the unwanted
port, i.e., port (3) is terminated by a matched load.
Ø Degree of coupling is determined by size and location of the holes in waveguide
walls.
3.8.2 Single-Hole (Bethe-hole) Directional Coupler (MDU 2007)

A single-hole directional coupler is shown in Fig. 3.24. The power entering at port (1) is coupled
to the coaxial probe output and the power entering at port (2) is absorbed by the matched load.
The auxiliary (secondary) guide is placed at such an angle that the magnitude of magnetically
excited wave is made equal to that of the electrically excited wave for improved directivity. In this
coupler, the waves in auxiliary guide are generated through a single hole which includes both
electric and magnetic fields. Because of the phase relationship involved in the coupling process,
the signals generated by the two types of coupling cancel in the forward direction and reinforce
in the reverse direction.
(3 )
M atch ed loa d
C o up ling ho le
C o axia l pro be
0
2r
(1 )
(2 ) O utpu t
q M ain w aveg u id e
(4 )
A u xiliary w a veg uide
Fig. 3.24. Bethe-hole direction coupler.
Ø In Bethe-hole coupler, main waveguide is fixed and secondary waveguide is rotated

about a hole in the centre of the common broad walls.
3.8.3 S-Matrix of Directional Coupler (UPTU 2010)

Directional coupler is a four port network. So S-matrix will be order of 4 × 4
LMS 11 S12 S13 S14 OP
MMS 21 S 22 S 23 S 24 PP
[S] = ...(3.79)
MMS 31 S 32 S 33 S 34 PP
MNS 41 S 42 S 43 S 44 PQ
In a directional coupler all four ports are completely matched. Thus diagonal elements of
S-matrix are zero.
S11 = S22 = S33 = S44 = 0
Also there is no coupling between port (1) and port (3) and, between port (2) and port (4).
Thus,
S13 = S31 = S24 = S42 = 0
The S-matrix of directional coupler becomes
LM 0 S12 0 S14 OP
[S] = MMS 12 0 S 23 0 P ...(3.80)
S P
MMS0 S23 0 34
0 PQ
P
N 14 0 S 34
Since [S] [S*] = [I], from unitary property

LM 0 S12 0 S14 OP LM 0 *
S12 0 *
S14 OP LM1 0 0 0 OP
MMS 0 S 23 0 P MS *
0 *
S23 0 P MM0 1 0 0P
12
PM 12
P = P
MM 0 S 23 0 S PM 0 *
S23 0 S P
* MM0 0 1 0P
34
PM 34 P P
MNS
14 0 S 34 0 PQ MNS*
14 0 *
S34 0 PQ MN0 0 0 1PQ
|S12|2 + |S14|2 = 1 [R1C1] ...(3.81)

2 2
|S12| + |S23| = 1 [R2C2] ...(3.82)
2 2
|S23| + |S34| = 1 [R3C3] ...(3.83)
S12S*23 + S14S*34 = 0 [R1C3] ...(3.84)
Comparing equations (3.81) and (3.82)

|S14| = |S23| ...(3.85)
Comparing equations (3.82) and (3.83)
|S12| = |S34| ...(3.86)
Let S12 be real and positive
Let S12 = S34 = p = S*34 ...(3.87)
where p is positive and real, then S*34 = S34
S12 S*23 + S14 S*34 = 0
Since S12 = S*34 = p
p.S*23 + p.S14 = 0
From equation (3.85) S14 = S23
p.S*23 + p.S23 = 0
p(S*23 + S23) = 0
p ≠ 0, ∴ S23 + S*23 = 0
Since S23 = jq
S*23 = −S23 = −j q
i.e., S23 must be imaginary
Thus, S23 = S14 = jq [from equation (3.85)]
and S12 = S34 = p
Now substituting values of S12, S34, S23 and S14 in equation
LM 0 p 0 jq OP
MM p 0 jq 0P
P
[S] = ...(3.88)
MM 0 jq 0 pP
P
MN jp 0 p 0 PQ
Ø The quantity ‘p’ is called the transmission factor and ‘q’ is called the coupling
factor.
Ø In directional coupler, there is no coupling between port (1) and port (3), and
between port (2) and port (4) i.e., S13 = S31 = S24 = S42 = 0.
3.8.4 Applications of Directional Coupler (MDU 2004; UPTU 2005)

A directional coupler is basically a power monitoring device and is used in measuring equipment
and for checking the performance of microwave equipments. In addition, directional couplers are
used to design some of the important circuit elements such as phase shifters, variable impedance
and balanced duplexers.
1. Power measurement: They can be designed to measure incident and/or reflected
power. Since the coupling of a directional coupler is independent of power in the main
arm, a matched calibrated detector placed at the auxiliary line gives an accurate indication
of power in the main line without affecting the power flow in the main arm. For absolute
power measurement, however, the coupler and detector may be suitably calibrated.
2. VSWR measurement by reflectometer: Directional coupler is a reciprocal four port
matched device, a directional coupler containing matched calibrated detectors in both
ports of the auxiliary line may be used to sample or detect the power flowing in forward
and backward directions simultaneously. This type of device is called reflectometer. Because
it is difficult to match the two detectors simultaneously. It is convenient to use two
directional couplers with two separate detectors as shown in Fig. 3.25.
R a tio m ete r
R e fle ctio n R e fle cted p ow e r

r=
coe fficie nt In cide n t p ow e r
Fo rw a rd R e ve rse
d ete ctor d ete ctor
Pi Pr
1 00 1 00
m w a ve Pi R e ve rse d ire ctio na l

Pad Fo rw a rd directio n al L oa d Z L
g en era to r cou pler 20 d B cou pler 20 d B
Pr
Fig. 3.25. Power measurement by reflectometer.
Ø Reflectometer technique is used for VSWR and microwave power measurement.

Ø Directional coupler can sample a small amount of microwave power for measurement
purpose.
If the incident (forward) and reflected (backward) outputs from the detectors are fed to a
ratiometer which directly measure the reflection coefficient. Reflectometer also provide
quick and accurate measurement of VSWR in a given frequency band and can also used
to measure low and high power.
3. As a fixed attenuator: Figure 3.26 shows a fixed attenuator designed using a directional
coupler. When port (2) and port (4) are terminated in matched loads. Power coming out
of ports (2) and (4) will completely absorb and the power coming out of port (3) is the
coupling of the directional coupler. This type of device provides 10 to 30 dB attenuation
and is used in designing wide band decoupling attenuators.
M atch ed
(4 ) (3 )
te rm in ation
(1 ) (2 )
P e rfe ctly m atch ed

a bsorb er
Fig. 3.26. Directional coupler as fixed attenuator.

4. As a variable impedance or matching device: If the positions of two shorting
plungers that terminate port (2) and port (4) of the 3 dB directional coupler as in Fig. 3.27
are varied independently then directional coupler works as a variable impedance.
(3 ) (4 )
S ho rtin g plun ge r
(m o vab le )
C o up ling
a pe rtu re
(1 ) (2 )
Fig. 3.27. Directional coupler as matching device.
5. Directional coupler may be used as a power divider, phase shifter and duplexer.
Figure 3.28 shows the actual view of directional coupler.
Fig. 3.28. Actual view of directional coupler.

Example 3.3. A 10 mW signal is applied to a 20 dB directional coupler. Determine the

power available at coupled port.
Solution. If P1 and P4 are respectively the input and coupled powers then coupling factor
C will be
P1
C = 10 log10
P4
bin dBg
P1
20 = 10 log10
P4
P1
= 102 = 100
P4
Input power (P1) = 10 mW (given)
P1
P4 =
100
10
= = 01
. mW
100
Therefore, coupled power P4 = 0.1 mW = 100 µ W.
Example 3.4. A directional coupler has a coupling factor of 10 dB. An input signal of
5 mW is applied. Determine the directivity of the directional coupler if the power measured
at the isolated port is 10 mW.
Solution. Given
Input power (P1) = 5 mW
Coupling factor = 10 dB
Power at isolated port (P3) = 10 mW
P1
Therefore, C = 10 = 10 log10
P4
P1
= 10
P4
P1
Coupled power P4 = = 0.5 mW
10
Power measured at isolated port (P3) = 10 mW
P4
Therefore, Directivity (D) = 10 log10 dB
P3
F 0.5 × 10 I −3
= 10 logGH 10 × 10 JK −6
= 10 log G
F 500 IJ = 10 log 50
10
H 10 K 10
D = 17 dB.
Example 3.5. A 90 W power source is connected to the input of a directional coupler

with C = 20 dB, D = 35 dB and an insertion loss of 0.5 dB. Find the output power at the
through, coupled and isolated ports. Assume all ports to be matched. (MDU 2003)
Solution. Given
C = 20 dB
D = 35 dB
P1 = 90 W
IL = 0.5 W
C = 20 = 10 log10
c h
Input power P1
P1
= 102 = 100
P4
Forward coupled power
P1 90
P4 = = = 0.9 W
100 100
Since D = 35 = 10 log10
Back power P3c h
P4
= 103.5
P3
P4
Back power P3 = = 284.6 µW
103.5
Received power (P2) = P1 − [P3 + P4]
= 90 − [0.9 − 284.6 × 10−6]
P2 = 89.09 Watt
P2 in dB = 10 log
P1
= 10 log10
FG 90 IJ = 0.044 dB
P2 H 89.09K
So, effective received power
P′′2 = P2 − insertion loss
= 0.044 − 0.5
P′′2 = − 0.455 dB.
Example 3.6. A directional coupler has the scattering matrix given below. If port (1) is
input port, port (2) received power port, port (3) is forward coupled port and port (4) is
isolation (back power) port. Find the directivity, coupling and isolation.
0.05 30 0.96 0 0.190 0.05 90 
 
 0.96 0 0.05 30 0.05 90 0.190 
[S] =  .
 0.190 0.05 90 0.04 30 0.96 0 
 
0.05 90 0.190 0.96 0 0.05 30 
P1
Solution. Coupling C = 10 log = − 20 log S13
P3
C = −20 log 0.1
C = 20 dB
P3 S13
Directivity (D) = 10 log = 20 log
P4 S14
01
.
= 20 log = 6.02 dB
0.05
P1
Isolation = I = 10 log = − 20 log10 S14
P4
I = −20 log10 0.05 = 26.02 dB

We know that
I = D + C (in dB).
Example 3.7. A symmetric directional coupler with infinite directivity and a forward
attenuation of 20 dB is used to monitor the power delivered to a load Zl as shown in Fig. 3.29.
Bolometer 1 introduces a VSWR of 2.0 or arm 4, bolometer 2 is matched to arm 3. If
bolometer 1 reads 8 mW and bolometer 2 reads 2 mW, find
(i) The amount of power dissipated in load (Zl )
(ii) The VSWR on arm 2.
G en e rato r
1 2
V S W R = 2 .0 Zl
B B
3 20 dB 4
B o lo m ete r 2 B o lo m ete r 1
Fig. 3.29
Solution. Given
Forward attenuation = 20 dB = 100
P1 = 8 mW
P2 = 2 mW
VSWR4 = 2
20 dB is equivalent to power ratio 100 : 120
Px Px 100
= 10 log10 =
Py Py 1
The wave propagation in the directional coupler is shown in Fig. 3.30

S W R = 2.0
P o rt 1 P o rt 2
9 00 m W 9 00 m W
G en e rato r 1 00 m W Zl
9 mW
B 8 mW
1 mW
2 mW B
1 mW
P o rt 3 P o rt 4
Fig. 3.30
(i) Power dissipation at Zl
The reflection coefficient at port (4) is
VSWR 4 − 1 2 −1 1
Γ4 = = =
VSWR 4 + 1 2 +1 3
1 reflected power P4−

e j
|Γ4| = =
3 incident power eP j +
4
Reading of bolometer at port (4) = 8 mW
1 P4− P4−
|Γ4| = = =
3 P4+ 8 + P4−
Since Bolometer reading + P4− = 8 + P−4
P4− = 9 mW
The incident power to port (4) is P+4 = 9 mW and the reflected power from port (4) is
P4− = 1 mW.
Since port (3) is matched and bolometer at port (3) reads 2 mW, then 1 mW must be radiated
through the holes. Because power at port (3) is the sum of reflected power from port (4) and power
through the holes.
Since 20 dB is equivalent to a power ratio of 100 : 1, the power input at port (1) is given
by (given that directional coupler has 20 dB forward attenuation)
P1 = 100 P+4 = 100 × 9 mW = 900 mW
This input power will become incident power for port (2) i.e., P+2 = 900 mW
Because coupler has 20 dB attenuation so reflected power from port (2) will be the 100 times
the power which will radiate through holes, i.e., 1 mW
P 2− = 100 × 1 mW
P 2− = 100 × (1 mW) = 100 mW
So the power dissipated in the load is
Pl = P +2 − P 2− = 900 − 100 = 800 mW
(ii) The reflection coefficient on arm (2) is calculated as
P2− 100 1
|Γ2| = = =
P2+ 900 3
Then VSWR on arm (2) is
1
1 + Γ2 1+
VSWR2 = = 3 = 2.0
1 − Γ2 1−
1
3
VSWR2 = 2.0.
Example 3.8. A symmetric directional coupler has an infinite directivity and a forward
attenuation of 20 dB. The coupler is used to monitor the power delivered to a load Zl as
shown in Fig. 3.31 Bolometer 1 introduces a VSWR of 2.0 on arm 1, bolometer 2 is matched
to arm 2. If bolometer 1 reads 9 mW and bolometer 2 read 3 mW. Then determine
(i) Power dissipated in the load Zl
(ii) VSWR on arm 3.
V S W R = 2 .0
2 1
B o lo m e te r 2 B B B o lo m e te r 1
4 20 dB 3
Zl
Fig. 3.31
Solution. Given
Forward attenuation 20 dB = 100
VSWR1 = 20
P1 = 9 mW
P2 = 9 mW
(i) The reflection coefficient at port (1) is
VSWR1 − 1 2−1 1
|Γ1| = = =
VSWR1 + 1 2+1 3
1 P1− P1−
We know that |Γ1| = = = ⇒ P1− = 1125
. mW
3 P1+ 9 + P1−
Reflected power from port (1)
P1− = 1.125 mW
So, power into port (1) is
9 + P1− = 9 + 1.13
P+1 = 10.13 mW
Since, 20 dB is equivalent to a power ratio of 100 : 1, the power input at port 4 is given by
P4 = 100 P+1 = 100 × 10.13 = 1013 mW
Since, port (2) is matched and Bolometer 2 reads 3 mW, so the power reflected from Zl is
Pref = (3 − 1.13) × 100
= 1.87 × 100 = 187 mW
(ii) The reflection coefficient on arm (3)
P3− 187
|Γ3| = = = 0.43
P3+ 1013
Thus, the VSWR on arm (3) will be
1 + Γ3 1 + 0.43
VSWR3 = = = 2.5
1 − Γ3 1 − 0.43
VSWR3 = 2.5.
Example 3.9. A directional coupler is shown in Fig. 3.32 has coupling coefficient
C = 10 dB and directivity (D) = 60 dB. Find power output at port three and port four.
P o rt (3)
M atch ed loa d
P o rt (4)
S h ort
In pu t (10 0 m W ) P o rt (2)
P o rt (1)
Fig. 3.32
Solution.
Coupling coefficient C = 10 dB
For directional coupler C = 10 log

FP I1
10 GH P JK
4
FP I 1
10 = 10 log10 GH P JK
4
P1
= 10
P4
P1 100 mW
P4 = =
10 10
P4 = 10 mW
We know that
FP I 4
= 60
Directivity D = 10 log10 GH P JK
3
P4
= 106
P3
P4 10 mW
P3 = 6
=
10 106
P3 = 10 nW.
Example 3.10. Determine the scattering parameters for a 10 dB directional coupler,

directivity D = 30 dB. Assume that it is lossless and VSWR at each port is 1. (UPTU 2006)
Solution. Given
Directivity D = 30 dB
Coupling factor C = 10 dB
VSWR = 1
The coupling factor C is
P1
C = 10 log10
P4
1
C = 10 log10 2
S14
2
10 = − 10 log10 S14
|S14|2 = 10−1
|S14| = . = 0.3162
01
Thus, S14 = S41 = 0.3162, since directional coupler is matched and lossless.
Now, Directivity D is
P4
D = 10 log10
P3
2
S14
30 = 10 log10 2
S13
2
S14
2
= 103
S13
2
2
S14
|S13| =
103
|S13| = 2 b0.3162g 2
103
S13 ≈ 10−4 = 0.01

Thus, S13 = S31 = 0.01
VSWR − 1
Now, S11 = = 0
VSWR + 1
Since S11 = S22 = S33 = S44 = 0
Thus, S-parameters are
S11 = S22 = S33 = S44 = 0
S13 = S31 = 0.01
S14 = S41 = 0.3162
3.9 ISOLATORS AND CIRCULATORS
3.9.1 Isolator (UPTU 2011; MDU 2009, 2007)

Isolators are used at microwave frequencies to provide isolation. It is important in majority of the
applications at microwave frequencies when microwave signal flows only in one direction for
example microwave generator to load.
Ferrites are used as the main material in isolators and the principle on which the ferrite
isolator works is known as Faraday’s principle or Faraday’s experimental effect. Faraday’s principle
states that “If a circularly polarized wave (TE11 in a circular waveguide) is made to pass through
a ferrite rod, which has been influenced by an axial magnetic field B, the axis of polarization gets
tilted in clockwise direction as shown in Fig. 3.33 and the amount of tilt depends upon the strength
of the magnetic field and geometry of the ferrite.”
M ag ne tic fie ld
B
Fe rrite
Fig. 3.33. Faraday’s experimental effect.

A ferrite is a non-metallic material which has magnetic properties similar to ferrous metals
but resistivity high enough to make it an insulator. Commonly used ferrites include manganese
ferrites (MnFe2O3) and Zinc ferrites (ZnFe2O3). Since these materials are insulators, electromagnetic
wave can propagate in them and because ferrites have strong magnetic properties, external
magnetic field can be applied to them with Faraday’s effect coming into picture, thus making them
useful for isolators and circulators.
Ø An isolator is a two-port non-reciprocal device.

Ø Ferrites are used as the main material in isolators and circulators.
Ø Isolator provides minimum attenuation in one direction and very high attenuation
in the opposite direction.
3.9.2 Faraday’s Rotation Isolator (UPTU 2010; MDU 2009)

An isolator is a 2-port device which provides very low attenuation for transmission from port (1)
to (2) but provides very high attenuation for transmission from port (2) to (1).
Isolator consists of a piece of circular waveguide having dominant mode TE11 with transmission
to a standard rectangular waveguide having dominant mode TE10 at both ends. A thin circular
ferrite rod tapered at both ends is located inside the circular waveguide and the waveguide is
surrounded by a permanent magnet which generates DC magnetic field for proper operation of
ferrite. There is a 45° twist in rectangular waveguide at the input side as shown in Fig. 3.34.
C ircu la r to
re cta ng ular
C ircu la r w a ve g uide tra nsitio n
(TE 11 m od e)
Bo
R e sistive
4 5° tw ist card
4 5°
R e sistive P o rt 2
card rr it s
Fe
(TE 1 0 m od e)
R e cta ng u la r
w a veg uide
R e cta ng ular
w a ve gu id e
et (TE 1 0 m o de )
gn
Ma
(a )
P o rt 1
O utpu t
4 5°
In pu t
(b )
4 5° In pu t
9 0°
No
O utpu t (c)
Fig. 3.34. Operation of isolator.

Isolator consist of a permanent magnet which generates DC magnetic field for proper
operation of ferrite.
Operation: As shown in Fig. 3.34 resistive cards are placed along the larger dimension of
the rectangular waveguides on both side, so as to absorb any wave, those plane of polarization
is parallel to the plane of resistive cord. The resistive card does not absorb any wave whose plane
of polarization is perpendicular to its own plane.
If an input signal is given to port (1) as shown in Fig. 3.34 (b) then wave passing from input
port (1) through the resistive card and is not attenuated because plane of polarization of wave is
perpendicular to the resistive card. After that, the wave gets shifted by 45° in anti-clockwise
direction because of twist in waveguide and then wave gets another 45° in clockwise direction shift
because of the ferrite. Thus plane of polarization of wave is again perpendicular to the resistive
card of output port (2), hence wave comes out of output port with same polarization as at input
port without any attenuation.
If input is given to port (2) as shown in Fig. 3.34 (c) then wave passing from port (2) through
the resistive card and is not attenuated. Then the wave gets rotated by 45° clockwise direction
because of ferrite and further gets rotated by 45° in clockwise direction due to twist in the
waveguide. Now the plane of polarization is parallel to the resistive card and wave will be completely
absorbed by resistive card and output at the input port will be zero. Thus in isolator signal flows
only in one direction, i.e., from port (1) to port (2).
3.9.3 S-Matrix of Isolator

Isolator will pass the wave from input port (1) to output port (2) only, i.e., |S21| = 1 and
|S12| = |S11| = |S22| = 0.
In isolator signal flows from port (1) to port (2), i.e., S21 = 1 and S11 = S22 = S12 = 0
For an ideal lossless, matched isolator
[S] =
LM0 0 OP ...(3.89)
MN1 0PQ
3.9.4 Applications of Isolation (UPTU 2010)

Isolators can be used to improve the frequency stability of microwave generator, such as klystrons
and magnetrons, where the reflection from the load affects the frequency. In such case, the isolator
is placed between microwave generator and load as shown in Fig. 3.35, so that the energy is
transmitted from the generator to the load with very small attenuation.
Isolator can be used to improve the frequency stability of microwave generators.
M icrow ave
Isolator L oa d
sou rce
Id ea lly no R e fle cted

re fle cted w a ve w a ve
Fig. 3.35. Isolator between source and load.

On the other hand, energy of the reflected wave resulting from load mismatching is highly
absorbed by the isolator. This prevents frequency instability of the oscillator.
Figure 3.36 shows actual views of various isolator.
Fig. 3.36. Actual views of various isolators.
3.10 CIRCULATOR (UPTU 2011, 2010; MDU 2010, 2008)
Another important application of ferrite is found in microwave (2 )

circulator. A microwave circulator is a multiport device where
the power may flow from port (1) to (2), (2) to (3) and so on
in the direction shown in Fig. 3.37 (direction may be clockwise
or anti-clockwise). Although there is no restriction on the number
(1 ) (3 )
of ports; microwave circulators with four ports are most
commonly used.
Circulator is a multiport junction in which wave can flow
only from nth port to (n + 1)th port in one direction.
(4 )
3.10.1 Operation (1 ) ® (2 ) ® (3 ) ® (4)
A four port Faraday’s rotational circulator is shown in Fig. 3.37. Four port circulator.
Fig. 3.38. The power entering port (1) in TE10 mode is converted
into TE11 mode because of rectangular to circular transition. This power passes port (3), unaffected
because electric field is not significantly cut and rotated by 45° in clockwise due to ferrite, passes
port (4) unaffected and finally emerges from port (2).
L ine pa ra lle l
to p ort (1)
R e cta ng ular
P o rt (3)
to circular
tra nsitio n 4 5° P o rt (4)
45°
P o rt (2)
4 5°
P o rt (1) Fe rrite
C ircu la r to re cta ng ular

tra nsitio n
Fig. 3.38. Operation of four port circulator.
Power fed from port (2) will have plane of polarization tilted by 45° with respect to port (1).
This power passes port (4) unaffected because the electric field is not significantly cut. This wave
gets rotated by 45° in clockwise direction due to ferrite. So, the polarization of this wave gets total
90° tilt at port (3) and electric field is significantly cut and emerges out of it. So, port (2) is coupled
to port (3). Similarly port (3) is coupled only to port (4) and port (4) to port (1).
3.10.2 S-Matrix of 4 Port Circulator

A perfectly matched, lossless and non-reciprocal four-port circulators coupled the port (1) → (2),
(2) → (3), (3) → (4), (4) → (1)
|S14| = |S21| = |S32| = |S43| = 1
LM0 0 0 1 OP
[S] =
MM1 0 0 0P
P ...(3.90)
MM0 1 0 0P
P
MN0 0 1 0PQ
Ø Circulator is a multiport junction in which signal can flow only from nth port to
(n + 1)th port in one direction.
Ø For perfectly matched, lossless and non-reciprocal four port circulator |S21| = |S32|
= |S43| = |S14| = 1.
3.10.3 Wye Circulator (3 Port Circulator)

A Y or Wye circulator is recent development and a three port version of circulator is shown in
Fig. 3.39. Four port circulators of this type are also common, consisting of two Y’s connected to
each other and therefore, having four external port.
D C m a gn etic field
P o rt (1) Bo
P o rt (1)
Fe rrite P o rt (2)
Fe rrite
P o rt (3) P o rt (2)
P o rt (3)
Fig. 3.39. Wye circulator.
A three port circulator is formed by a 120° apart waveguide or coaxial line with a central
ferrite. A steady magnetic field Bo is applied along the axis of the ferrite. Signal is rotated to be
coupled only to the next port and not to the third port, i.e., input from port (1) will be coupled
only to port (2) and not to port (3), input from port (2) will be coupled only to port (3) and so
on. Thus, circulator properties are achieved.
Ø Wye (Y) circulator is a three port version of circulator.

Ø A three port circulator is formed by a 120° apart waveguide as coaxial line with
a central ferrite.
3.10.4 S-Matrix of Wye Circulator

For a perfect matched, lossless, non-reciprocal three port circulator.
|S13| = |S21| = |S32| = 1
LM0 0 1 OP
[S] = MM1 0 0P
P ...(3.91)
MN0 1 0PQ
3.10.5 Circulator Using Magic Tee

A four port circulator may be construct by using two magic tees and a phase shifter as shown in
Fig. 3.40. The phase shifter provides a phase shift of 180° when signal travels from left side to
right side and there will be no phase shift when signal travels from right side to left side. In
Fig. 3.40 ports (1), (2), (3) and (4) indicates the four ports of circulator.
4 3
B¢ B
2 1
M ag ic te e 2 M ag ic te e 1
A¢ A
1 80 °
P h ase shifter
Fig. 3.40. A four-port circulator using magic tee.
Operation
When a signal is applied to the port (1) of first magic tee, which is the input port of the H-plane.
Due to the basic operation of H-plane, signal will present at ports (A) and (B) which will go to the
ports (A′) and (B′) of second magic tee, which are the ports of the H-plane and both signals are
in same phase so they adds up and signal will present at port (2).
Similarly, when signal is applied to port (2), which is the input port of H-plane of second
magic tee, signals having same phase will present at ports (A) and (B). But due to phase shift
between ports (A) and (A′), signals at ports (A) and (B) will be at phase difference of 180°. So
signals will adds up and output will be present at port (3), which is the port of E-plane of first magic
tee and there will be no signal at port (1) which is the port of H-plane.
Similarly port (3) will connect to port (4) and port (4) will connect to port (1).
Ø A four port circulator may be construct by using two magic tees and a 180° phase
shifter.
3.10.6 Applications of Circulator (UPTU 2009; MDU 2007)

1. As decoupling isolator: Circulator can work as a decoupling isolator at high power
levels where a normal ferrite isolator becomes unsuitable as shown in Fig. 3.41.
L oa d
2
M icrow ave 1 3
g en era to r
4
N o re fle cted
M atch ed
sig na l from loa d
te rm in ation
Fig. 3.41. Circulator as decoupling isolator.

A microwave generator is connected to port (1) and load is connected to port (2). Matched
load are connected to remaining ports (3) and (4). As circulator works, signal from
microwave generator will go to next port (2) (load).
2. As a duplexer: Circulator can be used A n te nn a
as duplexer for radar system as shown
in Fig. 3.42. Radar transmitter is
connected to port (1), antenna connected
to port (2) and radar receiver is connected
to port (3), remaining port (4) is properly 2
terminated by matched load. Tra nsm itter 1 3 R e ce iver
As circulator works, transmitter feeds and 4
antenna while received energy from
antenna is directed to the receiver.
Hence, powerful radar transmitter is M atch ed
isolated from sensitive receiver and also te rm in ation
same antenna can be used for both

Fig. 3.42. Circulator as a duplexer.
transmission and reception.
3. Circulator in reflex amplifier circuit: A more interesting and practically more important
application is use of circulators is so called reflex amplifier circuits which include such
devices as paramagnetic amplifiers and semiconductor diode amplifiers. Such amplifiers
are essentially two terminal devices of the regenerative type in which the amplified signal
appears at the same port as the input signal. The amplified signal is separated by means
of circulator and is directed to the load as shown in Fig. 3.43.
A m p lifie r
M icro w ave 2
sig na l
1 3 R e ce iver
A n te nn a 4
M atch ed
lo a d
Fig. 3.43. Circulator in reflex amplifier circuit.

4. Circulator in parametric amplifier: Two three port circulators can be used in parametric
amplifier as shown in Fig. 3.44. Input signal is applied to port (1) of first circulator. This
signal will go to port (2) where tunnel diode amplifier is connected and the amplified signal
is directed to the port (2) of second circulator due to properties of circulator.
M atch
In pu t te rm in ation
1 3
3 1
2 2
Tu nn el O utpu t
d io de (A m p lifie d sign al)
Fig. 3.44. Circulator in parametric amplifier.
Ø Circulator can work as a decoupling isolator at high power levels where a normal
ferrite isolator becomes unsuitable.
Ø In duplexer, same antenna is used for transmitter and receiver.
Actual views of circulator is shown in Fig. 3.45.
Fig. 3.45. Actual views of circulator.

Example 3.11. Prove that it is impossible to construct a perfectly matched lossless,
reciprocal three-port junction. (UPTU 2010)
Solution. S-matrix of perfectly matched 3 port junction is
LM 0 S12 S13 OP
[S] = MMS
21 0 S P
23
P
MNS
31 S32 0 PQ
We know that for lossless junction S-matrix is unitary
[S] [S]* = [I]
S12S*12 + S13S*13 = 1 ...(3.92)
S12S*12 + S23S*23 = 1 ...(3.93)
S13S*13 + S23S*23 = 1 ...(3.94)
Now using property 6* of S-matrix, we get
S13S*23 = S12S*23 = S12S*13 = 0 ...(3.95)
The sum of the products of each term of any row (or column) multiplied by the complex
conjugate of corresponding terms of other row (or column) is zero.
If S12 is not equal to zero, the equation (3.95) from above gives
S13 = 0 = S23
But this does not satisfy the equation (3.94). Therefore, a reciprocal, lossless 3-port junction
cannot be perfectly matched.
Example 3.12. An isolator has an insertion loss of 0.5 dB and an isolation of 30 dB.
Determine the scattering matrix of the isolator if the isolated ports are perfectly matched to
junction.
Solution. Insertion loss = 0.5 dB = −20 log |S21|
|S21| = 10− 0.5/20 = 0.944
and Isolation = 30 dB = −20 log10 |S12|
|S12| = 10−30/20 = 10−1.5 = 0.031
For perfectly matched isolator |S11| = |S22| = 0
[S] =
LM 0 0.031 OP .
MN0.944 0 PQ
Example 3.13. A three-port circulator has an insertion loss of 1 dB, isolation 30 dB and
VSWR is 1.5. Find the S-matrix. (UPTU 2009, 2006)
Solution. The S-matrix of three-port circulator is
LMS 11 S12 S13 OP

[S] = MMS21 S22 S 23 PP
MNS
31 S32 S 33 PQ
Insertion loss = 1 dB = −20 log10 |S21|
|S21| = 10−1/20 = 0.89
For same insertion loss between ports (1) and (2), (2) and (3), and (3) and (1)
|S21| = |S32| = |S13| = 0.89
The isolation between ports is
30 dB = −20 log10 |S31|
|S31| = 10−1.5 = 0.032
= |S23| = |S12|
Since, VSWR (S) = 1.5, then reflection coefficient |S11|, |S22| and |S33|
S −1 1.5 − 1
= Γ = = = 0.2 = S11 = S22 = S33
S +1 1.5 + 1
By replacing reference planes, S-matrix of circulator is
LM0.200 0.032 0.890 OP
[S] = MM0.890 0.200 0.032P .
P
MN0.032 0.890 0.200PQ
3.11 IMPEDANCE MATCHING DEVICES
A microwave circuit involves many types of devices and transmission line each having its own
characteristics and impedance. When two lines having different characteristic impedances are to
be connected, then some device or line has to be introduced in between them to match the
impedances on either side. Also, when a line has to be connected to a load impedance having
different value of Zo, then also matching is required for the purpose of maximum power transfer.
There are various methods/devices available for matching a mismatched load or line to another
line. Most commonly used impedance matching devices for waveguide transmission are
1. Waveguide irises or windows.
2. Tuning screws.
Ø Impedance matching between two different waveguide component is required for

purpose of maximum power transfer.
Ø Impedance matching between two mismatched impedances, can be accomplished by
inserting reactive elements such as irises and tuning screws.
3.11.1 Waveguide Irises or Windows (UPTU 2006)

In any waveguide system, when there is a mismatch, there will be reflections. Waveguide irises,
also known as windows, apertures or diaphragms, are used to provide impedance matching in the
waveguides in the same way as we used stubs in case of transmission lines. When a flat thin metal
obstacle partially fills the waveguide, it offers reactance across the rectangular waveguide at the
point of insertion. Thus, we have three types of irises or windows
1. Capacitive iris. 2. Inductive iris. 3. Resonant iris.
Ø Irises are also sometimes called windows, diaphragms or apertures.

Ø Waveguide iris is an arrangement where a flat thin metal obstacle partially fills the
waveguide.
1. Capacitive Irises: Figure 3.46 shows capacitive iris where two thin metallic plates are
introduced inside the waveguide so that they are parallel to the broader dimensions of the
waveguide.
Th in m eta l
p la tes
b
C
b
a
(a ) Fron t vie w (b ) To p view (c) E q uivalen t circu it
Fig. 3.46. Capacitive iris.

These irises or windows produce the effect of a capacitive reactance shunted across the
waveguide at that point. It is obvious that the potential which earlier had existed between
top and bottom walls of waveguide now exists between surfaces that are closer. This
results in an increased capacitance at that point. Capacitive irises are not used extensively
because of the danger of voltage breakdown which ultimately places a limit on the power
that can be transmitted through the waveguide.
2. Inductive Irises: Figure 3.47 shows inductive iris where two thin metallic plates are
introduced inside the waveguide so that they are parallel to the side walls of the waveguide.
These irises or windows introduce an inductive reactance across the waveguide at the
point at which diaphragms are placed.
Th in m eta l
p la tes
L
b
b
a
(a ) Fro n t vie w (b ) To p view (c) E q uivalen t circu it
Fig. 3.47. Inductive iris.

The iris is placed in a position where the magnetic field is strong (or where electric field
is relatively weak). Since the plane of polarization of electric field is parallel to the plane
of iris, the current flow due to iris causes a magnetic field to be set up. Energy storage
of magnetic field takes place and there is an increase in inductance at that point of the
waveguide.
3. Resonant Irises: If inductive and capacitive irises are combined suitable (correctly shaped
and positioned). Then inductive and capacitive reactances introduced will be equal (resonant
condition) and iris becomes a parallel resonant circuit as shown in Fig. 3.48. Quality factor
C a pacitive
W ind o w
b In du ctive L C
(a ) Fro n t vie w (b ) To p view (c) E q uivalen t circu it
Fig. 3.48. Parallel resonant iris.

of resonator decreases with increase in aperture size and Q of the order of 10 can be
achieved for a small aperture size. For the dominant mode, parallel resonant iris presents
a high impedance and the shunting effect for this mode will be negligible. Other modes
are completely attenuated and the parallel resonant iris acts as both bandpass filter and
mode filter.
The series resonant iris is a metal ring supported by lossless dielectric as shown in
Fig. 3.49.
M eta l p late
w ith w in do w
L ossless
b d ie lectric L
sup po rt
C
a
(a ) (b )
Fig. 3.49. Series resonant iris.

The inductance and capacitance introduced by these irises will have a fixed value once
they are manufactured. Thus, irises are usually employed only to correct a permanent
mismatching rather than to provide adjustable matching.
Ø Irises are used to provide impedance waveguides in the same way as we used stubs
in case of transmission line.
Ø Conducting diaphragms extending in a waveguide from side walls constitute an
inductive window or iris.
Ø Conducting diaphragms extending into the waveguide from top and bottom walls
constitute a capacitive window.
3.11.2 Tuning Screws

Irises or windows are usually used only to correct a permanent mismatch. For the adjustable
matching tuning screws are used. A tuning screws is a metal rod or probe inserted into a rectangular
waveguide through the broad wall. This probe provides a reactance across the guide which can
be varied from capacitive to inductive by varying the depth of penetration as shown in Fig. 3.50.
If the screw extends only a short distance (< λg /4) into the waveguide, it behaves capacitively as
shown in Fig. 3.50 (a), when the depth of screw is equal to λ g /4, the screw
acts as a series resonant circuit as shown in Fig. 3.50 (b). If depth of screw is more than λg/4
(> λg /4), the screw behaves inductively as shown in Fig. 3.50 (c) and this inductive reactance
decreases when the screw is moved further away from the centre of the waveguide. The variation
of reactance with respect to tuning screw depth is shown in Fig. 3.51.
l
< C a pacitive rea cta nce
4
(a )
l
4 S e rie s reso na nt circuit
(b )
l In du ctive rea cta n ce

>
4
(c)
Fig. 3.50. Waveguide tuning screws with equivalent circuit.
S e rie s reso na nce
C a pacitive In du ctive
λg
d< → capacitive reactance
4
λg
R e actan ce
d= → series resonance
4
λg
d> → inductive reactance
4
lg h
4
Fig. 3.51. Graph of reactance versus depth ‘d’ of screw.
The above tuning screw can be slided along the axis of the waveguide through a narrow
longitudinal slot, centred in the broad wall as shown in Fig. 3.52.
Tu ning scre w
S lid in g ca rria ge
Fig. 3.52. Single slide screw tuner.

This helps varying both the penetration and the position of tuning screw along a longitudinal
distance of half guide wavelength for better matching with ease. Such devices are called slide screw
tuners.
Practically, the tunable range of reactance for single screw tuner is small so, sometimes a
triple screw tuner as shown in Fig. 3.53, is used.
3 lg /8 3 lg /8
Fig. 3.53. Triple screw tuner.

The separation between the screws is 3λg /8. It is equivalent to a triple stub tuner.
Ø Windows or irises have disadvantage that they are not variable or adjustable. The
solution for this problem is tuning screw.
Ø Tuning screw extending into the waveguide from one of the broad wall provides
lumped capacitive/inductive reactance at that point.
3.12 MICROWAVE ATTENUATORS (UPTU 2006)
Attenuators are passive devices used to control power levels in microwave system by partially
absorbing the transmitted microwave signal. Microwave attenuators are designed using resistive
films (dielectric glass slab coated with aquadag). Microwave attenuators can be classified as
1. Fixed attenuators.
2. Variable attenuators.
3.12.1 Fixed Attenuators

Fixed attenuators are used where fixed amount of attenuation is to be provided. The fixed type
attenuator is shown in Fig. 3.54. The fixed type attenuator consists of a dissipative element (pad)
placed in a section of waveguide with its plane parallel to the electric field and at the position
where the electric field of the dominant TE10 mode is maximum. When a dominant TE10 mode
enters the waveguide attenuator, the electric field tangential to the pad causes a dissipative current
and is thus absorbed. The amount of microwave W a ve g uid e

power thus dissipated or the attenuation
produced depends upon the strength of electric lg /4 D issipa tive
pa d
field, i.e., location of the pad within the
waveguide, area of the pad intercepted by the
electric field and the frequency.
The dissipating element is generally in (E n d view ) (S ide vie w)
the form of card or pad. One class of such pad Fig. 3.54. Fixed attenuator.
consist of thin metallic films coated on a glass
plate. A baked-on metallic film combining platinum and palladium and also an evaporated film of
chromium or nichrome with a protective film of magnesium fluoride have been satisfactorily used.
The based material glass, is chosen because it does not react with the film, its surface is smooth,
and it can maintain its original shape at the high temperatures. The card or pad is held parallel
to the waveguide walls with the help of metal rods. To reduce the reflections, the rods are held
normal to the electric field and spaced quarter wavelength apart and the ends of the pad are
tapered.
3.12.2 Variable Attenuators

Attenuators may be made variable either by changing the pad location or the pad area intercepted
by the propagating electric field. Variable attenuators provide continuous or stepwise variable
attenuation. The most commonly variable attenuators are
1. Movable vane attenuator.
2. Flap attenuator.
3. Rotary wave precision attenuator.
1. Movable Vane Attenuator: The movable vane attenuator consists of a glass van with
a coating of aquadag or carbon similar to a fixed attenuator as shown in Fig. 3.55. The
movable vane (dielectric pad) may be made movable along the breadth of the waveguide
by supporting it with two dielectric rods separated by an odd multiple of quarter guide
M ova ble va ne
D ie le ctric
ro ds
(a ) Stru cture (b ) M axim u m atten u ato r (c) M in im u m atten ua to r
Fig. 3.55. Movable vane attenuator.

wavelength and perpendicular to electric field. When the vane is at the centre, as shown
in Fig. 3.55 (b), then the attenuation is maximum (since the electric field is concentrated
at the centre of TE10 mode). When vane is moved towards one side-wall, as shown in
Fig. 3.55 (c), the attenuation goes on decreasing thereby controlling the microwave power
coming out of the other port.
2. Flap Attenuator: The flap attenuator is shown in Fig. 3.56. The flap attenuator is also
a variable attenuator. Flap attenuator consist of a semi-circular flap (dielectric disc) inserted
into the longitudinal slot cut at the centre of the top wall of rectangular waveguide.
H in g ed a rm
L ossy L on gitud in al
d ie lectric slo t
flap
M axim u m atten u ation M in im um atten ua tion
Fig. 3.56. Flap attenuator.

When the flap is completely inside the slot, then the attenuation is maximum and when
it is completely outside the slot, the attenuation is zero. The degree of attenuation is
determined by the depth of insertion of the flap. A maximum of 90 dB attenuation is
possible with this attenuator with a VSWR of 1.05. The dielectric flap can be properly
shaped according to convenience to get a linear variation of attenuation with depth of
insertion.
3. Rotary Wave Precision Attenuator: A rotary wave precision attenuator consists of a
rectangular to circular transition (RCT), a piece of circular waveguide (CW) and a circular-
to-rectangular transition (CRT) as shown in Fig. 3.57. Resistive (dielectric) cards Ra, Rb
and Rc are placed inside these section as shown. The centre circular section containing
the resistive card Rb can be precisely rotated by 360° with respect to the two fixed
resistive cards.
Rc CRT
TE 1 0
Rb
TE 11
Ra
CW
RCT
TE 1 0
Fig. 3.57. Rotary wave precision attenuator.

The induced current on the resistive card Rb due to the incident signal is dissipated as heat
producing attenuation of transmitted signal. TE10 mode is RCT is converted into TE11 in
circular waveguide. The resistive cards Ra and Rc are kept perpendicular to the electric
field of TE10 mode so that it does not absorb the energy. But any component parallel to
its plane will be readily absorbed. Hence, pure TE11 mode is excited in circular waveguide
section.
If the resistive card in the centre section is kept at an angle θ relative to the E-field direction
of the TE11 mode, the component E cos θ parallel to the card get absorbed while the component
E sin θ is transmitted without attenuation. This component finally comes out as E sin2θ as shown
in Fig. 3.58.
E sin q E
E 2
E sin q
E sin q
E co s q
q
q
Ra Rc
Rb
(a ) (b ) (c)
Fig. 3.58. Field components of electric field in the three sections RCT, CW and CRT.
E 1
Since, Attenuation (α) = 2
=
E sin θ sin 2 θ
1
= ...(3.96)
S 21
Thus, the attenuation is a function of “θ” only. As we know that attenuator is a reciprocal
device, thus
|S21| = |S12| ...(3.97)
Since the VSWR is very close to 1 for these attenuations,
S11 = S22 = 0 ...(3.98)
The S-matrix of an ideal precision attenuator is given by
LM 0 sin 2θ OP
[S] = ...(3.99)
MNsin θ
2
0 PQ
Ø Attenuators are used to control the signal power at various points.
Ø Attenuators are passive devices employing resistive films.
Ø Attenuators may be fixed or variable.
3.12.3 Disadvantages of Flap Attenuator (UPTU 2004)

The arrangement of variable flap attenuators is such that, a slot is made in the waveguide. The
formation of slot is at the maximum electric field in the waveguide and then resistive vane is
inserted into this slot. Such insertion will result in attenuation. The disadvantages of variable flap
attenuator are
(i) To avoid the reflections the resistive vane is taken as curved, but this unable to give exact
results.
(ii) Flap attenuator needs to be calibrated against a standard as it is not a precision attenuator.
A rotary vane attenuator is used to overcome the above disadvantages of flap attenuator. The
rotary attenuator gives the attenuation which is independent of frequency. It consists of three
sections, each section have a resistive card placed at centre which is of rotary nature. A resistive
rotary vane attenuation provides precision attenuation with an accuracy of ± 2% of the indicated
attenuation.
Actual views of fixed and variable attenuator are shown in Fig. 3.59.
Fix attenuator Variable attenuator Variable attenuator

Fig. 3.59. Photograph of various attenuators.
3.13 PHASE SHIFTERS
Microwave phase shifter produces an adjustable change in the phase angle of the wave transmitted
through it. Ideally, it should be perfectly matched to the input and output lines, and should produce
zero attenuation. In phase shifter, when a wave propagates in waveguide, a phase difference
occurs between any two points along its path. Usually, it is constant and is determined by the
velocity of propagation and hence a function of medium parameters. The phase difference between
two points, l distance apart is given as
∆φ = φ2 − φ1 = βl ...(3.100)
2π
where, β = is propagation constant
λ
2π
∆φ = ⋅l ...(3.101)
λ
The phase difference ∆φ may be varied by varying the velocity of propagation and this is the
principle of all phase shifters. In phase shifter, a differential phase change is produced due to the
change of wave velocity through the dielectric slab compared to that through an empty waveguide.
The most commonly used phase shifters are
1. Precision rotary phase shifter.
2. Dielectric phase shifter.
3.13.1 Precision Rotary Phase Shifter

A precision phase shifter can be designed as a rotary type as shown in Fig. 3.60. It is similar in
construction to rotary wave precision attenuator except that the central resistive card is replaced
by a half-wave plate and the two outer resistive cards are replaced by quarter wave plates.
The quarter wave plate converts linearly polarized TE11 mode into a circularly polarized mode
and vice versa. A slap of dielectric material is used for construction of a quarter wave plate. The
propagation constant β1, for the case, when the wave is polarized parallel to the plate is greater
than the propagation constant β2 for the case when the TE11 wave is polarized perpendicular to
the plate, and also the length of quarter wave plate l is so adjusted that we get a differential phase
change (β1 − β2)l = 90°. The ends of the dielectric slab are tapered to reduce reflections to
negligible value. The half wave plate is similar in construction except that its length is increased
to produce a differential phase change of 180°.
R o ta ting sectio n
l/4 p la te l/2 p la te l/4 p la te

(a )
X
D ie le ctric
sla b
( b1 – b2 ) l = p/2
(b )
Fig. 3.60. Precision rotary phase shifter.
In this type of phase shifter, the quarter wave plates are oriented at an angle of 45° relative
to the broad wall of the rectangular waveguide. The rotation of half wave plate through an angle
changes the phase of the transmitted wave by an amount equal to 2θ. This simple dependence
of phase change on a mechanical rotation is the main advantage of the rotary phase shifter.
3.13.2 Dielectric Phase Shifter L ow -loss

d ielectric
The dielectric phase shifter consists of a rectangular
waveguide loaded with a dielectric slab of thickness t,
height h and dielectric constant ∈ in such a way that
dimension h is parallel to the electric field of the N o n-ra diatin g
dominant TE10 mode as shown in Fig. 3.61. The slo ts
dielectric inserted reduces the velocity of propagation

of microwaves which results in an increased electrical
path and hence produces a phase delay. Dielectric
Fig. 3.61 (a) Dielectric phase shifter.
phase shifter as shown in Fig. 3.61(a) is a variable phase shifter that employs a change in
effective dielectric constant of the insulating region within the guide. The configuration is the same
as the flap type variable attenuator except that the resistance card is replaced by a low-loss
dielectric.
3.13.3 Squeeze Type Phase Shifter

Another type of phase shifter is shown in Fig. 3.61(b). This type of phase shifter is known as
squeeze type phase shifter. Applying mechanical pressure as shown in Fig. 3.61(a) will change the
width of the waveguide and so effective guide wavelength will be changed.
M ech an ical
p ressure
N o n-ra diatin g M ech an ical

slo ts p ressure
Fig. 3.61 (b) Squeeze type waveguide phase shifter.
The broad wall of the waveguide has a non-radiating slot. Increase in guide wavelength causes
decrease in phase delay through the waveguide section.
Ø Microwave phase shifter produces an adjustable change in phase angle of the wave
transmitted through it.
Ø Change in dielectric constant or dimensions of the waveguide lead to change in
guide wavelength or in turn phase insertion in a waveguide.
Ø Rotary waveguide phase shifter introduces required phase precisely and so is used
as reference in calibration in microwave laboratories.
3.14 MATCHED LOADS (UPTU 2009)
A matched load or termination absorbs the entire power incident on it without any reflection or
radiation. In this respect it is equivalent to an absolutely black body in microwave range. On other
hand, a microwave line terminated in a match load does not have any reflection and hence is
equivalent to termination the line with its characteristic impedance. A tapered lossy dielectric is
placed at the end of a shorted line as shown in Fig. 3.62 to form a matched load or termination.
The length of the dielectric is kept about two guide wavelengths at the lowest frequency of
operation for effective absorption of power. The tapered section is about half-wavelength as shown
in Fig. 3.62. The taper may be single or double as shown in Fig. 3.62 (a) and (b) respectively.
To increase power absorption, a dielectric glass slab coated with either carbon or aquadag or
aquadag coated sand is used as lossy material. High power terminations use outer cooling fins for
heat dissipation.
(a )
lg
—–
2
2 lg
(b )
Fig. 3.62. Matched terminations (a) Single taper (b) Double taper.
Practical VSWR of these loads is in the range of 1.02 to 1.05 over a frequency bandwidth
of the order of 20 to 30% of the centre frequency. A matched load or termination is a single port
device having its ideal parameters, Zin = Z0 = 50 Ω or 75 Ω, reflection coefficient = 0 and
VSWR = 1.
Actual photographs of matched load are shown in Fig. 3.63.
Fig. 3.63. Photographs of matched load.
Example 3.14. A waveguide matched load having VSWR of 1.3 is used to dissipate
200 watts of power. Find the reflected power.
Solution. Given
VSWR = 1.3
Incident power = 200 watts
The reflection coefficient is given as

VSWR − 1
|Γ| =
VSWR + 1
. −1
13 0.2
= =
. +1
13 2.3
= 0.087
The reflected power is given as
Pr = |Γ|2 Pi
Pr = (0.087)2 × 200
Pr = 1.51 W.
Example 3.15. The return loss for a load is 18 dB. Calculate the reflection coefficient
and the VSWR with the load connected.
Solution. Return loss (LR) is
LR = −20 log10 |Γ| [in dB]
18 = −20 log10 |Γ|
18
log10 |Γ| = − = − 0.9
20
|Γ| = 10−0.9
Reflection coefficent (Γ) = 0.126
and VSWR is given as
1 +|Γ|
VSWR =
1 −|Γ|
1 + 0126
.
VSWR =
1 − 0126
.
1126
.
VSWR =
0.875
VSWR = 1.29
VSWR and reflection coefficient are 1.29 and 0.126 respectively.
3.15 WAVEGUIDE COUPLING
A waveguide operates differentially from an ordinary transmission line. Therefore, special devices
must be used to put energy into a waveguide at one end and remove it from the other end. Putting
energy or removing it from waveguide is known as coupling of microwave energy. The two
commonly used techniques for coupling microwave signal to the waveguide are
1. Coupling probes.
2. Coupling loops.
Both probe and loop coupling can be used to launch a particular mode in a waveguide.
The probes set up an electric field inside the waveguide, while loops set up a magnetic field inside
the waveguide. But it should always be noted that the two fields are inseparable and in case of
both probe and loop coupling both an electric as well as a magnetic field will be set-up.
3.15.1 Coupling Probes

A coupling probe is, an extended inner conductor C o axia l
of a coaxial cable, inserted into the waveguide is cab le
most common method of excitation. When a small
probe is inserted into a waveguide and supplied
with microwave energy, it acts as a quarter-wave
antenna, current flows in the probe and sets up
b
an E-field such as the one shown in Fig. 3.64.
The E-lines detech themselves from the probe
when the probe is located at the point of highest W a ve gu id e E lectric fie ld
efficiency, the E-lines set-up an E-field of Fig. 3.64. Coupling probe.
considerable intensity.
The most efficient place to locate the probe is in the centre of the a wall, parallel to
the b wall and one quarter-wavelength from the shorted end of the waveguide, as shown in
Fig. 3.65 (a) and (b). This is the point at which the E-field is maximum in the dominant TE10 mode.
Therefore, energy transfer (coupling) is maximum at this point. Note that the quarter-wavelength
spacing is at the frequency required to propagate the dominant TE10 mode.
l
4
id e
egu
la r wav
ta n gu
Rec
b
b
(a ) (b )
Fig. 3.65. Coupling probe in rectangular waveguide.

In many applications a lesser degree of energy transfer, called loose coupling, is desirable.
The amount of energy transfer can be reduced by decreasing the length of the probe, by moving
it out of the centre of the E-field or by shielding it. Where the degree of coupling must be varied
frequently the probe is made retractable so the length can be easily changed.
The size and shape of the probe determine its frequency, bandwidth and power-handling capability.
As the diameter of probe increases, the bandwidth increases. A probe similar in shape to a door
knob is capable of handling much higher power and a larger bandwidth than a conventional probe.
The greater power-handling capability is directly related to the increased surface area. Two examples
of broad-bandwidth probes are shown in Fig. 3.66. Removal of energy from a waveguide is simply
a reversal of the injection process using the same type of probe.
L arg e diam eter L arg e diam eter

p rob e
S m a ll diam eter
L ow p o w er H ig h po w e r
Fig. 3.66. Broad bandwidth probes.
Actual view of coupling probes are shown in Fig. 3.67.
Fig. 3.67. Actual view of coupling probe.
Ø Coupling probe is used for coupling microwave signal to waveguide.

Ø Coupling probe is an extended inner conductor of a coaxial cable, inserted into the
waveguide.
3.15.2 Coupling Loops

Another way of injecting energy into a waveguide is by setting up H-field in the waveguide. This
is accomplished by inserting a small loop as shown in Fig. 3.68, which carries a high current into
the waveguide.
C o up ling
C o axia l lin e
b
E n erg y
(a ) C o up ling lo op (b ) E q uiva le n t circuit
C o axia l
cab le
L oo p
(c) C o up ling lo o p insid e w ave gu id e

Fig. 3.68. Coupling loop.
A magnetic field builds up around the loop and expands to fit the waveguide, as shown in
Fig. 3.69. If the frequency of current in the loop is within the bandwidth of the waveguide, energy
will be transferred to the waveguide.
H lin es
L oo p
Fig. 3.69. Loop coupling in rectangular waveguide.

For the most efficient coupling to the waveguide the loop is inserted at one of several points
where the magnetic field will be greatest strength. Four of those points are shown in Fig. 3.70.
W a ve gu id e
H -field
P o ssib le locatio n
fo r loo p
Fig. 3.70. Possible location for loop coupling.

When less efficient coupling is desired loop may be rotated or moved until it encircles a
smaller number of H-lines. When the diameter of loop is increased, its power handling capability
also increases. The bandwidth can be increased by increasing the size of the wire used to make
the loop. When a loop is introduced into a waveguide in which a H-field is present a current is
induced in the loop. When this condition exists energy is removed from the waveguide.
Mechanical, as well as electrical considerations have to
be taken into account while making a choice of coupling
probe or loop. The important factors to be considered are
(i) Ease of adjusting the coupling.
(ii) Constancy of coupling as mechanical changes
are made.
(iii) Prevention of interference with the electron
stream.
(iv) Matching. Fig. 3.71. Actual view of coupling
Actual view of coupling loop is shown in Fig. 3.71. loop.
Ø The loop coupling is basically magnetic, so the loop must be placed at or near the
point of maximum magnetic field strength.
3.16 WAVEGUIDE TRANSITIONS
The transformation from one form or shape of a transmission medium to another may be achieved
by the transitions. In the waveguide system the most commonly used transitions are
1. Rectangular to circular waveguide transitions.
2. Coaxial to waveguide transitions.
3.16.1 Rectangular to Circular Waveguide Transitions

Rectangular waveguide is connected to circular waveguide, or vice versa, for this purpose rectangular
to circular waveguide transition is used. This type of transition is used to convert the polarization
of wave from rectangular to circular or vice versa. The dominant mode in rectangular and circular
waveguide are TE10 and TE11 respectively.
This transition section is used to convert the dominant TE10 mode in the rectangular waveguide
to TE11 dominant mode in circular waveguide and vice versa as shown in Fig. 3.72. The minimum
length of the transition should be quarter wavelength to avoid abrupt dimensional changes and
generation of higher order modes.
R e cta ng ular w aveg uide
(TE 1 0 m o de )
C ircu la r w a ve gu id e
(TE 11 m od e)
³ 2 lg
Fig. 3.72. Rectangular to circular waveguide transition.
3.16.2 Coaxial to Waveguide Transitions

When signals transfer from coaxial line to
waveguide, then coaxial to waveguide transitions C o axia l line
are used. Coaxial to waveguide transition is shown
in Fig. 3.73. The dominant mode of coaxial line
d
and rectangular waveguide are TEM and TE10
mode respectively. The centre conductor of the
S h ort
coaxial line is connected to the lower wall of the
waveguide with its outer conductor terminating
b E
on the wall.
The centre conductor penetrates into the
W a ve g uide
waveguide and terminates on the opposite wall. l
le ng th
As the TEM mode enters the waveguide, E-field
P ro be
lines follow along the conducting wall of the guide.
Fig. 3.73. Coaxial to waveguide transition.
Also magnetic field lines are in same direction
and orientation as that of TE10 mode.
Actual views of rectangular to circular transitions are shown in Fig. 3.74 and Fig. 3.75 shows
the actual view of coaxial to rectangular waveguide transition.
Fig. 3.74. Photographs of rectangular to circular transition.
Fig. 3.75. Photographs of coaxial to rectangular transition.
3.17 WAVEGUIDE DISCONTINUITIES (UPTU 2006)
By either necessity or design, microwave networks often consists of transmission lines with various
types of transmission line discontinuities. In some cases discontinuities are an unavoidable result
of mechanical or electrical transitions from one medium to another (junction between two waveguide
or coaxial to microstrip transition) and the discountinuity effect is unwanted but may be significant
enough to current characterization. In other cases discontinuities may be deliberately introduced
into the circuit to perform a certain electrical function (e.g., reactive diaphragms in waveguide or
stubs in microstrip line for matching or filter circuits). In any event, a transmission line discontinuity
can be represented as an equivalent circuit at some point on the transmission line. Depending on
the type of discontinuity, the equivalent circuit may be simple shunt or series element across the
line and the discontinuity. In some cases the equivalent circuit involves a shift in phase reference
planes on the transmission lines. Once the equivalent circuit of a given discontinuity is known, its
effect can be incorporated into the analysis or design of network.
Figure 3.76 shows some common waveguide discontinuities and their equivalent circuits.
S ym m e trica l A sym m e trica l

in d uctive in d uctive E q uiva le nt circuit
d ia ph rag m d ia ph rag m
(a )
S ym m e trica l A sym m e trica l E q uiva le nt circuit

capa citive capa citive
d ia ph rag m d ia ph rag m
(b )
L C
R e cta ng ular C ircu la r

E q uiva le nt circuit
re so na n t re so na n t
iris iris
(c)
S e rie s reso na nt iris E q uiva le nt circuit

(d )
Z01 Z 02
C h an ge in h eigh t
(e )
Z01 Z02
C h an ge in w idth
(f)
Fig. 3.76. Discontinuities in waveguide.
As shown in Fig. 3.76 (a)–(d), the metallic diaphragms, (or irises) can be placed in cross-
section of a waveguide to get equivalent shunt inductance, capacitance, or a resonant combination.
Similar effect occur with step changes in the height or width of the waveguide, as shown in
Fig. 3.76 (e) and ( f ). Similar discontinuities can also be made in circular waveguide.
In regions of these discontinuities, changes in the distribution of electromagnetic field occur
in comparison with the distribution of the field of homogeneous lines. The effects of these deviations
on characteristics of circuits can be neglected only in the case when the energy accumulated in
these distributed parts of the line is negligible in comparison with energy transferred by the line.
This is adhered to when the size of discontinuities is negligible in comparison with the waveguide
of the electromagnetic radiation propagating through the circuit.
In the most simple approximation the discontinuities can be characterized by simple LC
circuit. When taking into account ohmic losses, series resistances are introduced into the equivalent
diagram.
Ø Some time discontinuities introduced into the circuit to perform a certain electrical
function like filter circuits, stubs and reactive diaphragms in waveguide.
Ø A waveguide discontinuity can be represented as an equivalent circuit at the point
of discontinuity.
3.18 SLOTTED LINE CARRIAGE
The slotted line is a section of a waveguide with a slot along the centre of the broad wall of
waveguide as shown in Fig. 3.77. A coupling probe moving along the waveguide slot can be used
to detect the standing wave pattern inside the waveguide. Slotted line carriage consists of a slotted
section of waveguide, a movable probe carriage and facility for attaching detecting instruments. For
the dominant mode (TE10) travelling inside the waveguide, the slot does not radiate any power. A
small probe inserted through the slot senses the relative field strength of the standing wave pattern
inside the waveguide. This probe is on a movable carriage plate which moves on the top surface
of the waveguide. The probe is connected to a square law detector so that the output from
the detector is proportional to the square of the input voltage at that position of the probe. As the
position of the probe is moved along the waveguide slot, it gives an output proportional to
the standing wave pattern inside the waveguide. To determine the position of probe, a vernier
scale reading of 0.1 mm least count is attached with the slotted line. Vernier scale reading is used
C o axia l o u tpu t
P ro be
W a ve g uid e
Fig. 3.77. Structure of slotted line carriage.

for determination of locations of voltage standing wave maxima and minima along the line. The
probe should be very thin compared to the wavelength and the depth also should be small enough
to avoid any field distortion.
C rysta l de tecto r
p rob e S lot
P ro be carria ge
Ve rn ie r sca le
Fig. 3.78. Slotted line carriage.

Slotted line is a component of the microwave test bench (described in chapter 4) for precise
measurement of VSWR, wavelength, reflection coefficient, insertion loss, attenuation and impedance.
Photograph of slotted line carriage is shown in Fig. 3.79.
Fig. 3.79. Photograph of slotted line carriage.
3.19 VSWR METER
VSWR meter is a sensitive high gain, high Q, low noise voltage amplifier tunned normally at a
fixed frequency of 1 kHz at which the microwave signal is modulated. This meter used the detected
output from the tunable detector as its input, amplifiers it and produces an output on caliberated
voltmeter. The strength of the signal detected by the detector is adjusted for full scale deflection
in VSWR meter by the variable attenuator. There are three scales on the VSWR meter as shown
in Fig. 3.80. When the VSWR lies between 1 and 4, reading can be taken from the top of VSWR
normal scale. When the VSWR lies between 3 and 10, reading can be taken from the bottom of
1 .4 SW R
1 .6 1 .2
1 .1
1 .8
2 4
5 No
3 6 S W rm a
4 1 .1 1 .0 5 R l
10 1.2 2
3 Ex
¥
4 p 3
5 S Wa n d
1 .5 0 e
1.
3
1 .5 Ex dB R d
0 pa
2
dB nd e
d
P o in te r
Fig. 3.80. VSWR meter scale.

VSWR normal scale. The expanded VSWR scale is graduated from 1 to 1.3 and hence can be
used whenever the VSWR is less than 1.3 for an accurate reading. The dB scale is at the bottom
along with an expanded dB (between 0 to 2 dB) is used for measuring VSWR directly in dBs.
Hence, this meter is useful for measurement of VSWR up to 10. VSWR meter is widely used as
an indicating meter in microwave test bench (described in chapter 4) for measuring various microwave
quantities.
Actual views of VSWR meter are shown in Fig. 3.81
Fig. 3.81. Photographs of VSWR meter.
3.20 WAVE METER
This constitutes the most commonly used type of microwave frequency meters, also called wave
meter. The key element is a cylindrical resonant cavity. A simple structure of commonly used
frequency meters is shown in Fig. 3.82. The size of cylindrical cavity can be varied by an adjustable
plunger which can be moved by a calibrated dial knob assembly. The range of the meter depends
upon the tuning range of cavity. The design of the cavity is such that for a given position of the
plunger the cavity is resonant only at the frequency in the specified range.
Calibrated plunger
Back
chamber
Resonant cavity
Waveguide
Coupling iris
Fig. 3.82. Cavity resonator.

The Q-factor of the cavity is made very high, often as high as 5,000. The cavity is coupled
to the waveguide through an iris in the narrow wall of the waveguide as shown in Fig. 3.82. If
the frequency of the wave passing through the waveguide is different from the resonance frequency
of the cavity, the transmission through the waveguide is not affected. On the other hand, if these
two frequencies coincide a resonant field is set-up inside the cavity and because of the waveguide
is attenuated (roughly by 1 to 3 dB). If there is an indicating instrument (standing wave indicator
or the power meter) connected such that the frequency meter is in between the source and the
indicator, the indicating will show a dip. Since the movement of the cavity plunger is calibrated
and after that signal frequency can be read.
Types of Frequency Meter

There are two types of frequency meter (wave meter). They are:
1. Transmission type frequency meter
2. Absorbed type or reactive type frequency meter.
3.20.1 Transmission Type Frequency Meter (Wave Meter)

Transmission type wave meter pass only the signal frequency which is the tuning frequency of the
cavity. Figure 3.83 shows transmission type wave meter arrangement maximum energy reaches
the load only when the cavity is tunned to its resonant frequency. The transmission wave meter
is coupled via a proble or an E-plane tee to the main guide or line and has an output coupling
loop with a detector. As stated above, the indicator connected to the detector probe will show
maximum output at resonant frequency, this frequency of oscillation may be read off from the
wave meter.
Generator Cavity Load
Fig. 3.83. Transmission type wave meter arrangement.

3.20.2 Absorption Type Frequency Meter (Wave Meter)

Absorption type wave meter is widely used in laboratories. The cavity axis is placed perpendicular
to the broad wall of the waveguide and coupled by means of a hole in the narrow wall as shown
in Fig. 3.84. A block of absorbing material (polytron) placed at the back of the tuning plunger
prevents oscillation on top of it. Thus the cavity resonates at different frequencies for different
plunger position. The tuning can be calibrated in terms of frequency by known frequency input
signal and observing the dip in the display unit connected at the output side of waveguide. Since
the power is absorbed in the wave meter of resonance this is called absorption type wave meter.
C a vity
G en e rato r b L oa d
Fig. 3.84. Absorption type wave meter arrangement.
Ø Microwave frequency meters are also known as wave meters.

Ø There are two type of frequency meter, one is transmission type and other is
absorption type.
Ø Absorption type wave meter is widely used in laboratories.
3.21 SUMMARY OF TRANSMISSION LINE COMPONENTS
Transmission line components such as waveguide tee, hybrid tee, magic ring, directional coupler,
isolator, circulator, phase shifter, and attenuator etc, plays an important role in microwave network.
Table 3.2 gives function of various transmission line components.
Table 3.2. Transmission line components.
S.No. Component type Function

1. Transmission line section: waveguide, Transfer of RF power along a specified path.
strip line, microstrip line etc.
2. Divider: Waveguide tee Splitting of power from a single to multiple
channels and combining of power from several to
one channel.
3. Magic tee Combination of E and H-plane tee. E-arm works

as difference (∆) arm and H-arm works as sum
arm (∑).
4. Directional coupler Can sample a small amount of microwave power

for measurement purpose.
5. Magic ring When power is fed into port (1) it splits equally
into ports (2) and (4) and nothing enters in
port (3).
6. Circulator Flow the microwave energy from one port to

next port in given direction.
7. Isolator Provides minimum attenuation in one direction

and very high attenuation in the opposite direction.
8. Attenuator Used to control power level in microwave system

by partially absorbing the transmitted microwave signal.
9. Phase shifter Change in phase of the transmitting signal.
10. Matching devices Matching of transmission line sections to obtain

specified reflection coefficient.
11. Balance-to-unbalance devices Transfer from asymmetrical to symmetrical

component and vice versa.
K EYWORDS
• Attenuator: Microwave attenuators used for attenuating microwave signal. Both fixed and variable
are available.
• Cavity resonator: An enclosure made up of conducting walls and capable of acting like a
resonant circuit at microwave frequencies. A cavity resonator has at least one aperture for coupling
electromagnetic energy into and out of cavity.
• Circulator: It is a multiport junction in which microwave energy can flow from one port to next
port in a given direction.
• Coupling loop: Used for coupling microwave energy to a waveguide or a cavity resonator.
Coupling loops couple primarily to a magnetic field.
• Coupling probe: Use for coupling microwave energy to a waveguide or a cavity resonator.
Coupling probes couple primarily to an electric field.
• Directional couple: A 4-port network of waveguide having complete isolation between two
known pairs of ports and no isolation between any other pair of ports. It is used for measurement
of microwave power and also standing wave ratio.
• E-plane tee: 3 port tee; If the input is fed into port (3), the wave will split equally into port (1)
and port (2) in phase and in same magnitude.
• H-plane tee: 3 port Tee; If the input is fed into port (3), the wave will split equally into port (1)
and port (2) and out of phase.
• Hybrid tee: A junction formed by a combination of E-plane and H-plane tee.

• Isolator: Used to provide isolation at microwave frequencies.
• Magic tee: A 4-port junction performing the same function as a hybrid tee.
• Phase shifter: A device that produces an adjustable change in phase angle of the microwave
signal passing through it.
• Rat-race (magic ring): Four port device, in the form of ring. When power is fed into port (1),
it splits equally (in clockwise and anti-clockwise direction) into ports (2) and (4) and nothing enters
port (3).
• Reflectometer: A device built around directional coupler and used for making reflection
measurements.
• Rotating joint: It is used as an interface between the transmission medium such as a waveguide
and a moving load such as the horn-fed paraboloid reflector antenna of a tracking radar.
• Tuning post: A cylindrical post inserted from broad side of the waveguide for impedance matching.
• Tuning screw: Similar to a tuning post and used for impedance matching.
• Waveguide flange: Used to couple sections of waveguides and waveguide components.
• Waveguide junction: Used in waveguide system where it is desired to combine two or more
signals into one or split a signal into two or more components.
• Waveguide window: Also known as diaphragms or apertures or Irises and used for providing
impedance matching in the waveguides in the some way as we use stubs in case of transmission
lines.
• Wave meter: Basically a tunable cavity resonator used for measurement of wavelength.
4
1. What is magic tee? Why it is called so? Explain the characteristics of the tee considering various
input/output conditions. (UPTU 2004)
2. Derive S parameter of hybrid tee if all the tee are matched and power incident from port (3) only.
(MDU 2011; UPTU 2007)
3. What is hybrid ring? Describe the physical structure and operation of a series connected waveguide
hybrid ring. Why it is called rat-race? (MDU 2007; UPTU 2004)
4. Compare hybrid tee with hybrid ring. Give two applications of hybrid tee. (UPTU 2006)
5. Write a short note on waveguide corner and bends. With support of figures explain the waveguide
corners and bends. (UPTU 2007)
6. Explain the construction and working of directional coupler. Under what conditions does the
coupler give maximum directivity? (MDU 200; UPTU 2004)
7. Define coupling factor and directivity of directional coupler. Justify the following statement: Directivity
of a two-holes directional coupler is a sensitive function of frequency. (UPTU 2005)
8. What are the disadvantages of a variable flap attenuator? How are they overcome in rotary vane
attenuator? (UPTU 2004)
9. What is a precision rotary attenuator? Show that attenuator is given in decibel by A = 40 log sin θ,
where θ is the angle centre resistive card makes with the direction of the electric field in circular
guide. (UPTU 2005)
Microwave Engineering
10. Discuss various types of waveguide attenuators. Specify the special features of cut-off attenuators.
(UPTU 2006)
11. Explain the working and application of two types of waveguide discontinuity. (UPTU 2006)
12. What is circulator? How can a four port circulator be realized using ttwo magic tees and gyrator?
(MDU 2010; UPTU 2004)
13. Explain the working of four port circulator. Using the S·matrix of 3 port circulator, calculate various
parameters if insertion loss = 1.5 dB, isolation = 35 dB and VSWR = 1.3. (UPTU 2006)
14. Explain the working of mult i-hole directional coupler if power incidental from input port is 25 W,
at output port is 15 W, coupled port is 5 W and at backward port is 1 W. Find directivity and
coupling coefficient to the coupler. (UPTU 2008, 2007)
15. Give two examples of reciprocal devices and explain the working of any of them. (UPTU 2009)
16. A three port circulator has an insertion loss of 1 dB, isolation 30 dB and VSWR = 1.5. Find the
S-matrics. (UPTU 2009)
17. With the help of diagram, explain the working of magic tee. Discuss any of its two applications.
(MDU 2010; UPTU 2009)
18. What are scattering parameters? How they can be important at microwave frequencies? Discuss
its properties. (UPTU 2009)
19. With figure discuss the working of matched and short terminations. (UPTU 2009)
20 . Explain the operating principle of isolator and discuss its working with relevant diagram.
(MDU 2009; UPTU 2008)
21. Derive the S-matrix of [-plane tee when power is fed from auxiliary port. Consider other ports
in the matched condition. (MDU 2007; UPTU 2008)
22. What are ferrites? Explain the action of isolator using ferrites . Mention its typical applications?
(MDU 2009, 2007)
BJ ECTIVE TYPE UESTIONS

1. Microwave components used to connect branch waveguide to the main waveguide or transmission
line are known as
(a) waveguide tees (b) directional couplers
(c) isolator (d) ports
2. Branch waveguide is connected in series with the main waveguide by
(a) an E-plane tee (b) a H-plane tee
(c) a magic tee (d) None of these
3 . In a shunt tee, the axis of the side arm is in
(a) the plane of E-field o f the main waveguide
(b) the plane of H-field of the main waveguide
(c) the plane normal to the H-field of the main waveguide
(d) the plane normal to the E-field and H-field of the main waveguide
4. Magic tee is nothing but
(a) a modification of [ -plane tee
(b) a modification of H-plane tee
(c) a combination of E-plane and H-plane tees
(d) two E-plane tees connected in parallel
5. In a waveguide tee, the signals entering the two side ports are in phase and have power of P1
and P2. If it is an H-plane tee, then the power level of the signal at the exit port will be
(a) P1P2 (b) P1 − P2
(c) P1 + P2 (d) P1 / P2
6. If in question 5, the waveguide tee is an E-plane tee, the signal power level at the exit port
will be
(a) P1 + P2 (b) P1 − P2
(c) P1P2 (d) P1 / P2
7. The ratio of power coupled to the secondary arm in the preferred direction to the power in the
main line in a 20 dB directional coupler will be
(a) 20 (b) 0.05
(c) 0.01 (d) 0.1
8. Which one of the following microwave components can be possibly be used for transmission and
reception of microwave signals using the same antenna?
(a) Isolator (b) Directional coupler
(c) Slotted line (d) Circulator
9. Which one of the following microwave components is used with microwave bench for making
measurements such as standing wave ratio (SWR), guide wavelength etc?
(a) Slotted line (b) Magic tee
(c) Circulator (d) Directional coupler
10. Ideally, directivity of directional coupler is
(a) 10 (b) 0
(c) ∞ (d) 1
A NSWERS
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (b)
7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (c)
qqq
CHAPTER
4
Cavity Resonators
Introduction
INSIDE THIS CHAPTER
Cavity Resonator
Mode of Cavity Resonators
Rectangular Cavity Resonator
Circular-Cavity Resonator
Re-entrant Cavities
Tuning of Cavity Resonator
Applications of Cavity Resonator
Keywords
Review Questions
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Resonant circuits are widely used in electronics networks and systems. They serve as key elements
in oscillators, tuned amplifiers, frequency meters, phase equalizers, etc. At microwave frequencies,
the lumped element circuits have some disadvantages. First of all, the requirement of the elements
and dimensions be much smaller than the operating wavelength, limits their voltage and current
capabilities. Second, the required value of inductance and capacitance at the microwave frequencies
are sometimes difficult to realise, and circuit tends to radiate at high frequencies resulting in
substantial losses, especially at the resonant frequency. To overcome these limitations transmission
line techniques are widely used to realize high-Q microwave resonant circuits. In general-distributed
type circuit can be made with lower losses and higher Q. Cavity resonator is an example of
distributed type circuit.
216
Cavity Resonators 217
Ø Resonator is a device or system that exhibits resonance or resonant behavior.

Ø Resonators are used to either generate wave of specific frequency or to select
specific frequency from a signal.
4.2 CAVITY RESONATOR (UPTU 2010, 2011; MDU 2009)
If a section of waveguide is closed at two ends by metal plates and the cavity so formed is then
excited by a small probe or loop, it will be found to have resonant properties similar to inductor
and capacitor combinations. Resonators of this type, commonly called cavity resonators, find extensive
use as resonant circuit at microwave frequencies. Their behaviour is analogous to that of inductor
and capacitor combinations. But at microwave frequencies, cavity resonators has the following
advantages:
• Reasonable dimensions. • Simplicity.
• High-Q. • High shunt impedance.
The waveguide section can be rectangular or circular as shown in Fig. 4.1 and its analogous
1
low frequency tuned circuit having a resonant frequency of as shown in Fig. 4.2.
2π LC
z
d
b
y
a
x
a f
z x
(a ) R e cta ng ular ca vity (b ) C ircu la r cavity
Fig. 4.1. Waveguide cavity resonators.
C L
Fig. 4.2. Equivalent low frequency tuned circuit.

4.2.1 Principle of Operation (UPTU 2004)

When one end of the waveguide is terminated with a shorting plate there will be reflections occur.
If another conducting shorting plates are placed such that the distance between the end walls equals
to nλ g 2 then the hollow space so formed can now support a signal which bounces back and forth
between the two shorting plates. The waves than appear will be stationary and hence they are
called standing wave as shown in Fig. 4.3. Then oscillation will takes place at that frequency,
assuming that the resonator is suitable excited.
3 2 1
S e co n d First
sho rt-circu it sho rt-circu it
e nd plate e nd plate
V m in V m in V m in
d = n lg /2
Fig. 4.3. Cavity resonator standing wave.
where n is an integer indicating the number of minima, i.e.,
n = 1 = 1st minima
n = 2 = 2nd minima and so on.
As shown in Fig. 4.3 the presence of the short-circuit plate at distance d = 3λg/2 provides
a standing wave pattern along the length of waveguide. The positions 1 and 2 indicate the another
suitable location of second short-circuit plate. So that pattern due to the first plate is left undisturbed.
Thus if the second wall is nλ g 2 away from first wall, oscillation between these two walls will take
place and continue until all energy feed in is dissipated or oscillations are sustained if energy is
constantly supplied. The above-stated conditions are satisfied by the space enclosed by conducting
walls only at a single frequency which is known as resonant frequency. When the frequency of an
impressed signal is equal to a resonant frequency, a maximum amplitude of standing wave occurs,
and the peak energy stored in electric and magnetic field are equal.
Ø In cavity resonator, the distance between short-circuit end plates should equal to
nλλ g /2.
Ø Different field configuration in cavity resonator are known as modes of cavity resonator.
Ø Resonator naturally oscillates at some frequency called resonance frequency, with
greater amplitude than the other.
4.3 MODE OF CAVITY RESONATORS
Same as in the waveguides, it is possible for many different ideally infinite types of field configurations
or modes to exist in a cavity. To each mode, these corresponds a resonant frequency that is
determined by the particular field configuration or modes and the cavity dimensions. Each cavity
resonator has an infinite number of resonant frequencies. The mode having the lowest resonant
frequency (highest resonant wavelength) is called dominant mode.
Dominant mode: Dominant mode is that field configuration having the lowest resonant
frequency, while the remaining resonant frequencies are known as higher order modes. In rectangular
cavity of dimension (a × b × d), where b < a < d, dominant mode is TE101.
Modes in a cavity are classified as transverse electric (TE) or transverse magnetic (TM) modes,
similar to the waveguide modes. The particular mode of any such class is then commonly designated
by three subscripts, i.e., TEmnp or TMmnp. The first two subscript (m, n) indicate the number of half
sine wave variation along the dimensions a and b similar to the waveguide and last subscript
p indicate the number of half sine wave variation along the length of the resonator (d). Thus order
of cavity resonator is TEmnp or TMmnp
where m = No. of half-wave variation along the dimension a.
n = No. of half-wave variation along the dimension b.
p = No. of half-wave variation along the dimension d.
As shown in Fig. 4.4. If the second short-circuit plate is at position 1. Then we can say that
resonator in the TE101 mode with the last subscript indicating that a one-half sine wave variation
along the length of the resonator (d) and the first and second subscripts, i.e., m and n have the
same meaning as in the case of waveguide mode (Dominant mode of rectangular waveguide is TE10
mode).
P o sition of secon d sh ort-circuit p la te
3 2 1
S e co n d First
sho rt-circu it sho rt-circu it
e nd plate e nd plate
V m in V m in V m in
nlg
d=
2
D o m ina nt m od e
is TE 1 01 , i.e.,
th ere is on e-h alf
w a ve variatio n
a lon g le ng th d
M od e = TE 1 02
i.e., = n = 2
M od e = TE 1 03
i.e., = n = 3
Fig. 4.4. Modes in cavity resonator.
As shown in Fig. 4.4. If the second short-circuit plate is placed at position 2 then mode of
resonator is TE102 and for position mode is designated as TE103.
Ø Dominant mode has lowest resonant frequency.
Ø Rectangular cavity having dimension (a × b × d), b < a < d, dominant mode is TE101.
Ø Circular cavity having dimension d < 2a, dominant mode is TM010.
Ø Circular cavity having dimension d ≥ 2a, dominant mode is TE111.
4.4 RECTANGULAR CAVITY RESONATOR

(UPTU 2010, 2011; MDU 2008, 2009)
Rectangular cavity resonator is shown in Fig. 4.5 in which a rectangular waveguide is closed off
at both ends with metallic plates.
4.4.1 Resonant Frequency of Rectangular Cavity

Consider a rectangular cavity of height b, width a and length d as shown in Fig. 4.5. The solution
of the rectangular cavity may be obtained directly from the rectangular waveguide solutions.
–z
d
b
x
a
Fig. 4.5. Coordinates of a rectangular cavity.

The electromagnetic field inside the cavity should satisfy Maxwell’s equations subject to the
boundary conditions that the tangential electric field component and normal magnetic field component
to the metal wall must vanish.
For TEmnp mode: There is no electric field component in the direction of propagation, i.e.,
Ez = 0 and Hz is given as,
FG IJ
Hz = H oz cos mπx cos nπy sin pπz FG IJ FG IJ
a H b K d H K H K
where m = 0, 1, 2, 3, number of half wave variation in x-direction.
n = 0, 1, 2, 3, number of half wave variation in y-direction.
p = 1, 2, 3, number of half wave variation in z-direction.
For TMmnp mode: There is no magnetic field component in the direction of propagation,
i.e., Hz = 0 and Ez is given as
Ez = E oz sin
mπxFG sin
nπy IJ FG IJ
cos
pπz FG IJ
a H b K H K d H K
where m = 1, 2, 3, ...
n = 1, 2, 3, ...
p = 0, 1, 2, ...
Similar to rectangular waveguide, the separation equation for both TE and TM mode is
given by
Kr2 =
FG IJ FG IJ FG IJ
mπ
2
+
nπ
2
+
pπ
2
...(4.1)
H K H K H K
a b d
where Kr is wave number.
For lossless dielectric K2r = ω2r µ∈

Substituting the K2r in equation (4.1), we get
ω2r µ∈ =
FG mπ IJ + FG nπ IJ + FG pπ IJ
2 2 2
H a K HbK H dK
ωr =
1 FG mπ IJ + FG nπ IJ + FG pπ IJ
2 2 2
µ∈ H a K HbK H dK
ωr = 2πfr,
where fr is resonant frequency
fr =
1 FG mπ IJ + FG nπ IJ + FG pπ IJ
2 2 2
...(4.2)
2π µ ∈ H a K HbK H dK
We know that, if dielectric is air then
1
c = = velocity of light
µ∈
Equation (4.2) becomes
fr =
c FG m IJ + FG n IJ + FG p IJ
2 2 2
2 H a K HbK HdK
c
The resonant wavelength λr = is given by
fr
2
λr = ...(4.3)
m
+
n FG IJ FG IJ FG IJ
2
+
p
22
a b H K H K H K
d
The expression for resonant frequency of rectangular cavity resonator TM mode is
same as the TE mode.
Ø The electromagnetic field inside the cavity should satisfy Maxwell’s equations subject
to the boundary conditions.
Ø When the frequency of an impressed signal is equal to a resonant frequency, a
maximum amplitude of standing wave occurs.
4.4.2 Quality Factor (Q) of a Cavity Resonator (UPTU 2007)

The quality factor (Q) of any resonant or anti-resonant circuit is a measure of frequency selectivity
and is defined as
ωr W
Q = ...(4.4)
p
where, W = Maximum energy stored.
p = Average power dissipated (energy loss).
ωr = Resonant angular frequency.
W
or Q = 2π
p fr
Maximum energy stored

i.e., Q = 2π
Energy dissipated per cycle
For perfect or ideal cavity, energy dissipated (energy loss) would be zero. So Q of a perfect
or ideal cavity resonator is finite and once energised it would resonate forever.
Equation (4.4) is true for a cavity resonator that is resonant at one frequency only. If there
is more than one resonant frequency, there will be different value of Q for the various values of
frequencies. Normally coupling loops are used to coupled the energy in and out of a cavity
resonator. This coupling has the effect as an imperfect reflecting wall and so results the finite
termination as load of cavity. This would also change the value of Q. This Q takes into account the
coupling between the cavity and coupling path is known as the loaded QL. Loaded QL can be given
by
1 1 1
= + ...[4.4(a)]
QL Q o Q ext
where Qo = Q of an unloaded cavity.
Qext = Q due to external ohmic losses.
Q L = Q of a loaded cavity.
Qext can be written as
Qo
Qext = ...(4.5)
K
where K is coupling coefficient of cavity.
There are three types of coupling coefficient:
1. Critical coupling K = 1
2. Over coupling K > 1
3. Under coupling K < 1
1. Critical coupling: If the resonator is matched to the generator, then
K = 1
Qo
Since, Qext =
K
Qext = Qo
1 2 2
= =
QL Qo Q ext
The loaded QL is given by
1 1
QL = Q = Q ...(4.6)
2 ext 2 o
2. Over coupling: If K > 1, the cavity terminals are at a voltage maximum in the input line
at resonance. The normalized impedance at the maximum voltage is the standing wave
ratio (S).
i.e., K = Standing wave ratio = S

Qo
Qext =
S
From equation (4.4)
1 1 S 1+ S
= + =
QL Qo Qo Qo
Qo
QL = ...(4.7)
1+ S
3. Under coupling: If K < 1, the cavity terminal are at a voltage minimum and the input
terminal impedance is equal to the reciprocal of the standing wave ratio
1 1
K = =
Standing wave ratio S
Then, Qext = SQo
From equation (4.4)
1
=
1
+
1
=
1 FG S + 1IJ
QL Q o SQo Qo H S K
S
QL = Q ...(4.8)
S+1 o
The relationship of coupling coefficient K and the standing wave ratio S is shown in Fig. 4.6.
7
Stan ding w ave ra tio (S )
U n de r cou plin g O ver co up ling

6 (K < 1 ) (K > 1 )
4
C ritical cou plin g
3 (K = 1 )
2
1 2 3 4
C o up ling coe fficie nt K
Fig. 4.6. Coupling coefficient Vs standing wave ratio.
Roughly speaking, energy is stored in volume of the resonator and dissipated through its
surface, hence it follows that the shape giving the highest volume to the surface area ratio is likely
to have the highest volume to the surface area ratio is likely to have the highest Q. When high
Q is the primary requirement, we use spherical, cylindrical or rectangular cavity resonators. A well
designed cavity with its inner wall is gold or silver plated, would have an unloaded Qo in range of
about 2000.
Ø Q-factor is a dimensionless parameter that compares the time constant for decay
oscillating physical system’s amplitude to its oscillation period.
Ø Energy is stored in the volume of cavity resonator and dissipated through its surface.
Ø When a cavity is assumed to be not connected to any external circuit or load, Q
accounts for the internal loss and is called the unloaded Q-factor (Qo).
Ø A high Q indicate a lower rate of energy dissipation relative to the oscillation
frequency, so that oscillation die out more slowly.
4.4.3 Quality Factor (Q) of a Rectangular Cavity Resonator

In the cavity resonator, energy stored in volume of the resonator and dissipated through its surface.
All resonant frequency, the electric and magnetic energies are equal and in the time quadrature,
i.e., when the electric energy is maximum, the magnetic energy is zero and vice versa.
The total energy stored in the resonator is obtained by integrating the energy density over
the volume of the resonator.
∈ 2 µ 2
W = z
vol
2
E dv = z
vol
2
H dv ...(4.9)
where E and H are the peak value of field intensities.

The average loss in resonator can be obtained by integrating the power density over the
surface of resonator.
p =
Rs
2 z
sur
Ht2 da ...(4.10)
where Ht = Peak value of tangential component of magnetic field.

Rs = Surface resistance of the resonator.
We know that Q of resonator is given by
ωr W
Q =
p
Substituting equations (4.9) and (4.10), we get
ωrµ
Q =
2 z
vol
H 2 dv
Rs
2 z
sur
Ht2 da
Q =
ωrµ z
vol
H2 dv
...(4.11)
Rs z
sur
Ht2 da
Since the peak value of the magnetic intensity is related to its tangential and normal components
by
H2 = Ht2 + H n2
where Hn and Ht are the peak value of the normal and tangential components of magnetic intensity
respectively and the value of Ht2 is approximately twice the H2 over the volume of the resonator
i.e.,
Ht2 = 2H2
Q =
ωrµ z
vol
H2 dv
2R s z
sur
H2 da
Q =
b
ω r µ volume g
b
2 R s surface area g
Since at resonance, total energy is equal to the maximum energy shared in the E-field, or
that in the magnetic field, the resonant energy stored inside the cavity can be calculated from the
maximum electric energy.
a b d
W =
∈o
2 zzz
o o o
2
E dx dy dz
For a rectangular cavity resonator, for TE101 mode

FG πx IJ sin FG πz IJ
Ey = E o sin
H a K H dK
2 a b d
F πx I F πz I
Thus, W =
∈ E
2
o o
zzz
sin G J sin G J dx dy dz
H a K H dK
o o o
2 2
1
Now, applying the identity sin (x) =
2
b1 − cos 2xg, there only constant term will be left as
2
the cosine terms vanish over a cycle.

∈o
W =E 2 abd ...(4.12)
8 o
For a lossless dielectric, the total power loss p in the cavity can be obtained from the ohmic
losses in the six walls.
R| a b b d U| a d
p =
Rs
2
S|2
T zz
o o
Hx
2
z=0
dx dy + 2 zz
o o
Hz
2
x=0
dy dzV + 2
|W z z LNM
o o
Hx
2
+ Hz
2 OP
Q y=0
dx dz
...(4.13)
where Rs is surface resistance.
For TE101 mode rectangular cavity resonator
LM
Hx = − j E o ωµ o
FG π IJ OP sin FG πx IJ cos FG πz IJ
N H dK Q H a K H d K
and
LM
Hz = j E o ωµ o
FG π IJ OP cos FG πx IJ sin FG πz IJ
N H dKQ H a K H d K
Substituting the expression for the field components and evaluating the integral, we get
p =
R s λ2 E2o LM ab + bd + 1 FG a + d IJ OP ...(4.14)
8η 2
Nd a 2 H d aKQ
2 2
where η = µ o ∈o is intrinsic impedance of free space. The Q-factor is then obtained from
equations (4.12) and (4.14)
ωr W
Q =
p
32
Q =
πη 2b a2 + d2 e j
e
4 R s ad a2 + d2 + 2b a3 + d3 j e j
It is seen that Q is maximum for a square base cavity, i.e., a = d, given by
111
. µ ∈
Qmax =
b
R s 1 + a 2b g
where Qmax increases with decrease in a/b. For an air-filled cubic cavity a = b = d, given by
. η
074
Q =
Rs
Since, η = 120π Ω
279
Q =
Rs
For an air dielectric η = 120π or 377 ohm, and for copper surface resistance,
Rs = ωµ o 2σ = 0.261 ohm at 10 GHz. Then Q ≈ 1069 for cubic cavity of dimensions
a = b = d.
Ø A well designed cavity with inner wall gold or silver plated, gives high Q in range
of about 2000.
Ø In cavity resonator, energy is stored in volume of the resonator and dissipated
through its surface.
Ø Q-factor of cavity can be increasing the size of cavity or conductivity of walls or by
decreasing the coupling into cavity.
Example 4.1. A rectangular cavity resonator has dimension of a = 5 cm, b = 2 cm, and
d = 15 cm. Find.
(i) The resonant frequency of the dominant mode for an air filled cavity.
(ii) The resonant frequency of the dominant mode for a dielectric filled cavity of
∈r = 2.56.
Solution. We know that for b < a < d, dominant mode is TE101
(i) The resonant frequency of the dominant mode for an air filled cavity is given by
fr = 1 FG mIJ + FG nIJ + FG p IJ
2 2 2
2 µ∈ H a K H bK H dK
c F 1 I +F 1 I 2 2
For TE101 mode: fr =
2 GH 5 × 10 JK GH 15 × 10 JK
−2 −2
fr = 3.162 GHz
(ii) Resonant frequency for a dielectric filled cavity is given by
fr 3162
.
frd = =
∈r 256
.
frd = 1.98 GHz
Example 4.2. Compute the lowest resonant frequency of a rectangular cavity resonator
having following dimensions:
Width a = 2 cm
Height b = 1 cm
Length d = 3 cm.
Solution. The cavity resonator has the lowest resonant frequency for the dominant mode.
For b < a < d, the dominant mode is TE101.
Resonant frequency is given by
fr =
1 FG mIJ + FG nIJ + FG p IJ
2 2 2
2 µ∈ H aK H bK H dK
fr =
c FG mIJ + FG nIJ + FG p IJ
2 2 2
2 H a K H bK H dK
For TE101, m = 1, n = 0, p = 1
3 × 108 F 1 I +F 1 I 2 2
fr =
2 GH 2 × 10 JK GH 3 × 10 JK
−2 −2
fr = 9 GHz
Example 4.3. The TE111 mode resonant frequency in a certain rectangular cavity resonator
is 10 GHz. Determine the corresponding resonant frequency for TM111 mode.
Solution. The resonant frequency for a TM mode in a rectangular cavity resonator for a
given values of m, n and p is the same as that of a TE mode for same value of m, n, p.
Therefore, TM111 mode resonant frequency = 10 GHz.
Example 4.4. The least resonant frequency for a certain rectangular cavity resonator is
found out to be 6 GHz. If the broad and narrow dimensions of the cavity resonator are 4 and
2 cm respectively, determine its length.
Solution. Resonant frequency is least for dominant mode i.e., TE101 mode.
Resonant frequency fr is given by
fr =
2 2 2
2 H a K H bK H dK
For TE101 mode, i.e., m = 1, n = 0 and p = 1
fr =
c FG 1 IJ + FG 1 IJ
2 2
2 H 4K H dK
3 × 1010 d2 + 16
6 × 109 =
2 16 d2
F 2 I
. × 1010
(6 × 109) = 15 e j GH d16+d16JK
2
2
d2 + 16 36 4
= =
2 225 25
16 d
25d + 400 = 64d2
2
400
d = = 3.2 cm
39
Length of cavity resonator = 3.2 cm
Example 4.5. For the rectangular cavity resonator of example 4.4. Verify that the
length of resonator is half of the guide wavelength.
Solution. For the data given in example 4.4, the cut-off wavelength can be computed from
2
λc =
FG mIJ + FG nIJ
2 2
H a K H bK
Since m = 1 and n = 0
2
λc = = 8 cm
14
The operating wavelength is
c 3 × 108
λ = = = 5 cm
f 6 × 109
The guided wavelength, λg can now be computed as
λ 5
λg = =
1−
FλI 2
1−
FG 5 IJ 2
GH λ JK
c
H 8K
λg = 6.4 cm
λg
= 3.2 cm = length of resonator
2
4.5 CIRCULAR-CAVITY RESONATOR
A circular-cavity resonator is a circular waveguide with two end closed by a metal walls as shown
in Fig. 4.7.
D iele ctric reg io n
y ( mr, Î r)
x f
r
z
a
Fig. 4.7 Coordinates of a circular resonator

The wave function in a circular resonator should satisfy Maxwell’s equation, subject to the
same boundary conditions as described for the rectangular-cavity resonator. It is merely necessary
to choose the harmonic functions in z to satisfy the boundary conditions at the remaining two end
walls. This can be achieved for TEnpq mode.
Hz = H J
F X ′ r I cos bnφg sin FG qπz IJ
np ...(4.15)
oz n GH a JK HdK
where n = 0, 1, 2, ... is the number of periodicity in the φ direction.
p = 1, 2, 3, ... is the number of zeros of field in the radial direction.
q = 1, 2, 3, ... is the number of half waves in the axial direction.
Jn = Bessell’s function of the first kind.
Hoz = Amplitude of the magnetic field.
Similarly for TMnpq mode
F X r I cos bnφg cos FG qπz IJ
np
Ez = E oz Jn GH a JK HdK ...(4.16)
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
p = 1, 2, 3, ...
q = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
Eoz = Amplitude of the electric field.
The separation equations for TE and TM modes are given by
F X′
np I 2
+
FG qπ IJ 2
2
k = GH a JK H dK For TE mode ...(4.17)
F X′
np I 2
F qπ I
+G J
2
2
k = GH a JK H dK For TM mode ...(4.18)
Substituting k2 = ω2µ∈ in equations (4.17) and (4.18) gives the resonant frequencies for TE
and TM modes respectively.
For TE mode: fr = 1 F X′
np I 2
+
FG qπ IJ 2
2π µ ∈
GH a JK HdK
For TM mode: fr = 1 FXnp I 2
+
FG qπ IJ 2
2π µ ∈
GH a JK HdK
Ø Circular cavity provides a very high Q-factor over a wide frequency range so preferable
used fort frequency meter.
Ø For d < 2a, TM010 is the dominant mode.
Ø For d ≥ 2a, TE111 is the dominant mode.
4.5.1 Modes of Circular-Cavity

In circular-cavity resonator, three very important modes
of practical interest are TM010, TE111 and TE011. For
d < 2a, the TM010 is dominant mode while for d ≥ 2a
the TE111 is dominant mode. The TE011 mode is of
particular interest because its Q is two to three times
that of the dominant modes. However, since TE011 mode
is higher than the dominant mode, care must be taken
to excite the cavity without the generation of other
possible modes. Figure 4.8 shows the photograph of
Fig. 4.8. Photograph of circular resonator.
circular-cavity resonator.
Ø In circular cavity, for TE011 mode Q-factor is two to three times more than dominant
mode but care must be taken to excite the cavity without generation of other
possible mode.
4.6 RE-ENTRANT CAVITIES
For a cavity resonator at microwave frequency, it is necessary that the inductance and capacitance
have to be considerably reduced so that it maintains resonance at operating frequency.
Such a cavity resonator where the metallic boundaries will extend into interior of the cavity
are called re-entrant cavities as in the case of a co-axial cavity as shown in Fig. 4.9. Re-entrant
cavity is similar to a co-axial line shorted at two ends and joined at the centre by capacitor. Such
a re-entrant cavity can support an infinite number of resonant frequencies. Hence, it is useful for
making Klystron devices.
2b
2a
Fig. 4.9. Re-entrant cavity resonator.
Ø Cavity resonator having metallic boundaries are extend to interior called re-entrant
cavity.
Ø These cavities are known as re-entrant resonators because the walls re-enters the
resonator shape.
Example 4.6. An air-filled circular cylindrical cavity has a radius of 3.5 cm. The cavity
is tuned by a plunger that allows the length to be varied from 5.2 to 6.8 cm. Determine the
range of resonating frequency for TM012 mode. (UPTU 2009)
(Given X01 = 2.405)
Solution. Given
Radius of circular cavity (a) = 3.5 cm
The resonant frequency (fr) is
fr = c
F X I + FG qπ IJ
np
2 2
2π GH a JK H d K
For TE012 mode, X01 = 2.405
c F 2.405 I + FG 2π IJ 2 2
fc =
2π GH 3.5 × 10 JK H d K
−2
When plunger is at 5.2 cm, cut-off frequency is
fr =
c FG 2.405 IJ + FG 2π IJ
2 2
1
2π H 3.5 K H 5.2 K
3 × 1010
fr = 0.47 + 145
.
1 2 × 314
.
fr = 66.33 × 108 Hz
2
fr = 6.63 GHz
2
When plunger moves at 6.8 cm. The resonant frequency ( fr ) is

2
fr =
c FG 2.405 IJ + FG 2π IJ
2 2
2 2π H 3.5 K H 6.8 K
3 × 1010
fr = 0.47 + 0.85
2 2 × 314
.
fr = 54.94 × 108
2
fr = 5.49 GHz
2
Thus, the range of resonating frequency is

fo = fr1 − fr2
fo = 6.63 − 5.49
fo = 1.14 GHz
Example 4.7. Find size of cubical cavity, if resonating frequency of dominant mode is
3 GHz.
Solution. For cubical cavity a = b = d the dominant mode is TE101. For dominant mode
m = 1, n = 0, p = 1, the resonant frequency (fr) is
fr =
2 2 2
2 H a K H bK H dK
Since f r = 3 GHz
Thus, 3 × 109 =
3 × 108 FG 1IJ 2
+0+
FG 1IJ 2
2 H aK H aK
2
20 =
a2
a = 5 × 10−3
2
a = 0.07071 m
The size of cubical cavity is
a = b = d = 70.71 cm
Example 4.8. Compute the resonant frequency of a circular resonator of internal radius
6 cm and length 5 cm for (a) TM012 mode (b) TE111 mode, given that X01 = 2.405 and
X′11 = 1.841. (UPTU 2007)
Solution. Given
Internal radius (a) = 6 cm
Length (d) = 5 cm
(a) For TM012 mode: n = 0, p = 1 and q = 2
1 F X I + FG qπ IJ
np
2 2
fr =
2π µ ∈
GH a JK H d K
fr =
c FG X IJ + FG qπ IJ
01
2 2
2π H a K H dK
3 × 10 10
FG 2.405 IJ + FG 2 × 314
2
. I
2
fr =
2 × 314
. H 6 K H 5 JK
10
f r = 3 × 10 .
1737 b
1/ 2
g
6.28
fr = 6.296 GHz
(b) For TE111 mode: n = 1, p = 1 and q = 1
c F X ′ I + FG qπ IJ
np
2 2
fr =
2π GH a JK H d K
fr =
3 × 10 10
FG X ′ IJ + FG π IJ
11
2 2
2 × 314
. H a K H dK
3 × 10 10
FG 1.841IJ + FG 314
2
. I
2
fr =
6.28 H 6 K H 5 JK
3 × 1010
fr = 0.094 + 0.394
6.28
3 × 1010
fr = × 0.698
6.28
fr = 3.334 GHz
Example 4.9. A circular cylindrical air filled cavity with radius 3 cm and length 10 cm
is excited in TE111 mode. The 3 dB bandwidth is 2.5 MHz. Calculate the resonant frequency
and the quality factor (Q). [Given X′11 = 1.841]
Solution. For TE111 mode: n = p = q = 1
Internal radius a = 3 cm
Length d = 10 cm
Resonant frequency of cylindrical resonator is given by
c F X ′ I + FG qπ IJ
np
2 2
fr =
2π GH a JK H d K
3 × 10 10
FG 1841
. IJ + FG 314
. I
2 2
fr =
2 × 314
. H 3 K H 10 JK
fr = 10.42 GHz
Quality factor Qo is defined as

fr
Qo =
bandwidth
fr
Qo =
∆f
10.42 × 109
Qo =
2.5 × 106
Qo = 4168
Ø Quality factor Qo is defined as the ratio of resonant frequency and bandwidth, i.e.,
fr
Qo =
∆f
Example 4.10. A circular waveguide cavity resonator having an internal diameter of

8 cm resonates at 10 GHz in TM011 mode. Determine the length of resonator given that
X01 = 2.405.
Solution. Internal diameter = 8 cm
8
Internal radius = = 4 cm
2
Resonant frequency = 10 GHz
fr =
c FG X IJ + FG qπ IJ
01
2 2
2π H a K H dK
Substituting the values, we get
3 × 1010 FG 2.405 IJ + FG 314

2
. I
2
H 4 K H d JK
9
10 × 10 =
2 × 314
.
1 =
3 FG 2.405 IJ + FG 314
2
. I
J
2
6.28 H 4 K H d K
1 =
F
0.228 G 0.36 +
9.86 I
J
H d K 2
2.25
0.082 + = 1
d2
0.082d2 + 2.25 = d2
0.918d2 = 2.25
2.25
d =
0.918
d = 1.565 cm
4.7 TUNING OF CAVITY RESONATOR
Changing the resonant frequency of a cavity resonator is known as tuning of cavity resonator. The
resonant frequency of a cavity can be varied by changing the cavity volume, cavity capacitance,
or cavity inductance. In the cavity resonator tuning may be done by using following three mechanical
methods.
1. Volume tuning.
2. Capacitive tuning.
3. Inductive tuning.
The mechanical methods of tuning a cavity may vary
with the application, but all methods use the same electrical
principles. Tu ning
sha ft
1. Volume Tuning: The mechanical method of
tuning a cavity by changing the volume of cavity
is known as volume tuning. The volume tuning
method is shown in Fig. 4.10. Varying the distance D isk
(d) will result in a new resonant frequency because

the inductance and the capacitance of the cavity
are changed by different amounts. If the volume
is decreased, the resonant frequency will be
d
higher. The resonant frequency will be lower if
the volume of the cavity is made larger.
2. Capacitive Tuning: In the capacitive tuning, an
adjustable screw is placed in the area of maximum
E-lines as shown in Fig. 4.11. The distance d
represents the distance between two capacitor
Fig. 4.10. Change in volume.
plates.
Top
Top
B o tto m
B o tto m H field
(sid e view )
Fig. 4.11. Change in capacitance.

As the screw is moved inside the cavity, the distance between the two plates becomes
smaller and the capacitance increases. The increase in capacitance causes a decrease in
the resonant frequency. As the screw is moved out, the distance between the two plates
becomes larger and capacitance decreases. The decreases in capacitance causes a increases
in resonant frequency of cavity.
3. Inductive Tuning: In the inductive tuning, a non magnetic adjustable screw is placed in
the area of maximum H-lines as shown in Fig. 4.12.
Top
Top
d d
B o tto m
B o tto m E fie ld
(S ide vie w )
Fig. 4.12. Change in inductance.

The changing H-lines induce a current in the screw that sets up an opposing H-field. The
opposing field reduces the total H-field in the cavity, and therefore reduces the total
inductance. Reducing the inductance, by moving the screw in, raises the resonant frequency.
Increasing the inductance, by moving the screw out, lowers the resonant frequency.
4.8 APPLICATIONS OF CAVITY RESONATOR
The purpose of cavity resonators is the same as tuned LC circuits or resonant transmission lines,
the only difference being that cavity resonators are used at much higher frequencies, since they
have the same overall frequency coverage as waveguides. Some of important applications of cavity
resonator are given below:
1. Cavity resonators are used as input or output tuned circuits of amplifiers.
2. Cavity resonators are used in Klystron amplifiers for amplifying microwave signals and in
reflex Klystron oscillators for generation of microwave signals.
3. Cavity resonators are used in cavity magnetron for generation of microwave signals.
4. Cavity resonators are used in duplexers in radar systems as resonant cavity in TR tubes
(Transmit-Receive tubes) and ATR tubes (Anti-Transmit-Receive tubes).
5. Cavity resonators are used in cavity wavemeters for the measurement of frequency at
microwave signal.
6. Cavity resonators are used in light-house tube, which is a special tube used at UHF range
of frequencies.
Ø Cavity resonators are used as resonant cavities in oscillators.

Ø Cavity resonators are used as input or output tuned circuit of amplifiers.
K EYWORDS
• Cavity resonator: An enclosure made up of conducting walls surrounding a dielectric medium
and capable of acting like a resonant circuit at microwave frequencies. Conducting walls are
usually of copper or silver and the dielectric medium is air or vacuum. A cavity resonator has
at least one aperture for coupling electromagnetic energy into and out of cavity.
• Coupling loop: Use of coupling microwave energy to a waveguide or a cavity resonator coupling
loops couple primarily to a magnetic field.
• Coupling probe: Use of coupling microwave energy to a waveguide or a cavity resonator,
coupling probes couples primarily to an electric field.
• Re-entrant cavity: Where the metallic boundaries will entend into the interior of the cavity are
called re-entrant cavity.
• Tuning post: A cylindrical post inserted from broad side of the waveguide for impedance
matching.
• Tuning screw: Similar to a tuning post and used for impedance matching.
• Wave meter: Basically a tunable cavity resonator used for measurement of wavelength.
• Q-Factor: The quality factor Q is a measure of the frequency selectivity of a cavity resonator
and defined by
Q = 2π
b g
Maximum energy stored W during a cycle
Average energy dissipated per cycle
• Unloaded Q-factor (Qo): When a cavity is assumed to be not connected to any external circuit
or load, Q accounts for the internal losses and is called the unloaded Q-factor.
• Loaded Q-factor (QL): Since a cavity is always coupled to a generator and load through either
a coaxial line probe or a slot in a common wall of waveguide. This coupling has the effect of
an imperfectly reflected wall and so is the finite termination or load of the cavity. This would
also change the value of Q. This, that takes into account the coupling between the cavity and
coupling path is known as the loaded quality factor QL.
4
1. Show that a rectangular cavity may be viewed as a rectangular waveguide shorted at both ends.
Also find the resonance condition. (MDU 2003; UPTU 2004)
2. How rectangular wavelength changes into resonator. How the resonant frequency and Q of a
cubical of length 10 cm change if its air is replaced by a lossy dielectric of relative permittivity
of 2.25? (UPTU 2006)
3. Derive the various field component present in cylindrical cavity for TE101 mode of propagation.
(UPTU 2006)
4. Derive the various field components present in rectangular cavity resonator for the wave propagation.
5. Find the resonance condition and cut-off wave number for the circular cavity.
Microwave Engineering
6. An air-filled circular cylindrical cavity has a radius of 3.5 em. The cavity is tuned by a plunger
that allows the length to be varied from 5.2 to 6.8 em. Determine the range of resonating
frequency. (UPTU 2009)
7. A circular cylindrical cavity resonates at 3 GHz in TM010 mode. If Xo1 = 2.405 and resonator
is filled with dielectric material of dielectric constant 2.56. Calculate the new resonance frequency.
(MDU 2004; UPTU 2009)
8. An air filled cylindrical waveguide of internal diameter 5 em supports TE11 mode of propagation.
If X~ 1 = 1.84, find the cut-off frequency , guide wavelength and wave impedance at 3 GHz.
(UPTU 2007)
9. Define quality factor of any resonator. Design a rectangular cavity to have resonant frequency
of 10.2 GHz having dimensions a = d and b = a/2. (UPTU 2007)
1. A cavity is a
(a) Low-pass filter (b) High-pass filter
(c) Band-pass filter (d) Band-stop filter
2. Which one of the following types of hollow cavity resonators of the same surface area would
have the highest Q-factor?
(a) Spherical cavity made of copper (b) Spherical cavity made of silver
(c) Cylindrical cavily made of copper (d) Cylindrical cavity rnade of silver
3. For a cavity resonator with
Q0 = unloaded Q-factor and S = standing wave ratio
Then QL, the loaded Q factor is given by
S+lQ
s 0
4. The Q-factor of a radio coil is

(a) independent of frequency
(b) increases monotonically as frequency increases
(c) decreases monotonically as frequency increases
(d) increases upto a certain frequency and then decreases beyond that frequency
5. The Q-factor of microwave cavity is defined as
max. energy stored WX max. energy stored
(a) Q - (b) Q
w x power loss power loss
power loss w x power loss

(c) Q (d) Q
max. energy stored max. energy stored
6. The dominant mode of circular resonator having 2a > d is

(a) TM010 (b) TE111
(c) TE110 (d) TE101
7. The dominant mode of circular resonator having 2a ≤ d is
(a) TE010 (b) TE111
(c) TE110 (d) TE101
8. For rectangular cavity having dimension b < a < d, the dominant mode is
(a) TE010 (b) TM010
(c) TE111 (d) TE101
A NSWERS
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (a)
7. (b) 8. (d).
qqq
CHAPTER
5
Microwave Measurements
Introduction
Low Frequency Vs Microwave Measurement
Microwave test Bench-General Measurement set-up
INSIDE THIS CHAPTER
High Frequency Limitation of Ordinary Diode and Bipolar Transistors

Microwave Power Measurement
Measurement of Impedance
Network Analyser
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio Measurement
Microwave Frequency or Wavelength Measurement
Measurement of Attenuation
Measurement of Radiation Pattern of Antenna
Detection of Microwave Signals
Microwave Communication Link
Keywords
Review Questions
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The basic measurement parameters in low frequency circuits containing lumped elements are
voltage, current, frequency and true power. From these measurements, the value of the impedance,
power factor and the phase angle can be calculated. At microwave frequencies, the amplitudes of
the voltage and currents on a transmission line are functions of distance and are not easily
measurable. However, in a lossless line, the power transmitted is independent of the location along
the line. Therefore, it is more convenient to measure power instead of voltage and current. Most
240
Microwave Measurements 241
of the properties of devices and circuits at microwave frequencies are obtained from the measurement
of S-parameter, power, frequency, VSWR and noise. Due to the complications and high cost of
direct microwave measuring devices and instruments such as, network analyzers, spectrum analyzers,
spectrum analyzers, power meters, etc., microwave measurement in the laboratory are often
carried out using 1 kHz square-wave modulating signal which modulates the microwave test signal.
The transmitted and reflected signals are then demodulated and measured using low frequency
instruments such as an oscilloscope and a low frequency tuned receiver, called VSWR meter. The
amplitude and phase information of the microwave test signal are available in the detected low
frequency signal for calculating the desired parameters.
Ø At microwave frequencies, the amplitudes of voltage and current on the transmission

line are function of distance and are not easily measurable.
5.2 LOW FREQUENCY VS MICROWAVE MEASUREMENT (MDU 2008)
Microwaves are considerably different from electromagnetic wave at lower frequencies in respect
of the transmission structure, the sources and also with regard to the network representation.
Consequently, the measurement techniques, and even the quantities that can be measured are
different for the microwave frequency range. Table 5.1 gives some difference between low frequency
measurement and microwave measurement.
Table 5.1 Comparison between low frequency and microwave measurements.
Low frequency measurement Microwave measurement
• Low frequency circuits contain lumped elements • Circuit elements are distributed and difficult to
which can be easily identified and measured. measure. It is possible and also satisfactory to
measure this impedance of circuit without regard
to the individual elements making up that circuit.
• Basic measurement parameters like voltage and • Amplitude of voltage and currents on a
current are convenient to measure. transmission line are functions of distance and
not easily measurable.
• From voltage and current measurement, power, • In lossless line, the power transmitted is
impedance and power factor can be calculated. independent of the location or distance.
Therefore it is more convenient to measure
power instead of voltage and current.
• Direct measurement is convenient. • Direct measurement is not convenient due to

the complications and high cost of direct
measuring devices and instruments such as
network analysers spectrum analysers, power
meters etc.
• Low frequency measurements and detection are • Microwave measurements in the laboratory are
easy and directly measurable by instruments like often carried out using 1 kHz square wave
oscilloscope. modulating signal which modulates the microwave
test signal. The transmitted and reflected signals
are then demodulated and measured using low
frequency instruments such as oscilloscope. The
amplitude and phase information of microwave
signals are available by detecting low frequency
modulated signal for calculating the desired
parameter.
• Quantities measurement at low frequency gives • Many quantities measured at microwave

their absolute value. frequency are relative and it is not necessary to
know their absolute values.
Ø At the microwave frequencies, circuit elements are distributed and difficult to

measure.
Ø Direct measurement of quantities at microwave frequencies is not easy due to
complications and high cost.
Ø Microwave measurements in laboratory are often carried out using 1 kHz square
wave modulating signal which modulates the microwave test signal.
Ø Many quantities measured at microwave frequencies are relative (not absolute value).
5.3 MICROWAVE TEST BENCH-GENERAL MEASUREMENT SET-UP

(UPTU 2006; MDU 2010)
The general set-up for measurement of any parameters at microwave frequencies is normally done
by a microwave test bench as shown in Fig. 5.1. Figure 5.1(a) show a general set-up of microwave
bench. For laboratory purpose reflex klystron or gunn diode based test benches are used.
Figures 5.1(b) and 5.1(c) shows the photographs of klystron and gunn diode based microwave
bench respectively.
V S W R m e te r
C rysta l de te cto r p ro be
S ign al g en era to r Fre q ue ncy m ete r

(R e fle x klystron /g un n diod e)
C rysta l de te cto r
m ou nt
Term ina tio n
Variab le
Isolator a tte nu ator S lotted line
(a) Microwave test bench: General measurement set-up.

(b) Klystron based microwave test bench.
In microwave test bench reflex klystron or Gunn diode are used as signal generator.
(c) Gunn diode based microwave test bench.
Fig. 5.1
Ø The test set-up used in the laboratories is usually referred by the name “microwave
test bench”.
Ø X-band frequencies (8 to 12 GHz) are used in laboratory.
5.3.1 Microwave Test Bench Components

Microwave test bench consist of following components:
1. Signal generator. 2. Isolator.
3. Attenuator. 4. Frequency meter.
5. Slotted line. 6. Tunable probe.
7. VSWR meter.
1. Signal Generator
The signal generator is a microwave source whose output is of the order of milliwatts. Generally
there are two type of signal generator for the microwave bench in X-band.
(a) Reflex klystron tube based signal generator.
(b) Gunn diode based signal generator.
(a) Reflex klystron tube based signal generator
Klystron tube based signal generator consists of klystron power supply, reflex klystron and klystron
mount.
Klystron power supply: For the klystron based microwave bench, Klystron power supply
generates required beam and repeller voltage for the X-band klystron tube like 2 K25. It is very
stable and contains the short circuit protection circuit. Also it has amplitude and frequency modulation
circuits for the generation of 1 kHz square wave and the saw tooth wave. Photograph of klystron
power supply is shown in Fig. 5.2.
Fig. 5.2. Klystron power supply.

Reflex klystron: The reflex klystron is a single cavity variable
frequency microwave generator of low power and low efficiency.
It consist of electron gun, focusing electrode, single cavity (anod
cavity) and a repeller electrode at a high negative voltage. Reflex
klystron is most widely used in application where variable frequency
is desired as in radar receiver, local oscillator in microwave receivers
and a pump oscillator in parametric amplifier.
Klystron mount: It is a waveguide of suitable length having
metal base on the broad wall of the waveguide for mounting the
klystron tube. It consists of movable short at one end of the
waveguide to direct the microwave energy generated by the klystron
tube. A small hole located exactly at the centre of the broad wall
of the waveguide is used to put the coupling pin of tube as the
electric field vector of the EM energy is maximum at the center
only. The maximum power transfer can be achieved by tuning of Fig. 5.3. Klystron mount.
the movable plunger.
Ø Reflex klystron is a single cavity microwave oscillator of low power and low efficiency.
Ø Klystron mount is a waveguide of suitable length having metal base on broad wall
of the waveguide for mounting the klystron tube.
(b) Gunn diode based signal generator

Gunn diode based signal generator consists of Gunn power supply and Gunn oscillator.
Gunn Power Supply: For Gunn based bench, it is regulated power supply to operate the
gunn oscillator. It also contains square wave generator to provide 1 kHz frequency to the PIN
modulator for amplitude modulation.
Fig. 5.4. Gunn power supply.

Gunn oscillator: This is an economical source of microwave power in which Gunn diode
is used which work on negative resistance produced by application of DC bias. Precision micrometer
fitted with the plungers is used to change the frequency of the oscillations.
Gunn diode is discussed in detail in Chapter 7.
Fig. 5.5. Gunn oscillator mount.
Ø Gunn power supply is a regulated power supply to operate the gunn oscillator.
Ø Gunn diode oscillator works in negative resistance region.
2. Isolator
An isolator is an unidirectional two port device which provides
very small amount of attenuation for transmission from
port (1) to port (2) but provide maximum attenuation for
transmission from port (2) to port (1). When isolator is inserted
between generator and load, the generator is coupled to the
load with zero attenuation and reflections if any from the
load are completely absorbed by the isolator without affecting
the generator output.
Fig. 5.6. Isolator.

3. Attenuators
For perfect matching sometimes it is required that the microwave power in a waveguide be
absorbed completely or partly without any reflection and also insensitive to frequency. For this
attenuators are used. Attenuators are commonly used for measuring power gain or loss in dBs,
for providing isolation between instruments, for reducing the power input to a particular stage to
prevent overloading.
4. Frequency Meters
In microwave benches, direct reading frequency meter (DRF) are generally used: Direct reading
frequency meter (DRF) is constructed from a cylindrical cavity resonator with a variable short-circuit
termination. The shorting plunger is used to change the resonance frequency of the cavity by
changing the cavity length. DRF measures the frequency directly. It is particularly useful when
measuring frequency differences of small changes.
Fig. 5.7. Attenuator. Fig. 5.8. Direct reading frequency meter.

Micrometer Type Frequency Meters
These frequency meters are intended for moderate accuracy application
in microwave measurements and are usually best for this purpose.
These permit full power flow down the transmission line except at the
tuned frequency. It consists of a cavity, plunger and the section of
standard waveguide. The plunger ensures precise control of its position
enabling frequency measurement with high accuracy.
5. Slotted Line
This system consists of a transmission line (waveguide), a travelling
probe carriage and facility for attaching/detecting instruments. The slot
made in the center of the broad face do not radiate for any power of
dominant mode. Slotted section is basically used to measure standing
wave ratio (VSWR). The precision built probe carriage having centimetres Fig. 5.9. Micrometer type
scale with a vernier reading of 0.1 mm least count is used to note the frequency meter.
position of the probe. Additionally slotted section can be used to measure
impedance, reflection coefficient and the return loss.
6. Tunable Probe
A tunable probe helps in detecting the low frequency square wave
modulated microwave signal. It is made by the use of crystal diode
mounted in the transmission line. The probe is connected to the crystal
Fig. 5.10. Slotted line.
detector so that the output from the detector is proportional to the
square of the input voltage at the position of the probe. As the position
of the probe is moved along the waveguide slot it gives output
proportional to the standing wave pattern inside the waveguide. The
detectors used in microwave range are point contact or a Schottky
barrier diode. Fig. 5.11. Tunable probe.
7. Voltage Standing Wave Ratio Meters

A VSWR meter basically consists of a high gain, high Q, low noise voltage amplifier, normally
tuned at a fixed frequency (1 kHz) at which the microwave signal is modulated.
Fig. 5.12. VSWR meter.

The VSWR meter uses the detected signal out of the microwave detector as its input,
amplifies the same and provides the output on a calibrated voltmeter. The meter itself can be
calibrated in terms of VSWR.
A block diagram of microwave test bench is shown in Fig. 5.13
VSW R/
D e tecte r p ow e r
m eter
M icro w ave Variab le Fre q ue ncy

Isolater S lotted line Term ina tio n
g en era to r a tte nu ator m eter
Fig. 5.13. Block diagram of microwave test bench.
Ø Attenuators are used to reduce the input to a particular level to prevent over
loading.
Ø Isolator is an unidirectional device and used to protect the generator from reflections.
Ø DRF meter is constructed from a cylindrical cavity resonator with a variable short
circuit termination.
Ø Micrometer type frequency meter consist of a cavity, plunger and the section of
standard waveguide.
Ø Slotted line consist of a section of waveguide having slot in the center of broad
side and a coupling probe moving along the wavelength which detect standing wave
pattern inside the waveguide.
Ø Tunable probe consists of a point contact or Schottky barrier diode and detect the
low frequency square wave modulating signal.
Ø VSWR meter consists of high gain, high Q, low noise voltage amplifier normally
tuned at 1 kHz at which the microwave signal is modulated.
5.3.2 Slotted Line and Related Measurements

Slotted line remains one of the most widely measurement tools for measurements of important
parameters, which include voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR), insertion loss, reflection coefficient.
You look at any measurement apparatus set-up for measurement of any of the important microwave
parameters, you would find a slotted line as an in escape component to the set-up.
The parameter under measurement could be VSWR, an unknown impedance, insertion loss,
unknown frequency or wavelength, reflection coefficient and so on. The role of the slotted line in
all cases is to allow accurate measurement of separation of two successive voltage minimize or
maximize.
Ø Slotted line is most widely used tool for measurement of important parameter like
VSWR, impedance, frequency, insertion loss and so on.
5.4 HIGH FREQUENCY LIMITATION OF ORDINARY DIODE AND

BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS (UPTU 2011; MDU 2004)
High frequency performance of conventional devices like ordinary diode or bipolar transistors gets
limited because of the following reasons:
1. Effect of inter-electrode capacitances.
2. Lead inductances.
3. Transit time effects.
Because of the above reasons we cannot use ordinary diode and bipolar transistor in microwave
detection and microwave amplifications.
1. Effect of inter-electrode capacitances

We are all familiar with inter-electrode capacitances as applied to conventional solid state device
like ordinary diode or bipolar transistor, and these can be prominently seen in their high frequency
equivalent circuit. In fact, inter-electrode capacitances are much bigger problem in conventional
solid state devices than they were in case of tubes. The reason is following: These capacitances
in case of conventional solid state devices also depend upon the width of the depletion region at
the junction which in turn depends upon the bias. The inter-electrode capacitances in case of tubes
are not so bias dependent. This makes it difficult for designer to predict the behaviour of ordinary
diode and bipolar transistor at microwave frequencies. In bipolar transistor, other problem is that
due to inter-electrode capacitances, both common emitter gain (β) and common base current gain
(α) become complex in nature having acquired reactive components.
2. Lead inductances
Lead inductance problem is less server as the semiconductor devices are smaller in size and
consequently lead lengths are also smaller. The effects of lead inductances are further minimized
by using low inductance packages and special geometries.
3. Transit time effects

Transit time effects are similar to what is experienced in case of tubes. Though the distances to
be travelled by charge carriers are much smaller in case of transistors and one may expect shorter
transit times, but it is not so. The advantage of having shorter distances in counterbalanced by
slower speeds of movement of charge carriers. Nevertheless, transistor have an upper frequency
limit that is greater than that for tubes. The transit time comprises of the emitter delay time
suffered by majority carriers, base region transit time for the injected carried depending upon base
region thickness and impurity distribution, collector depletion region transit time depending upon
with of the depletion layer, drift velocity and collector region delay time.
In view of the above, while fabricating the solid state devices, for microwave frequencies, one
needs to have small electrode areas to reduce inter-electrode capacitances and narrow active region
to reduce the transit times. In case of transistors, this really means that one should have a very
small emitter junction and a very thin base region. Various types of geometries are used by various
manufacturers. The one that is commonly used is shown in Fig. 5.14.
lis at ion
E m itt e r m et a
E m itte r
B a se m e ta lisa tion
Fig. 5.14. Transistor structure.
Ø At microwave frequencies, ordinary diodes or bipolar transistors are not used

because of inter-electrode capacitance, lead inductance and transit-time effect.
Ø Lead inductances can be minimized by using low inductance packages and special
geometries.
Ø For microwave frequencies, small electrode areas are required to reduce inter-
electrode capacitances and narrow active region to reduce the transit times.
5.5 MICROWAVE POWER MEASUREMENT (UPTU 2006; MDU 2010)
Microwave power is one of the few fundamental quantities that can be measured directly and
conveniently.
Power is defined as the quantity of dissipated or stored per unit time. The range of microwave
power is divided into these categories.
1. Low microwave power (less than 10 mW).
2. Medium microwave power (from 10 mW to 10 W).
3. High microwave power (greater than 10 W).
So three different techniques are used to measure the low, medium and high power. Microwave
power can be measured directly and conveniently.
5.5.1 Low Microwave Power Measurement (Bolometer Techniques)

(MDU 2004)
Microwave power meter used for this purpose are based on the conversion of microwave power
into thermal energy. These instruments employ sensing devices called bolometers.
Microwave power incident on the bolometer raises its temperature and change in the
temperature causes variation in the resistance of the bolometer. There are two type of bolometers:
1. Positive temperature coefficient type.
2. Negative temperature coefficient type.
Ø In bolometer, microwave power is converted into thermal energy.
1. Positive Temperature Coefficient Type

These are conductors, of which barreter is a typical example. Barretters have positive temperature
coefficient and their resistance increases with an increase in temperature. Barretter consists of a
very fine platinum wire mounted in holder and looks like an ordinary fuse as shown in Fig. 5.15(a).
S ilver sh ea th
W
/m
W
5
r
e tt e
B or r
P latinu m w ire
Tem p .
(a ) B a rre tte r stru cture (b ) C h aracteristic o f b arretter
Fig. 5.15. Barretter.
2. Negative Temperature Coefficient Type

These are semiconductor device and most popular type is thermistor. Thermistors have negative
temperature coefficient of resistance and their resistance decreases with increase in temperature.
Thermistor is costructed in the form of a small bead of semiconducting material suspended
between two fine wires as shown in Fig. 5.16. This tiny bead, about 0.04 cm in diameter, is
composed of a mixture of the oxides of maganese, cobalt, nickel and copper. It can be mounted
directly in a waveguide the thermistor is basically more sensitive than the barretter but it is also
more sensitive to the change in the ambient temperature.
Th
e rm
R
i st
Th erm istor or
60
C o ve r g la ss W/ m
W
L ea d L ea d
Tem p .
(a ) T he rm isto r stru ctu re (b ) C h ara cteristics of th erm isto r
Fig. 5.16. Thermistor.
A mount is used to attach the thermistor to the circuit. The thermistor mount provides good
impedance matching, low loss, good isolation from thermal and physical shock and good shielding
against energy leakage. A thermistor mount which connector is shown in Fig. 5.17.
A bolometer is a square law device and it produces a current that is proportional to the
applied power, i.e., square of the applied voltage, rather than the applied voltage.
Bolometer is mounted inside the waveguide as shown in Fig. 5.18, where the bolometer itself
is used as a load, with the operation resistance as R1. Now the low microwave power which is
to be measured is applied. Some power is absorbed in the bolometer load and dissipated as heat
and the resistance changes to R2. Thus (R2 − R1) is proportional to the microwave power which
can be measured using a bridge.
eed
ot exc
Is n
ee d L ow m icro w a ve
ot e xc
Is n p ow e r
C h an ge in re sista n ce
(R 2 – R 1 )
B o lo m ete r
W a ve g uid e
Fig. 5.17. hp thermistor mount with Fig. 5.18. Bolometer inside waveguide.
APC-7 connector.
Ø Barretter consists of a very fine platinum wire mounted in holder.

Ø Barretter has positive temperature coefficient.
Ø Thermistor has negative temperature coefficient.
Ø Thermistor is more sensitive than barretter.
Ø Bolometer is a square law device.
Low Power Measurement Using Balance Bridge (UPTU 2004, 2007; MDU 2008)
The balance bridge consists of a standard Wheatstone bridge with bolometer forming one of its
arm, a bolometer DC bias and DC differential amplifier as shown in Fig. 5.19.
As shown in Fig. 5.19, the bolometer is placed in one of the arms of Wheatstone bridge and
DC bolometer bias voltage is used to balance the bridge. When unknown microwave signal is
applied to bolometer arm, this will change the bolometer’s resistance causing an unbalance in the
bridge from its initial balance condition under zero incident power and non zero output is first
amplified and recorded on the voltmeter which is calibrated to read the power. The bridge balance
is restored either manually or by using self-balance circuitry comprising a feedback loop as shown
in Fig. 5.19. Only one Wheatstone bridge is used in this technique, so called known as single
balance bridge technique.
R R
–
M
+
R D iffe re ntial a m p lifier

Ze ro set
D C vo ltm e te r calibrate d to po w e r
B o lo m ete r e le m en t B o lo m ete r D C bias
M icro w ave in pu t
Fig. 5.19. Single bridge technique.
The main disadvantages with using single bridge technique are:

1. The change of resistance due to mismatch at the microwave input port results in incorrect
reading.
2. The thermistor and barretter are sensitive to change in the ambient temperature resulting
in false reading.
The problem can be eliminated by using two thermistor mount placed in thermal proximity
so that both are affected equally by changes in ambient temperature and can compensate for the
characteristics of each other, this technique is known as double balance bridge technique.
Ø Balance bridge technique consists of Wheatstone bridge, bolometer and a differential

amplifier.
Ø Self balance circuitry comprising a feedback loop to provide the path for error
signal.
Ø Main disadvantage of single bridge technique is more sensitive to temperature
change.
Double Balance Bridge Technique

In double balance bridge technique, two identical bridge are used: The upper bridge circuit measures
the microwave power and the lower bridge circuit compensates the effect of ambient temperature
variation. A typical double balance bridge for compensation is shown in Fig. 5.20.
The added microwave power due to mismatch is compensated automatically through a self
balancing circuit by decreasing the DC power V2 carried by the RF sensing thermistor until bridge
balance is restored or net change in the thermistor resistance is zero due to negative DC feedback.
The initial zero setting of the bridge is done by adjusting V2 = V1 = V0 with no microwave
input signal applied.
If R is the resistance of the thermistor at balance. The DC voltages across the thermistor
V V
arms at balance are 1 and 2 , respectively.
2 2
V2
R
R
D iffe re ntial
– a m p lifie r
R F bridg e
+
V 2 /2
Th erm istor
R
R
R F in pu t D iffe re ntial
V2 a m p lifie r
B o lo m ete r –
D C b ia s M
+
V1 D C vo ltm e ter
In itial V0 calib rate d to
zero set p ow e r
R
R V 1 /2 D iffe re ntial
a m p lifie r
–
Th erm istor
+
(te m pe rature
com p en sa tion )
R R
V1
Fig. 5.20. Double bridge technique.

The average power Pavg is equal to the change in DC power
V12 V22 V12 − V22
Pavg = − =
4R 4R 4R
Pavg =
c hc
V1 − V2 V1 + V2 h
...(5.1)
4R
For any change in the ambient temperature, if the voltage changes by, then there will be
change in the RF power is
2 2
Pavg+ =
cV 1 + ∆V h − cV 2 + ∆V h
4R 4R
2 2
Pavg+ =
cV 1 + ∆V h − cV 2 + ∆V h
4R
Pavg+ =
cV 1 + V2 h cV 1 + V2 + 2∆V h ...(5.2)
4R
Since V1 + V2 >> ∆V in practice, then second term of the equation (5.2), i.e.,
V1 + V2 + 2∆V ≈ V1 + V2, which gives the equation (5.1), so ∆P ≈ 0.
Now meter responds to equation (5.1) to give the reading of microwave power Pavg. Thus
effect of ambient change in temperature is reduce.
Ø In double balance bridge technique, two identical bridge are used.

Ø Double balance bridge technique compensates are effect of ambient temperature
change.
5.5.2 Medium Power Measurement (Calorimetric Technique)

(MDU 2010, 2009)
Any power between 10 mW to 10 W is considered medium microwave power and calorimetric
techniques are used to measure the medium microwave power. The most commonly used calorimetric
technique for measuring the medium microwave power is self-balance bridge. Figure 5.21 shows
a commercially available self balancing bridge. It consists of identical temperature sensitive resistors
(thermistor or barretter) in two arms of bridge, an indicating meter, a high gain amplifier and two
identical load resistors–One for input and other for comparison of power. The input load resistor
and input temperature sensitive resistor are placed close to each other so that heat generated in
the input load resistor raises the temperature of input temperature sensitive resistor. This results
in unbalancing the bridge. The signal due to the unbalance is amplified and applied to the
comparison load resistor which is placed near the temperature sensitive comparison resistor. Thus
heat generated in comparison load resistor is transferred to temperature sensitive comparison
resistor and bridge is rebalanced and meter record the power that is supplied to rebalance the
bridge. Thus, the incident microwave power is measured. For efficient heat transfer from load to
temperature sensitive resistor, the components are immersed in an oil stream. To maintain the
temperature, the oil streams are passed through a parallel heat exchanger. A transformer is used
to separate the 1200 Hz source (for exciting the bridge) from the meter which form the other arm
of the bridge.
A m p lifie r
C o m pa riso n
In pu t te m pe rature
te m pe rature sen sitive
sen sitive re sistor re sistor
1 20 0 H z so urce
M icrow ave
in pu t C o m pa riso n
lo ad re sistor
In pu t loa d C o m pa riso n he ad
re sistor
D C vo ltm e ter
M calib rate d to po w e r
In pu t h ea t
Pum p
H e at
e xcha n ge r
Fig. 5.21. Calorimetric technique.

Disadvantages of Self-Balance Bridge Technique

The disadvantages of self-balance bridge technique are:
1. Inherent temperature inertia of the system.
2. It cannot be adopted for low microwave power measurement.
3. It has low accuracy within ± 5%.
Ø Microwave power between 10 mW to 10 W is considered as medium microwave

power.
Ø Calorimetric technique is used for medium power measurement.
Ø In calorimetric technique, components are immersed in oil stream to maintain the
temperature.
Ø Calorimetric technique has low accuracy.
5.5.3 High Power Measurement (Calorimetric Wattmeter)

(UPTU 2006)
Any power between 10 W to 50 kW is considered high power. High power microwave measurements
can be conveniently done by calorimetric wattmeters, which in involves conversion of the microwave
energy into heat. Basically there are two type of calorimetric wattmeter.
1. Dry type calorimetric wattmeter.
2. Flow type calorimetric wattmeter.
1. Dry Type Calorimetric Wattmeter
It consists of a coaxial cable which is filled by a dielectric material with a high hysteresis loss as
shown in Fig. 5.22. It should be noted that load has sufficient thermal isolation from its surrounding.
The microwave power is dissipated in load.
The average microwave power is calculated by the relation
P =
4.18 mC p T2 − T1 c h watts ...(5.3)
t
where P = Average power in watts.
m = Mass of the dielectric load in gram.
Cp = Specific heat in cal/g.
T 2 − T1 = Temperature difference in °C.
t = Time in sec
In le t tem pe ra tu re O utle t tem pe ra ture
T1 T2
Th erm a l isolation
M icro w ave
M icro w ave D ie le ctric loa d p ow e r inp ut
p ow e r inp ut
Fig. 5.22. Dry type calorimetric wattmeter.

2. Flow Type Calorimetric Wattmeter

The flow type wattmeter uses circulating fluid (water, oil or any liquid) which is good absorber of
the microwaves. A typical schematic diagram of flow type wattmeter is shown in Fig. 5.23. The
fluid (water) after flowing through the load experiences a temperature rise due to microwave
energy. The difference between the temperature (T1) of a known quantity of fluid before entering
and temperature (T2) after it emerges is a measure of the power which has been absorbed.
O utle t tem pe ra ture
T2 In le t tem pe ra ture
W a te r o ut T1
Flow m e te r
M icro w ave po w er in pu t Pum p
W a ve g uide
G la ss tub e fo r w a ter flo w
W a te r in
Fig. 5.23. Flow type calorimetric wattmeter.
The average power is calculated by the relation
P = 4.18 R.ρ.Cp.(T2 − T1) watts ...(5.4)
where P = Average power in watts
R = Rate of flow in cm3/sec
ρ = Specific gravity in gm/cm3
Cp = Specific heat in cal/gm
T2 − T1 = Temperature difference in °C
Disadvantages of Calorimetric Wattmeter

The disadvantages of colorimetric wattmeter are:
1. High heat losses, due to conduction and radiation loss which gives error in measurement
of power.
2. Inherent thermal inertia of system.
3. Calibration and expect flow determination is difficult.
Ø Calorimetric wattmeter convert the microwave energy into heat.

Ø Dry type wattmeter consists of a coaxial cable which is filled by a dielectric
material.
Ø In flow type wattmeter, circulating fluid like oil or water is used as a heat absorber.
Ø Due to conduction and radiation losses, heat loss is more in calorimetric
wattmeter.
High Power Measurement Using Direction Coupler

High microwave power can be measure by using directional couplers or/and attenuator together
with low level power meters as shown in Fig. 5.24.
In this technique some amount of power can be sample and then low level power meter may
be used to measure the high microwave power. The advantage of this method is that it is cheaper
than the calorimetric wattmeter.
S e nso r M eter
M icrow ave × H ig h po w e r
p ow e r in p ut lo ad
D irectio n al co up le r
Fig. 5.24. High power measurement using directional coupler.
Ø High microwave power can be measure by using direction coupler.

Ø Direction coupler sample small amount of power and then low level power meter
may be used.
5.6 MEASUREMENT OF IMPEDANCE (UPTU 2011, 2004)
Impedance at microwave frequencies can be measured using any of the following methods:
1. Using magic tee. 2. Using slotted line.
3. Using reflectometer. 4. Using network analyzer.
5.6.1 Impedance Measurement Using Magic Tee

A magic tee is frequently employed in microwave impedance measuring bridges. These bridges are
similar to low frequency Wheatstone bridges. As shown in Fig. 5.25 a typical microwave impedance
bridge designed by using a magic tee.
4
M atch ed d etecto r
1 2
R e feren ce
im p ed an ce Z R L oa d Z L
M ag ic te e
Im p ed an ce to b e m e a su red
M icro w ave
g en era to r
Fig. 5.25. Impedance measurement using magic tee.

Power from a matched source is feed in the port (3) (H-arm) of the magic tee. A standard
variable impedance is connected to port (1) as reference impedance and port (2) is terminated by
the impedance to be measured. A matched detector is connected to port (4) (E-arm) to receive
power reflected from port (1) and port (2). These power will be out of (180°) phase. The reference
impedance is adjusted so as to have no signal in the detector. Under this condition the power
reflected from the reference impedance and reaching the detector (half of the reflected power)
equal the power reflected from the unknown impedance reaching the detector. Because the two
power are out of phase and the length of two ports are equal (when bridge is balanced) then
Z R − Z0 Z L − Z0
=
Z R + Z0 Z L + Z0
Z *R − 1 Z *L − 1
or = ...(5.5)
Z *R + 1 Z *L + 1
ρR and Z*R are respectively the reflection coefficient and normalized impedance for the
reference impendace, whereas ρL and Z*L are the respective quantities for the given unknown
impedance. By using equation (5.5), we can determine ZL in term of ZR.
Ø If bridge is balance then ρR = ρ L.
5.6.2 Impedance Measurement Using Slotted Line

(MDU 2007; UPTU 2008)
Slotted line is a fundamental tool for microwave measurements. It consists of a section of waveguide
with a longitudinal slot and an electric field probe enters in the waveguide slot for measurement
of the relative magnitude of field at the location of the probe. An impedance measurement set-
up using slotted line is shown in Fig. 5.26. Incident and reflected wave will be present proportional
to the mismatch of the load under test (unknown impedance) resulting in standing waves. Using
slotted line and load impedance ZL in the set-up, the position of voltage maxima (Vmax) and voltage
minima (Vmin) can be accurately determined.
C rysta l P o w er
d ete ctor m eter
M icro w ave Variab le S lotted U n kn ow n

sou rce a tte nu ater line lo a d
Fig. 5.26. Slotted line set-up terminated by unknown load.

Now the load impedance ZL is replaced by a short termination as shown in Fig. 5.27 and
the shift in minimum position is measured. If the minimum is shifted to the left, then the impedance
is inductive and if it shifts to the right, it is capacitive as shown in Fig. 5.28.
C rysta l P o w er
d ete ctor m eter
M icro w ave Variab le S lotted S h orted

sou rce a tte nu ater line te rm in ation
Fig. 5.27. Slotted line set-up with shorted termination.
V m ax Term ina ted b y

u nkno w n lo ad
V m in
In du ctive S h orted
te rm in ation
C a pacitive
Fig. 5.28. Output standing waves.

Now unknown impedancee can be obtained by using method of data recording and smith
chart.
Ø If minima is shifted to the left, then the unknown impedance is inductive.

Ø If minima is shifted to the right, then the unknown impedance is capacitive.
5.6.3 Impedance Measurement Using Reflectometer

Reflectometer is a special system which gives the direct reading of reflection coefficient of an
unknown termination over a wide range of frequency. The impedance measurement set-up using
reflectometer is shown in Fig. 5.29. In this set up two directional coupler of 20 dB coupling factor
are used. The forward 20 dB coupler samples incident power for forward detector, will be 20 dB
down or one hundred of the power output from the microwave source (C = 10 log10 (Pi /Pc)).
The power coupled to the auxiliary arm is detected and applied to the incident channel of
the ratiometer. The power will go towards the 20 dB reverse coupler is much small and is absorbed
in the internal termination of the coupler and negligible power flows to the connected detector.
R e ad in g =
R e fle cted p ow e r
= r2
In cide n t p ow e r
R a tio m ete r
Fo rw a rd de tecto r # 1 R e ve rse d e tecto r # 2

P i / 1 00 P r /10 0
M icro w ave Variab le 20 dB 20 dB L oa d

sou rce a tte nu ator Pi Pr te rm in ation
D irectio n al D irectio n al
cou pler cou pler
Fig. 5.29. Impedance measurement using reflectometer.

The remaining power impinges on the load. If the load is not matched one, or portion of
the incident power proportional to the degree of mismatch, is reflected and travels back towards
the microwave source. The reverse 20 dB coupler samples the reflected power, which is applied
to the reflected channel of ratiometer via a tuned detector.
The remaining reflected power passes through the 20 dB forward coupler connected in
reverse direction and hence the power coupled is absorbed by the internal termination. The
variable attenuator is generally provided to avoid overloading of the source due to reflected power.
There is no interaction between the two reading due to the directional properties of the couplers.
The ratiometer measures and displays the ratio of the magnitudes of reflected and incident power,
which is nothing but the reflection coefficient. Since detectors follows square law in specified range
of power we are working in, so the ratiometer is calibrated to indicate square root of detected
power. So reading of reflectometer is
Reflected power
= ρ
Incident power
We know that reflection coefficient is define as
Z L − Z0
ρ = ...(5.6)
Z L + Z0
In above relation Z0 is characteristic impedance which is known and is the reading of
ratiometer. So we can calculate the unknown load impedance ZL by using above equation. The
reflectometer accuracy is greatest at low VSWR.
Ø Reflectometer can be used to measure the impedance and VSWR.

Ø Reflectometer consist of two directional coupler and a ratiometer.
Ø Reflectometer gives the direct value of reflection coefficient.
Ø Reflectometer accuracy is greatest at low VSWR.
5.6.4 Impedance Measurement Using Network Analyser

The methods of impedance measurement discussed above are fairly time consuming and does not
lend itself to automation. Use of a network analyser is more convenient when rapid measurements
over a broad frequency range are required or when variation of impedance with respect to some
circuit parameter is to be monitored. This method is based on direct measurement of complex
reflection coefficient.
Reflection coefficient is the ratio of the reflected wave to the incident wave. Thus if the
incident wave and the reflected wave are separated and a mechanism is designed to evaluate their
complex ratio, we can measure impedance directly. A network analyser performs these functions
and may be described with the help of black diagram as shown in Fig. 5.30.
Incident and reflected waves are sampled by using two directional couples as shown in
Fig. 5.30. The directional coupler-1 couples a fraction of incident wave to branch A and the
directional coupler-2 feeds a fraction of the reflected power to the branch B. Outputs of these two
directional couplers are feed to a harmonic frequency converter which translates the frequency
from the microwave range to a fixed frequency of 278 kHz. An autotuning local oscillator and two
identical mixers are used for this purpose. The frequency conversion is usually carried out in two
steps. The two outputs at 278 kHz preserve the relative amplitude and the phase relationship of
incident and the reflected wave at microwave frequency. Phase comparison and amplitude comparison
is now carried out at 278 kHz frequency by suitable designed low frequency circuits. The phase
and amplitude information may now be given to a CRO for direct display of impedance on a smith
chart overlay placed over the CRO screen.
To p h ase-g ain in dica to r
P h ase de te ctor A m p litud e ratio
2 78 kH z 2 78 kH z
~~ ~~
A u to -turne d
M ixer M ixer
o scilla tor
D irectio n al co up le r-1 A B D irectio n al co up le r-2
D irectio n co u ple r
S o urce Pi Pr S o urce
Fig. 5.30. Impedance measurement using network analyser.

A network analyser of the type discussed above is an extremely versatile instrument and may
be used for several other measurements including the measurement of scattering parameter discussed
in section 5.7.
Ø Using network analyser, complex impedance measurement is easy.

Ø Network analyser is an extremely versatile instrument and may be used for several
measurement including scattering parameter and impedance.
5.7 NETWORK ANALYSER
Network analyser are used for amplitude and phase measurement over a wide frequency range
within a reasonable time. A network analyser is quite useful for measurement of both passive as
well as active microwave component or network parameters. It is used for measurement of both
impedance (reflection) and gain (transmission) characteristics of microwave devices. In a network
analyser, the basic principle of measurement is to generate an accurate reference signal and
compare this with test signal whose amplitude and phase are to be measured. Figure 5.31 shows
the block diagram of a network analyser.
Test sign al
DUT
(D e vice
S w e ep u nd er test) H a rm on ic A m p litud e
sig na l P o w er
fre qu e ncy a nd ph a se
g en era to r d ivid er
L en gth con ve rto r m eter
e qu alizer
R e feren ce sig na l
Fig. 5.31. Block diagram of network analyser.
Sweep signal generator is used to generate frequencies of entire range and feeds a power
divider or splitter that converts into two signals, the test signal and reference signal. The test signal
passes through the device under test (DUT), while the reference signal passes through a length
equalizer (phase equalizing line). Since processing of microwave frequency is not practical, both the
test and reference signals are converted to a fixed intermediate frequency by means of a harmonic
frequency converter. The outputs of frequency converter are then compared to determine the
amplitude and phase of the test signal. The length of the phase equalizer should be such that the
distance travelling by reference and test signal should equal. A photograph of a Anritsu, 54000 A
network analyser is shown in Fig. 5.32.
Fig. 5.32. Network analyser.

A network analyser can be scalar or vector type. Scalar network analyser provides only
magnitude characteristics of microwave devices as a function of frequency. A vector network
analyser can measure complex reflection or transmission characteristics of microwave devices.
Ø Network analyser is a key instrument for determining transmission and reflection

characteristics of microwave devices.
Ø Scalar network analyser provides only magnitude characteristics of microwave devices
as a function of frequency.
Ø Vector network analyser can measure complex reflection or transmission
characteristics of microwave devices.
5.8 VOLTAGE STANDING WAVE RATIO MEASUREMENT

(UPTU 2005, 2006; MDU 2008)
Voltage standing wave ratio (S) and the magnitude at voltage reflection coefficient (ρ) are very
important parameters which determine the degree of impedance matching. Any mismatched load
(ZL ≠ ZO) leads to reflected waves resulting in standing waves along the length of line as shown
in Fig. 5.33.
V m ax
V m ax
Volta ge
V m in
V m in
0 lg /4 lg
lg /2
Fig. 5.33. Standing wave.

The ratio of maximum to minimum voltage gives the VSWR
Vmax
i.e., VSWR (S) =
Vmin
1+ ρ
or S = ...(5.7)
1− ρ
Preflected
where ρ = is the reflection coefficient.
Pincident
Z L − Z0
Also, ρ = ...(5.8)
ZL + Z0
where ZL is load impedance
Z0 is characteristic impedance of line.
When the line is short-circuited on the load end

i.e., ZL = 0
Then reflection coefficient (ρ) = 1
and when the line is open circuited on the load end
i.e., ZL = ∞
Then reflection coefficient (ρ) = 1
VSWR of unity implies a zero reflection coefficient and thus a perfect matching i.e., ZL = Z0.
VSWR of infinity implies a unity reflection coefficient and thus a perfect mismatching.
So VSWR (S) varies from 1 to ∞ as reflection coefficient (ρ ρ ) varies from 0 to ∞ .
Voltage standing wave ratio is classified as
1. Low VSWR (less than 10).
2. High VSWR (greater than 10).
Ø The ratio of maximum to minimum voltage gives the VSWR.

Ø VSWR of unity implies a zero reflection coefficient and thus a perfect matching.
Ø VSWR of infinity implies a unity reflection coefficient and thus a perfect mismatching.
Ø VSWR and reflection coefficient determine the degree of impedance matching.
5.8.1 Measurement of Low VSWR (Less than 10)

(UPTU 2007; MDU 2010)
VSWR and the magnitude of reflection coefficient are very important parameters which determine
the degree of impedance matching. These parameters are also used for the measurement of load
impedance. Values of VSWR not exceeding 10 are very easily measured with slotted line set-up
shown in Fig. 5.34. The measurement basically consists of simply adjusting the attenuator to give
an adequate reading on the meter (DC millivoltmeter). The probe on the slotted waveguide is
moved to get maximum reading on the meter (corresponding to Vmax).
C rysta l D C m illi-
d ete ctor voltm eter
M icro w ave Variab le S lotted

sou rce a tte nu ator line
Fig. 5.34 Measurement of low VSWR.

Next the probe on the slotted line is adjusted to get minimum reading on the meter
(corresponding to Vmin). The ratio of reading of Vmax and Vmin, i.e., Vmax/Vmin gives the voltage
standing wave ratio. The meter itself can be calibrated in terms of VSWR. In this case, the probe
carriage is moved to give maximum deflection on the VSWR meter by adjusting the attenuator.
This full scale deflection (FSD) corresponding to a VSWR of 1. As an example a FSD of 15 mV
corresponds to a VSWR of 1. The travelling probe is adjusted to get minimum reading on the
meter. If this corresponds to 5 mV, then VSWR = 15 mV/5 mV = 3. If minimum reading is
3.5 mV, VSWR = 4.3, if it is 2.5 mV, VSWR = 6, if it is 1 mV, VSWR = 15 etc. i.e., such a
Calibrated VSWR meter gives an expanded scale upto on VSWR of 2 but VSWR > 10, the meter
will be congested and the measurement will not be accurate for VSWR > 10. Hence, this method
is not useful for VSWR greater than 10.
Errors in Low VSWR Measurement

Following may be the possible source of error in the low VSWR measurement technique.
1. The frequency instability in the source will cause standing wave to shift while measurements
are performed. They may arise mainly due to mechanical vibrations, thermal changes, too
close coupling between the oscillator tube and the measuring bench or inadequate regulations
of source tube.
2. Vmax and Vmin may not be measured in square law region of the crystal detector. Microwave
crystal detectors are usually made of germanium and silicon crystal, their characteristics
are strongly dependent upon the contact between the wire and semiconductor and is
subjected to defects such as uncertain response law.
3. The probe thickness and depth of penetration may produce reflection in the line and also
distortion in the field to be measured. Depth of penetration should be kept as small as
possible otherwise value of VSWR measured be lower than actual.
4. Mechanical slope between the slot geometry and probe movement may cause different
values of VSWR for mesurement at different values of VSWR.
5. Any harmonics and spurious signal from the source may be tuned by the probe to cause
measurement error.
Ø Frequency instability in the source will cause standing wave to shift while
measurements are performed.
Ø Depth of penetration should be kept as small as possible otherwise value of VSWR
measured will be lower than actual.
5.8.2 Measurement of High VSWR (Greater than 10)

For high VSWR, the difference of power at voltage maximum and voltage minimum is large, so
it would be difficult to remain on the detector’s square-law region at maximum position when the
diode current may exceed 20 µA. Therefore, VSWR measurement with a VSWR meter calibrated
on a square-law basis (I = kV2) will be inaccurate. Hence double minimum method is used for
measurement of high VSWR.
Double Minimum Method

In the double minimum method, a slotted lined set-up is used and the probe is inserted to a depth
where the minimum point can be read without difficulty. The probe is then moved to a point where
the power is twice the minimum. Let this position is denoted by x1 at shown in Fig. 5.35.
The probe is then moved to twice the power point on the other side of the minima say x2.
We know that power is directly proportional square of voltage
i.e., Pmin ∝ V2min
At the point, where power is double
2Pmin ∝ V2x
Vx is the voltage at points where power is double

2
Vmin 1
∴ = ...(5.9)
Vx2 2
Vx = 2 Vmin
Vo lta ge
Dx
Vx = 2 V m in
3 dB
V m in
x1 x m in x2
x
D ista nce in cm
Fig. 5.35. Double minima method.
From the transmission line theory, the line voltage at a distance from the load end is
V(x) = |Vinc||1 + ρej(φ − 2βx)| ...(5.10)
where ρ = Reflection coefficient
β = Propagation constant
Vinc = Voltage at load end
V(x) = Voltage at distance x
b
V(x) = Vinc 1 + ρ cos φ − 2βx + ρ ⋅ j sin φ − 2βx g b g
1
|V(x)| = Vinc LMd1 + ρ cos bφ − 2βxgi + dρ sin bφ − 2βxgi OP

2 2 2
N Q
1
|V(x)| = Vinc 1 + ρ cos bφ − 2βx g + 2ρ cos bφ − 2βx g + ρ
2 2 2
b
sin 2 φ − 2βx g 2
o b
|V(x)| = Vinc 1 + ρ2 cos 2 φ − 2βx + sin 2 φ − 2βx g b gt + 2ρ cos bφ − 2βxg 2
1
|V(x)| = V 1 + ρ2 + 2ρ cos φ − 2βx
inc b g 2 ...(5.11)
π
The minimum value of voltage (minimum power point) can be obtain when φ − 2βx =
2
then from equation (5.11).
Vmin = Vinc (1 − ρ) at x = xmin ...(5.12)
If x1 and x2 are the two point around xmin where power is double.
From equation [5.10 (a)]

c h
Vx = V x1 = V x2 c h= 2 Vmin ...(5.13)
∴
c h
V x1
= ...(5.14)
Vmin 2
Now, substituting the equations (5.11) and (5.13) in equation (5.14), we get
1
2 =
c
1 + 2 ρ cos φ − 2βx1 + ρ2 h 2
...(5.15)
1− ρ
S −1
By substituting ρ = in equation (5.15), VSWR can be expressed as
S +1
LM F S − 1I F S − 1IJ OP 2
1+ 2G J cos cφ − 2βx h + G
MN H S + 1K H S + 1K PQ 1
2 =
LM1 − F S − 1I OP 2
MN GH S + 1JK PQ
LMNbS + 1g + 2 bS − 1g bS + 1g cos bφ − 2βx g + bS − 1g OPQ
2
1
2
2 = ...(5.16)
4
Now, solving for VSWR (S), we get
1
LM F 2π cx − x h I OP
1 min
2
2 − cos G 2
JK P
MN H λ Q g
S = ...(5.17)
F e2π cx − x hj I
sin G JJ
1 min
GH λ K g
2π
where β = is propagation constant and λg is the guide wavelength.
λg
If x1 is the point in the vicinity of xmin
∆x = x2 − x1 = 2 (x1 − xmin) ...(5.18)
1
LM F π∆x I OP 2
2 − cos G
H λ JK PP
2
MM g
S =
MM sin FG π∆x IJ PP
2
MN H λ K PQ
g
1
LM F π∆x I OP 2
1 + 1 − cos G
H λ JK PP
2
S =
MM g
MM sin FG π∆x IJ PP
2
NM H λ K QP
g
1
LM F π∆x I + cos F π∆x I − cos F π∆x I OP 2
1 + sin G
H λ JK GH λ JK GH λ JK P
2 2 2
MM g g g
PP
S =
MM F π∆x I
MN
sin G
2
H λ JK PP
g Q
1
LM F π∆x I OP
2
1 + sin G
H λ JK PP
2
MM g
S =
MM sin π∆x PP
2
λ
MN g
PQ
1
LM 2OP
MM 1 + 1PP
S =
2 MM sin FG π∆x IJ PP
MN H λ K PQ
g
1 + cosec G
F π∆x I
H λ JK
2
S =
g
Since, π∆x << λg

F π∆x I
S ≈ cosec GH λ JK
g
1
S ≈
F π∆x I
sin GH λ JK
g
λg
VSWR (S) ≅ ...(5.19)
π∆x
where ∆x = x2 − x1 the distance between successive twice minimum point.
Double minima method follows the steps give below:
1. The probe is move to the a voltage minimum point, say xmin.
2. Now probe is move to get 2 Vmin (double power point) point in the right side and note
the distance say x2.
3. Now probe is move to get other 2 Vmin (double power) point in the left side and note
the scale reading, say x1.
4. By moving the probe between two successive minima, a distance equal to the λg/2 is
found to determine the guide wavelength λg.
Or
For dominant mode (TE10), λc = 2a
c
λo =
f
and we can calculate the guide wavelength (λg) using the relation.
λo
λg =
Fλ I
1− G J
2
Hλ K
o
5. Now high VSWR can be calculate from

λg
S =
c
π x 2 − x1 h
Double minima method is used for measurement of high VSWR.
5.8.3 Measurement of Very Low VSWR

When the VSWR is very low in order of 2 or 3, the minimum will be very broad and it may be
difficult to locate its position accurately.
In this case, better results can be obtained by measuring side of the voltage minimum, at
which the voltage is roughly the means of the minimum and maximum voltage (either the geometric
or the arithmetic means can be taken) as shown in Fig. 5.36.
Vmax
Vmax. Vmin
Vmin
Voltage
Distance along the slotted section

Fig. 5.36. Measurement of very low VSWR.
The minimum is located midway between these points. Similarly, the maximum point can
also be located.
5.8.4 VSWR Measurement Using Reflectometer (UPTU 2009)

The value of VSWR may be measured without a slotted line by using reflectometer. Reflectometer
is a special system which allows rapid measurement of VSWR of an unknown termination over
wide frequency ranges.
Reflectometer technique is explain in section 5.6.3. As discussed the reading of reflectometer
gives the value of reflection coefficient. After knowing the reflection coefficient, we can easily
calculate the VSWR by using relation.
1+ ρ
S =
1− ρ
Ø When VSWR is very low, then minimum will be very broad and it may difficult to
locate its position accurately.
Ø The value of VSWR may be measured without a slotted line by using reflectometer.
5.9 MICROWAVE FREQUENCY OR WAVELENGTH MEASUREMENT
Microwave frequency can be measured by a number of different mechanical and electronic techniques.
The mechanical devics commonly use circuit elements such as slotted lines and resonant cavities.
The electronic devices are primarily frequency counters and high frequency heterodyne systems
which compare harmonics of a known lower frequency with the unknown microwave frequency.
Although electronic frequency measuring systems are usually more complex and expensive than
the mechanical methods of measurement, the electronic systems are capable of considerably high
accuracy. So mainly three techniques are used for measure the microwave frequency.
1. Use of resonant cavities (wavemeter).
2. Use of slotted line.
3. Electronic technique.
5.9.1 Measurement of Frequency Using Resonant Cavities (Wavemeter)

(UPTU 2004)
This constitutes the most commonly used type of microwave frequency meters, also called
wavemeters. Structure and working of wavemeter is described in chapter 3, section 3.20. For
detail discussion about the frequency measurement using wavemeter, refer to section 3.20.
5.9.2 Measurement of Frequency Using Slotted Line

An alternative method of determining the frequency is to use a slotted line as shown in Fig. 5.37.
The slotted line is terminated by a short-circuit so that a standing wave pattern appears.
C rysta l D C m illi-
d ete ctor voltm ete r
M icro w ave Variab le S lotted

L oa d
sou rce a tte nu ator line
Fig. 5.37. Frequency measurement using slotted line.

Since the distance xmin between two successive minima of voltage standing wave pattern in
a short-circuited line is half wavelength (λg/2).
λg
i.e., = xmin
2
λg = 2xmin
where λg is guided wavelength.
Distance between minima (xmin) is measured by slotted line probe carriage.
We know that the relation between guided wavelength λg, cut-off wavelength λc and signal
wavelength λo is given by:
λo
λg = ...(5.20)
Fλ I
1− G o
2
H λ JK c
Since λc = 2a, a is dimension of waveguide. So, signal wavelength (λo) can by calculated by
using above relations and frequency may be calculated as,
30
f (GHz) = ...(5.21)
λ o cm a f
Accuracies obtained with this technique are usually limited to approximately 1 per cent,
because the guided wavelength depends critically on the waveguide dimensions.
Ø Distance between two successive minima of voltage standing wave pattern in a

short circuited line is half wavelength.
Ø For dominant TE10 mode, cut-off wavelength is λ c = 2a.
5.9.3 Electronic Technique for Frequency Measurement

This technique is based on the comparison of the unknown frequency with a harmonic of the
known standard frequency. A black diagram of the electronic technique for measurement of
microwave frequency is shown in Fig. 5.38. The block diagram is consist of frequency source,
harmonic generator, a frequency mixer and a null beat indicator.
U n kn ow n freq ue ncy
Variab le
H a rm on ic N u ll be at
fre qu e ncy M ixer
g en era to r in d icato r
sou rce
C o un te r
Fig. 5.38. Electronic technique for frequency measurement.

Signal from a stable frequency source is amplified and feed to a harmonic generator which
provides a combination of frequencies in the desired microwave range. This harmonic generator
output is mixed with the unknown signal frequency. If the frequency of the stable frequency source
is varied and the mixer output connected through a detector such as an oscilloscope, beat frequency
output can be observed. Frequency of stable frequency source is measured for the null beat
condition. The unknown frequency is an integral multiple of this value. The value of the integral
multiplier can be obtained by noting the next higher frequency which produces null beat. If two
frequencies are f1 and f2, the unknown frequency f may be found by the following equations:
nf1 = f
(n − 1) f2 = f
Eliminating n we can get the unknown microwave frequency

f1 f2
f = ...(5.22)
cf 2
− f1 h
Since f1 and f2 can be measured very accurately, this method provides very precise frequency
measurements. In fact, this method is often used to calibrate resonate cavity type wavemeter
describe in section 3.20.
Ø Electronic frequency measurement technique is based on the comparison of unknown

frequency with a harmonic of the known standard frequency.
Ø Electronic technique provides very precise frequency measurement.
5.10 MEASUREMENT OF ATTENUATION (UPTU 2011)
The term attenuation is defined as the ratio of either the power level or voltage level in decibels
between two points in the circuit. Hence, attenuation of a component under test will be the ratio
expressed in decibels, of the power absorbed by the load without the component in the line to the
power absorbed by the load with the component in the line, when the signal sources under load
are perfectly matched.
Thus,
α ) = 10 log10
F P I dB
1
Attenuation (α GH P JK
2
...(5.23)
where P1 = Power absorbed by the load without the given component in the line.
P2 = Power absorbed by the load with the given component in the line.
The amount of attenuation can be measured by using power ratio method.
Power Ratio Method

Power ratio method involves measuring the power (P1) without the given component or device in
the line and power (P2) with the given component or device in the line. The set-up for measurement
of attenuation is shown in Fig. 5.39. The reading of power of Fig. 5.39(a) gives the power
absorbed by the load without the given device in the line.
Now given device, whose attenuation is to be measured is inserted between the frequency
meter and slotted line as shown in Fig. 5.39(b). Now the meter reading of set-up shown in
Fig. 5.39(b) gives the power absorbed by the load with the given device or component in the line.
The ratio of powers P1/P2 expressed in decibels gives the attenuation in dB. The disadvantage
of this method power meter with the square law crystal detector have the non-linear characteristics.
Because of non-linear characteristics of detector, the both powers (P1 and P2) measured and
attenuation will not be accurate.
C rysta l P o w er
P 1 w atts
d ete ctor m eter
M icro w ave Variab le S lotted M atch ed

sou rce a tte nu ator line lo a d
(a ) M ea sure m en t o f p ow er P 1
C rysta l P o w er P 2 w a tts
d ete ctor m eter
D e vice w h ose
M icro w ave Variab le S lotted M atch ed
a tte nu ation is
sou rce a tte nu ator line lo ad
to b e m e asured
(b ) M ea sure m en t o f p ow e r P 2
Fig. 5.39. Set-up for power ratio method for attenuation measurement.
Ø Attenuation is ratio of the power absorbed by the load without the device under
test in the line to the power absorbed by the load with device under test in line.
Ø Attenuation is normally expressed in decibels.
5.11 MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION PATTERN OF ANTENNA

(UPTU 2011)
Of all antenna measurements considered, the radiation pattern is the most demanding in measurement
steps. Any antenna radiates to some degree in all direction into the space surrounding it. Therefore,
the radiation pattern of an antenna is a three-dimensional representation of magnitude, phase, and
polarization of the electromagnetic field. The radiation pattern of an antenna is a diagram of field
strength or more often the power intensity as a function of the aspect angle at a constant distance
from the radiating antenna. An antenna pattern consists of several lobes, the main lobes and the
back lobes. The major power is concentrated in the main lobe and it is normally to keep the power
in side lobes and back lobe as low as possible. In most cases the radiation in one particular plane
of interest, usually the plane corresponding to that of the earth’s surface, regardless of the
polarization of antenna. Measurement of radiation pattern should therefore be made in a plane
nearly parallel to the earth’s surface. As we all know that horn antenna is most commonly used
microwave antenna, hence measurement of radiation pattern of horn antenna is given in this
section. The radiation pattern of horn antenna is shown in Fig. 5.40. Physically the horn is simply
a tapered section of waveguide providing a transition between a waveguide and free space as
shown in Fig. 5.41.
R e la tive po w er in d B
0
–3
M ain lob e of an te nn a
w ith ga in G d B
–G
L ob e o f om nidirection al a nte nn a
S ide lo be
B a ck lob e
(a) Antenna radiation pattern (b) Actual view of three dimensional

standard horn antenna pattern
Fig. 5.40. Radiation pattern of horn antenna.
Fig. 5.41. Horn antenna.

Procedure
1. Set the components and equipments as shown in Fig. 5.42.
2. Same type of transmitting and receiving horn antennas are used, keeping the axis of both
antennas in the same axis line. Space between the both antenna should be about
150 cm at start. This technique involves a receiving antenna placed on rotatable stand
and rotated about the azimuth to generate a two-dimensional pattern.
3. Receiving horn antenna is followed by a crystal detector and crystal detector output is
connected to the VSWR meter.
VSW R
m eter
H o rn H o rn
M icro w ave Fre q ue ncy Variab le D e tecto r
Isolator
sou rce m eter a tte nu ator m ou nt
180°
0°
R o ta tab le
90°
sta n d
Fig. 5.42. Set-up for radiation measurement.
4. Switch on the power supply and keep the axis of both antenna in the same axis line
(i.e., 0° ).
5. The variable attenuator is set accordingly for maximum deflection at the VSWR meter.
6. Turn the receiving horn antenna to left in 5° steps upto 90° and note the corresponding
VSWR (in dB) meter reading.
7. Repeat the above step but this time turn the receiving horn to the right side and note
down the VSWR meter reading.
8. Plot the radiation pattern on polar co-ordinates. A polar co-ordinates plot or polar graph
is shown in Fig. 5.43.
A zim u th 0°
0 dB
–5 dB
4 5° – 10 dB 4 5°
– 15 dB
– 20 dB
– 25 dB
Fig. 5.43. Polar plot.

Photograph of microwave bench set-up for horn radiation pattern is shown in Fig. 5.43 (a).
Fig. 5.43 (a). Microwave bench set-up for radiation pattern measurement.
Example 5.1. Calculate the VSWR of a transmission line operating at 10 GHz. Assume
TE10 wave propagating inside of a waveguide of dimensions a = 4 cm, b = 3 cm. The distance
between twice minimum power point is 2 mm on a slotted line.
Solution. Given
Waveguide operating frequency f = 10 GHz; waveguide dimensions a = 4 cm, b = 3 cm;
distance between twice minimum power point x2 − x1 = 2 mm; mode of propagation = TE10.
From the waveguide theory, guide wavelength is given by
λo
λg =
Fλ I
1− G J o
2
Hλ K c
For the TE10 mode λc = 2a = 2 × 4

= 8 cm
c 3 × 108
Free space wavelength λo = =
f 10 × 109
= 3 cm
3
Then λg = = 3.24 cm
F 3I
1− G J
2
H 8K
For the double minima method, VSWR is given by
λg
VSWR =
c
π x2 − x1 h
3.24
= = 5.15
b g
π 0.2
VSWR = 5.15
Example 5.2. A slotted line is used to measure VSWR of the load at 8 GHz by double
minima method. If the distance between the positions of twice minimum power is 0.5 cm.
Find the value of VSWR on the line and magnitude of the voltage reflection coefficient.
Solution. Given
Frequency inside the slotted line = 8 GHz
Distance between the twice minimum point (x2 − x1) = 0.5 cm
c 3 × 108
Guide wavelength, λg = =
8 × 109 8 × 109
λg = 3.75 cm
For the double minima method, VSWR is given by
λg
VSWR =
c
π x2 − x1 h
3.75
VSWR =
b g
π 0.5
VSWR = 2.38
Reflection coefficient is given by
VSWR − 1 2.38 − 1
ρ = =
VSWR + 1 2.38 + 1
Reflection coefficient ρ = 0.41
Example 5.3. A slotted line is used to determine the VSWR value of a waveguide.
Adjacent null positions are located at 13.31 cm and 15.45 cm on slotted line scale. If the
twice minimum power point is 2 mm. What is the value of VSWR?
Solution. We know that the distance between the adjacent null is equal to the half of the
guide wavelength, i.e.,
λg
= 15.45 − 13.31 = 2.14 cm
2
Guide wavelength λg = 4.28 cm
and distance between twice minimum power point (x2 − x1) is given 2 mm
For twice minimum method, VSWR is given by
λg
VSWR =
b g
π 0.2
4.28
VSWR =
b g
π 0.2
VSWR = 6.81
Example 5.4. A slotted line is used association with X-band microwave source. When
the line is terminated by a short-circuit, adjacent nulls are found at positions which are shown
as 9.27 cm and 11.20 cm. What is the value of the guide wavelength? If the mode of
propagation is TE10 and the wider dimension of the waveguide is 2.5 cm, then determine the
frequency of the microwave source.
Solution. Given
Mode of propagation = TE10; Wider dimension of waveguide a = 2.5 cm; Adjacent null
position = 9.27 cm and 11.20 cm.
We know that the distance between the adjacent null is equal to the half of the guide
wavelength, i.e.,
λg
= 11.20 − 9.27 = 1.93 cm
2
Guide wavelength λg = 3.86 cm
For TE10 mode (dominant mode), cut-off wavelength is given by
λc = 2a = 2 × 2.5
= 5 cm
Relation between λg and λc is given by

λo
λg =
1−
Fλ I o
2
GH λ JK
c
λo
3.86 =
1−
FG λ IJ
o
2
H5K
3.86
Fλ I
1−G J o
2
= λo
H5K
F1 + λ I
2
= λ2o
14.89 = GH 25JKo
14.89 (25 + λo2) = 25 λo2

372.25 + 14.89 λ2o = 25 λo2
372.25
λo2 =
1011
.
= 3.18 cm
So the frequency of the microwave source will be
c 3 × 1010
f = =
λo 318
.
Frequency of source f = 9.43 GHz
Example 5.5. Two identical 20 dB directional couplers are used in a waveguide to

sample the incident and reflected powers. The output of the forward and reverse directional
coupler are 3.5 mW and 0.25 mW respectively. Find the VSWR in the waveguide.
Solution. Given
Coupling coefficient of directional couples = 20 dB; Reading of forward directional coupler
= 3.5 mW; Reading of reverse directional coupler = 0.35 mW.
Coupling coefficient of directional coupler is given by
Pi
C = 10 log10
Pc
For the 20 dB directional coupler.
Pi Pi
Pc = 2
=
10 100
If the power in forward direction is Pi and in reverse direction is Pr.
Pi
Then the output of 20 dB forward coupler is , i.e.,
100
Pi
= 3.5 mW
100
Incident power Pi = 350 mW
Similarly the output of the 20 dB reverse coupler is
Pr
= 0.25 mW
100
Reflected power = 25 mW
Reflection coefficient of a transmission line is given by
Reflected power Pr
ρ = =
Incident power Pi
25
ρ = = 0.257
350
and VSWR is
1+ ρ
VSWR =
1− ρ
1 + 0.257
VSWR =
1 − 0.257
VSWR in the waveguide = 1.73
Example 5.6. Two identical 30 dB directional coupler are used to sample the reflectd
power in waveguide. If VSWR is 3 and the output of the coupler sampling the incident power
is 5.2 mW. What will be the reflected power? (UPTU 2011)
Solution. Given
Coupling coefficient of couplers = 30 dB; VSWR = 3; Output of the forward coupler
= 5.2 mW.
We know that
VSWR − 1
Reflection coefficient ρ =
VSWR + 1
3−1
ρ = = 0.5
3+1
For the 30 dB coupler, output of the forward coupler is
Pi
C = 10 log10
Pc
Pi
= 5.2 mW
103
Incident power Pi = 5200 mW

Pr
Reflection coefficient ρ =
Pi
Pr
0.5 =
5200
Pr = (0.5)2 × 5200 = 1300 mW
Reflected power Pr = 1.3 W
Example 5.7. A reflectometer is used in a measurement set-up shown in Fig. 5.44.

Determine the reflection coefficient and VSWR.
P o w er m ete r P o w er m ete r
R e ad in g R e ad in g
20 m W 20 m W
Fo rw a rd R e ve rse
M icro w ave d ire ctio na l d ire ctio na l
Pad cou pler cou pler Pr L oa d
sou rce Pi
(3 0 d B ) (2 0 d B )
Fig. 5.44
Solution. If the incident and the reflected power are Pi and Pr respectively.
The output of the 30 dB forward directional coupler will be
Pi
= 20 mW (meter reading)
103
Then incident power Pi = 20 × 103 mW = 20 W
Similarly, the output of the 20 dB reverse directional coupler will be
Pr
= 20 mW (meter reading)
102
Reflecting power, Pr = 20 × 102 mW = 0.2 W
Reflection coefficient is given by
Pr
ρ =
Pi
0.2
ρ =
2
Reflection coefficient ρ = 0.316
1+ρ
and VSWR is given by VSWR =
1−ρ
1 + 0316
.
VSWR =
1 − 0316
.
VSWR = 1.924
5.12 DETECTION OF MICROWAVE SIGNALS
Detection of microwave signals is done for the measurement of relative power level which is by
the conversion of microwave signal in DC signal, which is nothing but rectification.
5.12.1 Types of Microwave Detector

Following diode are used to detect the microwave frequencies:
1. Point Contact Diode or Crystal Diode

Point contact, diodes, commonly called crystals, are the oldest microwave semiconductor devices.
They were developed during World War-II for microwave detection and mixing applications. It has
a metal semiconductor junction unlike conventional pn-junction diode as shown in Fig. 5.45. Such
a device having metal-semiconductor junction is a majority carrier device and is therefore free of
all the ill effects of the minority carrier storage associated with the devices using both majority and
minority carriers. Absence of minority carrier charge storage capacitance makes point contact
diode and schottky barrier diode particularly attractive for detection and mixing applications.
Unlike the pn-junction diode, the point contact diode depends on the pressure of contact
between a point and a semiconductor crystal for its operation. Figure 5.45 (a) and (b), illustrate
a point contact diode. One section of the diode consists of a small rectangular crystal of n-type
silicon. A find beryllium-copper, bronze-phosphor, or tungsten wire called the whisker presses
against the crystal and forms the other part of the diode. During the manufacture of the point
contact diode, a relatively large current is passed from the whisker to the silicon crystal. The result
of this large current is the formation of a small region of p-type material around the crystal in the
vicinity of a point contact. Thus, a pn-junction is formed which behaves in the same way as a
normal pn-junction.
C a t-w h iske r
M eta l
p ost P o in t P o in t co ntact p -reg io n
con tact
C a t-w h iske r
w ire p -reg io n
C rysta l n -reg io n
n -reg io n
M eta l p la te
M eta l p ost M eta l p la te
L ea d
(a ) Stru cture o f p oint co nta ct d io de (b ) p -reg io n aro un d po in t
Fig. 5.45. Point contact diode or crystal diode.

The pointed wire is used instead of a flat metal point to produce a high-intensity electric field
at the point contact without using a large external source voltage. It is not possible to apply large
voltages across the average semiconductor because of the excessive heating.
The characteristics of point contact diode under forward and reverse bias are some what
different from those of the junction diode. With forward bias, the resistance of point contact diode
is higher than of the junction diode. With reverse bias, the current flow through a point contact
diode is not as independent of the voltage applied to the crystal as it is in the junction diode.
Ø Point contact diode is also known as crystal diode.

Ø Point contact diode has metal-semiconductor junction and used for microwave
detection and mixing applications.
2. Schottky Barrier Diode

For microwave detection and mixing applications, point contact diodes has invariably been replaced
by schottky barrier diodes due to latter’s lower forward resistance, higher burn out rating, better
noise performance and better reliability. Schottky barrier diode, also called the hot carrier
diode, it is an extension of the concept of the metal semiconductor junction used to advantage
in the point contact diode discussed in the preceding section with difference that metal-semiconductor
interface in case of a schottky barrier diode is a surface rather than a point as was the case in
a point contract diode. Like the point contact diode, it has the advantage that it is a majority
carrier device and there is no storage of minority carriers when the device is reverse biased with
the result that the delay associated with removal of stored charge is absent. This leads to increased
speed in case of these devices.
The construction of metal semiconductor
schottky barrier diode is shown in Fig. 5.46. A thin M eta l W ind ow s M eta lliza tion
+
layer of n type silicon is cleaned and polished flat.
This is called the substrate. An n-type active layer S iO 2 laye r
about 2 micron thick is grown epitaxially over the E p itaxial la ye r
substrate. A thin SiO2 layer is grown thermally over +
n –Si
the active layer. Window are etched in oxide layer S u bstra te
to open out areas for metal-semiconductor junction.
The metal is deposited by vacuum evaporation and
Fig. 5.46. Schottky barrier diode.
excess metal over the surrounding areas is etched
out by photetching process.
Schottky barrier diodes have several advantages over point contact diodes. The advantages
of schottky barrier diodes are higher burn out rating, lower noise and better reliability. Most of
these features result from the use of superior and advanced technology. Due to these reason
schottky barrier diodes are gradually replacing point contact diodes.
Both these diode are square law devices, i.e., output current is proportional to square
of electric field at the point where the diode is placed. Thus the output current is a direct
measure of power.
Ø Schottky barriers diode has surface metal semiconductor interface rather than
point contact as in case of point contact diode.
Ø Schottky barrier diode is also called the hot carrier diode.
Ø Point contact and schottky diode are square law device, i.e., output current is
proportional to square of electric field at point where diode is placed.
5.12.2 Detector Mount

The detector diodes are usually available in the type of package as shown in Fig. 5.47. Not only
the detector, but its mounting structure has also to be designed carefully for use at microwave
frequencies.
M eta l (ca th od e)
C e ram ic
Tun gs te n w isk er
S ilico n ch ip
M eta l (a n od e)
Fig. 5.47. Detector mount.

The package mounting in the circuit is designed carefully so that the parasitic reactances
introduced are minimum.
The detector diode may be mounted in a coaxial line as shown in Fig. 5.48(a) or a waveguide
as shown in Fig. 5.48(b). In both cases, the diode is mounted across the transmission line and other
end of the transmission line is shorted. The distance between the shorted end and the diode can
be adjusted by tuning plunger and hence it is useful for various frequencies. The detector output
is normally available at a coaxial (BNC) connector.
The performance of the detector is given in terms of current sensitivity which is given by
R F co nn e cto r
D io d e
Tu nn in g sh ort
In pu t
B N C (co axial) con ne ctio n
C o axia l lin e
D e tecte d ou tp ut
In ne r con d ucto r
(a ) C o axia l d e tecto r
D e tecte d ou tp ut
B N C (co a xial co n ne ctor)
R F ch oke
In pu t
D io d e
Tap er
Tu nn in g sh ort
W a ve g uid e
(b ) W a ve g uid e de te ctor
Fig. 5.48. Detector diode with coaxial line and waveguide.
∆i
β =
P
where P = Input power
β = Current sensitivity
∆i = Increase in short-circuit current resulting from an available input power P.
Detector mount should design carefully to reduce the parasitic reactances.

In detector mount, diode is mounted across the transmission line and other end of
line is shorted.
The detected output is normally available at coaxial (BNC) connector.
5.13 MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION LINK
For microwave signal, the mode of propagation between two radio antennas may include a direct
(line-of-sight) path but also a refracted path from troposphere and a path reflected from earth
surface as shown in Fig. 5.49. For the frequencies in microwave band, the line-of-sight (LOS)
propagation mode is predominant mode available for use, the other modes may cause interference
with the stronger LOS path. LOS path exists when there is a direct path between two points no
obstructions (e.g., building, trees, hills, or mountains) between them.
40 km
Mountains Buildings
Lakes
Repeater Repeater
station station Repeater
Terminal station
Earth's surface Terminal
station
station
Fig. 5.49. Microwave communication link.
Line-of-sight links are limited in distance due to curvature of earth. If the tower are too far
apart, the earth will get in the way. In order to overcome the problem of line-of-sight, microwave
system use repeaters between the transmitter and receiver as shown in Fig. 5.49. The function
of repeater is receive the signal amplify and re-transmit the signal to next station. The distance
between repeaters can be upto 40 km or more some time upto 100 km, depending on terrain
topology and height of tower.
The distance between repeaters is roughly equal to the cube root of the tower height. For
example, repeaters can be spaced 90 km apart if towers height is approximately 100 m.
Microwave transmission is a line-of-sight (LOS) link.

For long distance communication, repeater are used at distance 40–50 km.
5.13.1 Microwave Link Design
Parameters Affecting Microwave Link Design

Various parameters that affect microwave LOS link design are:
1. Attenuation 2. Free space loss
3. Noise 4. Atmospheric absorption
5. Multipath propagation 6. Refraction.
1. Attenuation
Attenuation is the reduction of signal strength during transmission. It is just the opposite of
amplification. Its unit is dB (decibel) or more generally it is measured exponentially. The various
causes of attenuation are rain attenuation, attenuation due to trees, long distance attenuation,
other climatic factors such as snow, wind, fog etc. Attenuation is an inherent characteristics of RF
signal and also is very important in the design aspect. So it should be taken into consideration
while designing and calculating the RSL (receive signal level) of RF signal between two stations.
Attenuation is directly proportional to the frequency. That means the RF signal gets significantly
attenuated at higher frequencies and there is less effect of attenuation at lower frequencies.
A ∝ f
where, A = Attenuation
f = Frequency.
of course, there are some loss (signal attenuation) in transmitter as well as in receiver, however
the major attenuation occurs in the transmission medium between transmitting and receiving
antennas of two stations.
The radio signal get attenuated exponentially with A (dB )
distance while propagating as shown in Fig. 5.50. From
f2
Fig. 5.50, it is clear that keeping transmission distance (d)
fixed, the higher frequency (f2) gets attenuated significantly DA 2
than does the lower frequency (f1) signal. It is also observed f1
that when the transmission distance is near, then the selection
of frequency (microwaves antenna of certain frequency) is DA 1
not so important because there is not much difference (∆A1)
between the attenuation occurred by higher frequency and d km
lower frequency whereas it is very much important to choose Fig. 5.50. Attenuation vs distance.
the appropriate frequency (microwave antenna) when the
transmission distance is far because there is significant difference (∆A2) between the attenuation
occurred due to higher and lower frequencies. One should choose the lower frequency microwave
antenna to establish the link between the two stations located quite far away from each other.
2. Free Space Loss
In free space signals propagate in straight line independent of their frequency. If such a straight
line exist between any transmitter and a receiver it is a called line-of-sight.
If no medium (source of attenuation) exist between transmitter and receiver, the signal
experiences free space loss. In other words, free space loss is the loss that would occur in a region
which is free of all object that might absorb or reflect radio energy. This represents the ideal case
which we hope to approach in our real world microwave link (in fact, it is possible to have path
loss which is less than free space loss).
Free space loss can express in term of difference between transmitted and received power
(both in dB), i.e.,
[Lfs]dB = Pt − Pr (Both in dB) ...(5.24)
Calculation of Free Space Loss

Calculation of free space loss is quite simple. Consider a transmitter with power Pt coupled to an
antenna which radiates equally in all direction (hypothetical isotropic antenna). At a distance d from
the transmitter, the radiated power is distributed uniformly over an area of 4πd2 (i.e., the surface
area of sphere of radius d).
Thus power flux density is
Pt
SR = ...(5.25)
4 πd2
Since the radiation is distributed over a sphere of radius ‘d’. Now we consider a practical
antenna having gain GT instead of hypothetical isotropic antenna.
Now power flux density towards receiver is
Pt Gt
SR = ...(5.26)
4 πd2
PtGt is called effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) of the transmitter.
The transmission loss then depends on how much of this power is captured by receiving
antenna. If the capture area, or effective aperture of this antenna is Ar, then the power which can
be delivered to the receiver (assuming no mismatch or feedline losses) is simply
Pr = SRAr ...(5.27)
Pt Gt
we get, Pr = ⋅ Ar
4πd2
We know that the gain and effective area are related as
4π
Gr = Ar
λ2
λ2
or Ar = G ...(5.28)
4π r
where Gr is gain of receiving antenna.
Now, substituting equations (5.26) and (5.28) in equation (5.27), we get
Pr = Pt ⋅
FG λ IJ 2
⋅ Gt G r
H 4πd K
1
Pr = Pt ⋅ Gt ⋅ Gr ⋅ ...(5.29)
Lp
where Lp is the path loss.
The path loss in dB is given by
LMF 4πd I 2 OP
[Lp]dB = 10 log10
MNGH λ JK PQ
4πfd
[Lp]dB = 20 log10
c
[Lp]dB = 20 log10 (f) + 20 log10 (d)
= −20 log10 (3 × 108) + 20 log10 (4π)
[Lp]dB = 20 log10 (f) + 20 log10 (d) − 147.56 dB
Pt
=
FG 4πd IJ 2
1
Pr HλK Gt ⋅ G r
In dB
20 log10 Pt − 20 log10 Pr = [Lfs]dB
= 20 log10 4π + 20 log10 d + 20 log10 (f) − 20 log10 (3 × 108)
− 10 log10 Gt − 10 log10 Gr ...(5.30)
where Lfs is free space loss.
The above equation may be written in form of effective aperture area by using the relation
G =
FG 4π IJ A ...(5.31)
Hλ K
2
Thus equation, becomes

[Lfs]dB = 169.54 + 20 log10 d − 20 log10 f − 10 log10 (At · Ar)
...(5.32)
Equation (5.32) shows that decrease in loss at higher frequencies.
3. Noise
The unwanted signal are called as noise. Noise is a major limiting factor in the microwave LOS
link. There are four categories of noise: thermal noise, intermodulation noise, crosstalk and
impulse noise.
4. Atmospheric Absorption
Attenuation is caused by absorption of signal energy by water vapour and molecular oxygen. These
losses are different than the adverse weather condition but are also called atmospheric losses. To
distinguish between them, the weather related losses are called as atmospheric attenuation and
absorption losses are called as atmospheric absorption.
5. Multipath Propagation
In this signals from receiver to transmitter reach. Through the different paths. The multipath
propagation results in three main effects:
(a) The multiple copies of signal are arrived at different phases. If the phases are added
distructively, the signal level decreases and signal detection may become more difficult.
(b) Multipath propagation produces is ISI (inter symbol interference (ISI)).
(c) Since net signal strength at receiver is the vector sum of all the signals received from
different directions. Hence, multipath propagation results in variation in signal level with
time which is known as fading.
6. Reflection
Refraction occurs when propagating wave passes through one medium to another medium have
different properties (i.e., conduction, refractive index, density etc.), then the wave is partially
reflected and partially transmitted. This complete mechanism is known by refraction. This refraction
occurs due to that because air is denses at lower level than at higher level as well as outer surface
of earth (ionosphere and toposphere) having different properties. Mostly this mechanism considered
in LOS microwave link and satellite communication.
Ø Attenuation is the reduction of signal strength during transmission.

Ø Attenuation is directly proportional to the frequency.
Ø Free space loss can be express in term of difference between transmitted and
received power (both in dB).
Ø PtGt is called effective isotropic retiated power (EIRP).
Ø Atmospheric absorption is cause by absorption of signal energy by water vapour
and molecular oxygen.
K EYWORDS
• Barretter: Barretter is a sensing element of the bolometer and has a positive temperature
coefficient of resistance. Barretter consists of a very fine platinum wire mounted in holder.
• Bolometer: Bolometer is used to measure the low microwave power. It converts the microwave
power into thermal energy.
• Calorimetric wattmeter: It is used to measure the high microwave power (10 W to 50 kW),
which involves conversion of the microwave energy into heat. Basically there are two type of
Calorimetric wattmeter, Dry type and flow type.
• Microwave test bench: The general set-up for measurement of any parameter in microwave is
normally by a microwave bench. It consist of microwave generator, Variable attenuator, frequency
meter, slotted line, crystal detector and VSWR meter.
• Network analyser: Network analyser is a key instrument for characterizing microwave devices.
It is used for determining transmission and reflection characteristics of microwave devices.
• Point contact diode: It is used in the microwave detection and mixing and, has a metal
semiconductor point contact. Point contact diode is a majority carrier device.
• Reflection parameter: Major reflection parameters include reflection coefficient, standing wave
ratio and return loss.
• Reflectometer: Reflectometer is used to measure the VSWR, impedances. It consist of two
directional coupler and a ratiometer which give the direct reading of reflection coefficient.
• Scattering parameter: Scattering parameters of a device can be conveniently used to determine
signal flow conditions when the device is inserted in a microwave circuit. These are the input
reflection coefficient (S11), reverse transmission coefficient (S12), forward transmission coefficient
(S21) and output reflection coefficient (S22).
• Schottky barrier diode: It is used in the microwave detection and mixing. Schottky diode has
a metal semiconductor surface contact and has several advantages like high burn out rating, lower
noise and better reliability.
• Slotted line: Slotted line is a section of a waveguide with a long slot in the broad wall of guide.
The slot has a moving carriage with a probe. It is used for measurement of microwave parameters
like VSWR, insertion loss, frequency etc.
• Spectrum analyser: Spectrum analyser gives frequency domain representation of signal applied
at its input. In other words, a spectrum analyser gives a plot of the amplitude of the Fourier
transform of the input signal.
• Thermistor: Thermistor is a sensing element of the bolometer, and has a negative temperature
coefficient of resistance. Thermistor is constructed in the form of a small bead of semiconducting
material suspended between two fine wires. Thermistor is more sensitive than barretter.
4
1. How is slotted line used for measurement of impedance of an unknown load?
(MDU 2007; UPTU 2004)
2. Describe the slotted line method to measure the value of VSWR. (UPTU 2005; MDU 2010)
3. A 50 Ω loss line is terminated in an unknown impedance. The VSWR of the load is 2. When the
load is replaced by a short line minima shift of 1.5 cm towards the load and the successive voltage
minima are 5 cm apart. What is load impedance? (UPTU 2004)
4. How VSWR of unknown load is measured with the help of slotted wave carriage using microwave
bench set-up? Draw the block diagram of the set-up. (UPTU 2007)
5. What is wave meter? Which type is generally used in the microwave test bench in the laboratory?
Explain its construction and working. (UPTU 2004)
6. Draw schematic of cylindrical waveguide tunable wave meter and explain how it measures the
frequency of an input signal. (UPTU 2005)
7. What is bolometer? Give the construction of a thermistor mount and explain the method of
microwave power measurement using dual bolometer bridge. What is the function of second
bridge? (MDU 2004; UPTU 2004)
8. What are the various methods to measure microwave power? Explain one low power measurement
and one high power measurement method with relevant diagram. (MDU 2010; UPTU 2006)
9. Show how to measure the frequency of the source without using a wave meter in the microwave
test bench? (UPTU 2004)
10. Distinguish between attenuation and insertion loss. Giving the block schematic of an experimental
set-up. Describe loss of a circuit element by standing wave measurement. (UPTU 2005)
11. What is reflection meter? How it is used to measure the reflection co-efficient and VSWR of any
unknown load? Explain the working of absorption type of wave meter. (UPTU 2006)
12. List the microwave components used to measure frequency, wavelength and VSWR. Draw the
block diagram and explain the working of each component. (MDU 2010; UPTU 2006)
13. How VSWR of an unknown load can be measured by using reflectometer technique?
(MDU 2011; UPTU 2009)
14. Explain the working of crystal detector and discuss its relevance in the measurement of microwave
power. (UPTU 2008, 2009)
15. Explain the methods of measurement of frequency using microwave bench set-up.
(MDU 2004; UPTU 2009)
16. With block diagram explain the procedure to measure the impedance of unknown impedance using
slotted wave section. (MDU 2007; UPTU 2008)
1. A three port microwave network can be characterized by a scattering matrix having

(a) 9 elements (b) 3 elements
(c) 4 elements (d) 6 elements
2. Reflection co-efficient is
(a) a scalar quality
(b) a vector quality
(c) independent of impedance mismatch
(d) one parameter that cannot be expressed by any of scattering parameters
3. One of the following microwave power measuring set-ups would usually be used for measurement
of medium power levels in the range of 10 mW to 1 W.
(a) Using bolometer sensing element and making the microwave d irectly fall on the sensing
element
(b) Using a calorimeter
(c) Using a directional coupler together with a low level power meter
(d) Using a calibrated attenuator together with a low level power meter
4. A reflection coefficient of 0 .1 means a return loss of
(a) 20 dB (b) 0 dB
(c) 10 dB (d) Infinity
5. Out of the following power sensing devices, the fastest response device is the
(a) Bolometer (b) Thermistor
(c) Thermocouple (d) Schottky diode
6. A 20 dB attenuator would have the scattering parameter (S21 ) magnitude of
(a) 10 (b) 2
(c) 0 .1 (d) 0.01
7. One of the following instruments can be used for making transmission and reflection measurements
(a) Network analyser (b) Spectrum analyser
(c) Time domain reflectometer (d) Reflectometer
8. "Double minimum" method is relevant to the measurement of
(a) low attenuation coefficient (b) high attenuation coefficient
(c) high VSWR (d) low VSWR
9. Consider the following statement about temperature measurement:
1. A thermistor is much sensitive than a platinum thermometer
2. The resistance of a thermistor is solely a function of its absolute temperature, whether the
source of heat is external, internal or both.
3. High linear temperature-resistance relationship is a great advantage of the thermistor.
(a) 1 and 2 are correct (b) 3 and 4 are correct
(c) 1, 2, 3 and 4 are correct (d) 1, 2 and 4 are correct
10. The positions of the probe for half-power point in the slotted line of a microwave bench are
interpreted to measure
(a) guide wuvelength (b) loud impedunce
(c) source frequency (d) high SWR
11. The guide wavelength is measured by short-circuiting a waveguide and shifting the tunable probe
along the slotted line to locate the voltage minima. If the shorting plate is replaced by a matched
load, then
(a) It would improve the accuracy of the measurement
(b) The guide wavelength cannot be measurement
(c) It will give less accurate result, as no reflected wave is present
(d) It will change the value of guide wavelength
12. Without a spectrum analyser, it is not possible to determine
(a) Carrier frequency (b) Antenna pattern
(c) Pulse width (d) Spurious signal strength and its location
13. In microwave power measurement using bolometers, the principle of working is the variation of
(a) inductance with absorption of power
(b) resistance with absorption of power
(c) capacitance with absorption of power
(d) cavity dimensions with heat generated by the power
14. One of the following instruments can be used for making transmission and reflection measurements
(a) Network analyser (b) Spectrum analyser
(c) Time domain reflectometer (d) Reflectometer
15. Consider the following statement regarding a cavity wavemeter in a reaction type of circuit as
shown in Fig. 5.51.
e m et
av
er
W
G en e rato r b W a ve g uid e L oa d
Fig. 5.51
1. The distance d is made either zero or approximately a guide half-wavelength, so that an
effective short-circuit appears at the waveguide wall when the cavity is at resonance.
2. A dip in the load power occurs as the wavemeter is tuned through resonance.
3. The magnitude of the cavity impedance depends only on the distance d.
4. The magnitude of the power dip depends only on the Q of the cavity.
(a) 1 alone is correct (b) 2 alone is correct
(c) 1 and 3 are correct (d) 2 and 4 are correct
16. Consider the following statement relating to problem of mounting the bolometer in a waveguide
for microwave power measurement.
1. The first requirement in the mounting is that the mount and bolometer match the impedance
of the waveguide and this can completely be solved by incorporating tuning elements.
2. The operating resistance of bolometer determined by the point of operation may be used as
one of the variable in impedance matching and is chosen to be about equal to the characteristic
impedance of the waveguide.
3. Mechanically it is very difficult to ensure that the bolometer is subjected to the microwave
power and at the same time arranged so that it can be connected in low frequency bridge
circuit.
4. A stub and short-circuit section behind the bolometer are introduced for cancelling reflections
at frequencies different from the center frequency and thus to increase the bandwidth of the
mount.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 are correct (b) 1, 3 and 4 are correct
(c) 2, 3 and 4 are correct (d) 1, 2 and 4 are correct
17. In the reflectometer arrangement shown in Fig. 5.52, if the power meter A and B indicate 1 mW
and 110 microwatts respectively, then the approximate VSWR on the line will be
P o w er m e te r
A B
~
G en e rato r L oa d
Fig. 5.52
(a) 1.5 (b) 2.0
(c) 2.5 (d) 3.0
18. Large microwave power may be measured with the help of
(a) Calorimeter (b) Thermistor
(c) Bolometer (d) Barretor
19. The most fundamental method of frequency measurement is
(a) with an absorption wavemeter (b) with a slotted line
(c) with a transmission wavemeter (d) by comparison
20. Bolometers are used in measurement of
(a) RF power (b) Audio power
(c) Microwave power (d) None of the above
21. One of the following microwave power measuring set-ups would usually be used for measurement
of medium power levels in the range of 10 mW to 1 W
(a) Using bolometer sensing element and making the microwave power directly fall on the sensing
element
(b) Using a calorimeter
(c) Using a directional coupler together with a low level power meter
(d) Using a calibrated attenuator together with low level power meter
22. Out of the following microwave power sensing devices, the fastest response device is the
(a) Bolometer (b) Thermistor
(c) Thermocouple (d) Schottky diode
23. Barretries and Bolometer are used for measurement of
(a) VSWR (b) low microwave power
(c) high microwave power (d) wavelength
24. Out of the following instruments, the frequency domain reprsentation of input signal obtained
by
(a) Network analyser (b) Time domain reflectometer
(c) Spectrum analyser (d) Reflectometer
A NSWERS
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (c)
7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (d)
13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (a) 16. (b) 17. (b) 18. (a)
19. (d) 20. (c) 21. (d) 22. (d) 23. (b) 24. (c)
qqq
CHAPTER
6
Microwave Tubes
Introduction
Limitations of Conventional Tubes at High Frequencies
Klystron
Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier
Mathematical Analysis of Two Cavity Klystron
Multicavity Klystron Amplifier
Reflex Klystron
Travelling Wave Tube
Helix Travelling Wave Tube
INSIDE THIS CHAPTER
Several Slow Wave Structures

Purpose of Attenuator
Small Signal Analysis of TWT
Gain of TWTA
Efficiency Improvement of TWT
Comparison between TWT Amplifier and Klystron Amplifier
Advantage of TWT Amplifier Over Klystron Amplifier
Performance of TWTA
Introduction to Magnetron
Magnetron
Advantages of Cavity (Travelling Wave) Magnetron
Cavity or Travelling Wave Magnetron
Mathematical Analysis of Cavity Magnetron
Mode Jumping and Mode Separation
Frequency Pushing and Pulling
Cavity Magnetron Angular Frequency
Backward Cross Field Oscillator (BWO)
Forward Wave Crossed Field Amplifier (FWCFA or CFA)
Comparison of Various Microwave Tubes
Keywords
Review Questions
294
Microwave Tubes 295
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In earlier days, conventional electronic vacuum tube such as triodes, tetrodes, pentodes and beam
power tubes were used for amplifying low frequency signals and generating low frequency oscillations.
These conventional tubes cannot be used for frequency greater than 300 MHz (i.e., above ultra-
high frequency range) because of following effect.
(i) Interelectrode capacitance and lead inductance effect
(ii) Transit time effect
(iii) Effect due to RF losses and radiation losses.
The lead inductance provide large reactance at very high frequencies reducing the output
voltage and amplification. The interelectrode capacitance provide very small reactances almost
short-circuiting the tube thereby reducing the output voltage considerable through shunting effect.
The electron transit time from the cathode to the anode becomes comparable to the time period
of the sinusoidal signal. Due to transit time effect anode current and anode efficiency would be
reduced. Conductor losses (due to skin effect) and dielectric losses together contributes to RF losses.
At microwave frequencies these losses become appreciable resulting in heat dissipation. Because
of these effect conventional electron tube cannot be used at high frequencies.
However, the main cause for deterioration of performance of these tubes at high frequencies
is found to be transit time. Based on the English proverb, set a thief to catch the thief,
researchers, then used this transit time to amplify microwave signal and to generate microwave
oscillations, thus they invented the transit time devices such a klystron, travelling wave tube
(TWT) and magnetrons. In these devices, the electron beam is made to interact with the space-
charge waves and transfer the kinetic energy to the microwave signals or interact with the
electromagnetic field in a slow-wave structure to give amplification through transfer of energy.
Transit time devices or tubes may be classified into two category:
1. O-type tubes or linear beam tubes.
2. M-type tubes.
1. O-type tubes or linear beam tubes: Klystrons and TWTs are linear beam or O-type
tubes in which the accelerating electric field is in the same direction as the static magnetic
field used to focus electron beam. O-type tubes derive their name from the French TPO
O -typ e tub es (L in ea r b ea m )
C a vity S low w ave structu re
R e so na nt Fo rw a rd w ave B a ckw a rd w ave
K lystro n H e lix TW T
B a ckw a rd w ave
o scilla tor,
R e fle x C o up le d B a ckw a rd w ave
klystron cavity TW T a m p lifie r
Fig. 6.1. O-type tubes.

(tubes a propagation des ondes) or from the word original (meaning the original type
of tube). In these tubes electrons receive potential energy from the DC beam voltage
before they arrive in the microwave interaction region, and this energy is converted into
their kinetic energy.
In the microwave interaction region the electrons are either accelerated or decelerated by
microwave field and then bunched as they drift down the tube. The bunched electrons,
in turn induce current in the output structure. The electrons then give up their kinetic
energy to the microwave fields and collected by collector.
2. M-type tubes: Magnetrons are cross-field devices known as M-type tubes where the
static magnetic field is perpendicular to the electric field. M-type tubes are described in
section 6.19.
Ø At high frequencies, conventional tube cannot be used because of transit time effect,
interelectrode capacitance, lead inductance and radiation losses.
Ø Microwave tubes are also known as transit time devices.
Ø Klystron and TWT are linear beam or O-type tubes in which the accelerating electric
field is in same direction as the static magnetic field used to focus electron beam.
6.2 LIMITATIONS OF CONVENTIONAL TUBES AT HIGH FREQUENCIES

(UPTU 2008, 2010, 2012)
Conventional vacuum tube like triodes, tetrodes and pentodes are less useful signal source at the
frequency above the 300 MHz. To see whether or not a conventional device works satisfactory
at high frequencies or microwave frequencies, we consider a simple oscillator having LC tuned
circuit and try to increase the operating frequency. For this purpose we reduce the tank circuit
e
parameter, either L or C since ω = 1 j
LC . But there is a certain limit by which we can reduce
the value of L and C components of the tank circuits. For high frequency or microwave frequency
the device parameters like the interelectrode capacitance and lead inductance takes the dominant
part in the circuit and affect the operation of the oscillator. There are following reasons for that
conventional tube cannot be used for microwave frequency or high frequency.
1. Interelectrode capacitance and lead inductance effect.
2. Transit time effect.
3. Gain-Bandwidth product limitation.
4. RF losses.
5. Radiation losses.
Ø Conventional tubes cannot be used for frequency more than 300 MHz due to
interelectrode capacitance, lead inductance, high transit time, high RF losses and
high radiation losses.
1. Interelectrode Capacitance and Lead Inductance Effect

Figure 6.2 shows the equivalent circuit of triode at microwave frequencies. The interelectrode
capacitances and lead inductances are the order of 1 to 2 pF and 15 to 20 mH respectively. The
Microwave Tubes 297
shunt impedances due to interelectrode becomes very low and series impedances due to lead
inductance become very high at the microwave or high frequency which makes these tube unstable.
Refinements have been done in the design and fabrication of these tubes with the result that these
tubes, like disk seal tube, are still used up to the lower end of microwave spectrum.
A
Ck
G Ck
C gk
K
Fig. 6.2. Interelectrode capacitances and lead inductances.
2. Transit Time Effect

In a conventional tube electrons emitted by the cathode take
a finite (non-zero) time in reaching the anode. This interval,
called the transit time, depends on the cathode anode spacing
and the static voltage between the anode and the cathode as
V d
shown in Fig. 6.3(a).
V0
d
Transit time (τ) = ...(6.1)
v0
where τ is the transit time Fig. 6.3(a) Transit time effect.
d is the cathode anode spacing
v0 is the velocity of electrons
1
Static energy for electrons will be eV and kinetic energy of electron will be mv02
2
Under equilibrium condition
Static energy = Kinetic energy
1
eV = mv02
2
2eV
v0 = ...(6.2)
m
d
Transit time = ...(6.3)
2eV
m
At lower frequencies transit time τ is a small fraction of the period of oscillation and is
therefore insignificant. At microwave frequencies τ becomes comparable to the time period. This
reduces the magnitude of transadmittance and causes it to have an imaginary component. The
output voltage and current are no longer in phase because of phase-lag in the current produced
by the finite transit time. This transit time phenomenon puts an upper frequency limit on the used
of tube conventional triodes etc.
To minimise transit time, the separation between electrodes (d) can be decreased but this will
increases the interelectrode capacitance and plate to cathode potential can be increased.
Ø As frequency increases, reactance XC decreases and output voltages decreases due

to shunting effect (XC becomes almost a short).
Ø As frequency increases, reactance XL = 2π π f L, increases and voltage appearing at
the active electrodes are less than voltage at base pins. This result the reduce in
gain.
Ø Transit time is the time taken for the electron to travel from cathode to anode.
Ø To minimize τ , separation between electrodes (d) can be decreased and plate to
cathode potential can be increased.
3. Gain-Bandwidth Product Limitation

In ordinary vacuum tubes the maximum gain is generally achieved by resonating the output tunes
circuit. Equivalent circuit of output tuned circuit is shown in Fig. 6.3(b).
gm Vg RP RL L V0
C
Fig. 6.3(b) Equivalent circuit of output tuned circuit.

From Fig. 6.3(b),
Transfer function Z0(s) =

bg
V0 s
...(6.4)
V bsg
i
Now applying Laplace transform, we get
1 1 1 1
bg
Z0 s
= Y0 s = sC +bg + +
sL R L R P
...(6.5)
1 1 1
Now replacing = +
R RL RP
where RP is package resistance
1 1 1
= Cs + +
bg
Z0 s Ls R
1 s2 LCR + Ls + R
=
bg
Z0 s RLs
Microwave Tubes 299
RLs
Therefore, Z0(s) = 2
s LCR + Ls + R
RLs RLC
Z0(s) =
es 2
LRC + Ls + R RLC j
sC
Z0(s) = ...(6.6)
s 1
s2 + +
RC LC
The characteristic equation is given by the denominator
s 1
s2 + + = 0 ...(6.7)
RC LC
1
Since G = is conductance
R
G 1
s2 + s+ = 0 ...(6.8)
C LC
The roots of this quadratic equation are given by
−
G
±
FG G IJ 2
−
4
LM OP
ω =
C H CK LC − b ± b 2 − 4ac
2 MNSince roots = 2a PQ
ω = −
G
±
FG G IJ 2
−
1
...(6.9)
2C H 2C K LC
Then roots ω1 and ω2 will be
ω1 = −
G
−
FG G IJ 2
−
1
...(6.10)
2C H 2C K LC
ω2 = −
G
+
FG G IJ 2
−
1
...(6.11)
2C H 2C K LC
Then bandwidth can be expressed by
BW = ω2 − ω1
BW =
FG G IJ 2
−
1
+
FG G IJ 2
−
1
= 2
FG G IJ 2
−
1
H 2C K LC H 2C K LC H 2C K LC
For
FG G IJ 2
>>
1
H 2C K LC
G
Thus, BW = ...(6.12)
C
We know that maximum gain at resonance Amax is

gm
Amax = ...(6.13)
G
where gm is transconductance,
∆ip
gm =
∆Vg
Then Gain-bandwidth product will be, from equations (6.12) and (6.13)
Gain-bandwidth product = Amax BW
gm G
= ⋅
G C
gm
Amax·BW = ...(6.14)
C
It is important to note that the gain-bandwidth product is independent of frequency. As gm
and C are fixed for a particular tube or circuit, higher gain can be achieved only at the applicable
to resonant circuit only. In microwave device either re-entrant cavities or slow-wave structures are
used to obtain a possible overall high gain over a broad bandwidth.
Ø ω 2 − ω1 =
FG G IJ 2
−
1
+
FG G IJ 2
−
1
H 2C K LC H 2C K LC
Ø For
FG G IJ 2
>>
1
, then ω2 − ω1 will be
G
.
H 2C K LC C
Ø Gain-bandwidth product is independent of frequency.
Ø For fix gm and C, higher gain can achieved only at the expense of a narrower
bandwidth.
4. RF Losses
RF losses includes the skin effect losses and dielectric losses.
S
(a) Skin effect losses: Due to skin effect, the conductor losses A e ffe ctive
came into play at higher frequencies, at which the current
has the tendency to confined itself to a smaller cross-section Fig. 6.3(c) Cross-section of
of the conductor towards its outer surface as shown in conductions.
Fig. 6.3(c).
2
The skin depth δ = ...(6.15)
2πfµσ
1
So, δ ∝ ...(6.16)
f
k
δ = , k = constant
f
Microwave Tubes 301
and skin depth is directly proportional to the effective area over which current flows, i.e.,
δ ∝ Aeffective
ρl
Since conductor resistance, R = ...(6.17)
A effective
Using relation δ = k f and, δ ∝ Aeffective we can replace the Aeffective in equation (6.17).
ρl
R = , k = constant ...(6.18)
k f
R ∝ f ...(6.19)
2
So, if frequency increase then resistance R increases and the conductor loss I R will also
increase. Conductor or I2R loss can be reduced by increasing the size of the conductor,
F since R ∝ 1 I.
i.e., by increasing the effective area GH A effective
JK
(b) Dielectric losses: At the microwave frequency or high frequency various insulating
materials like glass envelope, silicon and plastic encapsulations are used. The losses occur
due to dielectric materials is known as dielectric loss generally the relationship between
the power loss in dielectric and frequency is given by
PL ∝ f
So, if frequency increases then power loss will also increases. The effect of dielectric loss
can reduced eliminating the tube base and reducing the surface area of the dielectric
material.
5. Radiation Losses
At high frequency, when the dimensions of wire approaches near to the wavelength (λ = c/f). It
will emit radiation called radiation losses. Radiation losses increases with the increase in frequency.
Radiation loss can be reduced by proper shielding of the tube and its circuitry.
Ø In microwave device, cavities and slow-wave structures are used to obtain high gain
over a broad bandwidth.
Ø The skin effect is the tendency of current to distribute itself such that current
density at surface is greater than its case.
Ø Skin depth is the depth below the surface of conductor at which current density
decays to 37% of current density at the surface.
6.3 KLYSTRON
Klystron is the simplest vacuum tube that can be used for amplification or generation (as an
oscillator) of microwave signal. The operation of klystron depends upon velocity modulation which
leads to density modulation of electrons. Klystron may be classified as gives below:
1. Two cavity klystron amplifier
2. Multicavity klystron
3. Reflex klystron.
6.4 TWO CAVITY KLYSTRON AMPLIFIER

(UPTU 2007, 2010, 2011; MDU 2005, 2010)
One of the earlier form of velocity modulation device is the two cavity klystron amplifier, represented
by the schematic of Fig. 6.4. It is seen that high velocity electron beam is formed, focused and
sent down along a glass tube to a collector electrode, which is at a high positive potential with
respect to the cathode. As it is clear from the Fig. 6.4, a two cavity klystron amplifier consists of
a cathode, focussing electrodes, two buncher grids separated by a very small distance forming a
gap A (Input cavity or buncher cavity), two catcher grids with a small gap B (output or catcher
cavity) followed by a collector.
Buncher Catcher
cavity cavity
Input Electron Output

Cathode bunches Collector
Drift
Gap A space Gap B
Focussing
electrodes
Interaction space
– +
Fig. 6.4. Two cavity klystron amplifier.
Klystron is a O-type (linear beam) tube.

Klystrons are velocity-modulated tubes.
6.4.1 Operation (MDU 2007; UPTU 2009)

The input and output are taken from the tube is via resonant cavity with the help of coupling loops.
The region between buncher cavity and catcher cavity is called drift space. The first electrode
(focussing grid) controls the number of electrons in the electron beam and serves to focus the
beam. The velocity of electrons in the beam is determined by the beam accelerating potential. On
leaving the region of focussing grid, the electrons passes through the grids of buncher cavity. The
space between the grids is referred to as interaction space. When electrons travel through this
space, they are subjected to RF potential at a frequency determined by the cavity resonant
frequency which is nothing but the input frequency. The amplitude of this RF potential between
the grids is determined by the amplitude of the input signal in case of an amplifier or by the
amplitude of feedback signal from the second cavity if used as an oscillator. The working of two
cavity klystron amplifier depends upon velocity modulation.
Buncher cavity is a resonant cavity excited by input RF signal to be amplified.

Catcher cavity is a resonant cavity from where the amplified RF signal is coupled
out.
Drift space is region between successive resonant cavities.
Microwave Tubes 303
Velocity Modulation
Consider a situation when there is no voltage across the gap. Electrons passing through gap A are
unaffected and continue on to the collector with the same constant velocities they had before
approaching the gap A. When RF signal to be amplified is used for exciting the buncher cavity
thereby developing an alternating voltage of signal frequency across the gap A. The theory of
velocity modulation can be explain by using the diagram known as Applegate diagram as shown
in Fig. 6.5. At point X on the input RF cycle, the alternating voltage is zero and electron which
passes through gap A is unaffected by the RF signal. Let this electron is called reference electron
2eV
eR which travels with an unchanged velocity v0 = , where V is the anode to cathode voltage.
m
Consider another point Y of the RF cycle an electron passing the gap slightly later than the
reference electron eR, called the late electron eL is subjected to positive RF voltage so late electron
eL is accelerated and hence travelling towards gap B with an increased velocity and this late
electron eL tries to catch the reference electron eR.
Similarly, another point Z of RF cycle, an electron passing the gap slightly before than the
reference electron eR, called the early electron ee and this early electron is subjected to negative
RF voltage so early electron ee is retarded and hence travelling towards gap B with reduced velocity
and reference electron eR catches up the early electron ee.
So, when the electron pass the buncher gap their velocity will be change according to the
input RF signal. This process is known as velocity modulation. However, as explained with
reference to Applegate diagram, the electrons gradually bunch together as they travel in the drift
space. When an electron catches up with another one, the electron will exchange energy with the
slower electron, giving it some excess energy and they bunch together and move on with the
B u nch es
D istan ce (to g a p B )
ee eL
R e feren ce G ap A
e lectron e R
G ap A vo lta ge
0
Z X Y Tim e
B u nch ing
lim its
Fig. 6.5. Applegate diagram of klystron amplifier.
average velocity of the beam. This phenomena is very vital to the operation of klystron tube as
an amplifier. The pulsating stream of electrons pass through gap B and excited oscillation in the
output cavity. The density of electron passing the gap B varies cyclically with time. This mean the
electron beam contains an AC current and variation in current density (often called current
modulation) enables the klystron to have a significant gain and hence drift space converts the
velocity modulation into current modulation.
It is shown in applegate diagram that bunching can occur only once per cycle, centering on
the reference electron. The parameters that need to be considered or optimised for operating
klystron amplifier with maximum efficiency are:
1. Drift space
2. Signal amplitude
3. DC Anode voltage.
Above three factors when properly adjusted give maximum efficiency.
Ø Applegate diagram, used for graphical representation of electron bunching

phenomenon.
Ø The space between the grids of cavities is referred to as interaction space.
Ø When electrons pass the buncher gap their velocity will be change according to the
input RF signal. This process is known as velocity modulation.
Ø Bunching can occur only once per cycle, centering on reference electron.
6.5 MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF TWO CAVITY KLYSTRON
The following assumptions are made in the mathematical treatment to follow:

1. Electron transit angle in buncher and catcher grids is very small.
2. V1 << V0, where V1 is the amplitude of RF signal at the buncher grid, V0 is the
accelerating voltage.
3. Space charge effects are negligible.
4. Electron beam density is uniform throughout the length, i.e., no loss of electron takes
place in buncher and catcher cavity.
6.5.1 Velocity Modulation Process

Let the DC voltage between collector and anode (accelerating voltage) be V0 and v0 be the velocity
of the electrons. In Fig. 6.6.
d = Interaction gap
L = Drift space
V0 = Accelerating voltage.
When electrons are first accelerated by the high DC voltage V0 before entering the buncher
grids, their velocity is uniform
v0 =
2eV0 LMSince eV0 =
1
mv02
OP ...(6.20)
m N 2 Q
v0 = 0.593 × 106 V0
Microwave Tubes 305
B u nch er C a tche r
cavity d d cavity
1 2
L
t0 t1 t2 t3
V0
– +
In pu t O utpu t
Fig. 6.6. Two cavity klystron.

When a microwave signal is applied to the input terminal the gap voltage between the
buncher grids appears as
VS = V1 sin (ωt)
where V1 is the amplitude of signal.
For finding the modulated velocity in the buncher cavity in terms of entering time t0, exiting
time t1 and the gap transit angle θg it is necessary to determine the average microwave voltage
in the buncher gap as shown in Fig. 6.7.
So, Voltage at grid 1 = V0
Voltage at grid 2 = V0 + Average microwave voltage in buncher due to RF
input signal.
Voltage at grid 2 = V0 + <VS> ...(6.21)
V
V S = V 1 sin wt
B u nch er g rid s
V1 d
0 t
Fig. 6.7. Voltage in bunches gap.

The average transit time through the buncher gap distance (interaction space) d is
d
τ = t1 − t0 ≈ Since V1 << V0 ...(6.22)
v0
The average gap transit angle will be
θg = ωτ = ω (t1 − t0)
ωd
θg = ...(6.23)
v0
The average microwave voltage in the buncher gap can be found

t1
<VS> =
1
τ
t0
z b g
V1 sin ωt ⋅ dt
V1
=
ωτ
c h
cos ωt0 − cos ωt1 c h ...(6.24)
Using the trigonometric identity
cos A − cos B = 2 sin

FG B − A IJ sin FG A + B IJ
H 2 K H 2 K
2V1 LMsin F ωt − ωt I sin F ωt + ωt1 IJ OP
MN GH 2 JK GH
1 0 0
<VS> =
ωτ 2 K PQ
Now, substitute
c
ω t1 − t0 h =
ωτ
and arranging the second term
2 2
<VS> =
2V1
sin
ωτLM
sin
FG
2ωt0 − ωt0 + ωt1 IJ OP
ωτ 2 N 2 H KQ
2V1 LM ωτ F c
ω t1 − t0 hIJ OP
<VS> =
ωτ MNsin 2 sin GGH ωt 0 +
2 JK PQ
<VS> =
2V1 LMsin ωτ sin FG ωt +
ωτ IJ OP
, Since t1 − t0 = τ
ωτ N 2 H 0
2 KQ
d
From equation (6.22), τ ≈
v0
2V1v0 LMsin F ωd I sin F ωt +

ωd I OP
<VS> =
ωd MN GH 2v JK GH
0
0
2v0 JK PQ ...(6.25)

ωd θg
= ...[6.26(a)]
2v0 2
ωd θg
ωt0 + = ωt0 + ...[6.26(b)]
2v0 2
We can write the equation (6.25) as
<VS> = V1
c
sin ωd 2v0 h sin F ωt +
ωd I
ωd 2v0 GH 0
2v0 JK
Substituting equation [6.26(a)], we get
e
sin θ g 2 j sin F ωt +
θg I
<VS> = V1
θg 2 GH 0
2 JK
...(6.27)
Microwave Tubes 307
It is defined as
βi =
e
sin θ g 2 j =
sin ωd 2v 0c h
θg 2 ωd 2v 0
is known as the beam coupling coefficient of the input cavity gap
So, equation (6.27) becomes,
<VS> = V1βi sin ωt0 +

θg F I
2 GH JK ...(6.28)
Immediately after velocity modulation, the exit velocity (at time t1) from the buncher gap
will be
1
2
ch
mv2 t1 = e [voltage at grid 2], from equation (6.21)
1
2
mv2 ct h
1 = e[V0 + <VS>]
2e
v(t1) = V + < VS >
m 0
2e LM
V0 + V1βi sin ωt0 +
θg F I OP
v(t1) =
m MN 2 GH JK PQ
2e βV
V0 1 + i 1
LM F θ I OP
sin G ωt +
g
2 JK PQ
v(t1) = ...(6.29)
m V0 MN H 0
βi V1
where the factor is called the depth of velocity modulation.
V0
Under the assumption of βiV1 << V0 and using binomial expansion equation (6.29) becomes
v(t1) = v 0 1 +
LM βi V1 F
sin ωt 0 +
θg I OP
MN 2V0 GH 2 JK PQ
...[6.30(a)]
2eV0
Since, v0 =
m
This is the equation of velocity modulation.
Alternatively, the equation of velocity modulation can be written as, puting t0 = t1 − τ
LM
v (t1) = v0 1 +
β i V1 F
sin ωt1 − ωτ +
θg I OP
MN 2V0 GH 2 JK P
Q
Since, ωτ = θg
v (t1) = v 0 1 +
LM βi V1 F
sin ωt1 −
θg I OP
MN 2V0 GH 2 JK PQ
...[6.30(b)]
1 2eV0
Ø In reflex klystron, eV0 = mv 02 thus velocity of electron will be v0 =
2 m
= 0.593 × 106 V0 .
d
Ø Average transit time (ττ) = .
v0
ωd
θ g) = ωτ =
Ø Average gap transit angle (θ .
v0
Ø βi =
e
sin θ g 2 j is beam coupling coefficient of input (buncher) cavity.
θg 2
βi V1
Ø Factor is called the depth of velocity modulation.
V0
6.5.2 Bunching Process (Analytical Treatment) (UPTU 2009)

Once the electrons leave the buncher cavity they pass the drift space with the velocity v(t1) given
by equation (6.30). The effect of velocity modulation produces bunching of electron beam. As
describe before the electron that pass the buncher cavity at VS = 0 travel through with unchanged
velocity v0 and become the bunching center. Those electrons that pass the cavity during the
positive half cycle (late electron) of the microwave input voltage VS travel faster than the electrons
that passed the gap when VS = 0. Those electron that pass the buncher cavity during the negative
half cycle (early electron) of the voltage VS travel slower than the electrons that passed the gap when
VS = 0. At a distance of ∆L along the beam from the buncher cavity, the beam electrons bunched
together and from a dense cluster. Figure 6.8 shows the zero, minimum and maximum electron
acceleration.
z
DL B u nch ing cen te r
Dista nce
r
s te
V S = V 1 sin wt
Fa
er
me
ow
Sl
Sa
B u nch er t
g rid 0 ta tb tc td
p
p 2w
2w
Fig. 6.8. Bunching distance.

The distance from the buncher grid to location of dense electron bunching (at td) for the
electron at tb is
∆L = v0 (td − tb), {Distance = velocity × time} ...(6.31)
Microwave Tubes 309
Similarly, the distance for early electron and late electron at ta and tb respectively
At ta, ∆L = Velocity of early electron × (td − ta) ...[6.32(a)]
At tc, ∆L = Velocity of late electron × (td − tc) ...[6.32(b)]
We know that in velocity modulation, early electron will retarded and late electron will
accelerated. So the velocity of early and late electron at ta and tc respectively will be vmin and vmax.
π
From equation (6.30), minimum velocity will occur at − so that
2
F
vmin = v0 1 −
βi V1 I
GH 2V0 JK ...(6.33)
π
Similarly, maximum velocity will occur at +
2
F
vmax = v0 1 +
βi V1 I
GH 2V0 JK ...(6.34)

c
∆L = vmin td − ta , h At ta ...(6.35)
∆L = v max ct d −t h,
c
At tc ...(6.36)
π*
Since from Fig. 6.8 t a = tb −
2ω
π*
tc = tb +
2ω
Now substituting ta, and vmin in equation (6.35)
F
∆L = v0 1 −
β i V1 I FGt − tb +
π IJ
GH 2V0 JK H d
2ω K ...(6.37)
Now arranging equation (6.37), we get
c
∆L = v0 td − tb + v0 h LMM π
2ω
βV βV π
c
− v0 i 1 td − tb − v0 i 1
2V0 2ω
h OP
PQ
...(6.38)
N 2V0
Similarly, ∆L at tc, from equation (6.36). After substituting tc and vmax, we get
F
∆L = v0 1 +
βi V1 I FGt − tb −
π IJ
GH 2V0 JK H d
2ω K ...(6.39)
Now arranging equation (6.39), we get
c h LMM
∆L = v0 td − tb + − v0
π
2ω
βV
c βV π
+ v0 i 1 td − tb + V0 i 1
2V0 2ω
h
...(6.40)
OP
PQ
N 2V0
The distance will be same for the electron at ta, tb and tc and will be meet at the same
distance ∆L. So ∆L for all three will equal to v0 (td − tb) [From eqn. (6.31)]
So from equation (6.38), second term should equal to zero i.e.,

π βV βV π
v0
2ω 2V0
c h
− v0 i 1 td − tb − v0 i 1
2V0 2ω
= 0
td − tb =
π LM
βV
1− i 1 ⋅
2V0 OP
2ω MN
2V0 βi V1 PQ
πV0 π
td − tb = − ...(6.41)
βi ωV1 2ω
V0 π
Since V0 >> V1 so is very high so neglecting , equation (6.41) becomes,
V1 2ω
πV0
td − tb =
ωβi V1
πV0
∆L = v0 ...(6.42)
ωβi V1
We can get the same result by using equation (6.40).
Ø In velocity modulation early electron will retarded and late electron will accelerated
Ø *We know that θ = ω t, angular distance between tb and ta is π /2 and angular
π
velocity is ω , then tb − ta = tc − tb will be .
2ω
Ø The distance will be same for the electron ta, tb and tc and will be meet at the same
distance ∆ L.
6.5.3 Expression for Induced Beam Current

As shown in Fig. 6.6 the transit time for an electron to travel a distance of L is
L L
T = t2 − t1 = = ...(6.43)
ch
v t1 LM1 + β V i 1
F
sin G ωt −
θg I OP
2 JK P
v0
MN 2V 0 H 1
Q
[From equation [6.30 (b)]]
L
= T0 is the DC transit time and binomial expansion of (1 + x)−1 for |x| ≤ 1 is replace
v0
equation (6.43), we get
LM
T = t2 − t1 = T0 1 −
β i V1 F
sin ωt1 −
θg I OP
MN 2V0 GH 2 JK P
Q
...(6.44)
In terms of radians, equation (6.44) becomes
ωT = ωt2 − ωt1 = ωT0 −

ωT0βi V1
sin ωt1 −
F θg I
2V0 GH 2 JK
Microwave Tubes 311
= θ0 − X sin ωt1 −
F θg I
GH 2 JK
...(6.45)
ωL
where θ0 = ωT0 = 2πN = ...(6.46)
v0
is the DC transit angle between cavities. N is the number of electron transit cycles in the drift
space.
βi V1
and X = θ0 ...(6.47)
2V0
is known as the bunching parameter of the klystron. At the buncher gap a charge dQ0 passing
through at time interval dt0 is
dQ0 = I0dt0 ...(6.48)
where I0 is the DC current, from the principle of conservation of charges same amount of charge
also passes the catcher at time interval dt2.
Hence, Q = ΣdQ0 = ΣI0|dt0| = Σi2|dt2| ...(6.49)
where i2 is the current at the catcher gap. Now rewriting equation (6.44), replacing t1 = τ + t0
and ωτ = θg, we get
LM β i V1 F c I OP θg
t2 = t1 + T0 1 −
MN 2V0
sin ω τ + t0 −
GH 2 JK P
h
Q
t2 = t0 + τ + T0 1 −
LM β i V1 F θ I OP
sin G ωt +
g
2 JK P
...(6.50)
MN 2 V0 H Q 0
Multiply ω both side, we get

LM β i V1 F θg I OP
ωt2 = ωt0 + ωτ + ωT0 1 − sin ωt0 +
GH 2 JK P
...(6.51)
MN 2V0
Q
Since ωτ = θg is gap transit angle
ωL βV
and ωT0 = = θ0 and X = i 1 θ0
v0 2V0
Equation (6.51) become
ωt2 = ωt0 + θ g + θ0 − X sin ωt0 +

F θg I
GH 2 JK
...(6.52)
Arranging the term of θ0, equation (6.52) become

F θg I F ωt +
θg I − X sin F ωt +
θg I
ωt2 − θ0 +
GH 2 JK
= GH 0
2 JK GH 0
2 JK
...(6.53)
where ωt0 +
θg
is buncher cavity departure angle and ωt2 − θ0 +
F θg I
2 GH 2 JK
is the catcher cavity
arrival angle.
From equation (6.49), the current arriving at the catcher is

I0
i2 = ...(6.54)
F dt I
ΣG 2
H dt JK 0
Now, differentiating equation (6.50), we get

dt2 LM ωβ i V1 F θg I OP
= 1 + T0 − cos ωt0 + GH
MN 2 V0 2 JK P
dt0 Q
dt2
= 1−
T0 ωβi V1
cos ωt0 +
F θg I
dt0 2V0 GH 2 JK
Since, θ0 = ωT0
dt2
= 1−
β i V1
θ0 cos ωt0 +
F θg I
dt0 2V0 GH 2 JK
We know that
βi V1
= X is Bunching parameter
2V0
dt2
= 1 − X cos ωt0 +
F θg I
Thus,
dt0 GH 2 JK
...(6.55)
dt2
Substitute the value of in equation (6.54)
dt0
We get the current arriving at the catcher cavity
I0
i2 = ...(6.56)
L F θg I OP
∑ MM1 − X cos GH ωt 0 +
2 JK PQ
N
From Fig. 6.6
t2 = t0 + τ + drift time (T0)
ωt2 = ωt0 + ωt + ωT0
Since, ωτ = θg and ωt0 = θ0
ωt2 = ωt0 + θ0 + θg
ωt0 = ωt2 − θ0 − θg
Substituting the value of ωt0 in equation (6.56), we get
I0
i2 =
L F θg I OP
∑ MM1 − X cos GH ωt 2 − θ0 −
2 JK PQ
N
−1
L F θg I OP
i2 = I 0 ∑ MM1 − X cos GH ωt 2 − θ0 −
2 JK P
...(6.57)
N Q
Microwave Tubes 313
The beam current at the catcher cavity is a periodic waveform of period 2π/ω about DC
current. Therefore, the current i2 can be expended in a Fourier series.
So, after expanding in Fourier series and finding the coefficient, we found that the coefficient
has cosines and sines function. Each term of integral contains an infinite number of terms of Bessel
function.
Beam current i2 will be
∞
i2 = I0 + 2I0 ∑ J bnXg cos
n c
nω t2 − τ − T0 h ...(6.58)
n=1
This is the generalised expression of a bunched beam current consisting of a DC component

I0 plus the fundamental AC component of amplitude 2I0 J1 (x) and harmonics of amplitude
2I0 Jn (nX), n = 2, 3, 4, ...
0 .6
n=1
0 .58 2 2
3
4 5
0 .4
0 .2
Va lu e of J n (n X )
1 .84 1
– 0.2
– 0.4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A rg um e nt of J n (nX )
Fig. 6.9. Bessel function Jn (nX).
So, the fundamental component of the beam current at the catcher cavity has a magnitude
I2 = |If| = 2I0 J1 (X) ...(6.59)
The fundamental component If has its maximum amplitude at X = 1.841, from Fig. 6.9
Bessel function J1(X) is max. = 0.582, at X = 1.841.
Ø T0 = L/v0 is the DC transit time.

ωL
Ø θ0 = ωT0 = is the DC transit angle between cavities.
v0
βi V1
Ø X = θ is known as the bunching parameter of the klystron.
2V0 0
Ø θg = ωτ is gap transit angle.
Ø The fundamental component of beam current has its maximum amplitude at
X = 1.841.
Ø Bessel function J1(X) is maximum = 0.582, at X = 1.841.
6.5.4 Optimal Length of Drift Region ∆ Lopt

The optimum distance ∆L at which fundamental component of RF occurs is computed from the
condition of maximum value of X = 1.841.
From equation (6.47), Bunching parameter is
βi V1
X = θ0 ...(6.60)
2V0
ωL
We know that θ0 = ωT0 =
v0
For maximum value of X, i.e., 1.841,
ω∆L opt
θ0 = ...(6.61)
v0
Substituting equation (6.61) into equation (6.60), for X = 1.841
βi V1 ω∆L opt
1.841 =
2V0 v0
v0 V0
∆Lopt = 3.682 ...[6.61(a)]
ωβi V1
1
∆Lopt ∝
V1
The value of specifies the point at which the catcher cavity must be located. It is noted from
equation [6.61(a)] that
1
1. Since ∆Lopt ∝ , any variation in the input signal level would require a change in the
V1
drift length to maintain maximum gain.
2. A very long drift space enables enormous gain to be obtained. However, debunching force
combined with finite mass of electrons results in the amount of debunching with increasing
the drift length, which reduces the efficiency of klystron.
Ø At optimum distance, maximum fundamental component of current will occur.

Ø The value of ∆ Lopt specifies the point at which the catcher cavity must be located.
6.5.5 Beam Debunching/Spreading

At the point of bunching the electrostatic force of repulsion between the electron does not allow
electronic collision, but may cause beam spreading or undesirable debunching. This reduces the
efficiency of the klystrons.
6.5.6 Output Power of Klystron

The fundamental component of RF beam current passing through the output cavity gap induces
a current in the catcher cavity. From equation (6.58), considering only fundamental component.
bg c
ic = β0if = β0 2I0 J1 X cos ω t2 − τ − T0 h
Microwave Tubes 315
where β0 is the beam coupling coefficient of the catcher cavity. If the buncher and catcher cavity
are identical, i.e., βi = β0. The fundamental component of current induced in catcher cavity has
a magnitude
|ic| = β 0 i f = β 0 I 2 = β 0 2I 0 J1 X bg ...(6.62)
where I2 = |if| is the magnitude of the beam current at the catcher cavity.
The equivalent circuit of catcher cavity is shown in Fig. 6.10.
b0 I 2 b0 I 2
R sh o RB RL R sh V 2
(a ) (b )
Fig. 6.10. Equivalent circuit of catcher cavity.
where, Rsh = Total equivalent shunt resistance.
V2 = Fundamental component of the catcher gap voltage.
Rsho = Wall resistance of catcher cavity.
RB = Beam loading resistance.
RL = External load resistance.
The output power delivered to catcher cavity and the load, from Fig. 6.10(b), given as
FI I c
2
cβ I h
0 2
2
Pout = GH 2 JK R sh =
2
R sh
β 0 I 2 V2 V2
Pout = , Since R sh =
2 β0 I2
β 0 I 2 V2
Pout = ...[6.62(a)]
2
6.5.7 Mutual Conductance Gain

Mutual conductance: The mutual conductance of the klystron amplifier is the ratio of the
induced output current to the input voltage.
|Gm| =
ic
=
b g
2β 0 I 0 J1 X
...(6.63)
V1 V1
Since, we know that bunching parameter of catcher cavity
β0 V1
X = θ0 Since βi = β0
2V0
2V0
V1 = X ...(6.64)
β0 θ0
Substituting value of V1 in equation (6.63), we get
2
|Gm| = β0 θ0
J1 X b g⋅ I 0
...(6.65)
X V0
I0
where = G0 is the DC beam conductance so, the normalized mutual conductance is given by
V0
Gm 2
= β0 θ0
J1 X bg ...(6.66)
G0 X
Mutual conductance Gm is decreases with increase in X
For a maximum output at X = 1.841, i.e., J1(x) = 0.582
Gm
= 0.316 β 02θ 0 ...(6.67)
G0
Mutual conductance of the klystron amplifier is the ratio of the induced output current to the
input voltage.
6.5.8 Efficiency of Klystron

The efficiency of the klystron amplifier is the ratio of the output power to the input power
Pout
Efficiency (η) =
Pin
β 0 I 2 V2
Pout =
2
Input power Pin = I0V0
β0I2 V2
η = ...(6.68)
2I0 V0
Since β0I2 = β02I0J1 (X), [from equation (6.62)]
η =
β0 V2 J1 X bg ...(6.69)
V0
The efficiency become maximum at X = 1.841, where J1(X) = 0.582, from Fig. 6.9
β 0 V2
η max = 0.582
V0
If the coupling is perfect i.e., β0 = 1 then V2 = V0
η max = 58.2% ...(6.70)
In practical, the electronics efficiency of klystron amplifies is in the range of
15 to 30%.
Ø For ideal case, maximum efficiency of klystron is 58.2%

Ø Practically, maximum efficiency of klystron amplifier lies between 15 to 30%
Microwave Tubes 317
6.5.9 Voltage Gain

The voltage gain of a klystron amplifier is
V2
AV =
V1
Since V2 = β0 I2 Rsh [From Fig. 6.10 (b)]
β0I2R sh
AV = ...(6.71)
V1
The fundamental component of beam current at the catcher cavity I2 is 2I0 J1(X), from
equation (6.59)
2V0
From equation (6.47) V1 = X
β 0θ 0
Substituting V1 and I2 into equation (6.71), we get
AV =
β 20 θ 0 J1 X b gR ...(6.72)
sh
R0 X
V0
where R0 = is DC beam resistance.
I0
β20 θ0
bg
J1 X
=
Gm
X G0
Substituting this value in equation (6.72), we get
Gm
AV = R sh
R 0G0
1 V
where R0 = = 0 = DC beam resistance
G0 I0
A V = |Gm| Rsh ...(6.73)
6.5.10 Performance Characteristics

Frequency range : 250 MHz to 60 GHz
Power : 10 kW to 500 kW (CW), 30 MW (pulsed)
Power gain : 15 dB to 60 dB
Bandwidth : 10 kW to 60 MHz
Efficiency : 58.2% (ideal)
6.5.11 Application of Two Cavity Klystron (MDU 2011)

1. In CW doppler radar.
2. For pumping parametric amplifiers.
3. As frequency modulated oscillators in high power microwave link.

4. In TV transmitters.
5. In satellite ground stations.
Actual and cut view of the various cavity klystrons are shown in Fig. 6.11.
R F ou tp ut
R F in pu t
B u nch er ca vity C a tche r cavity
E lectro ns
G rid s 4 an d 5
C a tho d e A n od e
G rid 1
C o lle cto r
G rid s 2 an d 3
D rift space
(a) Cut view of two cavity klystron
(b) Actual view of cavity klystron

Fig. 6.11
Example 6.1. A two cavity klystron amplifier has the following parameter
V0 = 1000 V
R0 = 40 kΩ
I0 = 25 mA
f = 3 GHz
Gap spacing in both cavity d = 1 mm
Spacing between the two cavity L = 4 cm
Effective shunt impedance excluding beam loading Rsh = 30 kΩ.
Microwave Tubes 319
Determine:
(a) Input gap voltage to give maximum voltage V2.
(b) Voltage gain, neglecting the beam loading in output cavity.
(c) Efficiency of amplifier.
(d) Beam loading conductance and show that neglecting it was justified in the proceeding
calculation. (UPTU 2008, 2010)
Solution.
(a) Input gap voltage V1 is
2V0 X βi V1
V1 = , From X = θ0
βi θ0 2V0
For the maximum voltage V2, J1(X) must be maximum, i.e., J1(X) will be maximum
= 0.582 at X = 1.841.
The electron velocity just leaving the cathode is
2eV0
v0 =
m
e
= 0.593 × 106 j V0
= 0.593 × 106 103 = 188

. × 107 m sec
The gap transit angle θg is
ωd d 10−3
θg = = 2πf = 2π × 3 × 109 × = 1 radian
v0 v0 . × 107
188
For X = 1.841, J1(X) will be 0.583.
The beam-coupling coefficient βi and β0
sin θ g 2 sin 28.64°
βi = β0 = = = 0.952 , Since θg = 1 rad = 57.32°
θg 2 12
Ø π rad = 180°
180°
Ø 1 rad = = 57.32°
π
The DC transit angle between the cavities is

ωL 2π × 3 × 109 × 4 × 10 −2
θ0 = ωT0 = = = 40 radian
v0 . × 107
188
Substituting above values for V1max when X = 1.841
2V0 X 2 × 103 × 1841
.
V1max = =
βiθ0 0.952 × 40
V1max = 96.5 Volt
(b) The voltage gain is given by
AV =
b gR
β 20 θ 0 J1 X
sh
R0 X
=
b0.952g 2
e
× 40 × 0.582 × 30 × 103 j
e4 × 10 j × 1841
4
.
A V = 8.595
(c) The efficiency of amplifier is given by
β0I2 V2
η =
2I0 V0
I2 = 2 I0J1(X)
= 2 × 25 × 10−3 × 0.582 = 29.1 × 10−3 amp
V2 = β0I2Rsh = 0.952 × (29.1 × 10−3) × (30 × 103)
= 831 volt
β0 I2 V2 . × 10−3 × 831
0.952 × 291 e j
η = = = 0.462
−3
2I0 V0 e
2 × 25 × 10 j × 103
η = 46.2%
(d) From Fig. 6.10 beam loading conductance
G0 Fβ 2
− β0 cos
I
θg
GB =
2 GH 0
2 JK
25 × 10 −6
GB =
2
b0.952g − b0.952g cos b28.6°g ,
2
1
[Since, G0 = = 25 × 10 −6 mho ]
R0
GB = 8.8 × 107 mho
Beam loading resistance
1
RB = . × 106 Ω
= 114
GB
In comparison with Rsh (30 kΩ), the beam loading resistance is very high, thus beam
loading resistance acts like an open circuit and thus can be neglected in the preceding
calculation.
Example 6.2. The parameters of a two cavity amplifier klystron are as follows:
Beam voltage V0 = 1200 V
Beam current I0 = 28 mA
Frequency f = 8 GHz
Gap spacing in either cavity d = 1 mm
Spacing between two cavity L = 4 cm
Effective shunt resistance Rsh = 40 kΩ (excluding beam loading)
(a) Find the input microwave voltage V1 in order to generate a maximum output V2.
(b) Determine the voltage gain, neglecting the beam loading in output cavity.
Microwave Tubes 321
(c) Calculate the efficiency of amplifier neglecting beam loading.

(d) Compute the beam loading conductance and show that one may neglect it in the
preceding calculation.
Solution.
(a) For maximum V2, J1(X) = 0.582 at X = 1.841
2V0 X
V1max =
βiθ 0
The electron velocity just leaving the cathode is
2eV0
v0 = = 0.593 × 106 V0
m
v0 = 0.593 × 106 12 × 102

v0 = 20.54 × 106 m/s
ωd 2π × 8 × 109 × 10 −3
θg = = = 2.45 radians
v0 20.54 × 106
The beam coupling coefficient is
e
sin θ g 2 j =
b . °
sin 7018 g
β i = β0 = [Since 1 radian = 57.32°
θg 2 1225
.
θg
and = 1.225 radian = 70.18°]
2
Thus, βi = β0 = 0.77
The transit angle θ0 is
ωL 2π × 8 × 109 × 4 × 10 −2
e j e j
θ0 = ωT0 = =
v0 20.54 × 106
θ0 = 97.9 radians
2V0 X 2 × 12 × 102 × 1841
.
Then V1max = =
βiθ0 . × 97.9
077
V1max = 58.62 Volt
(b) The voltage gain is given by
AV =
b gR
β 20 θ 0 J1 X
sh
R0 X
V0 1200
R0 = = = 42.58 kΩ
I0 28 × 10−3
AV =
b077
. g
2
× 97.9 × 0.582 × 40 × 103
. × 103 × 1841
4285 .
A V = 17.1
Voltage gain in dB = 20 log10 AV dB = 20 log10 17.1
(AV)dB = 24.66 dB
(c) The efficiency of amplifier is given by
β0I2 V2
η =
2I0 V0
I2 = 2I0J1(X) = 2 × 28 × 10−3 × 0.582 = 32.6 × 10−3 amp
V2 = β0I2Rsh = 0.77 × 32.6 × 10−3 × 40 × 103 = 1003.83 Volts
β0 I2 V2 . × 32.6 × 10 −3 × 1003.83
077
η = = = 0.375
2I0 V0 2 × 28 × 10−3 × 1200
η = 37.5%
(d) Beam loading conductance GB is given
G0 Fβ 2
− β0 cos
θg I
GB =
2 GH 0
2 JK
1 1
Since G0 = = = 23.3 × 10 −6 mho
R0 42.58 × 103
23.3 × 10−6 θg
GB =
2
077
. b g 2
− 077 b
. × cos 7018
. ° ,g 2
= 7018
. °
GB = 3.88 × 10−6 mho

1 1
Beam loading resistance RB = = = 25 × 10 4 Ω
GB 3.88 × 10 −6
In comparison with Rsh (40 kΩ), the beam loading resistance is very high, thus beam
loading resistance acts like an open circuit and thus can be neglected in the preceding
calculation.
Example 6.3. A two cavity klystron amplifies has following parameter

Voltage gain 15 dB
Input power 5 mW
Total shunt impedance of input cavity Rsh (input) 30 kΩ
Total shunt impedance of output cavity Rsh (output) 40 kΩ
Load impedance at output cavity RL 40 kΩ
Determine:
(a) The input voltage (rms)
(b) The output voltage (rms)
(c) The power delivered to the load in watts. (UPTU 2003)
Microwave Tubes 323
Solution.
V12
(a) Since, input power Pin =
R sh b input g
Input voltage V1 = Pin R sh = 30 × 103 × 5 × 10 −3

Input voltage V1 = 12.25 V (rms)
(b) Voltage gain AV, in dB
V2
A V = 20 log10
V1
V2
18 = 20 log10
12.25
Output voltage V2 = 68.89 V (rms)
(c) The power delivered to the load
Pout =
V22
=
b68.89g 2
R sh boutput g 40 × 103
Pout = 118.57 mW
Example 6.4. A two cavity klystron amplifier has the following parameters
Beam Voltage V0 = 900 V
Beam Current I0 = 30 mA
Frequency f = 8 GHz
Gap spacing in either cavity d = 1 mm
Spacing between centers at cavity L = 4 cm
Effective shunt impedance Rsh = 40 kΩ
Determine:
(a) The electron velocity
(b) The DC electron transit time
(c) The input voltage for maximum output voltage
(d) The voltage gain in decibels.
Solution.
(a) Electron velocity is given by
2eV0
v0 =
m
v0 = 0.593 × 106 V0 = 0.593 × 106 900

v0 = 1.779 × 107 m/s
(b) The DC electron transit time T0 is given by

L 4 × 10−2
T0 = =
v0 . × 107
18
T0 = 2.23 × 10− 9 sec
(c) For maximum V2, J1 (X) = 0.582 at X = 1.841
ωd 2π × 8 × 109 × 10 −3
e j
θg = = = 2.825 radians
v0 1779
. × 107
Beam coupling parameter is
βi = β0 =
e
sin θ g 2 j =
b . °
sin 8093 g
θg 2 1412
.
θg
Since = 1.412 radian = 80.93°
2
βi = β0 = 0.70
The DC transit angle θ0 is
ωL
θ0 = = ωT0 = 2π × 8 × 109 × 2.23 × 10 −9
v0
θ0 = 111.64 radian
2V0 X 2 × 900 × 1841
.
V1max = =
βiθ0 . × 11164
070 .
V1max = 42.18 V
(d) Voltage gain AV is given by, from equation (6.72)
AV =
β 20 θ0 J1 X b gR
sh
R0X
AV =
b07. g 2
. × 0.582 × 40 × 103
× 11164
30 × 103 × 1841
.
A V = 23.32
Voltage gain in dB = 20 log10 AV
= 20 log10 23.32
A V = 27.35 dB
Example 6.5. Input cavity of a two cavity klystron is 0.1 cm wide. If the frequency of
the applied RF signal is 1 GHz and beam accelerating potential is 2500 Volts, determine the
number of cycle that would elapse during the transit of beam through the input gap. Assume
that RF signal amplitude is negligible as compared to accelerating potential.
Microwave Tubes 325
Solution. Given
Cavity gap d = 0.1 cm
Accelerating voltage V0 = 2500 V
Frequency f = 1 GHz
The velocity at which the electron beam enters the buncher cavity gap is given by
2eV0
v0 = = 0.593 × 106 V0 = 0.593 × 106 2500
m
v0 = 2.93 × 107 m/s
Time spent by the beam in the gap (τ)
d 10−3
= = = 0.034 ns
v0 2.93 × 107
Now one cycle of RF signal
1 1
TRF = = = 1 ns
f 109
Number of cycle that would elapse during the transit of beam through the input gap is
τ 0.034
n = =
TRF 1
n = 0.034 cycle
Example 6.6. A two cavity klystron is to given maximum power output at fundamental
frequency of 6.0 GHz. The accelerating voltage is 1000 volts and coupling coefficient is unity.
What is the optimum length of drift space?
Solution. Given
Accelerating voltage V0 = 1000 Volt
Frequency f = 6.0 GHz
Coupling coefficient βi = 1
The optimum length of drift space is given by
v0 V0
∆Lopt = 3.682
ωβi V1
The velocity at which the electron beam enters the buncher cavity gap v0 is given by
2eV0
v0 = = 0.593 × 106 V0 = 0.593 × 106 1000
m
v0 = 5.93 × 106 m/s
In the mathematical analysis of klystron we assume that RF signal amplitude is negligible as
compared to accelerating potential, i.e., V1 << V0
Therefore, optimum drift length become
v0 V0
∆Lopt = 3.682
ωβi
3682
. × 5.93 × 106 × 1000
= , Since βi = 1
2π × 6 × 109 × 1
= 0.579 m
∆Lopt = 57.9 cm
Example 6.7. A two cavity klystron amplifier operates at 5 GHz with DC beam voltage
10 kV, cavity gap 2 mm. For a given input RF voltage, the magnitude of the gap voltage is
100 volts. Calculate the transit time at the cavity gap, the transit angle, and the velocity of
the electrons leaving the gap. (UPTU 2007)
Solution. Given
Frequency f = 5 GHz
DC beam voltage (Accelerating voltage) V0 = 10 kV
Cavity gap d = 2 mm
Magnitude of gap voltage V1 = 100 V
The velocity of beam when enter the buncher cavity is given by
2eV0
v0 = = 0.593 × 106 V0 = 0.593 × 106 10 × 103
m
v0 = 0.583 × 108 m/s
So, transit time at the cavity gap τ = t1 − t0 is given by
d 2 × 10−3
τ = =
v0 0.593 × 108
Gap transit time (ττ) = 33.7 × 10−12 sec
The gap transit angle θg = ωτ = 2π × 5 × 109 × 33.7 × 10−12
θg = 1.059 radian [ π radian = 180°]
θg = 60.7 deg.
The velocity of electron leaving the input cavity gap is
LM β i V1 F θg I OP
v(t1) = v0 1 + sin ωt0 +
GH
MN 2V0 2 JK P
Q
The beam coupling parameter
βi =
sin θ g 2
=
b
sin 30.35° g
θg 2 0.5295
βi = 0.9537
Therefore, v (t1) is
v (t1) = 0.593 × 108 1 +

LM b0.954 × 100g sin FG ωt +
.
1059 IJ OP
MN 2 × 10 × 10 H 3 0
2 K PQ
v (t1) = 0.593 × 108 [1 + 0.00477 sin (ω
ω t0 + 0.5295)]
Microwave Tubes 327
The maximum velocity

LM
vmax (t1) = v0 1 +
OP βi V1
MN
2V PQ 0
L 09537
0.593 × 10 M1 +
. × 100 O
MN 2 × 10 × 10 PPQ
8
=
3
vmax (t1) = 0.5958 × 108 m/s

The minimum velocity
LM
vmin (t1) = v0 1 −
βi V1 OP
MN 2V0 PQ
= 0.593 × 108 [1 − 0.00477]
vmin (t1) = 0.5902 × 108 m/s
Example 6.8. A two cavity klystron operates at 10 GHz with I0 = 3.6 mA, V0 = 10 kV.
The drift length is 2 cm and the output cavity total shunt conductance is Gsh = 20 µ mho
and beam coupling coefficient β0 = 0.92. Find the maximum voltage gain.
Solution. Given
Frequency f = 10 GHz
DC beam current I0 = 3.6 mA
DC beam voltage V0 = 10 kV
Drift space length L = 2 cm
Output cavity shunt conductance Gsh = 20 µ mho
Coupling coefficient β0 = 0.92
Voltage gain AV is given by
AV =
β 20 θ0 J1 X b gR
sh
R0X
For maximum gain, J1(X) = 0.582 at X = 1.841
DC beam velocity v0 is
v0 = 0.593 × 106 V0 = 0.593 × 106 10 × 103

v0 = 0.593 × 108 m/s
DC transit angle θ0 is
ωL 2π × 10 × 109 × 2 × 10−2
θ0 = =
v0 0.593 × 108
θ0 = 21.19 radians
V0 10 × 103
and R0 = = = 3.33 ohm
I0 3.6 × 10 −3
1
Rsh =
G sh
Maximum gain Amax =

b
β 20θ 0 0.582 g
b
R 0 1841
. G sh g
Amax =
b0.92g 2
× 2119
. × 0.582
3.33 × 1841
. × 20 × 10−6
Amax = 102.1
Example 6.9. An identical two-cavity klystron amplifier operates of 4 GHz with

V0 = 1 kV, I0 = 22 mA, Cavity gap 1 mm, drift space 3 cms. If DC beam conductance and
catcher cavity total equivalent conductance are 0.55 × 10−4 mhos and 0.3 × 10−4 mhos
respectively. Calculate:
(a) The beam coupling coefficient, DC transit angle in the drift space and the input cavity
voltage magnitude for maximum output voltage.
(b) Voltage gain and efficiency, neglecting the beam loading. (UPTU 2003)
Solution. Given
Frequency f = 4 GHz
Accelerating voltage V0 = 1 kV
DC beam current I0 = 22 mA
Cavity gap d = 1 mm
Drift space L = 3 cm
Total equivalent conductance Gsh = 0.55 × 10−4 mho
(a) DC beam velocity v0 is given by
v0 = 0.593 × 106 V0 = 0.593 × 106 1000

v0 = 1.88 × 107 m/s
Gap transit angle θg is
ωd 2π × 4 × 109 × 1 × 10−3
θg = =
v0 . × 107
188
θg = 1.337 radians
θg = 76.6 deg
The beam coupling coefficient
βi = β 0 =
sin θ g 2
=
b
sin 38.3° g
θg 2 0.668
β i = β 0 = 0.927
DC transit angle in drift space
ωL 2π × 4 × 109 × 3 × 10−2
θ0 = =
v0 . × 107
188
θ0 = 40.11 radians
For maximum output voltage J1 (X) = 0.582 at X = 1.841 so that the input cavity gap
voltage
Microwave Tubes 329
2V0 X 2 × 103 × 1841

.
V1 = =
βiθ0 0927
. × 4011
.
V1 = 99 Volts
(b) The voltage gain
AV =
b gR
β 20 θ 0 J1 X
=
bg
β 20θ 0 J1 X I0
sh
XR 0 XV0 G sh
V0
Since R0 =
I0
AV =
b0.927g 2
× 4011
. × 0582
. × 22 × 10 −3
1841
. × 0.55 × 10 −4 × 103
A V = 4.36
Catcher voltage V2 = AV V1 = 4.36 × 99
V2 = 431.64 Volt
Power efficiency η is given by
η =
bg
β0 J1 X V2
V0
0.927 × 0.582 × 43164
.
= = 0.2328
103
η = 23.28%
6.6 MULTICAVITY KLYSTRON AMPLIFIER
Klystron amplification, power output, and efficiency can be greatly improved by the addition of
intermediate cavities between the input and output cavities of the basic klystron. Additional cavities
serve to velocity-modulate the electron beam and produce an increase in the energy available at
the output. Since all intermediate cavities in a multicavity klystron operate in the same manner,
a representative three-cavity klystron will be discussed.
6.6.1 Construction
A three-cavity klystron is illustrated in Fig. 6.12. The entire drift-tube assembly, the three cavities,
and the collector plate of the three-cavity klystron are operated at ground potential for reasons of
safety. The electron beam is formed and accelerated toward the drift tube by a large negative pulse
applied to the cathode. Magnetic focus coils are placed around the drift tube to keep the electrons
in a tight beam and away from the side walls of the tube. The focus of the beam is also aided
by the concave shape of the cathode is high-powered klystrons.
E lectro n P late a sse m bly

D rift-tu be a ssem b ly
G un C o lle ctor
In pu t
cavity
E lectro n be am
O utpu t
cavity
Fig. 6.12. Three-cavity klystron.
6.6.2 Operation of Multicavity Klystron

The output of any klystron (regardless of the number of cavities used) is developed by velocity
modulation of the electron beam. The electrons that are accelerated by the cathode pulse are acted
upon by RF fields developed across the input and middle cavities. Some electrons are accelerated,
some are deaccelerated, and some are unaffected. Electron reaction depends on the amplitude and
polarity of the fields across the cavities when the electrons pass the cavity gaps. During the time
the electrons are travelling through the drift space between the cavities, the accelerated electrons
overtake the deaccelerated electrons to form bunches. As a result, bunches of electrons arrive at
the output cavity at the proper instant during each cycle of the RF field and deliver energy to the
output cavity.
Only a small degree of bunching takes place within the electron beam during the interval of
travel from the input cavity to the middle cavity. The amount of bunching is sufficient, however,
to cause oscillations within the middle cavity and to maintain a large oscillating voltage across the
middle cavity gap. Most of the velocity modulation produced in the three-cavity klystron is caused
by the voltage across the input gap of the middle cavity. The high voltage across the gap causes
the bunching process to proceed rapidly in the drift space between the middle cavity and the output
cavity. The electron bunches cross the gap of the output cavity when the gap voltage is at
maximum negative. Maximum energy transfer from the electron beam to the output cavity occurs
under these conditions. The energy given up by the electrons is the kinetic energy that was
originally absorbed from the cathode pulse.
Klystron amplifiers have been built with as many as five intermediate cavities in addition to
the input and output cavities. The effect of the intermediate cavities is to improve the electron
bunching process which improves amplifier gain. The overall efficiency of the tube is also improved
to a lesser extent. Adding more cavities is roughly the same as adding more stages to a conventional
amplifier. The overall amplifier gain is increased and the overall bandwidth is reduced if all the
stages are tuned to the same frequency. The same effect occurs with multicavity klystron tuning.
A klystron amplifier tube will deliver high gain and a narrow bandwidth if all the cavities are tuned
to the same frequency. This method of tuning is called synchronous tuning. If the cavities are tuned
to slightly different frequencies, the gain of the amplifier will be reduced but the bandwidth will be
appreciably increased. This method of tuning is called staggered tuning.
Microwave Tubes 331
Ø A higher overall gain can be achieved by connecting several cavities in cascade.

Ø A klystron amplifier tube will deliver high gain if all the cavities are tuned to the
same frequency.
Ø Amplifier bandwidth will be more if cavities are tuned to slightly different frequencies.
6.7 REFLEX KLYSTRON (MDU 2012, 2010; UPTU 2009)
Reflex klystron is low power, low efficiency microwave oscillator. Reflex klystron is a single cavity
variable frequency microwave generator. This is most widely used in application where variable
frequency is desired like radar receiver and microwave receivers.
Construction: Reflex klystron consists of an
electron gun similar to that of multicavity klystron, a Fo cussing
filament surrounded by a cathode and a focussing e lectrod e O utpu t
electrode at the cathode as shown in Fig. 6.13. The G ap R e pe ller
reflex klystron contains a repeller which is at a high
negative potential. The suitable formed electron beam
is accelerated towards the cavity, where a high positive C a tho de
E lectro n
voltage applied to it. This acts as anode and known as b ea m
anode cavity. After passing the gap in cavity electrons – V +
0
travel towards repeller which is at high negative C a vity
(a no de )
potential. The electrons are repelled back from midway
of the repeller space by the repeller electrode towards VR
+ –
the anode. If conditions are properly adjusted, then the
returning electrons give more energy to the gap than
Fig. 6.13. Reflex klystron.
they took from it on forward journey, thus leads to
sustained oscillations.
Ø Reflex klystron is low power, low efficiency oscillator.

Ø Reflex klystron is a commonly used microwave source for laboratory.
Ø Reflex klystron consist of only one cavity known as anode cavity.
6.7.1 Operation (MDU 2007, 2009)

The electron beam injected from the cathode is first velocity modulated by the cavity gap voltage*
(R.F. Voltage existing on the cavity grids due to oscillation in cavity resonator). This cavity gap field
affects the electrons in the beam as they pass through the cavity gap. The operation of reflex
klystron based on velocity modulation and can be explain by applegate diagram as shown in
Fig. 6.14. Here reference electron is A and if passes the gap without being affected by the voltage
because gap voltage is zero at this point. This electron moves towards the repeller and gets
reflected by the negative voltage on the repeller.
It returns and passes through the gap for a second. Now we consider other electron B which
passes through the gap before the reference electron A experiences a maximum positive voltage
across the gap and this electron is accelerated. It moves with greater velocity and penetrates deep
into repeller space. The return time for electron B is more than the reference electron A.
C a vity ga p vo lta ge
(m ax. po sitive )
R ep elle r
dista nce
B u nch
0
B A C Tim e
3
1 cycle
4
B u nch ing
lim its
Fig. 6.14. Applegate diagram of reflex klystron.

Similarly, electron C leaving the gap slightly after the reference electron A experiences a
negative field and moves with retarding velocity. Therefore, electron C does not reach as close to
repeller compared to electron A. There exists a possibility that electron C catcher up with electron
A and electron B. So all there electron A, B and C return back nearly at the same time into the
resonator and electron bunching will takes place. Electron bunches occur once per cycle centered
around the reference electron A and these bunches transfer maximum energy to the gap to get
sustained oscillators.
Ø *The resonator potential also causes the resonant cavity to begin oscillating at its
natural frequency when the tube is energized. These oscillations cause an electrostatic
field across the grid gap of the cavity.
Ø Applegate diagram is used for graphical representation of electron bunching
phenomenon in microwave tube.
Ø Bunches occur once per cycle centered around the reference electron.
6.7.2 Transit Time

For sustained oscillation the time taken by the electron to travel into the repeller space and back
to the gap is called transit time, must have an optimum value. The factor is not so important in
klystron amplifier but it assume a great importance in case of a reflex klystron. The most optimum
departure time is obviously centred on the reference electron which is at 180° point of sine wave
voltage across the resonator gap. Actually no energy goes into velocity modulation of electron
beam. It takes some energy to accelerate electrons but just as much energy is gained from
retarding electron. Since there are as many rebounded electrons as those which are accelerated,
the total energy outlay is nil.
From the above discussion, it is evident that the best possible time for electrons to return to
the gap is the one at which the voltage that existing across the gap will apply maximum retardation
to them. This is when the gap voltage is maximum positive. This causes electron to fall through
the maximum amount of energy to the gap. Thus it appears that, the best time for electrons to
Microwave Tubes 333
3 3 3
return to gap is at 90° point of the sine wave gap voltage. Returning electrons after 1 , 2 , 3 ,
4 4 4
cycle etc., satisfies the above requirements. In general, the optimum time is given by
1
Optimum transit time (T) = n −
4
where n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
Ø Transit time is the time taken by the electron to travel into the repeller space and
back to the gap.
Ø Best possible transit time of electrons is one at which the voltage that existing
across the gap will apply maximum retardation to them.
6.7.3 Characteristic of Reflex Klystron (MDU 2005; UPTU 2010)

(i ) Voltage characteristic (Modes of reflex klystron).
Oscillation can be obtained only for specific combinations of anode and repeller voltage that give
1
a optimum transit time, i.e., T = n − . Figure 6.14(a) shows the range of anode and repeller
4
voltage combination for which oscillation will take place. The shaded area indicates such suitable
combinations. Each value of n = 1, 2, 3, ... is said to correspond to different mode for the reflex
klystron oscillator. The mode used mostly is the most convenient one, the lower (corresponding to
lower value of n) the mode, the larger the output power, which is obviously an advantage. The
voltage required for lower mode is higher leading to insulation problems and the possibility of lower
3 3
efficiencies. As a result the most commonly used are those corresponding to n = 1 or n = 2 .
4 4
3
3 n=1
n=2 4
4
3
n=3
4
3
n=4
4
R e pe ller 3
n=5
volta ge |V R | 4
volts
3
n=6
4
B e am
volta ge V 0 vo lts B e am d ow n va lue
Fig. 6.14(a) Reflex klystron mode pattern (shaded areas indicate

possible oscillation combination)
(ii ) Output power and frequency characteristic

The output power and frequency characteristic is shown in Fig. 6.14(b), where repeller voltage is
a variable parameter. In Fig. 6.14(b) it is seen that maximum power output is achieved when mode
3
= 1 . For any mode, maximum power is obtained when the repeller voltage gives the optimum
4
value of the transit time. The frequency of resonance of the cavity decides the frequency of
oscillation. Variation of repeller voltage slightly changes the frequency. This amounts to electronic
tuning of reflex klystron and this is also shown in Fig. 6.14(b). This makes its possible to the reflex
klystron as a voltage tuned oscillator or frequency modulated oscillator.
1 0.0 4
1 0.0 2
Fre qu en cy ‘ f ’
1 0.0 0 (1 )
in GH z
9 .98
9 .96
3 3 3
M od e 3 – M od e 2 – M od e 1 –
4 4 4
4 00
3 00
P ow e r o utpu t
P R F in m W
2 00 (2 )
1 00
0
1 00 2 00 3 00 4 00 5 00 6 00 7 00 8 00 9 00 1 00 0
R e pe lle r vo ltag e in volts
Fig. 6.14(b) (1) Frequency characteristics (2) Mode curves of reflex klystron.
Ø Oscillations can obtained only for specific combinations of anode and repeller
voltage that gives a favourable transit time, i.e., T = N + 3/4.
Ø For any mode, maximum power is obtained when the repeller voltage gives the
optimum value of the transit time.
6.7.4 Disadvantage of Reflex Klystron

In the bunching process of reflex klystron few electrons arrives at the gap out of phase and
contributing to the high noise and low efficiency of the device.
6.7.5 Tuning of Reflex Klystron (MDU 2006)

The method consist of moving in or out a plunger in the cavity, which tightens or loosens a wall
of tuning cavity. Thus changing the size and frequency of resonance of the tuning cavity as shown
in Fig. 6.14(c). Electronic tuning is the most common type of tuning in which the repeller voltage
is varied.
Microwave Tubes 335
G ap
C avity reson ator

S h ort-circuit
p lun g er
Fig. 6.14(c) Tuning of reflex klystron.
6.7.6 Velocity Modulation Process (MDU 2007; UPTU 2012)

The analysis of reflex klystron is similar to that of a two cavity klystron.
A n od e
cavity R e pe ller
A B
C a tho d e
V0
V0 V 0 + V 1 sin wt
VR
o d d+L
d L
t0 t1
(t 2 )
Fig. 6.15. Schematic diagram of reflex klystron.

V0 = Electron gun anode voltage
V1 sin ωt = RF voltage at cavity gap
VR = Repeller votage with respect to cathode
v0 = Velocity of electron in gun
v1 = Electron velocity due to RF voltage in addition with accelerating voltage V0
L = Space between anode cavity and repeller electrode
d = Space between the anode cavity grid
t0 = Time for electron entering cavity gap at z = 0
t1 = Time for same electron leaving cavity gap at z = d
t2 = Time for same electron returned by retarding field at z = d
The electron entering the cavity gap from the cathode at z = 0 and time t0 is assumed to
have uniform velocity is
2eV0 1
v0 = , Since eV0 = mv02
m 2
v0 = 0.593 × 106 V0 ...(6.74)

The same electron leaves the cavity gap at z = d at the time t1 having the velocity
From equation [6.30(b)]
v1 = v0 1 +
LM β i V1 F
sin ωt1 −
θg I OP
MN 2V0 GH 2 JK P
Q
...(6.75)
The same electron is forced back to the cavity z = d at the time t2

Now from Fig. 6.14
Voltage at point A = V0 + V1 sin ωt
Voltage at point B = − VR (Negative repeller voltage)
Voltage difference between A and B is
VR − (V0 + V1 sin ωt) ≈ −VR − V0, Since V0 >> V1
The electron is forced back at time t2 by retarding electric field E is given by
E =
FG −V − V IJ
R 0
H L K
V
Since E = ,
d
So, force on electron F = −eE = − e

FG − V − V IJ
R 0
= e
FG V
R + V0 IJ ...[6.76(a)]
H L K H L K
[–sign for retarding force]
Also we know that force an electron
md2 Z
= Mass × Acceleration = ...[6.76(b)]
dt2
Now equating equation [6.76(a)] and equation [6.76(b)], we get
d2 z e
m
dt 2 = c
V + V0
L R
h
d2 z e
dt2
= V + V0
mL R
c h ...(6.77)
Integrating equation (6.77), we get

dz e
dt
= V + V0 t + C
mL R
c h ...(6.78)
where C is a constant.
dz
At time t = t1, = v1 = velocity of electron
dt
Microwave Tubes 337
e
So, v1 =
mL R
c
V + V0 t1 + C h
e
C = v1 −
mL R
V + V0 t1 c h ...(6.79)
Substituting value of C in equation (6.78), we get
dz e e
dt
=
mL
VR + V0 t + v1 − c
V + V0 t1
mL R
h c h
dz e
dt
=
mL R
V + V0 t − t1 + v1 c hc h ...(6.80)
Integrating equation (6.80), once again, we get

e 2
2mL
VR + V0 t − t1 + v1t + C1
z = c hc h ...(6.81)
At z = 0, at the point of return from repeller space, i.e., t = t2

e
0 =
2mL
b
VR + V0 t2 − t1 gb g 2
+ v1t2 + C1
e 2
C1 = −
2mL R
V + V0 t2 − t1 c hc h − v1t2 ...(6.82)
Substituting the value of C1 in equation (6.81), we get

e
2mL R
V + V0 t − t1
z = c h LNMc 2
h − ct 2 − t1 h OQP + v ct − t h
2
1 2
...(6.83)
Again when t = t1 (at exit point), z = 0, we get

e 2
− c hc
V + V0 t2 − t1
2mL R
h c
− v1 t1 − t2 h = 0
2mL v1
t2 − t1 =
e VR + V0c h
From equation (6.75), substituting value of v1
t2 − t1 =
2m L βV LM
⋅ v 0 1 + i 1 sin ωt1 −
θg FG IJ OP ...(6.84)
b
e VR + V0 V0 g MN 2 H K PQ
2mL ⋅ v 0
where = T0′ is the round trip transit time of the centre of bunch electron
c
e VR + V0 h
and t2 − t1 = T0 is the round trip transit time in repeller region.
So, equation (6.84) becomes
T0 = T0′ 1 +
LM βi V1
sin ωt1 −
FG
θg IJ OP ...(6.85)
MN 2V0 H
2 K PQ
The transit angle is defined as
ω(t2 − t1) = ωT0 = ωT0′ 1 +

LM βi V1
sin ωt1 −
θg FG IJ OP ...(6.86)
MN 2V0 2 H K PQ
where ωT′0 = θ′0 is DC transit angle of center of bunch electron
ω(t2 − t1) = θ′0 +

βi V1θ ′0
sin ωt1 −
θgFG IJ ...(6.87)
2V0 2 H K
β i V1θ 0′
where X′′ = is the bunching parameter of reflex klystron oscillator.
2 V0
So round trip transit angle of reflex klystron oscillator is
ω (t2 − t1) = θ ′0 + X ′ sin ωt1 −

F θg I
GH 2 JK
...(6.88)
2mL ⋅ v0
Ø T′0 = is the round trip transit time of center of bunch electron.
c
e VR + V0 h
6.7.7 Relationship between Accelerating Voltage and Repeller Voltage
From equation (6.87), when V1 << V0, for the centre bunch of electron which is unaffected by
RF signal
ωt2 = ωt1 + θ′0
3
For the maximum energy transfer the mode is 1 cycle apart
4
i.e., θ′0 = 2π n −
FG 1IJ
, where n −
1 3 3
= , 1 , ...
H 4 K 4 4 4
For the optimum value of θ′0 (For sustained oscillations)
π
θ′0 = 2nπ − ...(6.89)
2
We know that θ′0 = ωT′0
2mL
Substituting T′0 = v0
c
e VR + V0 h
2m Lω
θ′0 = v0 ...(6.90)
b
e VR + V0 g
ec V R +V h 0
Thus, v0 = ⋅ θ′ 0 ...(6.91)
2mL ω
1
We know that mv02 = eV0
2
mv02
V0 =
2e
Now substituting the value of v0 from equation (6.91)
Microwave Tubes 339
m e VR + V0Fc h IJ 2
V0 =
2e 2mLω
GGH
θ0′
JK
e 2
V0 =
8mω L 2 2 cV + V h θ′
R 0 0 ...(6.92)

π
θ′0 = 2πn −
2
Now substituting above value in equation (6.92), we get
FG 2πn − π IJ 2
So,
V0
=
H 2K
⋅
e
...(6.93)
2 2 2
cV + V0 h 8ω L m
R
6.7.8 Relation between Repeller Voltage and Frequency of Operation of Reflex

Klystron (Electronics Tuning of Reflex Klystron Oscillator)
8mω 2 L2
(VR + V0)2 = ⋅ V0 ...(6.94)
F πI
eG 2πn − J
2
H 2K
Differentiating VR with respect to, we get
16ωmL2 V0
c
2 VR + V0 h ddωV R
=
FG 2πn − π IJ 2
e
H 2K
dVR 16ωmL2 V0 1
or = ×
dω FG 2πn − π IJ 2
e
c
2 VR + V0 h
H 2K
dVR 8ωmL2 V0 1
= ×
e
cV R + V0 h
H 2K
Substituting the value of VR + V0 from equation (6.94), we get
FG2πn − π IJ 2
e
dVR
=
8ωmL2 V0
×
H 2K
8ω 2 mL2 V0
e
H 2K
dVR 8mL2 V0
=
e
H 2K
dVR L 8mV0
=
dω FG 2πn − π IJ e
H 2K
dVR 2πL 8mV0
or = ...(6.95)
df FG 2πn −
π IJ
e
H 2 K
This is very useful relationship for electronic tuning of reflex klystron. From equation (6.95),
it is found that frequency and hence transit time is dependent on the repeller and anode voltage,
so that both must be carefully adjusted. Once the cavity has been tuned to the correct frequency,
both the anode and repeller voltage are adjusted to give the correct value of frequency from the
data supplied by the manufacture. A significant rise in the power output shows that correct values
of voltage have been reached. Every time the cavity is retuned, the anode and repeller voltage have
also to be adjusted accordingly.
Ø In reflex klystron, operating frequency and transit time are dependent on repeller
and anode voltage.
6.7.9 Efficiency of Reflex Klystron (MDU 2007)

Current modulation of the electron beam as it re-enter the cavity from the repeller region can be
determined in the same manner as for two-cavity klystron amplifier. In the reflex klystron, the
beam current re-enter into cavity gap from the repeller region flows in the negative z-direction so
the beam current of reflex klystron oscillator can be written as, from equation (6.58),
∞
i2 = − I 0 − ∑ 2I J bnX ′g cos n cωt
0 n 2 − ωτ − ωT0′ h
n=1
(−ve sign indicate that the beam current re-enter into cavity in negative z-direction)
∞
i2 = − I 0 − ∑ 2I J bnX ′g cos n eωt
0 n 2 − θ0′ − θ g j ...[6.96(a)]
n=1
The fundamental component (second term of equation [6.96(a)] of the current induced in the
cavity by modulated electron beam is
i2 = − βiIf
For n = 1
b g e
i2 = 2I 0β i J1 X ′ cos ωt2 − θ 0′ − θ g j ...[6.96(b)]
Since θg << θ0, the magnitude of fundamental component is
I2 = 2I0βiJ1 (X′) ...(6.97)
The DC power supplied by the beam voltage V0 is
PDC = V0I0 ...(6.98)
Microwave Tubes 341
The AC power delivered to the load is

V1I 2
PAC =
2
Substituting the value of I2 from equation (6.97), we get
PAC = V1I0βiJ1(X′) ...(6.99)
We know that bunching parameter X′ is given by
βi V1
X′ = θ0′
2V0
For maximum energy transfer
ω(t2 − t1) = ωT′ = θ′0 =

FG n − 1 IJ 2π = 2πn −
π
H 4K 2
X′ =
βi V1 FG 2πn − π IJ
2V0 H 2K
V1 2X′
= ...(6.100)
V0 F πI
β G 2πn − J
H 2K
i
Efficiency of reflex klystron oscillator is given by, from equations (6.98) and (6.99)
η =
PAC
=
V1I0βi J1 X ′b g
PDC V0I0
V1
η =
V0
b g
βi J1 X ′
V1
Substituting the value , from equation (6.100), we get
V0
2X ′J1 (X ′)
η =
FG
2πn −
π IJ
H 2 K
From Fig. 6.16 factor X′ J1 (X′) reaches a maximum value of 1.252 at X′ = 2.408 and J1(X′)
3
= 0.52. In practice the mode of n = 2 has the maximum output. If n = 2 or 1 mode, the
4
maximum electronic efficiency becomes
ηmax =
b
2 2.408 0.52 gb g
= 2278%
.
π
2π 2 −
2
bg
η max = 22.78%
The practical efficiency of reflex klystron is around 20%.
3
Ø For maximum transfer of energy, the modes are 1 cycle apart.
4
Ø The optimum value of θ′0 = 2π n −

1
, where n −
1
=
FG
3 3
, 1 , ...
IJ
4 4 H
4 4 K
Ø The practical efficiency of reflex klystron is around 20%.
6.7.10 Power Output in Terms of Repeller Voltage

Pout = V1I0βiJ1 (X′)
Substituting value of V1 from equation (6.100), we get
Pout =
2V0 I 0 X ′J1 X ′ b g ...(6.101)
2πn − π 2
In equation (6.101)
π
2πn − = θ′0 = ωT′0
2
1 .4
1 .25
1 .2
1 .0
0 .8
X ¢J 1 (X ¢)
0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
0
0 0 .5 1 .0 1 .5 2 .0 2 .5 3 .0 3 .5 4 .0
2 .40 8 X¢
Fig. 6.16. X′ J1(X′) versus X′.
2mLv0ω
We know that ωT′0 =
c
e VR + V0 h
π 2mLv0ω
2πn − =
2 c
e VR + V0 h
Substituting this value in equation (6.101), we get
Pout =
V0 I0 X ′J1 X ′ b g cV h
+ V0 e
R
2µLv0 ⋅ω
2eV0
Since v0 =
m
Microwave Tubes 343
Pout =
b gc
V0 I0 X ′J1 X ′ VR + V0 h e
ωL 2mV0
The factor X′J1 (X′) reaches a maximum value of 1.25 at X′ = 2.408 and J1(X′) = 0.52, so
we get
Pmax =
1.25 V0 I 0 VR + V0 c h e
...(6.102)
ωL 2mV0
6.7.11 Electronic Admittance of Reflex Klystron

The fundamental component of the current induced in the cavity can be written in phasor form
is given by, from equation (6.97)
− iθ0′
b g
I2 = 2I0βi J1 X ′ e ...(6.103)
The voltage across the gap at time t2 can be written in phasor form
V2 = V1e − j π 2
The electronics admittance is given by

I2
Ye =
V2
where V1 is the amplitude of RF signal
V2 and I2 are output voltage and current respectively.
Substituting the value of I2 and V2, we get
− jθ ′0
Ye =
b g
2I0βi J1 X ′ e
...(6.104)
V1e − jπ 2
2V0 X ′ βi V1θ0′
V1 = , since bunching parameter X ′ =
β i θ0′ 2V0
Ye =
b ged
I 0β 2i θ 0′ J1 X ′ j π 2 − θ 0′ i = G e + jβ e
V0 X ′
Ye =
I0
⋅ βi2θ 0′ ⋅
b ge c
J1 X ′ j π 2 − θ 0′ h ...(6.105)
V0 X′
From equation (6.105), the amplitude of the phasor admittance is the function of the DC
beam admittance, the DC transit angle and the second transit of the electron beam through the
cavity. Equation (6.105) shows that electronic admittance is non-linear and is proportional to the
factor 1
b g
J X′
and X′ is proportional to the signal voltage.
X′
The equivalent circuit for reflex klystron oscillator is shown in Fig. 6.17, where L and C
represents the magnetic and electric storage of energy in the cavity, GC represents the cavity loss
conductance.
Ye
B 2 I2
Ge Be C L GC GL V (t b )
Fig. 6.17. Equivalent circuit for reflex klystron oscillator.

If the bunched electrons return to the cavity gap a little before reference transit time
t0 =
FG n − 1 IJ T , the AC beam current lags behind the field and an inductive reactance appears
H 4K
in the circuit for Be and if the bunched electrons return to the gap a little after t0, the AC current
leads the field and an capacitive reactance is presented to the circuit for Be.
The condition for oscillations is satisfied when Ge become negative and the total conductance
in the circuit is negative
|−Ge| ≥ G ...(6.106)
1
where, G = GC + GL = ...(6.107)
R sh
Rsh = Effective shunt resistance
The variation of Ge and Be in the rectangular plot is shown in Fig. 6.18, which forms a spiral.
The electron as admittance Ye is a function of transit angle.
+jB e
O scilla tion N o n-o scilla tion

re gion re gion
–Ge +G e
3 3 3 N=0
2 1
4 4 4
O scilla tion N o n-o scilla tion

re gion re gion
– G– jB – jB e
Fig. 6.18. Electronic admittance of a reflex klystron.

π 3π π
For n = 1, θ′0 = 2πn − = , Since θ 0′ = 2πn − = 2πN
2 2 2
7π
n = 2, θ′0 = ,
2
11π
n = 3, θ′0 =
2
Microwave Tubes 345
The oscillation will be there for the value of 2πN for which the spiral lies in the area to the
left of line − (GC + GL), when equation (6.107) is satisfied.
6.7.12 Modulation of Reflex Klystron

A reflex klystron is commonly used as a microwave source for laboratory. To find the characteristics
of line or a load, the most common measurable parameters are VSWR and the position of voltage
standing wave minima. To avoid the use of the costly microwave receivers or power meters,
microwave signal are modulated with low frequency signals and this modulated signals is detected
by a crystal detector. The detected microwave signal, which carry the original amplitude and phase
information of the microwave signal are measured using low frequency receiver to get the desired
parameter.
In reflex klystron two basic modulations technique are used for this purpose
1. Amplitude modulation by square wave
2. Frequency modulation by saw tooth wave.
1. Amplitude modulation: In amplitude modulation, the DC, repeller voltage is adjusted
at the left edge of the mode power curve and a low frequency generally 1 kHz square
voltage wave is superimposed on the DC repeller voltage. The amplitude of the square
pulse is so adjusted to get the maximum power point as shown in Fig. 6.19. Due to
square wave variation of effective repeller voltage, the output is a pulsed signal at a
constant frquency f0. In amplitude modulation, care must be taken such that the negative
half cycle of the modulating amplitude should not enter into the higher mode to avoid
oscillation at two or more frequency simultaneously.
|V R |
P o w er ou tp ut P.O .
(P.O .)
t0
|V R |
0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t
0 V
t1
t2
t3 1 kH z
t4
Fig. 6.19. Amplitude modulation by square wave.

2. Frequency modulation: In frequency modulation a saw tooth voltage is superimposed
at the repeller plate. The positioning of the DC repeller voltage and the amplitude of saw
tooth wave are so adjusted that the frequency sweeping taken place over nearly linear part
of the frequency variation and at the same time over a small portion of the power output
curve to maintain almost constant output power and linear frequency sweeping for the
response characteristics obtainable in a oscilloscope, where the detected output is fed to
the Y plate and the modulating signal to the X plate for triggering as shown in
Fig. 6.20.
f2
f0 |V R |
f1 t RF f0
P.O . t1 f1 f2
|V R | t¢
0 t¢1
t1
0 t2
t
t¢1
t¢
Fig. 6.20. Frequency modulation by saw tooth wave.
Ø To avoid the use of the costly microwave receivers, microwave signal are modulated
with low frequency signals.
Ø In frequency modulation, a saw tooth voltage is superimposed at repeller plate.
Ø In amplitude modulation 1 kHz square wave is superimposed on the DC repeller
voltage.
6.7.13 Repeller Protection

It is very important to ensure that the repeller of the reflex klystron never draws current; it does
ever do so, it would be quickly destroyed due to the impact of high velocity electrons as well as
over heating. To avoid this, a cathode resistor is often used to ensure that the repeller can never
be more positive then the cathode, even if the repeller voltage fails. Also the system is so arranged
that negative voltage is applied to the repeller before positive voltage appears at the anode. Usually
a protection diode is connected across the klystron (with the diode’s anode to repeller, and its
cathode to the klystron cathode), so that again the repeller voltage cannot become positive.
Ø A cathode resistance is often used to ensure that the repeller can never be more
positive then the anode.
6.7.14 Performance
1. Frequency range 4 to 200 GHz
2. Output power range 10 mW to 2.5 W
3. Tuning range 5 GHz at 2 W to 12 GHz at 1.5 W
4. Theoretical efficiency 22.78%
5. Practical efficiency 10% to 20%
6.7.15 Applications
1. Local oscillator in microwave receiver.
2. Signal source in microwave generator.
Microwave Tubes 347
3. Used in the laboratory for microwave measurements.

4. In radar receiver.
5. Pump oscillator for parametric amplifiers.
Actual view of the various reflex klystron are shown in Fig. 6.21.
Fig. 6.21. Actual view of reflex klystron.
Example 6.10. A reflex klystron is operating at 100 GHz. If the mode operating in the
tube corresponds to integer n = 3, determine the transit time of the electron in the repeller
space.
Solution. The transit time (T) in cycles is given by
1
T = n−
4
For n = 3,
1 11
T = 3− = cycles
4 4
For one cycle corresponds to
1
= 10 ps
1011
11
Therefore, Transit time (T) = × 10 = 27.5 ps
4
Example 6.11. The operating frequency of reflex klystron is 2 GHz. Calculate the
change in frequency for a 2% change in the repeller voltage given that;
Repeller voltage = 2000 V
Accelerating voltage = 500 V
Space between exit of the gap and repeller electrode = 2 cm
(Assume that the operation is for n = 1) (MDU 2003)
Solution. Change in frequency as a function of repeller voltage is given by, from
equation (6.95)
dVR 2πL 8m V0
=
df FG 2πn − π IJ e
H 2K
where, e = charge of electron = 1.6 × 10−19 C

m = mass of electrons = 9.1 × 10−31 kg
L = 2 cm = 2 × 10−2 m
dVR 2π × 2 × 10−2 × 2 . × 10 −31 × 500

8 × 91
=
df 3π . × 10 −19
16
dVR
= 4 × 10−6
df
dVR 0.02 × 2000
df = −6
=
4 × 10 4 × 10 −6
df = 10 MHz
Example 6.12. A reflex klystron operates at the peak of the n = 1 or 3/4 mode. The
DC power input is 40 mW and the ratio of V1 over V0 is 0.278
(a) Determine the efficiency of the reflex klystron.
(b) Find the total output power in mW.
(c) If 20% of the power delivered by the electron beam is dissipated in the cavity walls,
find the power delivered to the load.
Solution. Given
n = 1
PDC = 40 mW
V1
= 0.278
V0
βi = 1 (Assumed)
We know that θ′0 = ωT0′ =

FG n − 1 IJ 2π = FG1 − 1 IJ 2π
H 4K H 4K
θ′0 = ωT′0 = 4.71
βi V1θ′0
and bunching parameter X′ =
2V0
1
X′ = × 0.278 × 4.71
2
X′ = 0.655
(a) Efficiency of reflex klystron
η =
b g
2X ′J1 X ′
π
2πn −
2
Microwave Tubes 349
From Fig. 6.15

At X′ = 0.656, X′J1 (X′) = 0.203
2 × 0.203
η =
4.71
η = 8.61%
PAC
(b) η =
PDC
Total output power PAC will be,
PAC = η PDC = 0.0861 × 40
PAC = 3.45 mW
(c) Since 20% of power delivered by the electron beam is dissipated in cavity walls.
So, power at the load (Pl) = PAC × 0.8
Pl = 3.45 × 0.8
Pl = 2.76 mW
Example 6.13. A reflex klystron operates under the following conditions:

V0 = 500 V
Rsh = 20 kΩ
fr = 8 GHz
L = 1 mm is the spacing between repeller and cavity.
3
The tube is oscillating at the peak of the n = 2 or 1 mode. Assume that the transit
4
time through the gap and the beam loading effect can be neglected.
(a) Find the value of repeller voltage.
(b) Find the direct current necessary to give microwave gap voltage of 200 V.
(c) Calculate the electronic efficiency. (UPTU 2009)
Solution.
(a) From equation (6.93)
FG 2πn − π IJ 2
V0
=
H 2K ⋅
e
2
cV R + V0 h 8ω L2 2 m
FG2π ⋅ 2 − π IJ e1759
.
2
× 10 j 11
V0
=
H 2K
, Since
e
= 1759
. × 1011
2 2 2
cV R + V0 h 8 × e2π × 8 × 10 j e10 j 9 −3 m
V0
2
= 1.053 × 10−3
cV R + V0 h
V0 500
(VR + V0)2 = −3
=
1053
. × 10 1053
. × 10−3
VR + V0 = 689
VR = 689 − V0 = 689 − 500
VR = 189 V
(b) We know that, bunching parameter X′ is
βi V1
X′ = θ0′
2V0
FG
θ 0′ = 2π n −
1 IJ = 2πn −
π
H 4 K 2
For n = 2,
π
θ′0 = 2π ⋅ 2 − = 11
2
Then bunching parameter X′ will be
200
X′ =
2 × 500
b g
11 = 2.20, Let β i = β0 = 1
From Fig. 6.15

At X′ = 2.20, X′J1(X′) = 1.223
1223
.
Thus, J1(X′) =
2.20
J1(X′) = 0.556
Microwave gap voltage V1 = I2 Rsh
V1 = 2I0J1 (X′) Rsh, From equation (6.97)
V1
Direct current I0 =
b g
2J1 X ′ R sh
200
I0 =
2 × 0.556 × 20 × 103
I0 = 8.99 mA
(c) The electronic efficiency is given by
η =
2X ′ J1 X ′ b g =
b gb
. 0.556
2 22 g
π 2π ⋅ 2 − π 2
2πn −
2
η = 22.23%
Example 6.14. A reflex klystron operates at the peak mode n = 2 with

Beam voltage V0 = 300 V
Signal voltage V1 = 40 V
Determine:
(a) The input power
(b) The output power
(c) The efficiency. (MDU 2004)
Microwave Tubes 351
Solution.
(a) The input power is
Pin = PDC = V0I0 = 300 × 20 × 10−3
Pin = 6 W
(b) The output power from equation (6.99)
PAC = V1I0βi J1(X′), Let βi = 1
βi V1
where, X′ = θ0′
2V0
π
θ′0 = ωT0′ = 2πn −
2
40
X′ =
2 × 300
b
2π ⋅ 2 − π 2 g
X′ = 0.734
From Bessel function, Fig. 6.15
At X′ = 0.734, X′J1(X′) = 0.253
Thus, J1(X′) = 0.345
Output power PAC = 40 × 20 × 10−3 × 1 × 0.345
PAC = 0.276 W
(c) The efficiency of reflex klystron is,
PAC 0.276
η = =
PAC 6
η = 4.6%
Example 6.15. A reflex klystron is operated at 5 GHz with the following conditions:
Anode voltage V0 = 1000 V
Repeller voltage VR = 500 V
Cavity gap d = 2 mm
3
N = 1
4
Determine:
(a) Gap transit angle
(b) Optimum length of the drift region. (MDU 2003)
Solution.
d
(a) Gap transit angle θ′0 = ωT0′ = ω
v0
where, v0 = velocity of electron
2eV0
v0 = = 0.593 × 106 1000
m
v0 = 18.75 × 106 m/s
d d
Gap transit angle θ′0 = ω ⋅ = 2πf ⋅
v0 v0
2π × 5 × 109 × 2 × 10−3
θ′0 =
. × 106
1875
θ′0 = 3.351 radians
(b) We know that
V0
=
1 e
2πn −
FG
π IJ 2
cVR + V0 h 2 2 2 m
8ω L H
2 K
V0 1 e
2
=
8ω L 2 2 m
b2πNg
2
cVR + V0 h
1000
=
1
.
1759
FG
× 1011 2π × 1
3 IJ 2
b1000 + 500g 2
e
8 2π × 5 × 109 L2j 2 H 4 K
3.078 × 1011
4.44 × 10−4 =
200 × 1018 L2
Length of drift space L = 5.88 mm
6.8 TRAVELLING WAVE TUBE (UPTU 2009, 2008, 2004)
The travelling wave tube was invented by Rudoff Kompfner in 1944 during the Second World
War. The TWT is linear beam or O-type device like the klystron. The TWT is a high-gain, low
noise, wide bandwidth microwave amplifier. It is capable to achieve gain greater the 40 dB with
bandwidth exceeding an octave (1 octave in which the upper frequency is twice the lower frequency).
Travelling wave tube has been designed for frequencies as low as 300 MHz and high as 50 GHz.
The wide bandwidth and low-noise characteristics makes the TWT ideal for used as an amplifier
in microwave equipment. For broadband application, such as satellite, radar transmitter, the TWT
are almost exclusively used. If we compare the basic operating principles of TWT and klystron, in
TWT, the microwave circuit is non-resonant and the wave propagates with same speed as the
electrons in the beam. The initial effect on the beam is a small amount of velocity modulation
caused by the weak electric field associated with the travelling wave. Just as in the klystron this
velocity modulation later translates to current modulation, which then induces on RF current in the
circuit, causing amplification.
6.9 HELIX TRAVELLING WAVE TUBE (MDU 2010, 2005; UPTU 2011)
The TWT is a high gain, low noise and wide bandwidth amplifier which can operate a wide range
of frequency from 300 MHz to 50 GHz. In the construction of TWT a helix structure is used as
a slow wave structure, so TWT is also known as helix travelling wave tube and an electronics
Microwave Tubes 353
assembly known as travelling wave tube amplifier (TWTA). The TWT is an amplifier which makes
use of distributed interaction between an electron beam and a travelling wave RF field (input). To
make sure the interaction between an electron beam and a travelling wave RF field, it is necessary
to ensure that they are both travelling in the same direction with the same velocity. It differs from
the klystron amplifier, in which electron beam travels but the RF field remains stationary. The
electron beam travels with the velocity governed by the anode voltage, which is typically 2 to 10%
of the velocity of electromagnetic wave in free space (velocity of light). The interaction between
RF field and moving electrons will take place only when the velocity of RF field is retarded by same
means. This is achieved by the slow wave structure. The slow wave structures employed to retard
RF field, either use a helix or a waveguide arrangement.
Ø TWT is a high gain, low noise and broadband amplifier.

Ø Operating range of TWT is 300 MHz to 50 GHz.
Ø In TWT, there is no cavity resonator.
Ø Efficiency of TWTA lies between 20% to 40%.
6.9.1 Construction
The physical construction of a typical travelling wave tube using a helix structure is shown in
Fig. 6.21. It has an electron gun (anode-cathode configuration) used to produce a narrow beam,
which passed through the center of a long axial helix. TWT consist of a long helix slow wave
structure (non-resonant) capable of propagating microwave at same time enclosing an electron
beam and a collector which is generally kept at a DC potential lower than that of helix. A magnetic
focusing (not shown in Fig. 6.22) is provided to prevent the beam from spreading and to guide
it through the center of the helix. There is an attenuator at the center of the tube which absorbs
the reflecting wave from mismatch at the output end. The signal to be amplified is applied to the
end of the helix, adjacent to the electron gun. The amplified signal appears at the output or other
end of helix under appropriate operating conditions.
G un
A tten ua tion
C a tho d e a no de C o lle ctor
H e ate r
H e lix
E lectro n (inte raction re gion )
b ea m
RF RF
E lectro n in pu t o utp ut
g un
Fig. 6.22. Helix TWT.
The microwave input RF signal is injected on the helix slow wave structure surrounding the
electron beam, which provides an axial electric field at the centre of the helix.
Ø Slow wave structure is used to retarded the velocity of RF field.

Ø Helix is non-resonant type slow wave structure.
Ø Attenuator is used for absorbing the reflected wave due to mismatch at output.
6.9.2 Helix as a Slow Wave Structure

In a resonant cavity, as the operating frequency is increased, the size of the resonant cavity must
be decreased. Since the gain bandwidth product is limited by the resonant circuit, thus an ordinary
cavity resonator cannot generate large output. For generating large output, a non-resonant periodic
slow wave structure such as helix is used as shown in Fig. 6.23.
p
9 0°
L
c= pd
2 2
d y
L= p + ( pd)
p
p tan y =
pd
(a ) (b )
Fig. 6.23. Helix slow wave structure.
where p = Pitch of helix
c = Circumference of helix (πd)
d = Diameter of helix.
If the one turn of helix is unrolled on a plane surface, the circumference (πd ), Pitch (p), turn
length (L) and pitch angle (ψ) are related by triangle shown in Fig. 6.23(b).
Turn length, L = p2 + πd b g
2
...(6.108)
Let us consider the first two turns of helical wire are shown in Fig. 6.23. When the RF input
signal at the first turn of helix is weak, then it drives a weak current I which is turn creates a weak
axial field E along the axis of the first turn of wire.
When the same current I flows through the second turn of wire, then the same axial field
is created along the axis of second turn of wire. Thus, it can be seen that when the current flows
through one circumference of helix, the axial field would have moved through one pitch of the
helix. Then
R|The time taken by the U| R|The time taken by the axialU|
S|current to flow throughV| ≅ S|field to move through one V|
Tone turn of helix W Tpitch of helix W
Turn length bL g Pitch of helix ( p )
i.e., ≅
Velocity of light (c) e
Velocity of axial field E Phase velocity v p j
p
Thus, vp = c ...(6.109)
p 2 + πd b g 2
But p << d, then
vp Ä LM p OP c ...(6.110)
N πd Q
vp =
Pitch p bg × Velocity of light ...(6.111)
Circumference
Microwave Tubes 355
The various turns of helical wire will be usually very close to each other, so that pitch <<
circumference of helix. Hence, velocity of axial field << velocity of light.
Thus, the helical structure slows down the wave and becomes a slowwave structure.
Ø In helix TWT, phase velocity of axial field is vp = c sin ψ .

Ø In helix slow wave structure, pitch is the distance between the adjacent helix loop.
Ø Helical structure slows down the wave and becomes a slow wave structure.
6.9.3 Operation (UPTU 2007)

We have seen that various electronic processes like velocity modulation conversion to density
modulation, transfer of energy etc., take place in two cavity klystron in separate regions of the
tube. On the other hand in travelling wave tube these processes takes place continuously over the
entire length of the slow wave structure. The applied signal propagates around the turns of helix,
and produces an electric field along the axis of the helix which progresses along the axial direction
with phase velocity which is small compared to the velocity of light. This axial time varying electric
field produces velocity modulation in an otherwise uniform velocity which is approximately equal
to the phase velocity (actually slightly greater) of electrons in the electron beam moving through
the helix axis. The velocity modulation tends to bunch the electrons as can be seen in the
Fig. 6.24. When a signal voltage is coupled into the helix, the axial electric field exerts a force
on the electron as a result of the following relationship.
F = − eE ...(6.112)
In Fig. 6.24, electrons near the zero amplitude value are not affected at all, those in one-
half cycle are accelerated (electric field directed against the electron flow accelerates) and those in
the other half cycle are deaccelerated (electric field directed along the electron flow). Consider the
point A, electrons ahead of it are moving more slower than the average and those behind
themselves ground point A.
R e ta rd in g D e cre a se in Tra ve llin g
fo rce e le ctron de n sity e le ctrom ag n etic fie ld
A B
A ccelera tin g B u nch (in crea se in E lectro n be am

fo rce e le ctron de n sity)
Fig. 6.24. Bunching in a TWT due to interaction of electron beam
with travelling electromagnetic field.
Since the DC electron velocity is slightly greater than the axial wave velocity, it result into
a situation in which more electron face the retarding field than the accelerating field, so energy
is thus lost by the electron beam and gained by the travelling wave (RF signal), resulting in an
amplified signal. At the next turn of helix, the RF signal amplitude is more and also the electric
field axis created by the RF signal is more. Hence, the force due to electric field is also more and
further bunching takes place. This process repeates as the wave and the electron beam travel
towards the output end of helix.
Bunching will be complete at the output end of helix and RF signal grows in amplitude as
shown in Fig. 6.25. Analysis shows that the RF signal increases exponentially.
Input end of helix
Exponential growth
of RF signal
Output end of helix
Fig. 6.25. Exponential growth of RF input signal.
Phase velocity of axial component of the RF field on the slow-wave structure is

kept equal to the velocity of the electrons.
There is no tuning problem in TWTA because the absence of resonant cavity.
6.10 SEVERAL SLOW WAVE STRUCTURES (MDU 2004; UPTU 2007, 2009)
Slow wave structures are special circuits that are used in microwave tubes to reduce the wave
velocity in a certain direction so that the electron beam and the signal wave can interact. Several
non-resonant periodic circuit or slow wave structures are shown in Fig. 6.26.
(a) Helix line (b) Folded-back line
(d) Interdigital line

(c) Zigzag line
Input Output
(e) Corrugated waveguide (f) Coupled cavity

Fig. 6.26. Various slow wave structures.
The two commonly used slow wave structure include the helix and coupled cavity circuit. The
biggest advantage of helix slow wave structure is enormous bandwidth that is capable of providing
to the TWT.
Microwave Tubes 357
But helix has its own problems when it comes to use at high frequency and high power level.
The close proximity of helix turns gives rise to spurious oscillations due to feedback at high
frequency. Also, working at higher frequencies necessitates a smaller diameter helix which is turn
present focussing difficulties. Smaller helix diameter also prevents working at higher power levels
as there is a danger of this high power being intercepted by the smaller diameter helix. Coupled
cavity slow wave structure shown in Fig. 6.26( f ), on the other hand, it is well suited to high power,
high frequency TWTs. It has a large number of over coupled cavities with a continuous phase shift
progressing along the adjoining cavities. Such a structure can be used to a maximum of 100 GHz.
Ø Slow wave structures are special circuit that are used in microwave tubes to reduce
the wave velocity in a certain direction.
Ø Helix slow wave structure provides large bandwidth.
6.11 PURPOSE OF ATTENUATOR (UPTU 2006)
The purpose of using an attenuator is to prevent internal feedback arising out of reflections due
to impedance mismatch thereby leading to generation of spurious signals. The problem can be
solved by placing an attenuator at the centre of the tube. The glass wall of the tube coated with
aquodag acts as an attenuator. The attenuator absorbs the signals and to some extent absorbs
growing signal in the helix. When the attenuator is placed near the input end of the tube, the
bunching electrons remains unaffected. The reason for keeping attenuator at the input end of the
tube is that the attenuator attenuates both forward and reverse wave, but the later are more heavily
attenuated than the former.
Ø Attenuator is used in TWT to prevent oscillations.

Ø The glass wall of the tube coated with aquadag acts an attenuator.
6.12 SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS OF TWT
In addition to velocity modulation, the beam will also experience a fluctuation in charge density
and current density. These are known as space charge waves on the electron beam. We shall carry
out a small signal analysis of same. The purpose of the following analysis is to determine the
propagation constants of the space charge waves that can exist on the slow wave structure in
presence of an electron beam and to calculate the gain of the device from these constants.
6.12.1 Convection Current (Electronic Equation)

RF current produced by the circuit field:
The convection current induced in the electron beam by the axial electronic field and the
microwave axial field produced by the beam must first be developed? When the space charge effect
is considered the electron velocity, charge density, current density and axial electric field will
perturtate about their average DC values. These quantities can be expressed as
Electron velocity v = v0 + v1 ejwt − γz ...(6.113)
jwt − γz
Charge density ρ = ρ0 + ρ1 e ...(6.114)
Current density J = − J0 + J1 ejwt − γz ...(6.115)

Axial electric field Ez = E1 ejwt − γz ...(6.116)
where, v0, ρ0, and J0 represent static RF velocity, charge density and current density.
v1, ρ1 and J1 represent their corresponding time varying equivalents γ = αe + jβe is propagation
constant of axial waves and minus sign is attached to J0, so that J0 may be a positive in the
negative z-direction.
We know that current density is given by
J = ρv
Substituting for ρ and v from equations (6.113) and (6.114), we get
c
J = ρ0v0 + ρ1v0 + ρ0v1 e
jwt − γz
+ ρ1v1 eh b
2 jwt − γz g
The last term being very small and it can be neglected
c
J = ρ0v0 + ρ1v0 + ρ 0v1 e
jwt − γz
h ...(6.117)
By comparing equations (6.115) and (6.117), we get
− J0 = ρ0v0
and J1 = ρ1v0 + ρ0v1 ...(6.118)
If an axial electric field is present in the structure, it will perturbed the electron velocity
according to force equation

LMm dv = − eE z .
OP
N dt Q
dv e
i.e., = − E
dt m z
Since Ez = E1 e jwt − γz
dv e jwt − γz
= − E1 e ...(6.119)
dt m
But v is a function of (z, t), we can write
dv ∂v ∂z ∂v
= + ⋅ ...(6.120)
dt ∂t ∂t ∂z
Now by using equation (6.113)
∂v ∂
= v + v1 e jwt − γz
e j
∂t ∂t 0
∂v
= jw ⋅ v1 e jwt − γz
∂t
∂v ∂
and = v + v1 e jwt − γz
e j
∂z ∂z 0
∂v
= − γ ⋅ v1 e jwt − γz
∂z
∂v ∂v ∂z
Now, substituting the value of , and = v0 in equation (6.120), we get
∂t ∂z ∂t
∂v
∂t
= c jw − γv h v e 0 1
jwt − γz
...(6.121)
Microwave Tubes 359
Now, equating equations (6.119) and (6.121), we get

e
− E1 e jwt − γz = v1 jw − γv0 e jwt − γz
c h
m
e
E1 −
v1 = m ...(6.122)
jw − γv0
In accordance with the law of conservation of electric charge, the continuity equation
FG ∇J = −
∂ρ IJ
can be used to have a relationship between space derivative of current and time
H ∂t K
derivative of charge.
The continuity equation is
∂ρ
∇J = −
∂t
Substituting equations (6.114) and (6.115) in continuity equation, we get
FG ∂ + ∂ + ∂ IJ e−J + J1e jwt − γz j ∂
ρ0 + ρ1 e jwt − γz
H ∂x ∂y ∂z K 0 = −
∂t
e j
− γJ1 e jwt − γz = − jwρ1 e jwt − γz
i.e., γJ1 = jwρ1
γJ1
ρ1 = ...(6.123)
jw
jγJ1
ρ1 = − ...(6.124)
w
From equation (6.118), we know
J1 = ρ1v0 + ρ0v1 ...(6.125)
Substituting equations (6.122) and (6.124) in equation (6.125), we get
e
jγ 1J1 − E1
J1 = − × v0 + ρ0 m
w jw − γv0 c h
e
F jγ v IJ E1 ρ0
J G1 + − m
1
H w K 0 =
jw − γv0 c h
e
E1w ρ0
J1(w + jγv0) = −
m
jw − γv0 c h
Multiply j both side
e
Ew jρ0
J1(jw − γv0) = − m 1
jw − γv0 c h
e ρ v e
jρ0E1w −j 0 0 Ew
m v0 m 1
J1 = − 2
= 2
c
jw − γv0 h
jw − γv0 c h
Since, ρ0v0 = − J0
e
J0 Ew
J1 = j
m 1 ...(6.126)
2
c
v0 jw − γv0 h
If the magnitude of the axial electric field is uniform over the cross-sectional area of the
electron beam, the spatial AC current i will be proportional to the DC current I0 with the same
proportionality constant for J1 and J0.
e
I0 Ew
m 1
i.e., i = j 2 ...(6.127)
c
v0 jw − γv0 h
w
Since = β e is phase constant of velocity modulated electron beam.
v0
e
I 0β e E
i = j m 1 ...(6.128)
2
c jβ e −γ h v02
1
But ev0 = mv02
2
2eV0
v0 = ...(6.129)
m
βe I 0
i = j 2
E1 ...(6.130)
c
2v 0 jβ e − γ h
This is called an electronic equation which determines the values of convection
current induced by axial electric field.
w 2π
Ø βe = = is phase constant of velocity modulated electron beam.
v0 λe
6.12.2 Axial Electric Field (Circuit Equation)

The convection current in the electron beam induces an electric field in the slow wave structure.
The induced field adds to the field which is already present in the circuit and causes the circuit
power to increase with distance. The analysis is based on transmission line theory approach.
Figure 6.27 shows the equivalent circuit of the helix (helix is represented by lossless transmission
line with series impedance Z per unit length and shunt admittance Y per unit length) in the vicinity
of an electron beam which induces a current in transmission line.
Microwave Tubes 361
i dz
E lectro n be am
I – di
Tra nsm ission lin e
Fig. 6.27. Equivalent circuit of helix.

From the transmission line relation
γ0 = ZY ...[6.131(a)]
Z
and Z0 = ...[6.131(b)]
Y
where γ0 is the propagation constant of the uncoupled helix and Z0 is the characteristic impedance
of the transmission line equivalent of slow wave circuit (helix).
Since the transmission line is coupled to a convection-electron beam current, a current is then
induced in the line. The current flowing into the left end portion of the line of length dz is i and
the current flowing out of the right and of dz is i + di. Since the net change of current in the
length dz must be zero. So, the current flowing out of electron beam into the line must be −di
(as shown in Fig. 6.27).
The expression for voltage and current per unit length for the network shown in Fig. 6.27
are:
∂V
= −ZI ...[6.131(c)]
∂z
b g
∂ I+i
= − YV ...[6.131(d)]
∂z
∂I ∂i
= − YV − ...(6.132)
∂z ∂Z
∂
We know that = −γ
∂z
From equation [6.131(c)], we get
γV = ZI
γV
or I =
Z
Substituting value of I in equation (6.132), we get
−γ
FG γV IJ = −YV + γi
HZK
−γ2V = −ZYV + γiZ
We know that ZY = γ02
So, e−γ 2
j
+ γ 20 V = γiZ
Z
− (γ2 − γ02)V = γi ⋅ ZY ...(6.133)
Y
Z
Since = Z 0 and ZY = γ0, then equation (6.133) becomes
Y
e j
− γ 2 − γ 20 V = ri γ 0 Z 0
γ γ 0Z0
V = − i ...(6.134)
eγ 2
− γ 20j
Since E1 = − ∇V =
F ∂V IJ
−G = γV
H ∂Z K
the axial electric field is given by
γ 2γ 0 Z 0
E1 = − i ...(6.135)
eγ 2
− γ 20 j
The above equation is called circuit equation. It determines the axial electric field and
it affected by convection electron beam current.
Ø Convection current in the electron beam induces an electric field in slow wave
structure.
Ø In circuit equation, helix is represented by lossless transmission line with series
impedance (Z) and shunt admittance (Y).
6.12.3 Wave Modes of TWT

The wave modes of a helix travelling-wave tube can be determined by solving the electronic and
circuit equations simultaneously for the propagation constants.
Electronic and circuit equations are given by, from equations (6.130) and (6.135).
β e I0
i = j 2
E1 ...(6.136)
2V0 jβ e − γc h
γ 2γ 0Z0
and E1 = − i ...(6.137)
γ 2 − γ 20
Substituting equation (6.137) into equation (6.136), we obtain the disperson equation describing
the TWT interaction of an electron beam with helix slow wave structure.
β e I0 − γ 2 γ 0 Z0
j 2
⋅ = 1
c
2V0 jβ e − γ h eγ 2
− γ 20 j
β e I0 γ 2 γ 0 Z0
or j = 1 ...(6.138)
e
2V0 jβ e − γ 2 j eγ 2
0 − γ2 j
Microwave Tubes 363
2 γ 2 γ 0β e Z 0 I 0
e γ 20 − γ 2 jc jβ e − γ h = j
2V0
...(6.139)
where Z0 = the helix to beam coupling impedance (characteristic impedance of the line)
I0 = beam current
V0 = DC voltage
γ0 = ZY is propagation constant of circuit in absence of beam
w
βe = is phase constant of the velocity modulated electron beam
v0
γ = complex propagation constant in the presence of the beam.
Equation (6.139) is of fourth order in γ and thus has four roots. It means that, four waves
are set-up on the circuit in the presence of the beam. The exact solution of equation can be
obtained by numerical methods and a digital computer. However, the approximate solutions are
given below.
For the travelling wave tube, we are particularly interested in a wave that propagates in the
direction of electron flow and is nearly of the electron speed, which will account for the observed
gain. Making a reasonable assumption that the electron speed is equal to that of circuit wave in
the absence of beam interaction, we have
γ0 = j βe ...(6.140)
If we further assume that γ differ from βe by a small quantity ξ, we have
γ = jβe − ξ ...(6.141)
e
− Z 0 I0β 2e − β2e − 2 jβ e ξ + ξ 2 j
= 1
2V0 ξ 2
e− β2e + j
β2e 2
− ξ + 2 jβ e ξ
− Z I β e − β − 2 jβ ξ + ξ j
2
0 0 e
2
e e
2
= 1
2V e2 jβ ξ − ξ j ξ
0 e
2 2
− Z I β e − β − 2 jβ ξ + ξ j
2
0 0 e
2
e e
2
= 1 ...(6.142)
2V e2 jβ ξ − ξ j
0 e
3 4
In accordance with the assumption ξ < βe, we may neglect the term 2jβeξ and ξ2 in
numerator and ξ4 in denominator, we get
jZ 0 I 0β 3e
ξ3 = − ...(6.143)
4 V0
FI Z I
0 0
1/3
where C = GH 4V JK
0
is the travelling wave tube gain parameter.
Now, equation (6.143) become

ξ3 = − jβ3e C 3
ξ = b− jg 1/ 3
βe C
ξ = δ nβ e C
where δn = b − jg 1/ 3
...(6.144)
From the theory of complex variable the three roots of (−j) can be plotted in Fig. 6.28.
3p
– ,n=2
2
–1 1
R e al
p, n = 0
– 5p , n = 1 –
6
6 –j
Fig. 6.28. Three roots of (− j).

Equation (6.144) can be written in exponential form as
δn = b − jg 1/ 3
= e
b
− j π 2 + 2nπ 3 g
where n = 0, 1, 2
and its three roots are
The first root δ1, corresponding to n = 0 is
3 1
δ1 = e − jπ 6
− j = ...(6.145)
2 2
The second root δ2, corresponding to n = 1 is
3 1
δ2 = e − j5π 6
= − − j ...(6.146)
2 2
The third root δ3, corresponding to n = 2 is
δ3 = e − j 3π 2
= j ...(6.147)
We know that γ = jβe − ξ
For n root, ξ = δnβeC, above equation become
γn = jβe − δnβeC
Thus the value of three propagation constants are
γ1 = jβe − δ1βeC [For n = 1]
Substituting the value of δ1, we get
γ1 = jβ e −
F 3 − j 1I β C
GH 2 2JK e
γ1 = −β C
3 F CI
+ jβ G 1 + J ...(6.148)
e
2 H 2K e
Microwave Tubes 365
Similarly, γ2 = β e C
3
+ jβ e 1 +
C FG IJ [For n = 2] ...(6.149)
2 2 H K
γ3 β e (1 − C)
= jβ [For n = 3] ...(6.150)
Fourth Root Wave
Equation (6.139) is quadratic, such as, the propagation constant γ has four roots. The fourth
root γ4 corresponding to the backward travelling wave can be obtained by using
γ = − jβe − ξ ...(6.151)
Similarly, as above, we can get the fourth root δ4
2
δ4 = − j C ...(6.152)
4
and value of the propagation constant for fourth root, γ4
F
γ 4 = − jβ 1 − C
3 I ...(6.153)
e GH4 JK
This is a backward wave set-up at output and travels towards input end with a velocity slightly
higher than the velocity of electron beam. Usually the structure is perfectly method so that there
is no reflected backward wave. Attenuator is usually put at the centre of tube which absorbs the
reflected backward wave if any due to some mismatch. Four propagation constants represent four
different types of wave modes that are propagating in O-type helix TWT.
Following conclusions are obtained from the four wave modes:
1. Wave correspond to γ1 = − β e C
3
+ jβ e 1 +
C FG IJ
, is forward wave whose amplitude
2 2 H K
grows exponentially with distance. This travels with velocity slightly less than that of
electron beam velocity and energy flows from electron beam to the wave.
2. Wave correspond to γ2 = β e C
3
+ jβ e 1 +
FG
C IJ
, is forward wave whose amplitude decays
2 2H K
exponentially with distance. This wave travels with velocity same as that of wave
corresponding to γ1 but energy flows from wave to electron beam.
3. Wave correspond to γ3 = jβe (1 − C), is forward wave whose amplitude remains constant.
This wave travels with velocity slightly greater than that of electron beam but no energy
transfer between electron beam and wave.
4. Wave correspond to γ4 = − jβ e 1 −
F
C3 I
GH
2 JK
, is backward wave and the amplitude remains
same. This wave progresses in (−ve) z-direction with a velocity slightly greater than
electron beam velocity.
6.13 GAIN OF TWTA
For simplicity, it is assumed that the structure is perfectly matched so there is no backward
travelling wave. Thus, the total circuit voltage is the sum of three forward voltage corresponding
to the three forward travelling wave. This is equivalent to
− γ 3z
V(z) = V1e − γ 1z + V2e − γ 2 z + V3 e ...(6.154)
We know that wave corresponding to γ1 is forward wave whose amplitude grows exponentially
with distance. To determine the amplification of the growing wave, the input reference point is
set of z = 0 and the output reference point is taken at z = l. At z = 0, the input signal voltage
at the input end naturally splits into three voltage, i.e.,
V(0) = V1 + V2 + V3 ...(6.155)
With the proper boundary conditions [i.e., i(0) = 0, v1(0) = 0 and V1 = V(0) at z = 0], it
can be shown that
V1 = V2 = V3 =
V0 bg ...(6.156)
3
Since, the growing wave is increasing exponentially with distance, it will predominate over
the total voltage along the circuit. When the length of the slow wave structure is sufficiently large,
the output voltage will be almost equal to the voltage of the growing wave (assume γ2 = γ3 = 0).
We know that propagation constant γ1 of exponentially growing wave is given by, from
equation (6.148)
γ1 = − β e C
3
+ jβ e 1 +
FG
C IJ
2 H
2 K
Substituting the γ1 and z = l in equation (6.154), we get
F 3 β ClI exp L− jβ FG1 + C IlO , assure γ
V(l) = V1 exp GH 2 JK MN H 2 JK PQ
e e 2 = γ3 = 0
V1 =
V0bg
3
b g exp F 3 β ClI exp LM− jβ FG1 + C IJlOP
V0
V(l) =
3 GH 2 JK N H 2 K Q
e e ...(6.157)
Therefore, the amplitude of the growing wave is given by
b g exp F 3 β ClI
V0
V(l) =
3 GH 2 JK e ...(6.158)
The factor β el is conventionally written as 2π

π N, i.e., β el = 2π
π N, N is the circuit
length in terms of electronic wavelength,
l 2π
where N = and β e = ...(6.159)
λe λe
Microwave Tubes 367
Substituting value of l and βe in equation (6.158), we get the amplitude of the output voltage
V(l) =
b g exp e
V0
3π NC j ...(6.160)
3
The output power gain in decibel is
2
Ap = 10 log10
bg
Vl
...(6.161)
Vb0g
Ap = 10 log10
LM 1 exp e 3 πNCjOP2
N3 Q
Ap = 20 log10
LM 1 exp e 3 πNCjOP
N3 Q
1
Ap = 20 log10 + 20 3 πNC log10 e
3
Since, log10e = 0.435
Ap = − 9.54 + 47.3 NC dB ...(6.162)
where NC is a numerical number, it can be noted that power gain is proportional to the circuit
length in terms of electronics wavelength and the gain parameter C of the circuit. For large C there
is large gain for some physical length of the tube.
There is initial loss at the circuit input of 9.54 dB due to spliting of signal into three waves
of equal magnitude and growing wave velocity is only one-third of the total input voltage.
Ø There are four modes of travelling wave in TWT.
FI Z I 13
Ø C = GH 4V JK
0 0
0
is the travelling wave gain parameter, first suggested by pierce.
Ø Attenuator is usually put at the centre of the tube which absorbs the reflected
backward wave.
Ø In TWT, there is initial loss at the circuit input of 9.54 dB due to splitted of signal
into three wave of equal magnitude.
Example 6.16. A helix travelling wave tube operates at 4 GHz under a beam voltage
of 10 kV and beam current of 500 mA. If the helix impedance is 25 ohm and the interaction
length is 20 cm. Find the output power gain in dB. (UPTU 2003)
Solution. Given
Operating frequency f = 4 GHz
Beam voltage V0 = 10 kV
Helix impedance Z0 = 25 ohm
Interaction length l = 20 cm
We know that output power gain is given as
Ap = − 9.54 + 47.3 NC dB
l
where N =
λe
2π w 2πv0
and βe = = ⇒ λe =
λe v0 w
2eV0
Since, v0 = = 0.593 × 106 V0
m
v0 = 0.593 × 108 m/sec
and w = 2πf
lw 0.2 × 2π × 4 × 109
N = =
2πv0 2π × 0593
. × 108
N = 13.49
Coupling factor C is given by
FI Z I
0 0
13
C = GH 4V JK
0
F 500 × 10 × 25 I
−3
13
C = GH 4 × 10 × 10 JK 3
C = 0.068
So, the output power gain Ap is
Ap = − 9.54 + 47.3 NC
Ap = − 9.54 + 47.3 × 13.49 × 0.068
Power gain Ap = 33.85 dB
Example 6.17. A helical TWT has a circumference (of helix) to pitch ratio of 10.
Determine the anode voltage for which the TWT can be operated for any useful gain.
Solution. For TWT to operate any useful gain, the axial phase velocity of the RF signal
should approximately equal to the electron beam velocity.
2eV0
Electron beam velocity is v0 =
m
. × 10−19 × V0
2 × 16
v0 =
. × 10−31
91
v0 = 0593
. × 106 V0 ...(6.163)
Axial phase velocity of RF signal propagating in the slow wave structure is given by
Pitch of helix
Axial phase velocity (vp) j C ×
Circumference of helix
1
vp = 3 × 108 ×
10
vp = 3 × 107 m/sec ...(6.164)
Microwave Tubes 369

0.593 × 106 V0 = 3 × 107
F 3 × 10 I 7
2
V0 = GH 0593
.
J
× 10 K 6
V0 = 2.56 kV
Example 6.18. A helix travelling wave tube operates at 4 GHz under a beam voltage
V0 = 6 kV and beam current I0 = 30 mA. If the helix impedance Z0 is 100 ohm and circuit
length N = 30, find the output power gain. (MDU 2006; UPTU 2002)
Solution. Given
Beam voltage V0 = 6 kV
Circuit length N = 30
Circuit impedance Z0 = 100 ohm
The power gain of helix TWT in dB is given by
Ap = − 9.54 + 47.3 NC dB
where gain parameter C is given by
FI Z I
0 0
13
C = GH 4V JK
0
F 30 × 10 × 100I
−3
13
C = GH 4 × 6 × 10 JK 3
C = 0.05
Power gain, Ap = − 9.54 + 47.3 NC
Ap = − 9.54 + 47.3 × 0.05 × 30
Ap = 64.41 dB
Example 6.19. An O-type travelling wave tube operates at 2 GHz. The slow wave
structure has pitch angle of 5.7°. Determine the propagation constant of the travelling wave
in the tube. It is assumed that the tube is lossless.
Solution. Given
Pitch angle ψ = 5.7°
Attenuation constant α = 0
vp
We know that, sin ψ =
c
The phase velocity, vp = c × sin 5.7° = 3 × 107 m sec
The phase constant β is

w 2π × 2 × 109
β = =
vp 3 × 107
β = 419 radians/m
The propagation constant γ is given by
γ = α + jβ
Since, α = 0
γ = j 419
Example 6.20. A travelling wave tube has the following parameters

Beam voltage V0 = 2.5 kV
Characteristic impedance of helix Z0 = 6.75 Ω
Circuit length N = 45
Frequency f = 8 GHz
Determine:
(a) Gain parameter C
(b) Output power gain in dB
(c) All four propagation constant
(d) The wave equations for all four mode in exponential form.
Solution.
(a) Gain parameter is given by
1 1
FI Z I F 50 × 10 × 675
−3 I 3
GH 4 × 2.5 × 10. JK
3
C = GH 4V JK
0 0
= 3
0
C = 3.23 × 10 −2
(b) Output power gain Ap is given by
Ap = − 9.54 + 47.3 NC
Ap = − 954
. + 47.3 × 45 × 323
. × 10−2
Ap = 59.21 dB
w
(c) Phase constant of the velocity modulated electron beam βe is .
v0
where v0 is DC electron velocity, equal to
2e
v0 = V = 0.593 × 106 V0
m 0
w 2π × 8 × 109
βe = =
v0 0.593 × 106 25 . × 103
βe = 169
. × 103 rads m
Microwave Tubes 371
The four propagation constants are
γ1 = − β e C
3
+ jβ e 1 +
C FG IJ
2 2 H K
γ1 = − 1.69 × 103 × 3.23 × 10−2 × 0.87 + j 1.69 × 103 (1 + 1.61 × 10−2)
γ 1 = − 47.49 + j 1717.2
γ2 = β e C
3
+ jβ e 1 +
C FG IJ
2 2 H K
γ2 = 47.49 + j 1717.2
γ3 = jβe (1 − C)
γ3 = j 1.69 × 103 (1 − 3.23 × 10−2)
γ3 = j 1635.40
γ4 = − j βe 1 −
F C3 I
GH 4 JK
LM e3.23 × 10 −2
j OP
3
. × 103
γ4 = − j 169 MM1 − PP
4
N Q
γ 4 = − j 1690
jwt − γ 1z
(d) Forward wave with increasing amplitude is e , then wave equation for 1st mode
jwt + 47.49 z − j 1717.2 z
= e
= e
47.49 z
⋅e b
j wt − 1717.2 z g
jwt − γ 2 z
Backward wave with increasing amplitude is e , then wave equation for 2nd mode
is
= e jwt − 47.49 z − j 1717.2z
−47.49 z
⋅e b
j wt − 1717.2 z g
= e
jwt − γ 3 z
Forward wave with constant amplitude is e , then wave equation for 3rd mode is
jwt − j 1635.4 z
= e
= e
b
j wt − 1635.4 z g
jwt − γ 4 z
Backward wave with constant amplitude is e , then wave equation for 4th mode
is
= ej(wt + 1690z)
Example 6.21. A helical TWT has diameter of 2 mm with 50 turns per cm. Calculate
axial phase velocity and the anode voltage at which the TWT can operated in useful gain.
Solution. Phase velocity is given by
Pitch
vp = Velocity of light ×
Circumference
1
where, pitch of helix =
Turn per cm
1
= = 2 × 10 −4 m
50
Circumference of helix = πd
= π × 2 × 10−3
= 6.28 × 10−3 m
Therefore, phase velocity,
2 × 10−4
vp = 3 × 108 ×
6.28 × 10 −3
vp = 9.54 × 106 m/sec
Anode, voltage of TWT (V0) is
1 m 2
V0 = v
2 e p
. × 10−31
1 91 2
V0 = ×
. × 10
2 16 −19 e
× 9.54 × 106 j
V0 = 25.92 kV
Example 6.22. In an O-type travelling wave tube. The acceleration voltage is 4000 V
and magnitude of the axial electric field is 4 V/m. The phase velocity on the slow wave
structure is 1.1 time the average electron beam velocity. The operating frequency is 2 GHz.
Determine the magnitude of the velocity fluctuation.
Solution. Given
Accelerating voltage V0 = 4000 V
Axial electric field E1 = 4 V/m
Phase velocity vp = 1.1 v0
where, v0 is DC electron velocity
v0 = 0.593 × 103 V0
v0 = 0.593 × 103 4000

7
v0 = 3.75 × 10 m/sec
Then the phase velocity, vp = 1.1 v0
= 1.1 × 3.75 × 107
= 4.126 × 107 m/sec
w 2π × 2 × 109
and γ = jβ p = j = j = j 304
vp 4.126 × 107
Microwave Tubes 373
The magnitude of velocity fluctuation is

eE1 e E1
ve = =
mwe m β v −v
p p 0 e j
4
ve = 1759
. × 1011 ⋅
e
304 4.126 × 107 − 375
. × 103 j
ve = 607 m/sec
Example 6.23. In an O-type travelling wave tube operates at 8 GHz. The slow wave
structure has a pitch angle of 4.4° and an attenuation constant of 2 Np /m. Determine the
propagation constant γ of the travelling wave in the tube.
Solution. Given
Operating frquency f = 8 GHz
Pitch angle ψ = 4.4°
Attenuation constant α = 2 Np/m
vp
We know that sin ψ =
c
The phase velocity vp = c × sin 4.4°
vp = 3 × 108 × 0.08
vp = 2.4 × 107 m/sec
The phase constant β is given by
w 2π × 8 × 109
β = =
vp 2.4 × 107
β = 20.94 × 102 rads/m
and propagation constant γ is given by
γ = α + jβ
γ = 2 + j2094
6.14 EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OF TWT
The efficiency of TWT can be enhance by using a derived helix or a depressed collector.
(i) Derived helix: In order to increase the efficiency, the helix pitch can be gradually
decreased in the output section. This shows the axial propagation of the RF signal is
approximate synchronism with the deceleration electron beam. Such a circuit modification
is known as a velocity taper and increases efficiency without degrading phase linearity.
(ii) Depressed collector: Using of single stage depressed collector and multistage depressed
collector improves the overall efficiency of the TWTs. By depressing the voltage of the
collector electrode to a value less than that of the circuit, the total power supplied to
the TWT is reduced, resulting in an increase in overall efficiency.
In a multistage depressed collector as shown in Fig. 6.29, which collects beam electrons
(which have spread of velocities) on several electrodes at different depressed voltage, large power
is recorded. This results in increase in overall efficiency.
C o lle cto r (seg m en t)
B e am
Fig. 6.29. Multistage depressed collector.
Ø Helix pitch can be gradually decreased to increase the efficiency.

Ø Depressed collector improves the overall efficiency of TWTA.
6.15 COMPARISON BETWEEN TWT AMPLIFIER AND KLYSTRON

AMPLIFIER (MDU 2008; UPTU 2009)
The performance characteristics of TWT amplifier and klystron amplifier are compared in
Table 6.1.
Table 6.1. Comparison between klystron amplifier and TWT amplifier.
Klystron amplifier TWT amplifier
1. O-type device. O-type device.

2. Uses cavities for input and output circuits. Uses non-resonant wave structure.
3. Narrow band device because use of resonant Wideband device because use of non-resonant wave
cavities. structure.
4. Interaction of electron beam and RF field is at Interaction of electron beam and RF field is
the gap of cavities. continuous overentirelength of circuit.
5. The wave in the klystron is not a propagating The wave in the TWTA is a propagating wave.
wave.
6. Noise figure is high due to use of resonant cavity. Noise figure is low as it is non-resonant.
7. For same power output, klystron is simple, not For same power output, TWT is complex, bulky
bulky and cheap. and costly.
8. Does not saturate for medium power input. Saturates for medium and high power inputs due
to saturation of helix.
Microwave Tubes 375
6.16 ADVANTAGE OF TWT AMPLIFIER OVER KLYSTRON AMPLIFIER

(UPTU 2004)
Following are the advantage of TWTA over klystron amplifier:

1. TWTA is a wideband device so bandwidth (or operating frequency range) is more than the
klystron amplifier.
2. There is no tuning problem in TWTA because the absence of resonant cavity.
Ø Bandwidth of TWTA is more than klystron amplifier.
6.17 PERFORMANCE OF TWTA
Frequency Range : 300 MHz to 50 GHz

Efficiency : 20 to 40%
Power output : up to 10 kW average
Power gain : up to 60 dB
Noise figure : 4–6 dB (low power TWT at 10 GHz)
25 dB (high power TWT at 40 GHz)
6.17.1 Application of TWTA (UPTU 2005)

1. Used as low noise amplifier in broadband microwave receiver.
2. TWTA are commonly used as amplifiers in satellite transponders, where the input signal
is very weak and the output needs to be high power.
3. Used as repeator amplifiers in broadband communication links.
4. Used in radar particularly in airborne and shipborne radar system.
5. Drivers amplifiers in high power radars.
Ø TWTA is commonly used in radar system, satellite transponders and broadband

communication links.
The cut views of TWTA are shown in Fig. 6.30.

R F in
M ag ne tic fie ld
R F ou t
C a tho d e
E lectro n
E lectro n be am
H e lix
C o lle ctor
(a) Cut view of TWTA (b) Cut view of TWTA
Fig. 6.30. Travelling wave tube amplifier.
6.18 INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETRON
The tube discussed earlier (two cavity klystron, reflex klystron and TWT) are linear beam tubes
generally called O-tubes or original type. The other type of microwave tube are cross-field tubes
in which the electric and magnetic field are perpendicular to each other. The principal tube is this
type called M-type is magnetron. The magnetron was invented by Hull in 1921 and an improved
high power magnetron was developed by Randall and Boot around 1939. Magnetrons provide
microwave oscillations of very high peak power. They are called M-type tubes after the French
TPOM (tubes a propagations des ondes a champs magnetique: tubes for propagation of waves in
a magnetic field).
In klystron, electrons carrying energy are in contact with RF field in the resonant cavity only
for a short duration.
However, if the electrone can be made to interact with RF field for the longer duration higher
efficiency can be obtained. This has been done in TWT and in magnetron the same technique is
utilised.
Table 6.2. Gives the comparison between O-type and M-type tubes.
Table 6.2. Comparison between O-type and M-type tubes.
Parameter O-Type M-Type
Devices Klystron, Reflex klystron, TWT. Magnetron, forward-wave cross field

amplifier backward wave cross field amplifier
backward wave cross field oscillator.
Energy conversion Kinetic energy to RF energy. Potential energy to RF energy.
Fields DC electric fields and magnetic fields Crossed DC electric field and magnetic field
are parallel to the direction of are mutually perpendicular to each other
electron flow and magnetic field and also perpendicular to the direction of
required for focussing. beam propagation.
Gain High gain (30–70 dB). Moderate gain (6–20 dB).
Bandwidth Octave bandwidth possible for low 30–40% for low and medium power tubes.
and medium power tubes, 10–20% 10–15% for high power tubes.
for high power tube.
Power Moderate power output. High power output.
Noise Relatively low noise. Usually high noise.
Weight Heavy. Relatively light.
Analysis Easy to analyse. Difficult to analyse.
6.19 MAGNETRON (MDU 2008, 2003; UPTU 2009, 2005, 2004)
Megnetron is high power microwave oscillator and it forms the basic various microwave radar
transmitter system even today. This microwave generator makes use of magnetic field for producing
oscillations at microwave frequencies. Microwave magnetron now find many applications apart
from radar. They are capable of producing megawatt of peak power in centimetre wavelength
range and may be operated at wavelength extending down to millimetre range.
Microwave Tubes 377
6.19.1 Types of Magnetron

All types of magnetron consist of some form of anode and cathode operated in a DC magnetic
field normal to a DC electric field between the cathode and anode because of the crossed field
between the cathode and anode, the electrons emitted from the cathode are influenced by the
magnetic field to move in curved paths. If the DC magnetic field is strong enough, the electrons
will not arrive in the anode but return instead to the cathode consequently, the anode current is
cut-off.
There are three types of magnetron:
1. Negative resistance type (split anode magnetron).
2. Cyclotron frequency type.
3. Travelling wave (cavity magnetron) type.
1. Negative resistance type: This type of magnetron uses a static negative resistance
between two anode segments but have low efficiency and are useful only at low frequency
(below microwave). Anode is split into the segments thats why also called split anode
magnetron.
2. Cyclotron frequency (magnetron) type: This type of magnetron operates under the
influence of synchronism between an alternating component of electric field and a periodic
oscillation of electrons in a direction parallel to the field. There are useful only for the
frequency greater than 100 MHz but their power output is very low.
3. Travelling wave (cavity magnetron) type: Operation of travelling wave magnetron
depends as the interaction of electrons with rotating electromagnetic field of constant
angular velocity. They are customarily referred to simply as magnetrons. These provide
oscillations of very high peak power and are very useful in radar application.
Travelling wave (cavity) magnetron is most widely used magnetron because negative-resistance
magnetron generally operate below the microwave region and cyclotron-frequency magnetron
operate at microwave frequency range but their output power is very low (about 1 W at 3 GHz).
6.20 ADVANTAGES OF CAVITY (TRAVELLING WAVE) MAGNETRON

(UPTU 2004)
Cavity magnetron is most widely used magnetron because of following advantages:

1. Cavity magnetron is high power source. Its average power output is up to 800 kW.
2. High efficiency (40% to 70%).
3. Operating frequency is high, up to 70 GHz.
No other microwave devices can perform the same function with same size, weight, voltage
as can the cavity magnetron, thats why this type of magnetron is most widely used. Cavity
magnetron is used in radar system.
Ø Cavity magnetron is high power, high efficiency microwave source.

Ø Cavity magnetron is most widely used M-type tube.
Ø Cavity magnetron is mostly used in radar system.
Ø Cavity magnetron is called the travelling wave magnetron.
6.21 CAVITY OR TRAVELLING WAVE MAGNETRON

(UPTU 2010; MDU 2012)
The cavity magnetron or travelling wave magnetron or simply a magnetron has a cylindrical
construction emplying a radial electric field and an axial magnetric field. This is high power, high
efficiency microwave oscillator.
6.21.1 Construction
The magnetron is classed as a diode because it has no grid. Magnetron is a cylindrical configuration
with thick cylindrical cathode at the centre and a coaxial cylindrical block of copper as anode. The
anode block cuts in a number of hole which acts as resonant anode cavity as shown in Fig. 6.31.
Cavity magnetron is the most practically used magnetron.
B
C o pp er an od e block
a t p ote n tia l V 0
A n od e po le s
C o -axia l
line o utpu t
A n od e
b a
f
C a tho d e R F ou t
In te raction
space +
M ag ne tic – +
field E
A n od e ca vity
(a ) (b )
Fig. 6.31. Construction of cavity magnetron.
Number of holes may very from 8 to 20 depends on the requirement. The open space
between the anode and cathode is called the interaction space. In this space the electric and
magnetic fields interact to force the electrons. The magnetic field is usually provided by a strong
permanent magnet mounted around the magnetron. So, that the magnetic field is parallel with the
axis of the cathode and radial electric field is provided by connecting a voltage source between
anode and cathode as shown in Fig. 6.31(b). The output of the magnetron is taken from one of
the cavities by means of co-axial line or though waveguide depending on the power and frequency.
6.21.2 Mode of Operation

There are number of resonant cavity (N) in a magnetron and therefore, it must have equal
number of resonant frequencies and or modes of operation.
Ø Cavity magnetron employ a radial electric field and an axial magnetic field, i.e.,
called cross-field device.
Ø Number of cavity or anode slot may vary from 8 to 20.
Microwave Tubes 379
In addition these modes must be self consistent so that the total phase shift around the ring
at cavity resonators is 2πn, where n is an interger. For example, it is not possible for an 8 cavity
magnetron (the most practical type) to employ a mode in which phase difference between adjacent
anodes is 30°, this leads to a total phase difference of 30 × 8 = 240°, meaning thereby that first
anode is out of phase from itself by 120° (360 − 240°). It can be seen that the smallest phase
difference between two adjacent pole pieces obtainable with an 8 cavity magnetron is 45° or
π/4. Which results in an overall phase shift of 360° (45° × 8) or 2π radians which is self consistent
as it required. This π/4 mode is seldom used in practice because it does not gives suitable
characteristics and the more commonly used mode is the π mode. Therefore, if φ represents the
relative phase change of the AC electric field across adjacent cavity then,
2πn N
φ = , n = ± 0, ± 1, ... ± ; N = Number of cavities resonators.
N 2
where 2πn is total shift around the ring at cavity resonators.
N
if n =
2
φ = π
so for π-mode, the relative phase difference between adjacent cavity is π, is normally used for
magnetron operation.
Magnetron operating in π-mode has greater power and output hence most commonly used.
Figure 6.31 shows the waveforms of magnetron for π-mode and π/2-mode.
Ø Cavity magnetron has number of resonant cavities and hence most have an equal
number of resonant frequencies or modes.
Ø For π -mode, n = N/2.
Ø π-mode, has greater power and output.
Ø For an eight cavity magnetron, if n = N/2 = 4, then φ equals to π radians, this gives
π-mode of oscillation.
Ø For magnetron operation, the magnetic field is kept always above the cut-off field.
Stra pp in g
A n od e
p ole s
p-m od e
p
-m od e
2
Fig. 6.32. Waveforms of magnetron.

6.21.3 Operating Principles (UPTU 2010)

Depending on the relative strengths of the electric
od e
and magnetic fields the electrons emitted from the
An
cathode and moving towards the anode. In the
absence of oscillation and when magnetic field is
zero, i.e., B = 0, the electron travels straight from d1
c1
the cathode to anode due to radial electric field force b1
acting on it shown by electron path a1 in Fig. 6.33.
A very weak magnetic field slightly deflects the a1
electron b1 to move in a circular path (having large
radius). A large magnetic field is required to deflect
the electron c1, sharply, so that it grazes the surface
of anode, is called cut-off field (Bc).
Above this field, anode current is zero as no
Fig. 6.33. Effect of increasing magnetic field
electron reaches the anode shown as electron d, in strength and flux density on electrons.
Fig. 6.33. For magnetron operation, the magnetic
field is kept always above the cut-off field.
π -Mode of Operation (UPTU 2005)

For oscillations to sustain in a magnetron oscillator, the phase difference (φ) between two adjacent
anode poles should equal to 2πn/N, where N is the number of cavities and n is any integer. For
an eight cavity magnetron and n = 4, φ equals π radians. This gives rise to π-mode oscillations.
It is assumed that oscillations start due to noise or switching transient which are sustained by
device operation. In π-mode of operation, the polarities of anode poles will change accordingly
with the frequency of oscillations sustained by device.
P o la rities o f a ltern atin g
E lectric fie ld line s m icro w ave fie ld crea te d
b y R F o scilla tion s
–
+
(2 )
(1 )
Ea
(3 ) Fa
– +
b
d
b a a
c
+ –
Fig. 6.34. π-mode oscillations in cavity magnetron.

Microwave Tubes 381
In the absence of such oscillations electron ‘a’ and ‘b’ would follow the paths shown by the
dotted circles in Fig. 6.34. The presence of RF field due to oscillations modify these paths. The
present of RF field leads to a tangential component of electric field.
At position (1), the tangential component of RF field opposes the motions of electron ‘a’ and
retarded. This electron ‘a’ delivers some of its kinetic energy to the microwave field and slows
down. The voltages and field are arranged so that, by the time the electron ‘a’ comes at position
(2), the RF field would have reversed its polarity. The electron ‘a’ encounters a situation similar
to position (1) and it is further slowed down at this stage and another interaction of same types
occurs at position (3), the electron ‘a’ again gives out it energy.
Finally, the electron ‘a’ strikes one of the anode poles and gets attracted by positive voltage
on the anode pole. In this way, the favoured electron like ‘a’ spend considerable time in the
interaction space and finally strike the anode surface. However electron of type ‘b’ are accelerated
by the RF field, gains velocity and get deflected sharply by the magnetic field. These ‘b’ type of
electrons are unfavourable as they absorb energy from the oscillations and also cause back heating
of cathode due to electrons returning with large velocity.
In addition, a focussing mechanism keep the favoured electron to form a cloud as shown in
Fig. 6.35. In Fig. 6.34 an electron ‘c’ emitted a little later than ‘a’ is accelerated by the field and
catches up with electron ‘a’ and an electron ‘d’ emitted a little earlier than ‘a’ is retarded and falls
back to catch up with ‘c’ and ‘a’ forming a bunch. Due to these action, the electron orbit are
mainly confined to spokes (electron cloud) as shown in Fig. 6.35. The electrons emitted from the
cathode travel out through these spokes regularly delivering energy to the oscillations untill they
reach the anode and are absorbed. Thus, these spokes transfer energy to the oscillations and these
are sustained by the device.
Ø In magnetron, electrons emitted by the cathode are accelerated by the electric field
and their paths is bent by the magnetic field.
E lectro n orb it
A n od e
C a tho d e
B u nch ed electro n
clo ud (spo kes)
Fig. 6.35. Bunched electron clouds around magnetron cathode.

6.22 MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF CAVITY MAGNETRON

(MDU 2010; UPTU 2008)
Cylindrical structure is used for the cavity magnetron as shown in Fig. 6.36, for mathematical
analysis cylindrical co-ordinates are used. A cylindrical magnetron consists of two cylindrical electrode,
the inner one being the negative cathode and the outer one being the anode.
Let the radius of anode is b and the radius of cathode is a, the path of motion of the electron
under influence of electric and magnetic field is shown in Fig. 6.36. The magnetic field acts in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of electric field which is radial.
E B C a tho d e ra d ius a
A n od e rad iu s b
z
VB
Vr
f
+ve an o de r In ne r catho de
D irectio n of m otion o f
e lectron em itte d b y cath o de
Fig. 6.36. Structure of cavity magnetron.
Force acting on the electron is F = − e v × B d i

In the direction of φ, component of force Fφ is given as
Fφ = evpB ...(6.165)
where vp = velocity of electron in the direction of the radial distance r from the centre of the
cathode cylinder.
Torque in φ direction is Tφ = distance from center × force
Tφ = rFφ ...(6.166)
where r is any distance from center of cathode
Tφ = rFφ = ervpB ...(6.167)
We know that,
Torque = Time rate of change of angular momentum ...(6.168)
Angular momentum can be computed as follows.
Angular momentum = Angular velocity × Moment of inertia
We know that,
dφ
Angular velocity =
dt
Moment of inertia of an electron = mr2
2 dφ
Therefore, angular momentum = mr × ...(6.169)
dt
Microwave Tubes 383
From equation (6.169), differentiate w.r.t. t and equating to equation (6.167), we get
ervpB =
d FG
mr 2
dφ IJ
dt H dt K
dφ d2 φ
2mr + mr2 2 = ervpB ...(6.170)
dt dt
Integrating equation (6.170) with respect to t
dφ r2
2mr ⋅ φ + mr 2 ⋅ = e⋅B⋅ ...(6.171)
dt 2
LM3 v r2 OP
MN p =
dr
dt
and z r
dr
dt
⋅ dt =
2 PQ
For a particular direction φ, 2mr ⋅ φ can be consider as a constant, say K
2
dφ r
mr2 + K = e⋅B⋅ ...(6.172)
dt 2
Now applying boundary conditions
dφ
At surface of cathode r = a, angular velocity will be zero
dt
Now we can get the value of constant K.
a2
0 + K = eB
2
eBa2
K =
2
Substituting the value of K in equation (6.172), we get
dφ eBa2 r2
mr2 + = eB
dt 2 2
dφ eB 2
mr 2
dt
=
2
e
r − a2 j
dφ eB F a 2 I
= G 1− JK ...(6.173)
dt 2m H r 2
dφ
When r >> a, approaches to the maximum angular velocity ωmax.
dt
i.e.,
FG dφ IJ = ω max ≈
eB
...(6.174)
H dt K max 2m
Now from law of conservation of energy, sum of potential and kinetic energy at any point
remains the same.
Potential energy of an electron = − eV0
1
and kinetic energy at any instant = mv 2
2
1
Now, − eV0 + mv2 = 0
2
1
eV0 = mv 2
2
1
eV0 =
2
m vr2 + v 2φ e j ...(6.175)
When vr and vφ are velocity components in direction r and φ respectively.
dr dφ
vr = and vφ = r
dt dt
B < Bc
B = Bc
B > Bc
Fig. 6.37. Magnetic field inside magnetron.

Substituting these value in equation (6.175), we get
1 LMF dr I 2
F dφ 2 I OP
eV0 =
2
m
MNGH dt JK + r2 GH dt JK PQ ...(6.176)
dφ
=
eB a2
1− 2 ,
LM OP since ω max =
eB
,
dt 2m r MN PQ 2m
dφ a2
= ω max 1 − 2
LM OP
dt r MN PQ
Substituting this in equation (6.176), we get
m
LMF dr I 2
LM1 − a 2 OP OP
2
MNGH dt JK
2
eV0 = +r ω 2max ...(6.177)
2 MN r 2
PQ PQ
When B = Bc (at anode) cut-off magnetic field shown in Fig. 6.37.
Now consider another boundary condition, at anode, where r = b, the velocity of electron
dr dφ
in the direction of radial distance, i.e., vp = approaches to zero and angular velocity
dt dt
approaches to maximum value, from equation (6.174), we get
LM dφ OP = ω max =
eB c
,
N dt Q max 2m
Microwave Tubes 385
dr
Substituting r = b, = 0 and ωmax in equation (6.177), we get
dt
eV0 =
LM OP LM1 − a OP
m 2 eB c
b
2 2
2
2 2mN Q MN b PQ 2
e B b L a O
2 2 2 2
2
eV0 =
8m
M
MN b PPQ
1−
c
2
eB b L a O
2 2 2
2
V0 = c
8 m MN
M1− P
b PQ 2
...(6.178)
The electron will acquire a tangential as well as a radial velocity. Whether the electron will
just graze the anode and return toward the cathode depends on the relative magnitude of V0 and
B. The Hull cut-off magnetic equation is obtained from equation (6.178).
LM8V m OP 12
Bc =
N eQ 0
...(6.179)
L a OP
b M1 −
2
MN b PQ 2
This is Hull cut-off magnetic equation.

This means that if B > Bc, for a given V0, the electrons will not reach the anode.
Conversely, the cut-off voltage is given by
Vc =
e a2
B 20b 2 1 − 2
LM OP 2
...(6.180)
8m b MN PQ
This means that if V < Vc for given B, the electrons will not reach the anode. Equation (6.180)
is often called the Hull cut-off voltage equation.
6.23 MODE JUMPING AND MODE SEPARATION
The number of resonant frequencies, or modes as they are called, equals the number of cavities.
This is because of the fact that resonant system of the magnetron consists of a number of
individuals resonators, one for each cavity, which are coupled together into one system. ‘N’
number of cavity resonator gives rise to an equal number of possible mode.
The resonant modes of magnetron are very close to each other and there is always a
possibility of mode jumping. The weaker modes have frequencies differing very little from the
dominant mode (π-mode) and the purity of vibrations may be lost. A magnetron in which no effort
is made to separate the dominant mode (π-mode) from other mode is said to be unstrapped. There
are two methods for separations of dominant mode from the other mode.
1. By using strapping ring
2. By using rising sun anode.
1. By using strapping ring: The frequency of the π-mode is separated from the frequency
of the other mode by strapping to ensure that the alternate anode pole have identical
polarities. This is most common used method to prevent mode jumping. Strapping consists
of two rings of heavy gauge wire connecting alternate anode pole which are like poles
as shown in Fig. 6.38. One ring is connected to even numbered poles and other to the
odd numbered poles.
+ –
P o la rities
fo r p-m o de
– +
P o in ts o f
H e avy ga ug ed con ne ctio n o f
ring s ring s to
a no de po le s
+ –
– +
Fig. 6.38. Strapping ring.

For π-mode, the two rings have opposite potential
as indicated and strapping helps in achieving only
the π-mode in magnetron. However, strapping may
cause power loss in the conducting ring. Also, at
higher frequencies it will be difficult to maintain the
RF field within the intraction space and strapping
may introduce stray effect.
2. By using rising sun anode: In this method anode
cavities are designed to be dissimilar like rising sun
structure as shown in Fig. 6.39.
In the rising sun anode, the adjacent cavities oscillate
at widely different frequencies and only the π-mode
with 2π radian phase will be effective. Hence,
separation will be quite effective. Fig. 6.39. Rising sun anode.
Figure 6.40 shows a relationships between the frequencies of different mode for both strapped
and unstrapped case. In case of normal magnetron labelled as unstrapped, the wavelength of
different modes differ very slightly from adjacent modes.
14
12 Stra pp ed case
W a ve le n gth l in cm s
10
8 U n strap pe d case
6
4
2
0 M od e
p p 3p p
4 2 4
Fig. 6.40. Relationships between frequency of different mode.
Microwave Tubes 387
Ø Strapping is most common method for separation of π -mode from the other mode.
Ø Strapping may cause power in conducting ring.
Ø In dissimilar anode structure like raising sun, the adjacent cavities oscillate at
widely different frequencies.
6.24 FREQUENCY PUSHING AND PULLING
The resonant frequency of magnetron can be changed by changing the anode voltage. This process
referred to as frequency pushing, is due to the fact that the change in anode voltage results in
a change in orbital velocity of electrons. This alter the rate at which the energy is given up to
anode resonators which then changes the oscillating frequency.
Frequency pulling: Magnetron is also sensitive to frequency variation due to changes in
load impedance. These frequency variations are known as frequency pulling caused by load
impedance. Variations reflected into cavity resonators. Frequency pulling phenomenon is undesirable
and should therefore be prevented. This takes place regardless of whether these load variations are
purely resistive or involve reactive load variations. However, it is more severe in case of reactive
variations. To prevent frequency pulling a stabilized power supply is employed. Frequency pulling
may also be prevented by using a circulator which does not allow backward flow of electromagnetic
energy. It is placed before the waveguide connection at the output of magnetron.
6.25 CAVITY MAGNETRON ANGULAR FREQUENCY
Since magnetic field is normal to the motion of electrons that travel in a cycloidal path, the
outward centrifugal force is equal to the pulling force, then
mv2
= evB0 ...(6.181)
R
where, R = Radius of the cycloide path.
v = Tangential velocity of electron.
The angular frequency of the circular motion of electron is given by
v
ω =
R
v eB 0
ω = = ...(6.182)
R m
and the period of one complete cycle can be given as
2π
T =
ω
Substituting value of ω from equation (6.182), we get
2πm
T = ...(6.183)
eB 0
Example 6.24. Determine the following in case of an 8 resonator travelling wave

magnetron.
(a) Phase difference between adjacent resonators in general.
(b) Number of possible modes of resonance.
(c) Number of useful modes of resonance.
(d) Value of integer (n) for the most dominant mode.
Solution. Let N = Number of resonators = 8
n = Any integer
φ = Phase difference between adjacent resonators
(a) We know that
2πn 2πn
φ = =
N 8
nπ
φ =
4
(b) Number of possible modes will equal to the number of cavity resonators.
Number of modes = 8
(c) Number of useful modes of resonance will be
N
= = 4
2
(d) Most dominant mode is the one for which phase difference between adjacent resonators
is π radian.
nπ
Therefore, φ = = π, for n = 4
4
Thus, Integer n = 4
Example 6.25. An X-band pulsed cylindrical magnetron has V0 = 30 kV, I0 = 80 A,

B0 = 0.01 wb/m2, a = 4 cm, b = 8 cm.
Calculate:
(i) Cyclotron angular frequency
(ii) Cut-off voltage
(iii) Cut-off magnetic flux density. (UPTU 2011)
Solution.
(i) Cyclotron angular frequency is given by,
eB 0
ω =
m
16. × 10−19 × 0.01
ω =
. × 10−31
91
Angular frequency ω = 1.758 × 109 rad/s
(ii) Hull cut-off voltage is given by,
Vc =
e 2 2 LM
a2
B 0b 1 − 2
OP 2
8m bMN PQ
Microwave Tubes 389
. × 10−19
16 L b0.04g 2 OP 2
. g × M1 −
× b0.01g × b008
2 2
Vc =
. × 10−31
8 × 91 MN b0.08g 2
PQ
Hull cut-off voltage Vc = 7.92 kV
(iii) Hull cut-off magnetic flux density is given by,
12
Bc =
c8 V m e h
0
L a OP
b M1 −
2
NM b QP
2
Bc =
LM 8 × 30 × 10 × 91. × 10 OP ×
2
1 −31
MN . × 10
16 PQ 0.08 LM1 − b0.04g
−19 2 OP
MN b0.08g 2
PQ
Bc = 19.468 wb/m2
Example 6.26. A normal circular magnetron has the following parameters:

Inner radius a = 0.15 m
Outer radius b = 0.45 m
Magnetic flux density B0 = 1.2 m wb/m2
Determine:
(i) Hull cut-off voltage
(ii) Cut-off magnetic flux density. If beam voltage V0 is 6000 V
(iii) Cyclotron frequency in GHz. (MDU 2012)
Solution.
(i) Hull cut-off voltage is given by,
Vc =
e a2
B 20b 2 1 − 2
LM OP 2
8m b MN PQ
L . g OP 2
j × b0.45g MM1 − bb0015

2
1759
. × 1011 2 2
Vc = . × 10 −3
× 12 e
8
N .45g 2
PQ
e
Since = 1.759 × 1011
m
Hull cut-off voltage Vc = 50.67 kV
(ii) Cut-off magnetic flux density is given by,
12
Bc =
c8 V m eh
0
L a OP
b M1 −
2
NM b QP 2
12
Bc =
e8 × 6000 1759
. × 10 j 11
F b015
. g I
2
0.45 G1 −
GH b0.45g JJK 2
Cut-off magnetic flux density Bc = 130.59 m wb/m2

(iii) Angular frequency is given by,
eB 0
= 1759
ω = . . × 10 −3
× 1011 × 12
m
ω = 2.1 × 108 Hz
Angular frequency ω = 0.21 GHz.
A cut-view of magnetron is shown in Fig. 6.41.
R e so na n t cavitie s
A n od e
C a tho d e
Filam e nt
lea ds
P icku p loo p
Fig. 6.41 Cut-view of magnetron.
6.25.1 Performance Characteristics of Cavity Magnetron (MDU 2009)

Output power 270 kW (pulsed mode)
3 MW (X-band)
25 kW (CW mode)
Frequency 200 MHz to 15 GHz (CW mode)
Duty cycle 0.1% to 0.2%
Efficiency 40% to 70%
6.25.2 Applications of Cavity Magnetron (MDU 2009)

1. Pulsed radar is important application with large pulse power.
2. Used in industrial heating purpose.
3. Used in microwave oven.
4. Used as microwave driver in photography and other related application.
Microwave Tubes 391
6.26 BACKWARD CROSS FIELD OSCILLATOR (BWO) (MDU 2009, 2010)
The backward cross field oscillators are oscillator version of TWT. Backward cross field oscillators
are also known as Carcinotron. BWO oscillator has the following two configurations:
1. Linear backward cross field oscillator.
2. Circular backward cross field oscillator.
6.26.1 Linear Backward Cross Field Oscillator

Linear backward cross field is shown in Fig. 6.42. It consists of
(i) Cathode
(ii) Negative sole
(iii) Collector
(iv) Slow wave structure
(v) Accelerator
RF
R F sign al te rm in ation
o utp ut
A ccelera to r
S h ow w ave structu re
E lectro n be am BO
BO E
C a tho d e – S o le C o lle ctor

V SO
+ – + – +
VO VCO
Fig. 6.42. Linear mode of BWO.
Figure 6.42 shows a linear model of M-type backward wave oscillator. The interaction
between the electrons and the slow wave structure takes place in a space of cross field (interaction
space between electric field and magnetic field). The slow wave structure is in parallel with an
electrode known as the sole. A DC electric field is maintained between the grounded slow wave
structure and the negative sole. A DC magnetic field is directed into the page. The electrons
emitted from the cathode are bent through a 90° angle by the magnetic field. The electrons
interact with a backward wave space harmonic of the circuit, and the energy in the circuit flows
opposite to the direction of the electron motion. The slow wave structure is terminated at the
collector end and the RF signal output is removed at the electron gun end.
The perturbed electrons (agitated electron) move in synchronism with the wave as shown in
Fig. 6.43. Electrons at position 1 near the beginning of the circuit are moving towards the circuit,
whereas electrons at position 2 are moving towards the sole. Farther down the circuit, electrons
at position 3 are closer to the circuit and electrons at position 4 are closer to the sole.
C ircu it
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S o le
Fig. 6.43. Beam electrons and electric field line in linear magnetron.
However, electrons at position 3 have departed a greater distance from the unperturbed
(undisturbed) path than have electrons at position 4. Thus, the electrons have lost a net amount
of potential energy, this energy having been transferred to the RF field.
Since linear backward-wave crossed field oscillator (M-carcinotron) is a crossed field device,
its efficiency is very high, ranging from 30% to 60%.
Ø BWO is an oscillator version of TWT.

Ø BWO is similar in construction and operates on same principle of electron beam-
RF field interaction, generally employing a helical slow wave structure.
Ø Backward oscillator is a microwave CW oscillator with excellent tuning capacity
and frequency coverage range.
6.26.2 Circular Backward Cross Field Oscillator (Circular M. Carcinotron)

Circular backward cross-field oscillator consists of:
(i) Circular sole
(ii) Circular slow wave structure
(iii) Cathode
(iv) Collector
(v) Accelerating anode
(vi) Attenuator (RF attenuator is formed by spraying attenuating material on the surface of
slow wave structure as shown in Fig. 6.44).
C o lle cto r
G rid A ccelera tin g
R F atten ua to r
a no de
R F ou tp ut
E lectro n
C a tho d e
b ea m
S low w ave
stru cture
E lectro n be am
R F w ave
S o le
Fig. 6.44. Circular BWO.

Microwave Tubes 393
Circular M-Carcinotron is shown in Fig. 6.44. The slow wave structure is terminated at the
collector end by spraying attenuating material on the surfaces of the conductors. The output is
taken from the collector end of the slow wave structure, which is an interdigital line, clearly, in
this case, the electron drift velocity has to be in synchronism with backward-space harmonic.
Ø Circular BWO consists of circular slow wave structure and circular sole.
6.27 FORWARD WAVE CROSSED FIELD AMPLIFIER (FWCFA OR CFA)

(MDU 2009, 2008; UPTU 2012)
Crossed field amplifier (CFA) is an outgrowth of the AA' BB'

magnetron. The cross field amplifier is basically the
E lectro n sp okes
amplifier version of magnetron oscillator and is therefore
similar to its construction and operation. The important
difference between these two is that the anode slow wave
structure of CFA does not close on itself. The two ends C a tho de
of this slow wave are connected to separate transmission B
lines, one for application of input and other for taking out
the output as shown in Fig. 6.45.
As in case of a magnetron oscillator, there is a radial
electric field and an axial magnetic field and current spokes Fig. 6.45. Schematic diagram of CFA.
are formed. These spokes rotate in a clockwise direction
around the cathode. Now, there are two possible modes of interaction, namely, the forward wave
interaction and the backward wave interaction with reference to Fig. 6.45, in case of
forward wave interaction. RF signal is applied at BB′ terminals. The signal flows around the circuit
in clockwise direction and the amplified output appears at AA′ terminals. The current spokes travel
in synchronism with the circuit wave thus allowing it to grow. For backward wave interaction, RF
signal is applied at AA′ terminal and output is taken out at BB′ terminal. The circuit comprises
two wire lines for the strapping with the connection made to alternate vanes as shown in
Fig. 6.46. Though the circuit is non-renterent, the beam is re-entrant. As a result the CFA could
– Strap + Strap
Fig. 6.46. Strapped CFA.

oscillate if loop gain is high enough. This limits the gain to about 15 dB in amplifiers having a
circuit completely around the circumference. In some CFA, the circuit encompasses only a fraction
of the total circumference as shown in Fig. 6.47, resulting in a significant drift space for the
electron beam between the two ends of the circuit. This type of CFA is capable of operating at
wider bandwidth through at a reduced electronic efficiency.
R F ou tp ut
R F in pu t
D rift space
C a tho d e
D ie le ctric filled
w a ve gu id e
Fig. 6.47. CFA with drift space.

In CFA, each current spoke induces two circuit waves, one travels towards the input and the
other travels towards the output. The waves travelling towards the input cancel each other. Since
each spoke induces equal power into the circuit, the wave grows with power increasing linearly
with distance from input to output. It is also important to note that with the wave growth being
linear, the circuit length would need to be increased by a factor of 10 if it was desired to increase
the power gain by 10 dB. This is one of the reasons why CFA typically have low gain.
The total power generated in a given CFA is independent of the RF input power. The power
generated can be increased only by increasing the anode voltage and current. Neglecting circuit
attenuation, the output power of the CFA is equal to the sum of the input power and the power
generated in the interaction region.
The power gain of CFA is given by
Pout Pin + Pgen
G = =
Pin Pin
Pgen
G = 1 +
Pin
where, Pin = RF input power
Pgen = RF power induced into the anode
Ø CFA is basically an amplifier version of magnetron oscillator.

Ø In FWCFA, there are two possible modes of interaction, namely, the forward wave
interaction and the backward wave interaction.
Microwave Tubes 395
6.27.1 Advantages of CFA

Cross field amplifier offers a compact, high efficiency solution to microwave amplification with
relatively low voltage operation and fractional bandwidth of the order of 10 per cent. The efficiency
figure is significantly higher than travelling wave and klystron amplifiers, cold cathode operation
is also possible for eliminating the necessity of a high voltage insulated heater power supply.
6.27.2 Disadvantages of CFA

Disadvantages of CFA are high noise level, typical of all cross field tubes, low gain which necessitates
a klystron or TWT amplifier driver stage and its incapability to successfully handle amplitude
modulation signal due to it being a saturated amplifier.
6.27.3 Performance Characteristics of CFA

Efficiency 80%
Average output power 15 kW
Peak output power 3 MW
Operating frequency 3 GHz
Bandwidth 200 MHz
Ø The efficiency of CFA is significantly higher than TWTA and klystron amplifiers.
Ø Disadvantages of CFA are high noise level.
6.28 COMPARISON OF VARIOUS MICROWAVE TUBES
Table 6.3 gives comparison between various microwave tubes.
Table 6.3. Comparison of various microwave tubes.
Type Bandwidth Efficiency Gain Relative Relative

(%) (dB) operating complexity of
voltage operation*
Gridded tube 1 to 10 20% to 50% 6 to 15 Low 1
Klystron 1 to 5 30% to 70% 40 to 60 High 2
Helix TWT 30 to 120 20% to 40% 30 to 50 High 3
Coupled cavity TWT 5 to 40 20% to 40% 30 to 50 High 4
Cross field Amplifier 5 to 40 40% to 80% 10 to 50 Low 4

(BWCFA)
* 1 – Best, 4 – Poorest
K EYWORDS
• Applegate diagram: Used for graphical representation of electron bunching phenomenon in
microwave tube, the graph is plotted with distance inside the drift space from the inside gap taken
along one of the axis and time along the other axis. Velocity modulation phenomenon can explain
by using Applegate diagram.
• Buncher cavity: Resonant cavity excited by input RF signal to be amplified.
• Catcher cavity: Resonant cavity from where the amplified RF signal is coupled out.
• Drift space: Region between successive resonant cavity in microwave tube.
• Klystron: Microwave tube which can be used for amplification or generation of microwave signal.
• Reflex klystron: Oscillator version of klystron.
• Velocity modulation: Process in which velocity of electric changes according to the RF input
signal.
• Backward wave oscillator: Oscillator version of the travelling wave tube amplifier.
• TWTA: Travelling wave tube amplifier is a high-gain, low noise and wide bandwidth amplifier which
can operate a wide range of frequency from 300 MHz to 50 GHz.
• Slow wave structure: Slow wave structure is used to retarded the velocity of RF field in TWTA.
• Attenuator: Attenuator is used in TWTA to prevent to oscillations.
• Cross-field amplifier: Amplifier version of magnetron oscillator.
• Coaxial magnetron: Magnetron having a outer high Q coaxial cavity in TE011-mode.
• Inverted coaxial magnetron: Magnetron having inverted anode and cathode structure.
• Magnetron: A high power microwave oscillator.
• Voltage tunable magnetron: A broad-band oscillator and oscillation frequency can be control
by varying the applied voltage between anode and sole.
4
1. Explain principle of operation, performance characteristics and application of two cavity klystron.
A two cavity klystron operates at 9 GHz with DC beam voltage of 10 volts and cavity gap
4.0 mm. For a given input RF voltage. The magnitude of gap voltage 900 V. Calculate the transit
time at the cavity gap, transit angle and the velocity of the electron leaving the gap.
(UPTU 2010, 2007)
2. What are Re-entrant cavities? Explain with the support of mathematical equations about bunching
process and find out the beam current at the catcher cavity. A two cavity klystron operated at
4 GHz with I0 = 35 mA, V0 = 1.5 kV. The drift space is 4 cm and the cavity effective shunt
impedance Rsh = 30 kΩ with R0 = 40 kΩ. The beam coupling coefficient = 0.95. Find the
maximum voltage gain and the efficiency. (UPTU 2006)
3. For a two cavity klystron, the voltage applied to cathode is 900 V. The gap in input cavity is
1.5 mm and spacing between cavities is 4 cm. The voltage across the cavity gap is
10 volt peak to peak. Calculate the value of bunching parameter for a beam frequency of 9 GHz.
(MDU 2003; UPTU 2004)
4. Why is magnetron also called “Extended interaction” tube? Derive the expression for
Hull cut-off magnetic flux density in cylindrical magnetron. (MDU 2007; UPTU 2004)
Microwave Tubes 397
5. Explain the working of cavity magnetron and find out its Hull cut-off magnetic field.
(MDU 2008; UPTU 2006)
6. What are π-mode oscillations? Explain how oscillations are sustained in the cavity magnetron with
suitable sketches, assuming that π-mode oscillations already exist. (UPTU 2005)
7. How is continuous interaction between the electron beam and RF field ensured in the TWT? Using
suitable diagrams, show that the favourable interactions are for more than the unfavourable
interactions, resulting in amplification. (MDU 2010; UPTU 2004)
8. With the aid of a schematic diagram, describe the travelling wave tube amplifier. Discuss in a
qualitative way the consequences of locating the attenuator in a TWT (i) very close to the output
end of the tube, and (ii) very close to gun end of the tube. (UPTU 2005)
9. With the help of schematic diagram, explain the working of cavity mechanism. What is the role
of slow wave structure in TWT? (UPTU 2007)
10. With schematic diagram, explain the working of travelling wave tube and compare it with multi-
cavity klystron. (MDU 2005; UPTU 2009)
11. With support of diagram explain 8 cavity magnetron. Discuss the role of slow wave structure in
TWT. (MDU 2010; UPTU 2008, 2009)
12. How bunch formation takes place in drif region in two cavity klystron? Explain.
(MDU 2007; UPTU 2009)
3
13. A reflex klystron is operated at 9 GHz with DC beam voltage of 600 V and 1 mode, repeller
4
space length 1 mm, DC beam current 10 mA. The beam coupling coefficient is assumed to be 1.
Calculate, the repeller voltage, electronic efficiency and output power. (UPTU 2009)
14. What is the relevance of different modes of operation in Gunn diode? (UPTU 2009)
15. With relevant diagram explain the working of reflex klystron. (UPTU 2008)
16. Discuss principle of operation characteristics and application of Gunn diode. (UPTU 2008)
17. A two cavity klystron has beam voltage V0 = 900 V and beam current I0 = 30 mA with operating
frequency of 8 GHz. If gap spacing in either cavity (d) = 1 mm, spacing between centers of cavity
(L) = 4 cm, effective shunt impedance Rsh = 40 kΩ. Find
(i) The electron velocity
(ii) DC electron transit time
(iii) Input voltage for maximum output voltage
(iv) Voltage gain
(v) Why we put repeller negative with respect to beam voltage in reflex klystron?
(UPTU 2008)
18. What are the limitations of conventional active devices at microwave frequencies?
(UPTU 2012, 2010, 2008)
19. An identical two cavity klystron amplifier operates at 4 GHz with V0 = 1 kV, I0 = 22 mA, cavity
gap = 1 mm, drift space = 3 cm and cather cavity total effective shunt conductance Gsh =
0.3 × 10−4 mhos. Calculate:
(i) Beam coupling coefficient and the input cavity voltage magnitude for maximum output
voltage.
(ii) Voltage gain and efficiency, neglecting beam loading. (MDU 2003; UPTU 2003)
1. The most important factor the limit the frequency of operation of conventional triodes and tetrodes
of microwave frequencies is
(a) the electron transit time
(b) the increased power losses
(c) the limitation of the amount of heat that can be dissipated in the electrodes of conventional
tubes
(d) the effect of interelectrode capacitances
2. One of the following microwave tubes is based on the principal of velocity modulation
(a) Disk seal tube (b) Acron tube
(c) Klystron (d) Magnetron
3. Electron bunching in a 2·cavity klystron occurs in
(a) Buncher cavity
(b) Catcher cavity
(c) Free drift-space between the two cavities
(d) None of these
4. Energy transfer from the electron buncher to the output cavity is the maximum when the transit
of electron bunches through the cavity is accompan ied by
(a) positive maximum of RF signal at the output cavity
(b) negative maximum of RF signal at the output cavity
(c) an electric field just enough to bring electron bunches to rest at the further side of the gap
(d) None of these
5. Repellar electrode is associated with one of the following microwave tube
(a) Multicavity klystron (b) Gyrotron
(c) Crossed field amplifier (d) Reflex klystron
6. Depth of modulation of a velocity modulated is given by
kV;
(b)
va
(c)~ (d) !f
where V; is peak amplitude of applied RF signal and V0 is the accelerating potential prior to the
gap.
7. In practical, the efficiency of klystron amplifier is in the range of
(a) 15 to 30% (b) 10 to 15%
(c) 45 to 55% (d) 40 to 45%
8. In reflex klystron, bunches occur
(a) 3 times per cycle (b) 2 times per cycle
(c) Once per cycle (d) 4 times per cycle
9. Maximum efficiency of reflex klystron is
(a) 45.2% (b) 38.7%
(c) 13% (d) 22.78%
Microwave Tubes 399
10. The major advantage of TWT over a klystron lies in its

(a) higher bandwidth (b) higher gain
(c) higher frequency (d) higher output
11. The slow wave structure of a TWT is provided with an attenuator. Which one of the following is
the function of such as attenuator?
(a) It prevents the RF power from reaching the output of the device when the beam is switched
on
(b) It reduces the noise level of the device
(c) It prevents oscillations in the device
(d) It is used to broadband the device
12. The kinetic energy of the beam remains unchanged in the interaction between an electron beam
and an RF wave is
(a) multicavity klystron (b) TWTA
(c) cross field amplifier (d) reflex-klystron
13. In a travelling wave tube, the phase velocity of the axial component of the RF field on the slow
wave structure is kept
(a) equal to the velocity of the electrons
(b) slightly less than the velocity of electrons
(c) slightly more than the velocity of electrons
(d) equal to the velocity of light in free space
14. The attenuator is used in TWT to
(a) help bunching (b) prevent oscillations
(c) prevent saturation (d) preventing debunching
15. Periodic permanent-magnet focussing is used with coupled-cavity TWT to
(a) allow pulsed operation
(b) improve electron bunching
(c) avoid the bulk of an electromagnet
(d) allow coupled-cavity operation at the highest frequencies
16. Indicate which of the following is not a TWT slow wave structure.
(a) Coupled cavity (b) Helix
(c) Ring-bar (d) Rectangular cavity
17. The glass tube of a TWT may be coated with aquadag to
(a) help focussing (b) provide attenuation
(c) improve bunching (d) increase gain
18. The primary purpose of the helix structure in a travelling wave tube is to
(a) reduce the axial velocity of the RF field
(b) prevent the electron beam from spreading in the long tube
(c) ensure broadband operation
(d) reduce the noise figure
19. One of the following is a crossed field device
(a) Magnetron (b) TWT
(c) Two cavity klystron (d) Reflex klystron
20. A travelling wave magnetron having N resonators with adjacent resonators tightly coupled has
(a) N possible modes of resonance (b) (2N−1) possible modes of resonance
(c) N/2 possible modes of resonance (d) None of these
21. Phase difference between adjacent resonators in an N-resonator travelling magnetron is given by
(a) (2π/N) radians (b) (2πn/N) radians
(c) 2πn radians (d) n/N radians
where n is an integer.
22. One of the following microwave oscillators can be electronically tuned over very wide bandwidths
(a) Reflex klystron (b) Voltage tuned magnetron
(c) Backward wave oscillator (d) Gyrotron
23. Cross-field amplifier (CFA) is vary close associate of
(a) Magnetron (b) Helix TWT
(c) Multicavity klystron (d) Coupled cavity TWT
24. π-mode of resonance in a travelling wave magnetron is characterized by
(a) Integer n = N (b) Integer n = N/4
(c) Integer n = N/2 (d) Integer n = 2N−1
where N is the number of resonators.
25. A cavity magnetron employs DC magnetic field to ensure that
(a) the oscillation are pulsed
(b) the electrons will orbit around the cathode
(c) anode current in the absence of oscillations is prevented
(d) None of these
26. Mode of cavity in coaxial magnetron is
(a) TE101 (b) TE110
(c) TE010 (d) TE011
27. Oscillator version of TWTA is
(a) Frequency agile magnetron (b) Coaxial magnetron
(c) BWO (d) VTM
A NSWERS
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (b)
7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (a) 11. (c) 12. (b)
13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (d) 17. (b) 18. (a)
19. (a) 20. (a) 21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (c)
25. (b) 26. (d) 27. (c).
qqq
CHAPTER
7
Microwave Semiconductor Device
Introduction
Pin Diode
Varactor Diode
Tunnel Diode (Esaki Diode)
Transferred Electron Devices (Gunn Diode)
Avalanche Transit Time Devices
INSIDE THE CHAPTER
IMPATT Diode
TRAPATT Diode
Functions of Semiconductor Devices
Microwave Transistors
Advantages of Unipolar Transistor Over Bipolar Transistor
GaAs vs Si
Microwave Bipolar Transistor (BJT)
Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MESFET)
Applications and Advantages of Various Solid State Devices
Peformance Characteristics of Microwave Transistors
MASER
Parametric Amplifier
Keywords
Review Questions
401
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The early generations of microwaves during the Second World War were vacuum devices, viz.
klystrons, magnetrons and travelling wave tubes, which depended on the motion of electrons in
vacuum for various configurations of electric and magnetic fields. These tubes were heavy and bulky
and required high voltage for their operation and occupied large space. A wide range of microwave
semiconductor devices have been developed since 1960s for detection, mixing, frequency
multiplication, phase-shifting, attenuating, switching, limiting, amplification and oscillation.
In most of the low power applications, solid-state devices have replaced electron beam devices
because of the advantages of their small size, light weight, high reliability, low cost and capability
of being incorporated into microwave integrated circuits. Some of the widely used microwave diodes
like PIN diode, varactor diode, gunn diode IMPATT and TRAPATT are discussed in this chapter.
PIN diodes are used for attenuation, modulation, switching, phase shifting and limiting. Varactor
diodes are used for frequency multiplication, parametric amplification and tuning. Tunnel diodes
and Gunn diodes are used for oscillation IMPATT and TRAPATT are used for amplification and
oscillations.
Ø Microwave semiconductor devices has advantages like low cost, small size, less
weight, high reliability and also employed in microwave integrated circuits.
7.2 PIN DIODE (MDU 2010, 2007; UPTU 2007, 2010)
A PIN diode consists of a heavily doped p-type semiconductor material (p+) and a heavily doped
n-type semiconductor material (n+) separated by a layer of extremely high resistivity intrinsic semi-
conductor material (i layer).
Figure 7.1 shows the cross-sectional view of a typical PIN diode. A more practical definition
of a PIN diode is a semiconductor diode which consists of two heavily doped p+ and n+ regions
M eta l co ntact
p+
n+
M eta l co ntact
Fig. 7.1. Structure of PIN diode.

separated by substantially higher resistivity p or n regions. This leads to the two types of PIN diode
structures:
(i) π-type
(ii) v-type.
In π -type PIN diode, heavily doped p and n regions separated by an unusually lightly doped
p-type intrinsic layer and in v-type, heavily doped p and n regions are separated by an lightly
Microwave Semiconductor Device 403
doped n-type intrinsic layer. The thickness of the high resistivity layer (i layer) is usually in the range
of 10 to 200 µm.
The doping profile for the device is shown in Fig. 7.2.
A b rup t jun ctio n
(ide al)
D
N e t im p u rity concen tra tio n
i ff u
w
sed
j u n c ti
resistivity
on
la yer
H ig h
D istan ce from w a fe r surfac e
Fig. 7.2. Doping profile for PIN diode.
Ø PIN diode has heavily doped p and n region separated by a layer of high resistivity
intrinsic material.
Ø PIN diode is used as a microwave switch.
7.2.1 Operation (UPTU 2007, 2008)

Impurity concentration, space charge density and electric field in PIN diode are shown in Fig. 7.3.
Zero Bias
At zero bias, two space charge region are formed in the p and n-layers adjacent to the intrinsic
layer because of the diffusion of holes and electrons across the junctions. The thickness of space
charge regions is inversely proportional to the impurities, i.e., it is totally depleted of mobile
charge carriers. Thus, we have a region of fixed negative charge in the p-layer and a region of
fixed positive charge in the n-layer with equal charges in the two regions. This offers a high
resistance.
Reverse Bias
When reverse bias is applied, the space charge region in the p and n-layers become wider.
A uniform electric field exists in the intrinsic region, dropping linearly to zero through the depletion
regions in n and p-layers. The space charge regions offers a very high resistance in reverse
bias.
+ +
p i n
Im p urity co n centration
0
Spa ce ch arg e de nsity
0
E le ctric field
0
D istan ce
Fig. 7.3. Impurity concentration space charge density and electric field in PIN diode.
Forward Bias
When a forward bias is applied to the diode, carrier injection into the i layer takes place. Electrons
are injected into the i layer from the n layer, and holes are injected from p layer. The carriers
diffuse into the i layer, the diffusion of carriers causes the carrier concentrations in the i layer to
increase above their equilibrium levels, and the resistivity of layer drops as the forward bias is
increased. Thus, low resistance is offered in the forward direction.
When the bias is varied on the PIN diode, its junction resistance changes from a typical value
of 6 kΩ under negative bias to perhaps 5 Ω, when the bias is positive as shown in Fig. 7.4. Thus
if the diode is mounted across a 50 Ω coaxial line, it will not significantly load this line when it is
back-biased, so that the power flow will not be interfered with. However, if the diode is now forward
biased, its resistance drops significantly to 5 Ω, so that most of the power is reflected and hardly
very small power is transmitted; the diode is acting as a switch.
Rj
j 6 kW
j5 W
– 0 + V
Fig. 7.4. Resistance variation with bias voltage.
Ø Under zero and reverse bias, PIN diode has very high impedance.
Ø PIN diode has a very low impedance for small forward bias.
Ø PIN diode resistance changes from nearly 6 kΩ Ω under negative bias to around
5 Ω under positive bias.
7.2.2 Equivalent Circuit of PIN Diode

Lp Rs
PIN diode acts as a more or less like an ordinary diode at
frequencies upto about 100 MHz. At high frequencies, it
Cp Cj Rj
ceases to rectify and then acts as a variable resistance with
an equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 7.5.
In the equivalent circuit
Lp = Package inductance. Fig. 7.5. PIN diode equivalent
circuit.
Cp = Package Capacitance.
Rs = Bulk semiconductor and contact resistance.
Rj = Junction resistance of the intrinsic layer.
Cj = Junction capacitance of the intrinsic layer.
Forward Bias
When the PIN diode is forward biased, the capacitors, Cp and Cj almost behave as open circuit so
that the equivalent circuit of Fig. 7.5 can now to be simplified as shown in Fig. 7.6.
Lp
Zf Rf
Fig. 7.6. Simplified equivalent circuit for forward biased PIN diode.
where Rf is the total forward resistance of PIN diode given by
Rf = Rs + Rj ...(7.1)
Therefore, the diode impedance Zd of the PIN diode is given by

ω Lp
Zd = Zf = Rf + jω ...(7.2)
where Zf = PIN diode forward impedance
Reverse Bias
When the PIN diode is reverse biased, the capacitance of the intrinsic layer Cj becomes significant
and Rr will be the equivalent reverse resistance and simplified equivalent circuit for reverse biased
PIN diode can be constructed as shown in Fig. 7.7.
Lp
Cj
Zr Rr
Fig. 7.7. Simplified equivalent circuit for reverse biased PIN diode.
The diode impedance Zd of the PIN diode under reverse bias, i.e., Zr, is given by
1
Zd = Z r = R r + jωL p +
jω C j
F 1 I
Zr = R r + j ωL p − GH ωC j
JK ...(7.3)
7.2.3 Applications of PIN Diode (MDU 2009; UTPU 2004)

1. PIN Diode as a Switch
For single-pole switching applications, PIN diodes may be mounted across the transmission line in
two possible configurations. These are called series-mounted configurations and shunt-mounted
configuration as shown in Figs. 7.8 and 7.9 respectively. Biasing circuits for the diodes are not
shown in these figures.
In series mounted switch configuration, the switch is ON when the diode is forward biased
(short circuit) and it is OFF when the diode is reverse biased (open circuit).
P IN diod e
L oa d Z 0
Fig. 7.8. Series configuration.

In shunt mounted configuration, when the diode is forward biased it offers a short-circuit.
Hence, energy is fully reflected back and no power flows to the loads. Hence, switch is OFF. If
reverse biased, the diode is open circuit, then load receives the power, i.e., switch is ON.
B A
P IN diod e
L o ad Z 0
Ze
B¢ A¢
Fig. 7.9. Shunt configuration.
Ø In the series configuration, switch is ON when the diode is forward bias and it is
OFF when diode is reverse bias.
Ø In the shunt configuration, switch is ON when the diode is reverse bias and it is OFF
when diode is forward bias.
Calculation of insertion loss

Whenever switch is inserted in the path of RF energy, there will be power loss inside the switch
due to attenuation and in addition some power may be reflected by the switch back to the source.
The sum of these two losses contributes to the insertion loss. The insertion loss is given by
FP I0
Insertion loss in dB = IL = 10 log10 GH P JK
L
in dB ...(7.4)
where PL = Actual power delivered to the load

P0 = Incident power applied to load directly when switch is absent.
Since P0 α (V0)2 and PL α (VL)2, where V0 is the load voltage without switch and VL actual load
voltage when switch is present. With this, equation (7.4) becomes
FV I0
2
IL = 10 log10 GH V JK
L
FV I 0
IL = 20 log10 GH V JK
L
in dB ...(7.5)
Referring to the shunt configuration of Fig. 7.9. Let the line be terminated is Z0 so that the
impedance looking towards load at AA′ is Z0.
The impedance looking toward load side along the switch at BB′ is then given by
1 1 1
= +
Ze Zd Z0
Zd ⋅ Z0
Ze = ...(7.6)
Z d + Z0
where Zd is diode impedance
We know that, reflection coefficient at BB′ is given by
Z e − Z0
ρ = ...(7.7)
Z e + Z0
and transmission coefficient T is given by

Ze − Z0
T = 1+ ρ = 1+
Ze + Z0
2Z e
T = ...(7.8)
Z e + Z0
F ZZ I d 0
2 GH Z + Z JK
d 0 2Z d Z 0
T = =
Z d Z0 2 Z d Z 0 + Z 02
+ Z0
Z d + Z0
2Z d
T = ...(7.9)
2Z d + Z 0
But, from definition of transmission coefficient T,
VL 2Z d
We have T = = ...(7.10)
V0 2Z d + Z 0
F 2Z + Z I
d 0
IL = 20 log10 GH 2Z JK d
F1 + Z I dB 0
IL = 20 log10 GH 2Z JK d
...(7.11)
For the series configuration of Fig. 7.8, similar analysis can be carried out and we can
obtain the insertion loss as
IL = 20 log10 1 +
F Zd I dB
GH 2Z 0 JK ...(7.12)
PIN diode switch is summarized as insertion loss
IL = 20 log10 1 +
F Z 0
I dB
GH 2Z d
JK (Shunt switch)
F1 + Z d
I dB
IL = 20 log10 GH 2Z 0
JK (Series switch)
In both case, Zd is the diode impedance for either the reverse or forward bias state. Thus,
from equations (7.2) and (7.3).
R| F 1 I
Zd = S| Zr = R r + j ωL p − GH ωC j
JK for reverse bias
= R f + j ωL p
TZ f
for forward bias
Ø Insertion loss is due to attenuation and reflection when PIN diode is insert in circuit.
2. PIN Diode as Single-Pole Double-Throw Switch

A configuration for single-pole double-throw (SPDT) switch is shown in Fig. 7.10. Two PIN diodes
are used. As before, the circuitry used for biasing is not shown in the figure. The distance between
the diode’s locations and the junction point J are quarter wavelength each at the centre frequency.
When the diode A is forward biased an almost short-circuit condition is created at its location and
diode B is reverse bias then a open circuit condition is created at its location. Then transmission
takes place from port (1) to port (3). Similarly, when diode B is forward biased and diode A is
reverse biased, transmission takes place from port (1) to port (2).
(2 )
l/4 A
(1 ) J
l/4 B
(3 )
Fig. 7.10. PIN diode as SPDT switch.
Ø Two PIN diodes are used for SPDT switch.
3. PIN Diode as a Phase Shifter

Phase shifter is a two port network in which phase shift of a signal travelling from one port to the
other can be controlled. Generally, two types of phase shiftier are useful. When the phase shift
can be changed continuously from one value to another, the device is called a continuously
variable (or analog) phase shifter. This type of phase shifter is used in microwave bridges and
instruments.
In the other type of phase shifter only discrete values of the phase shift are available. These
are called digital phase shifter and used extensively in phased array antennas.
Two possible configurations namely
(i) transmission type, and
(ii) reflection type.
Digital phase shifter can be designed by using diode and transmission line sections as shown
in Fig. 7.11 (a) and (b).
O utpu t
B =A+l
3 B /2
A /2 l/2
C ircu la tor
SPD T SPD T 2
In pu t O utpu t
1 SPS T
A In pu t
(a) Transmission type phase shifter (b) Reflection type phase shifter
Fig. 7.11. Different arrangements of transmission lines to design digital phase shifters.
The transmission type phase shifter uses two single-pole double-throw (SPDT) PIN switches.
Depending upon the bias applied to the two switches, the signal transmission can follow either path
A or path B. Path B is longer than path A by a distance l. When the signal is switched from path
A to part B, the output undergoes a phase shift of βl radians, where β is the phase constant along
the line. Hence, two discrete values of phase shift are possible.
The reflection type phase shifter shown in Fig. 7.11 (b) uses one SPST (single-pole single-
throw) switch and a circulator. In Fig. 7.11 (b), when the switch is open, an input at port (1) gets
coupled to port (2) of circulator, it travels a distance B (B/2 for forward direction and B/2 for
return back) to the short-circuit and back and appears at an output at port (3) of the circulator.
When the SPST switch is closed, the distance to the reflecting short-circuit reduces to a length A
and the output signal at port (3) goes through a phase shift given by
φ = β (B − A) = βl ...(7.13)
Ø Transmission type phase shifter arrangement result in a one-bit digital phase shifter.
Ø Reflection type phase shifter consists of a circulator and one SPDT switch.
4. PIN Diode as a Limiter

Limiters are used for the protection of microwave systems containing sensitive amplifiers, mixers,
detectors, samplers, etc. When these circuits are operated in environments which may expose them
to high level of microwave power. A PIN diode limiter is a microwave switch that is controlled by
self bias rather than are externally bias. PIN diodes with very short carrier lifetimes (typically less
than 1 ns) are used to ensure that they will efficiently rectify the RF power when it exceeds a
specified level. Limiters are shunt mounted diodes, and the presence of excess power (and therefore
bias) switches off the power. A typical limiter circuit is shown in Fig. 7.12(a).
Two PIN diodes are connected in shunt across a transmission line. The diodes are spaced
λ/4 apart so that the individual reflections cancel and a low VSWR is obtained. The choke shown
provides a return path for the self bias current. A curve of limiting characteristics is shown in
Fig. 7.12(b).
O u tp ut po wer (lo g scale)

l/4
P ra ctical lim ite r
P IN C h oke for
d io de s b ia s retu rn
Id ea l lim iter
In pu t p o w er (lo g scale)
(a) Limiter (b) Limiter characteristics

Fig. 7.12. PIN diode as a limiter.
Ø Limiters are used to protect the sensitive microwave components.

Ø A PIN diode limiter is a microwave switch that is controlled by self bias rather than
external bias. PIN diodes in shunt are used to limit the power.
5. PIN Diode as an Amplitude Modulator

In this arrangement, the PIN diode is kept at low reverse bias and in series with the low frequency
modulating signal as shown in Fig. 7.13. The modulating signal amplitude is kept smaller than the
RF carrier signal. The modulating signal charges the RF resistance of diode so that varying amount
of the mismatch results. Hence, the amount of carrier power reflected back and the output varies
as the input value of modulating signal.
P IN
B iasin g A m p litud e
C a rrie r inp ut circuit m od ulated o utp ut
M od ulatin g
sig na l
Fig. 7.13. PIN diode as an amplitude modulator.
7.2.4 Performance Characteristics

PIN diodes are available with resistive cut-off frequencies up to about 700 GHz. Individual diodes
may handle up to about 200 kW peak (or 200 W average). On the other hand several diodes may
be combined to handle as much as 1 MW peak. Actual switching times vary from approximately
40 ns for high power limiters to as little as 1 ns at lower powers.
Photograph of the various PIN diodes are shown in Fig. 7.14.
Fig. 7.14. Various PIN diodes.
Example 7.1. A single-pole switch is constructed using PIN diode in shunt configuration
in a TEM transmission line having Z0 = 50 Ω with the following parameters:
Cj = 0.02 pF
Rf = 0.1 Ω
Rr = 1 Ω
Calculate insertion losses in ON and OFF state at operating frequency of 2 GHz. Where
Lp is negligible.
Solution.
For shunt switch
Diode impedance for forward bias, i.e., OFF state from equation (7.2)
Zd = Zf = Rf = 0.1 Ω
Diode impedance for reverse bias, i.e., ON state from equation (7.3)
1
Zd = Z r = R r +
jωC j
1
. +
= 01
j2π ⋅ 2 ⋅ 10 × 0.02 × 10 −12
9
Z r = 3.98 kΩ
Insertion loss in forward bias, i.e., OFF state from equation (7.11)
F
ILOFF = 20 log 1 +
Z0 I
GH 2Z d JK dB
Since, Zd = Zf
FG
ILOFF = 20 log 1 +
50 IJ
H 2 × 01
. K
ILOFF = 48 dB
Insertion loss in reverse bias, i.e., ON state
ILON = 20 log 1 +
F Z0 I
GH 2Z d JK dB
Since, Zd = Zr
ILON = 20 log 1 +
FG 50 IJ
H 2 × 3980 K
ILON = 0.108 dB
Insertion loss for power on state is very low as compared to forward bias, i.e., power off state.
Example 7.2. A single-pole is to be constructed using a PIN diode with the following
parameters:
Cj = 0.1 pF
Rr = 1 Ω
Rf = 0.5 Ω
Lp = 0.4 µH
If the operating frequency is 5 GHz and Z0 = 5.0 Ω. What circuit (series or shunt) should
be used to obtain the greatest ratio of OFF-to-ON attenuation?
Solution. We first compute the diode impedance for the reverse and forward bias state, from
equation
R| F 1 I
Zd = S|Z
r GH
= Rr + j ωL p −
ωC j
JK
TZ f = R f + jωL p
1
e 9 9
Z r = 1 + j 2π × 5 × 10 × 0.4 × 10 − j 9
. × 10 −12
2π × 5 × 10 × 01
Z r = 1.0 − j 305.7 Ω
|Z r| = 305.6 Ω
Similarly,
Zf = 5 + j (2π × 5 × 109 × 0.4 × 10−9)
Zf = 0.5 + j 12.6 Ω
|Zf| = 12.67 Ω
The Insertion losses for ON and OFF state of series and shunt switches is given by
For the series circuit, using equation (7.12)
ILON = 20 log 1 +
F Zf I = 011
GH 2Z 0 JK . dB
ILOFF = 20 log =
F1 + Z I r
= 1016
GH 2Z JK 0
. dB
For the shunt circuit, using equation (7.11)
ILON = 20 log 1 +
F Z I0
= 0.03 dB
GH 2Z JK
r
F Z I
20 log G1 +
H 2Z JK
0
ILOFF = = 7.07 dB
f
So the series configuration has the greatest difference in attenuation between the
ON and OFF states, but the shunt circuit has the lowest ON insertion loss.
7.3 VARACTOR DIODE (UPTU 2007, 2009; MDU 2010)
Varactor diode is the short name of the “Variable reactor diode”, referred as voltage variable
capacitance of a reversed bias pn junction.
The junction capacitance depends on the applied voltage and the design of the junction. In
some cases a junction with fixed reverse bias may be used as a capacitance of a set value. In a
wide sense the varactor diode is designed to exploit the voltage variable properties of the junction
capacitance. For example, a varactor may be used in tuning stage of a radio receiver to replace
the bukly variable plate capacitor.
Other applications of varactor diode include use in harmonic generation, microwave frequency
multiplication, active filter and very low-noise parametric amplifiers etc.
7.3.1 Operation
All semiconductor junction diode exhibit a junction capacitance when reverse biased. The charge
free depletion region of an pn junction in a semiconductor widens with application of reverse bias
since the surfaces of charge free depletion region represent effective plates of the capacitance of
the junction, i.e., the diode behaves as a capacitance with the junction acting as a dielectric
between the two conducting material.
If the magnitude of reverse bias voltage is increased, the depletion layer width (w) will increase
and the junction capacitance (Cj ) will decrease in accordance with
1
Cj ∝
w
A varactor diode is so designed to maximize the capacitance variation with applied reverse
bias. Figure 7.15 shows biasing of varactor diode and capacitance versus reverse bias characteristics.
Cj w
– +
+
+
p + n
+
+
– ++
C m in C0
C m ax Jun ctio n
– +
– 0 +V r V
(a) Capacitance variation with bias (b) Biasing of varactor diode
Fig. 7.15. Varactor diode characteristic.
Refer to Fig. 7.15 (a). The capacitance is maximum for zero bias and varies inversely with
applied reverse bias voltage. The useful reverse voltage swing is between the reverse saturation
point (maximum capacitance) and the point just above avalanche (minimum capacitance). Conduction
and avalanche are two conditions which limit the voltage swing and hence the capacitance variation.
Operation of varactor diode also depend on the types of the junction. We know that the
relationship between junction capacitance (Cj ) and the reverse bias voltage (Vr ) is given by
Cj ∝ Vr−n
where n is a parameter that decides the type of junction.
If the junction is abrupt then the capacitance varies as a square root of the reverse bias
eC ∝ Vr−1 2 i.e., n = 1/2. If the junction is a linear graded, then n is 1/3, i.e., voltage sensitivity
j j
of junction capacitance (Cj ) is greater for an abrupt junction than for a linear graded junction.
For hyper abrupt junction n > 1/2.
In general
Cj ∝ Vr−1 bm + 2g
where,
For abrupt junction m = 0
linear graded junction m = 1
hyper abrupt junction m = − 3/2
Figure 7.16 shows some common symbols used for varactor diode.
Fig. 7.16. Common used symbols of varactor diode.
Ø Varactor diode is the short name of ‘Variable reactor diode’.

Ø A semiconductor diode that is designed to maximise the capacitance variation with
applied reverse bias is the varactor diode.
Ø In varactor diode, the capacitance is maximum for zero bias and varies inversely
with applied reverse bias voltage.
Ø Junction capacitance of varactor diode is greater for an abrupt junction than for a
linear graded junction.
7.3.2 Materials and Construction (UPTU 2008)

Gallium arsenide is the most commonly used semiconductor material for fabricating varactor diode
due to their higher mobility of charge carriers. A varactor diode made of gallium arsenide has
advantages as a higher maximum operating frequency (up to nearly 1000 GHz) and better functioning
at the lowest temperatures. The construction of varactor diode is shown in Fig. 7.17. The diode
encapsulation contains electrical lead attached to the semiconductor wafer and a lead to the
ceramic case. Diffused junction mesa GaAs diode are widely used at microwave frequencies.
G old-pla te d
m olyb de n um
stud (a no d e)
D iffu sed m esa G aA s G old-pla te d w ire
C e ram ic tub e
G old-pla te d
m olyb de n um
stud (ca tho de )
Fig. 7.17. Varactor diode construction.

They are capable of handling large power and large breakdown voltages. They have relative
independence of ambient temperature change and have low noise. Silicon may be used for varactor
diode with the frequency limit up to 25 GHz. However, the manufacturing techniques are easier
for silicon.
Ø A varactor diode made of gallium arsenide has advantage as a higher maximum

operating frequency and better functioning of the lowest temperatures.
7.3.3 Equivalent Circuit of Varactor Diode

The equivalent circuit of the varactor diode on the semiconductor wafer is shown in Fig. 7.18.
Cj Rj
Z w afer
Rs
Fig. 7.18. Equivalent circuit of varactor diode.

where, Cj = Junction capacitance (function of applied bias).
Rj = Junction resistance (function of applied bias).
Rs = Series resistance including bulk resistance of the wafer and resistance of ohmic
electrical leads (function of applied bias).
At microwave frequencies, junction resistance Rj is

neglected as compared to the capacitive reactance.
For a practical encapsulated varactor diode as shown
in Fig. 7.17, parasitic resistance, capacitance and
conductance are also present. The diode encapsulation
Cc Ls
contains electrical leads attached to the wafer and low
chromic cases as a mechanical support to the wafer.
The parasitics should be as low as possible. Equivalent
circuit of an encapsulated varactor diode is shown in
Fig. 7.19. The equivalent circuit depends on the type of Rs
Cf
encapsulation and mount make. Cj
where, Cc = Capacitance of ceramic case.
Cf = Fringing capacitance.
Ls = Lead inductance. W a fe r
1
R j is neglected as Rj >> at microwave
ωC j Fig. 7.19. Equivalent circuit of an
frequencies. encapsulated varactor diode.
Ø At microwave frequencies, junction resistance is neglected as compared to the

capacitive reactance.
Ø In varactor diode, parasitics should be low as possible.
7.3.4 Applications of Varactor Diode (MDU 2003)

Varactor diodes find extensive use in microwave frequency multiplier, parametric amplifiers and as
a tuning element.
1. Frequency Multiplication using Varactor Diode

The mechanism responsible for frequency multiplication in a varactor has its origin in the fact that
when AC voltage is applied to a non-linear resistance, the output current versus input voltage
relationship is of the form
i = a + bV + cV2 + dV3 + ...
Coefficient a, b, c, d, ... are the coefficient of non-linearity and become smaller and smaller
as we include higher order terms. In fact, coefficient d and beyond are so small that voltage V will
have to be prohibitively large to make any impact on the output. Now, if we consider only the
first three terms, then the output will contain second or in other words, the input signal frequency
get multiplied by 2. But such a multiplier is not efficient. If the same concept is applied to a
Filte r (f) Filte r (2 f)
In pu t O utpu t O utpu t
In pu t m atch er Vara ctor m atch er
d io de
Fig. 7.20. Frequency multiplication using varactor diode.

non-linear reactance, it has been proved that frequency multiplication can be achieved with efficiencies
approaching 100%. This makes use of varactor diode, which provides non-linear capacitive reactance
(as capacitance varies as a function of voltage). Figure 7.20 shows a circuit diagram of frequency
multiplier. It is a frequency doubler circuit using varactor diode.
Varactor diode are particularly suited when broadband frequency multiplication is desired.
They are no suitable for longer multiplication.
2. Parametric Amplifiers using Varactor Diode

The parametric amplifier uses a varactor diode whose reactance is varied in such a manner that
amplification results. So a varactor diode is now always used as the active element in the parametric
amplifiers. It is based on the principle of electronically varying the capacitive reactance (which is
a parameter of the tuned circuit and hence the name parametric amplifier) of a device, usually
a varactor, at a frequency higher than the frequency of the microwave signal to be amplified. The
signal used to vary the capacitive reactance of the signal electronically is called the pump signal
and amplification mechanism is provided by vary the capacitive reactance. This is in contrast to the
use of a DC power supply and a variable resistance in case of conventional amplifiers.
It is a novel amplification mechanism using a variable reactance rather than a variable
resistance, that is responsible for making this amplification process a low noise. In a parametric
amplifier, usually three frequencies are present namely the signal frequency (fs ), the pump frequency
( fp) and the difference of the two frequencies called
the idler frequency (fi ). The amplified output is taken
either at the signal frequency or at the idler frequency
which could be lower or higher than the signal
frequency depending upon the frequency of the pump
oscillator.
Photograph of a varactor diode is shown in
Fig. 7.21. Varactor diode.
Fig. 7.21.
Ø Varactor diode is used in microwave frequency multiplier, parametric amplifier and

as tuning element.
Ø In parametric amplifier, reactance varied in such a manner that amplification results.
7.4 TUNNEL DIODE (ESAKI DIODE) (MDU 2010; UPTU 2006, 2008)
Tunnel diode was discovered by a Japanese scientist named Esaki in 1958. The tunnel diode is
a pn junction with a extremely heavy doping on the both sides of the junction and an abrupt
transition from the p-side to n-side. Due to heavy doping, the width of the depletion region
becomes very thin and an overlap occurs between the conduction band level on the n-side and the
valance band level on the p-side. The tunnel diode are heavily doped pn junction that have a
negative resistance over a portion of its VI characteristics as shown in Fig. 7.22. It is clear that both
in the forward as well as reverse directions, the diode responds with a huge current for a very small
applied voltage. In the forward direction, the current reaches a maximum value equal to Ip (called
peak current) at a voltage Vp (called peak voltage). At this point dI/dV is zero. After this, the
current starts decreasing with increase in voltage. At the peak point, the slope of the characteristics
changes from positive to negative while at the valley point, it changes from negative to positive
again. Between the points, the device exhibits negative resistance.
N e ga tive
re sista nce
P e ak p oint re gion
I
Ip
Valle y po in t
Iv
–V V
0 Vp Vv
O rd in ary
d io de
Tu nn el
d io de –i
(a) Tunnel diode voltage-current characteristic
(b) Symbol of tunnel diode

Fig. 7.22. VI characteristics and symbol of tunnel diode.
The tunnel diodes are useful to many circuit applications in the microwave amplification and
microwave oscillation because of their low cost, light weight, high speed, low noise and high peak-
current to valley-current ratio. Because of the thin junction and short transit time, it is also useful
for microwave application in fast switching circuits.
Ø Tunnel diode is a pn junction with extremely heavy doping on both side.

Ø Tunnel diodes are useful to many circuit applications in microwave amplification
and oscillation because of low cost, light weight, high speed, low noise and high
peak to valley current ratio.
Ø Tunnel diode exhibits the negative resistance.
7.4.1 Operation of Tunnel Diode (Quantum Mechanical Tunnelling)

(MDU 2010)
The tunnelling phenomenon in tunnel diode is known a quantum mechanical tunnelling. As we
know that tunnel diode is a negative resistance semiconductor pn junction diode. This negative
resistance is created by the tunnel effect of electron in the pn junction. The tunnel effect is a
majority carrier effect. The doping of both the p and n regions of the tunnel diode is very high,
due to this the depletion-barrier at the junction is very thin (on the order of 100 Å). Classically,
it is possible for those particles to pass over the barrier if and only if they have an energy equal
to or greater than the height of the potential barrier. But according to quantum-mechanical theory,
if the barrier is less than 3 Å there is an appreciable probability that particles will tunnel through
the potential barrier even though they do not have enough kinetic energy to pass over the same
barrier. In addition to the barrier thickness, there must also be filled energy states on the side from
which particles will tunnel and allow empty states on the other side into which particles penetrate
through at the same energy level. To understand the tunnel effect, we analyze the energy band
diagram of tunnel diode.
1. Under Unbiased Condition (V = 0)

Figure 7.23 shows the equilibrium energy level diagram of tunnel diode with no bias applied. Due
to the heavy doping, the valance band of the p-side overlaps the conduction band of the n-side.
Under unbiased condition the upper level of the electron energy of both the p-side and n-side are
line up at the same fermi level as shown in Fig. 7.23.
So there is just same probability of electrons going from states in the conduction band on the
n-side to the state in the valance band on the p-side, as in the opposite direction. Thus net
tunnelling on the thin barrier is zero.
p -side n -side
D e pletion la yer
Ec
Fo rb idd e n C o nd uction
Eg b an d
b an d
Ev
E m p ly sta te
EF
EF
Filled sta te
Ec
Eg
E
Valen ce
b an d Ev
D istan ce
Fig. 7.23. Energy band diagram under no-bias.

It should be noted that in the ordinary diodes fermi level exists in the forbidden band. Since
the tunnel diode is heavily doped, the fermi level exist in the valance band in p-side and in
conduction band in the n-side.
2. When 0 < V < Vp

When a forward bias is applied to the diode then the potential barrier is decreased. Hence, n-side
level must shift upward with respect to those on the p-side as shown in Fig. 7.24. The electrons
in the conduction band (filled state) on the n-side see empty states just across the barrier and
tunnelling takes place. Due to this tunnelling (flow of electron from n-side to p-side) the forward
current will increases as bias voltage increases as shown in Fig. 7.28 (a).
p -side n -side
Ec
F.B . Eg C o nd uction
b an d
Ev EF
Tu nn elin g
EF
Ec
Valen ce Tu nn ellin g Eg
b an d
Ev
0 < V < Vp
Fig. 7.24. Energy band diagram when 0 < V < Vp.
3. When V = Vp
As the forward bias is increased to Vp. A maximum number of electrons can tunnel through the
barrier from the filled states in the n-side to the empty states in the p-side, giving rise to the peak
current Ip at the bias voltage Vp as shown in Fig. 7.28 (a). The energy band diagram for V = Vp
is shown in Fig. 7.25.
p -side n -side
Ec
b an d
Ev EF
EF
Ec
Valen ce Tu nn ellin g Eg
b an d
Ev
V = Vp
Fig. 7.25. Energy band diagram when V = Vp.
4. When Vp < V < Vv

As the forward bias is further increased above the peak point the energy levels on n-side are raised
so high that only part of the electron in the conduction band available energy levels across the
barrier as shown in energy band diagram (Fig. 7.26).
Thus tunnelling current will start to decrease from peak point, which is shown in Fig. 7.28 (a).
From Vp to Vv the voltage is increasing and current is decreasing and slope over this region is
negative so we get the negative resistance region.
At the bias voltage Vv called valley voltage, the current will be minimum called valley current
(Iv) and this minimum current point is know as valley point. So, from Vp to Vv the voltage is
increasing and current is decreasing and the slope over this region in negative.
So we get the negative resistance region.
p -side n -side
Ec
b an d
Ev EF
Tu nn ellin g
EF
Ec
Valen ce Eg
b an d
Ev
Vp < V < Vv
Fig. 7.26. Energy band diagram when Vp < V < Vv .
5. When V > Vv
At a bias voltage above the valley voltage, there are now no allowed empty states in the p-side
at the same energy level as filled states in the n-side as shown in Fig. 7.27. Since no electron can
tunnel through the barrier and tunnelling current drops to zero as shown in Fig. 7.28 (a). It should
be noted that if the bias voltage is above the valley voltage Vv, the ordinary injection current I at
the pn junction start to flow.
p -side n -side
Ec
C o nd uction
F.B . Eg b an d EF
Ev
Ec
EF
Valen ce Eg
b an d
Ev
V > Vv
Fig. 7.27. Energy band diagram when V > Vv .

This injection current is increased exponentially with the forward voltage as indicated by
dashed line Fig. 7.28 (a). The total current is given by the sum of the tunnelling current and the
injection current, results in the VI characteristic of the tunnel diode as shown in Fig. 7.28 (b).
Tu nn elling curre nt I
In je ctio n
F orw a rd cu rre nt
Fo rw a rd cu rre nt
(P e ak)
curre n t Ip
Ip
(Valle y)
Iv Iv
0 (a ) V p Vv V 0 Vp Vv V1 V
Fo rw a rd vo lta ge Fo rw a rd vo ltag e
(a) Tunnelling current and injection current (b) VI Characteristic

Fig. 7.28. VI characteristic of tunnel diode.
Ø Tunnelling phenomenon is known as quantum mechanical tunnelling.

Ø Tunnelling phenomenon is a majority carrier effect.
Ø Because of heavy doping, depletion region becomes very narrow.
Ø Another effect of heavy doping is to widen the donor level in the n-side and acceptor
level in the p-side.
Ø Under unbiased condition net tunnelling is zero.
Ø As forward bias is applied the energy levels on n-side are raised relative to those
on p-side.
Ø Beyond Vv, the current rises again because of injection current as in an ordinary pn
junction.
Ø For tunnel diode, total current = tunnelling current + injection current.
7.4.2 Materials and Construction

Tunnel diode can be made from any
P e de sta l Tin d ot C a tho d e
semiconductor material, initially germanium and
then gallium arsenide or gallium antimonide
have been preferred in practice. All have small
forbidden energy gaps and high ion mobilities,
which are characteristics leading to good high- M esh scre en G aS b, G aA s
frequency or high-speed operation. These con ne ctor o r G et pe llet
materials are preferable to silicon in this regard.
C e ram ic b o dy
A cross-section view of tunnel diode is shown in
A n od e
Fig. 7.29, the construction of tunnel diode is
remarkable simple. This is yet another advantage Fig. 7.29. Construction of tunnel diode.
of the device, A very tin dot is soldered or
alloyed to a heavily doped pellet (about 0.5 mm square) of n-type Ge, GaAs or GaSb. The pellet
is then soldered to a pedestal, used for heat dissipation, which forms the anode contact. The
cathode contact is also a pedestal, being connected to the tin dot via a mesh screen used to reduce
inductance. The diode has a ceramic body.
Ø Gallium arsenide and gallium antimonide are prefer because they provide high ion
mobilities and high speed operation.
7.4.3 Equivalent Circuit of Tunnel Diode (MDU 2004)

The equivalent circuit of the tunnel diode, when biased in the negative-resistance region, is shown
in Fig. 7.30.
Rs
Cj –Rj Z in
Ls
Fig. 7.30. Equivalent circuit of tunnel diode.

where, Cj = Junction capacitance.
− Rj = Negative junction resistance.
Rs = Ohmic series resistance due to lead wire.
Ls = Series inductance of the bonding wire.
At the higher frequencies, the series resistance and inductance can be ignored. The resulting
diode equivalent circuit is thus reduced to the parallel combination of the junction capacitance Cj
and negative resistance − Rj. The junction capacitance of tunnel diode is highly dependent on the
bias voltage and temperature.
Ø At the higher frequencies, the series resistance and inductance can be ignored.
Ø Junction capacitance is highly dependent on bias voltage and temperature.
Input impedance (Zin):

The input impedance Zin of the equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 7.30 is given by
Zin = R s + jωL s +
− R j 1 jωC j e j
− R j + 1 jωC j
jR j ωC j
= R s + jω L s +
e− R − j ωC j j j
j R eR ω C − j j
j j j
= Rs + jω L − s 2
eR ω C j + 1 j j
= Rs + jωL −
e jR ω C + R j 2
j j j
s 2
eR ω C j + 1 j j
R j
LM ωR C 2
j j
OP
= Rs − + j MωL −
2 s 2 PP ...(7.14)
eR ωC j + 1 MN 1 + eωR C j
j j j j Q
Now the resistive part of the input impedance (Zin) will be zero at a certain frequency and
the reactive part of the impedance will be zero at a second frequency.
These two-frequencies are denoted by resistive cut-off frequency (fc) and reactive cut-off
frequency (fr) or self-resonance frequency.
Resistive cut-off frequency (fc):

The resistive (real) part of the input impedance Zin must be zero, from equation (7.14).
Rj
Rs =
1 + ω 2 R 2j C 2j
R s + 4 π 2 fc2 R 2j R s C 2j = Rj
4π 2 fc2 R 2j R s C 2j = Rj − Rs
Rj
(2πfc Rj Cj )2 = −1
Rs
1 Rj
fc = −1 ...(7.15)
2π R j C j Rs
Self-Resonance or Reactive frequency (fr):

The reactive (imaginary) part of the input impedance must be zero. From equation (7.14).
ωR 2j C j
ωLs =
1 + ω 2 R 2j C 2j
2
ω 2 R 2j C2j L s = R j C j − L s
2 R 2j C j
e2πf r Rj Cj j =
Ls
−1
1 R 2j C j
fr = −1 ...(7.16)
2π R j C j Ls
Ø Resistive cut-off frequency is obtained when resistive part of input impedance is

zero.
Ø Self-resonance frequency is obtained when reactive part of input impedance is zero.
7.4.4 Application of Tunnel Diode (MDU 2005; UPTU 2004)

Tunnel diodes are useful in many circuit application such as, oscillations, frequency converters and
switches. Some of the tunnel diode application is given below.
1. Tunnel Diode Oscillators

A tunnel diode, biased at the center point of the negative resistance range and coupled to a tuned
circuit or cavity, produces a very stable oscillator. The oscillation frequency is the same as the tuned
circuit or cavity frequency. Microwave tunnel diode oscillators are useful in applications that require
microwatts or, at most, a few milliwatt of power, such as local oscillators for microwave
superheterodyne receivers. Tunnel diode oscillators can be mechanically or electronically tuned over
frequency ranges of about one octave and have a top-end frequency limit of approximately
10 GHz.
Tunnel diode oscillators that are designed to operate at microwave frequencies generally use
some form of transmission line as a tuned circuit. Suitable tuned circuits can be built from coaxial
lines, transmission lines and waveguides. An example of a highly stable tunnel diode oscillator is
shown in Fig. 7.31. A tunnel diode is loosely coupled to a high-Q tunable cavity. Loose coupling
is achieved by using a short, antenna feed probe placed off-center in the cavity. Loose coupling
is used to increase the stability of the oscillations and the output power over a wide bandwidth.
The output power produced is in the range of a few hundred microwatts, sufficient for any
microwave applications. The frequency as which the oscillator operates is determined by the
physical positioning of the tuner screw in the cavity. Changing the output frequency by this method
is called mechanical tuning. In addition to mechanical turning, tunnel diode oscillators may be tuned
electronically. One method is called BIAS tuning and involves nothing more than changing the bias
voltage to change the bias point on the characteristic curve of the tunnel diode.
Tu ne r
O u tpu t
C a vity
Tu nn el d io de
B ias voltag e
Fig. 7.31 Tunnel diode oscillator.

Another method is called varactor tuning and requires the addition of a varactor diode to the
basic circuit. Tuning is achieved by changing the voltage applied across the varactor which alters
the capacitance of the tuned circuit.
Ø Tunnel diode oscillators can be mechanically and electronically tuned.

Ø Tunnel diode application include tunnel diode amplifier and tunnel diode oscillator.
2. Tunnel Diode Amplifiers

Low-noise, tunnel diode amplifiers represent an important microwave application of tunnel diodes.
Tunnel diode amplifiers with frequencies up to 85 GHz have been built in waveguides, coaxial lines,
and transmission lines. The low-noise generation, gain ratios of up to 30 dB, high reliability, and
light weight make these amplifiers ideal for use as the first stage of amplification in communications
and radar receivers. Most microwave tunnel diode amplifiers are reflection-type, circulator-coupled
amplifiers. As in oscillators, the tunnel diode is biased to the centre point of its negative-resistance
region, but a circulator replaces the tuned cavity.
A circulator is a waveguide device the allows energy to travel in one direction only. The tunnel
diode is Fig. 7.32 is connected across a tuned-input circuit. This arrangement normally produces
feedback that causes oscillations if the feedback is allowed to reflect back to the tuned input circuit.
The feedback is prevented because the circulator carries all excess energy to the absorptive load
(RL). In this configuration the tunnel diode cannot oscillate, but will amplify.
The desired frequency input signal is feed to port (1) of the circulator through a bandpass
filter. The filter serves a dual purpose as a bandwidth selector and an impedance matching device
that improves the gain of the amplifiers. The input energy enters port (2) the circulator and is
amplified by the tunnel diode. The amplified energy is feed from port (2) to port (3) and on to the
mixer. If any energy is reflected from port (3), it is passed to port (4), where it is absorbed by the
matched load resistance.
G ro un d
R e sistive loa d
(R L )
4
ul
3 i r c a to Tu ne d
C
O utpu t 1 Filte r in pu t In pu t
circuit
Tu nn el
d iod e
Fig. 7.32. Tunnel diode amplifier.
In a tunnel diode amplifiers, the resistive load may be connected either is series or in parallel
with the diode as shown in Fig. 7.33.
RL
`R j Rs
Cj V
Vs
`
Tu nn el diod e
(a) Load is connected in series with the diode
+
`R j
RL Rs
Cj V
Vs
`
Tu nn el diod e
(b) Load is connected in parallel with the diode
Fig. 7.33. Tunnel diode loading.
Parallel Loading:
In case of parallel conduction of load, as V is the voltage appearing across the load, power
dissipated across the load
V2
PL = ...(7.17)
RL
One part of the load power is amplified power of the tunnel diode and if A is the gain of
the tunnel diode amplifier
V2
Pin = ...(7.18)
AR L
Other part of the load power is generated by the negative resistance (Rj) of the device and
is given by
V2
P = ...(7.19)
Rj
Thus combine equations (7.17), (7.18) and (7.19), we get
V2 V2 V2
+ =
AR L Rj RL
and thus gain of the tunnel diode amplifier is

Rj
A = ...(7.20)
R j − RL
When the negative resistance Rj of the tunnel diode approaches the load resistance RL, the
gain A approaches infinity and the system goes into oscillation.
Series Loading:
On the other hand in case of series loading the same way one can calculate the gain of the
amplifier as [PL = P − Pin]
V2 V2 V2
− =
Rj AR j RL
1 1 1
− =
R j RL AR j
RL − R j 1
=
R jR L AR j
RL
A = ...(7.21)
RL − R j
In tunnel diode amplifier, bandpass filter serves a dual purpose as a bandwidth selector and
an impedance matching device.
Rj
Ø For parallel loading, tuning amplifier is A =
R j − RL
RL
Ø For series loading, tunnel amplifier gain is A =
RL − R j
3. Tunnel Diode Frequency Converters and Mixers

Tunnel diodes make excellent mixers and frequency converters because their current voltage
characteristic are highly non-linear. While other types of frequency converters usually have a
conversion power loss, tunnel diode converters can actually have a conversion power gain. A single
tunnel diode can also be designed to act as both the non-linear element in a converter and as the
negative-resistance element in a local oscillator at the same time.
Practical tunnel diode frequency converters usually have either a unity conversion gain or a
small conversion loss. Conversion gains as high as 20 dB are possible if the tunnel diode is biased
near or into the negative-resistance region. Although high gain is useful in some applications, it
presents problems in stability. For example, the gretaly increased sensitivity to variations in input
impedance can cause high-gain converters to be unstable unless they are protected by isolation
circuitry. As with tunnel diode amplifiers, low-noise generation is one of the more attractive
characteristics of tunnel diode frequency converters. Low-noise generation is a primary concern in
the design of today’s extremely sensitive communications and radar receivers. This is one reason
tunnel diode circuits are finding increasingly wide application in these fields.
4. Tunnel Diode Switch

Tunnel diode can be used as high-speed switch. Since
tunnelling takes place at the speed of light, the
transient response is limited only by total shunt
capacitance, and peak driving current switch time is
of the order of a nanosecond but minimum switching
time is as low as 50 pico second.
Fig. 7.34. Tunnel diodes.
Ø Because of thin junction and short transit time, tunnel diode is also useful for fast
switching.
Photograph of tunnel diode is shown in Fig. 7.34.
7.4.5 Advantages of Tunnel Diode

Several advantages of tunnel diodes are:
1. Tunnel diodes have less weight, high speed, low noise and low cost.
2. Require very simple DC power supply.
3. Low-noise figure less than (5 dB at 10 GHz) due to low current levels.
4. Broadband operation is possible.
5. Immune to the natural radiation in the solar system and suitable for space communication.
6. Wide range of tuning either mechanical or electrical is possible.
7. For low power applications, tunnel diode replace the reflex klystron.
7.4.6 Disadvantages of Tunnel Diode

The tunnel diode is rarely used these days and this results from its disadvantages:
1. Tunnel diode have low tunnelling current and this means that they are low power device.
2. When tunnel diodes are used in oscillators as further amplification is needed and this can
only be undertaken by devices that have a higher power capability, i.e., not tunnel diodes.
3. There are problems with the reproductivity of the tunnel diodes resulting in low yields and
therefore higher production cost.
7.4.7 Comparison between Tunnel Diode and Normal p-n Junction

The comparison between tunnel diode and normal p-n junction is given in Table 7.1
Table 7.1. Comparison between tunnel diode and p-n junction.
Tunnel diode Normal p-n junction
1. Doping levels at p and n sides are very high. 1. Doping is normal in both p and n sides.
2. Tunnelling current consists of a majority 2. Current consist of minority carriers holes from
carriers-electrons from n-side to the p-side. p-side to the n-side.
3. Majority carrier current responds much faster 3. Majority carrier current does not responds so
to voltage changes-suitable to microwave. fast to voltage change-suitable for low frequency
applications only.
4. At a small value of reverse voltage a large 4. Current is extremely small (leakage current) up
current flows due to considerable overlap to considerable reverse bias voltage and then
between conduction band and valance band- increases abruptly to extremely high at particular
useful as frequency converter. voltage called breakdown voltage.
5. Low power device. 5. Lower power device.
6. Shows negative resistance characteristics- 6. Does not show negative resistance characteristics-
useful for reflection amplifiers and oscillators. used as detector and mixers.
7. It is low noise device. 7. Moderate noise characteristics.
8. Preferred semiconductor are Ge and GaAs. 8. Preferred semiconductor are Ge and Si.
Example 7.3. A tunnel diode amplifier has the negative resistance of 26 Ω. Now a load
of 24 Ω is to be connected to draw the amplified output. Suggest whether the load is to be
connected in series or in parallel to make the gain maximum.
Solution. For the parallel connected load, the expression for gain, for equation (7.20) is
Rj 26
A = =
R j − RL 26 − 24
A = 13
For a series connected load, the gain (A), from equation (7.21) can be written as
RL 24
A = = = − 12
RL − R j 24 − 26
Therefore, |A| = 12
Thus, the gain will be more when the load is connected in parallel.
Example 7.4. A tunnel diode has the following parameters:

Negative resistance = 26 Ω
Series resistance = 1 Ω
Junction capacitance = 5 pF
Series inductance = 1 mH
Calculate the resistive and reactive cut-off frequencies.
Solution. From equation (7.15), the resistive cut-off frequency
1 Rj
fc = −1
2π R j C j Rs
1 26
fc = −12
−1
2 × 314
. × 26 × 5 × 10 1
fc = 6.12 GHz
Again from equation (7.16), the reactive cut-off frequencies
1 R 2j C j
fr = −1
2πR j C j Ls
1 26 × 26 × 5 × 10 −12
fr = −12
−1
2 × 314
. × 26 × 5 × 10 1 × 10 −3
fr = 2.0 GHz
7.5 TRANSFERRED ELECTRON DEVICES (GUNN DIODE)

(MDU 2009; UPTU 2004, 2007)
Transferred electron devices (TED’s) are bulk semiconductor devices having no junction, or gates
as compared to microwave transistors which operate with either junction or gates. TED’s are
fabricated from compound semiconductor such as GaAs (gallium arsenide), InP (indium phosphide),
and CdTe (cadmium telluride) as against Ge or Si of transistor. Of these compound semiconductor,
GaAs is most commonly used. TED’s operate with hot electrons whose energy is very much
greater than the thermal energy. Transistors operate with warm electrons whose energy is not
much greater than their thermal energy (0.026 eV at room temperature). Gunn diode is an
example of TED’s and Gunn diode also exhibit negative resistance region.
Gunn Effect
J.B. Gunn observed the Gunn effect in the bulk n-type GaAs in 1963. He observed that, above
some critical voltage (2-4 kV/cm), the current in the specimen become a fluctuating function of
time. Then negative resistance will manifest itself under certain conditions. Oscillations will occur
if the GaAs specimen is connected to a suitable tuned circuit. It is seen that the voltage across the
GaAs is very high and electron velocity is also high, so that oscillations will occur at microwave
frequencies. Operating principle of Gunn diode can be explained on the basis of two valley theory
of Ridely Watkings Hilsum (RWH) theory or the transferred electron mechanism.
Transferred electron devices are bulk devices fabricated from GaAs or InP.
TED’s are bulk semiconductor device having no junction.
7.5.1 Two Valley Theory (RWH Theory) (UPTU 2010, 2005, 2006)
Some materials such as n-type GaAs show two valleys in the conduction band as shown in
Fig. 7.35. In the two-valley model, however, there are two regions in the conduction band in which
charge carriers (electrons) can exist. These regions are called valleys and are designated the upper
valley and lower valley. According to the RWH theory, electrons in the lower valley have low
effective mass (0.068) and consequently a high mobility (8000 cm2/V-s). In the upper valley, which
is separated from lower valley by potential of 0.36 eV, electrons have a much higher effective mass
(1.2) and lower mobility (180 cm2/V-s) than in the lower valley.
Basic mechanism involved in the operation of bulk n-type GaAs devices is the transfer of
electrons from lower conduction valley to the upper conduction valley. Electron density thus in
lower valley and upper valley remain the same under equilibrium conduction.
E L ow e r e ffective
m ass an d
h ig he r m ob ility U p pe r valle y
H ig h er effe ctive
e– m ass an d lo w er
n s fe r m ob ility
y tr a
v a lle
In te r
e–
L ow e r
valle y 0 .36 e V
E n eg ry le vel (eV )
C o nd uction b an d
B a nd g ap
1 .43 e V
Valen ce b an d
K
M om e ntu m (K )
Fig. 7.35. Two valley model.
When E < El
When the applied electric field is lower than the electric field of the lower valley (E < El), then
electrons will occupy states in the lower valley as shown in Fig. 7.36 (a). Thus the material is in
the highest average velocity state (electron in lower valley has high mobility) and drift velocity
increases linearly with increasing potential. Thus increasing the current density J and hence positive
differential resistance (ohmic region).
Ø RWH theory is based on population inversion principle.
When El < E < Eu

As the applied field is increased (2–4 kV/cm) higher than that of the lower valley and lower than
that of the upper valley (El < E < Eu), electrons will gain energy from it and move upward to upper
valley as shown in Fig. 7.36 (b). As the electrons transfer to the upper valley, their mobility
decreases and the effective mass is increased thus decreasing the current density J and hence
negative differential resistivity.
E E E
K K K
O O O
(a ) E < E l (b ) E l < E < E u (c) E > E u
Fig. 7.36. Transfer of electron densities.
When E > Eu
When the applied field is higher than that of the upper valley (E > Eu), all electrons will transfer
to the upper valley as shown in Fig. 7.36 (c).
If electron densities in the lower and upper valley are n1 and nu, the conductivity of the
n-type GaAs is
σ = e (µlnl + µunu) ...(7.22)
where, e = Electron charge.
µ = Electron mobility.
n = Electron density.
Once the electron are in higher valley, they remain there as long as the field is greater than
the critical value. In equation (7.22) mobility µ and electron density n both are function of electric
field E. So differentiating equation with respect to E, we get
dσ
= e µl
dnl FG
+ µu
dnu
+ e nl
dµ l
+ nu
dµ uIJ FG IJ ...(7.23)
dE dE H dE dE dE K H K
If total electron density n = nu + nl , then
d dn
cn + nu
dE l
h =
dE
= 0, Since n is constant
− dnu
dnl
or = ...(7.24)
dE dE
Also, let µl and µu are proportional to EP, where P is constant, then
dµ dE P P
∝ = PE P − 1 = PE
dE dE E
dµ Pµ
= [ µ ∝ EP] ...(7.25)
dE E
On substituting equations (7.24) and (7.25) in equation (7.23)
dσ dn1 P
dE
= e µl − µ u
dE
c
+ nl µ l + nuµ u h
E
c h ...(7.26)
As current density is J = σE
On differentiating w.r.t. E, we get
dJ dσ
= σ+ E
dE dE
1 dJ dσ dE
or = 1+ ...(7.27)
σ dE σ E
For negative resistance the current density should decrease with increase in field E. This can
be done by making dJ/dE negative. From equation (7.27) dJ/dE can be made negative when
dσ dE
− > 1 ...(7.28)
σ E
Equation (7.28) is the condition for negative resistance, we can write equation (7.26) as
dσ dn1 σP
dE
= e µl − µ n
dE
+
E
c h ...(7.29)
−E LM Fdµl σP IJ OP
σ MN GH
e µl − µ n
dE
+
E K PQ > 1
c
− Ee µl − µ n dnl
−P > 1
h
σ dE
Substituting σ from equation (7.22), we get
c
− E e µ l − µ n dni h −P > 1 ...(7.30)
c
e µ lnl + µ unu d E h
nu
Let = f , a constant then equation (7.30) become
nl
LMF µ − µ I F − E dn I − POP
l n l
MNGH µ + µ f JK GH n dE JK PQ
l u l
> 1 ...(7.31)
From the above equation, we conclude that for negative resistivity

(a) P is function of the scattering mechanism and should be negative and large.
F µ −µ I
(b) GH µ − fµ JK
l
l u
µ
should be negative.
dnl
(c) should be negative.
dE
(d) Electron must be transferred from lower valley to upper valley when they are excited by
electric field.
All these properties for exhibiting negative resistance are not shown by two most useful
semiconductor material such as Si and Ge.
Ø *For GaAs, critical voltage is 3.2 kV/cm.

Ø Gunn diode operate with hot electrons having more thermal energy.
Ø Two valley model theory is also known as Ridely Watkings Hilsum (RWH) theory.
Ø µ lnl + µunu).
The conductivity of the n-type GaAs is σ = e (µ
7.5.2 Characteristics of Gunn Diode (UPTU 2005)

Some bulk semiconductor materials like GaAs, InP satisfy the all conditions, given in the previous
section, to exhibit negative resistance. Figure 7.37 shows the curve between current density (J) and
applied electric field (E).
O rig in a l b ulk
re sista nce va lue
C urre n t d en sity J
J th
Jv
O E th Ev Eu
E lectric fie ld E
Fig. 7.37. J vs E characteristic of Gunn diode.
7.5.3 Construction of Gunn Diode

The basic structure of a Gunn diode is shown in Fig. 7.38, M eta l
which consists of n-type GaAs semiconductor with region e lectro d e
of high doping (n+). Although there is no junction this is
called a diode with reference to the positive end (anode) n+
X=L
and negative end (cathode) of the DC voltage applied
across the device. Gunn diodes are grown expitaxial out A ctive
n L
re gion
of GaAs or InP doped with silicon, tellurium or selenium.
The substrate, used here as an ohmic contact is highly
X=O
doped (n+) for good conductivity, while the thin active n+
layer is less heavily doped. The gold alloy contacts are
electrodeposited and used for good ohmic contact and
heat transfer.
M eta l
7.5.4 Equivalent Circuit of Gunn Diode e lectro d e
a nd m ou nting
The electrical equivalent circuit of a Gunn diode is shown p ed estal
in Fig. 7.39, where Fig. 7.38. Structure of Gunn diode.
Cj = Diode capacitance
− Rj = Diode resistance
Rs = Includes the total resistance of lead, ohmic contacts, and bulk resistance of
the diode
Cp = Package capacitance
Lp = Package inductance
–Rj
Cj Rs
Cp
Lp
Fig. 7.39. Equivalent circuit of Gunn diode.
The negative resistance (−Rj) has a value that typically lies in the range −5 to −20 ohm.
Ø − Rj) has a value lies in range −5 to − 20 Ω .

The negative resistance (−
7.5.5 Domain Formation in Gunn Diode

We have learnt that negative differential resistance occurs by applying electric field of a certain
value to multi-valley semiconductor compounds such as n-type GaAs. We can, also demonstrate
that a decrease in drift velocity by increasing electric field leads into the formation of a high field
domain for microwave generation and amplification.
In the n-type GaAs diode, the majority carriers are electrons. At low voltage, GaAs is ohmic.
Since the drift velocity of the electrons is proportional to the electric field, the conduction current
density in the diode is given by
σV
J = σE x = x = ρvx ...(7.32)
L
where, J = Current density
σ = Conductivity
Ex = Electric field in the x-direction
L = Length of the diode
V = Applied voltage
ρ = Charge density
v = Drift velocity of space charge region
x = Unit vector.
The current is carried by the free electrons that drift through a background of fixed positive
charge. The domain formation can be explained by the J versus E plot shown in Fig. 7.40 (a).
It is assumed that at point A in the J-E plot of Fig. 7.40 (b) there exists an excess (accumulation)
of negative charge that could be due to a random noise fluctuation or because of an non-uniformity
in doping in the GaAs sample. An electric field is created by these excess charges as shown in
Fig. 7.40 (c). The field on both the sides of the point A is lower than that at point A. If the diode
is biased at point EA on the J-E curve, this situation implies that charge (current) flowing into
point A is greater than that flowing out of point A, thereby increasing these space charge accumulation.
This process continues until the low and high fields reach values outside the differential negative
resistance region and settle at points 1 and 2 as in Fig. 7.40 (a). This pure accumulation layer is
the simplest form of space charge instability. When positive and negative charges are separated
by a small distance, a dipole domain is formed as shown in Fig. 7.41.
1 2
A
– +
0
E1 EA E2 E L
(a) (b)
Dn
0 x
L
E (c)
0 x
A L
(d)
Fig. 7.40. Formation of an electron accumulation layer in GaAs.

The electric field inside the domain will be greater than the field on either side of the dipole
in Fig. 7.41 (c). Because of the negative differential resistance, the current in the region of low field
will be greater than that in the high field region. The two field values tend towards the equilibrium
condition outside the negative differential resistance region where the low and high field currents
become equal just as in the case of the negative charge domain. This high field domain disappears
at the anode. A new dipole field starts forming at the cathode, and the process is repeated.
Dn
Dipole
– +
– – +
– + + 0 x
– + L
L d
(a) (b)
v
E2
E1
0 x 0 x
d L d L
(c) (d)
Fig. 7.41. Formation of an electron dipole layer in GaAs.
In general, the high field domain has the following properties:

1. A domain begins to form whenever the electric field in a region of sample increases above
the threshold electric field. The electrons jump into the upper valley of Fig. 7.35 and their
speed decreases drastically. Electrons slowed down by the large electric field tend to bunch
together. The resulting concentration of charge carriers further increases the local field,
and a high intensity field domain is formed which moves at the speed of the electrons in
the upper valley. The domain then drifts through the device. When the electric field
increases, the electron drift velocity decreases and the diode exhibits negative resistance.
2. In addition, if voltage is applied to a device containing a domain, the domain increase in
size and absorbs more voltage than was added, and the current decreases.
3. If now the voltage decreases below the threshold, the domain disappears even before
reaching the anode.
4. The domain length is generally inversely proportional to the level of doping. Hence,
devices with the same doping multiplied by length behave in a similar way in terms of
frequency multiplied by length, i.e., n × L = f × L.
Ø In Gunn diode, decrease in drift velocity by increasing electric field leads into
formation of a high field domain for microwave generation and amplification.
Ø The domain length is generally inversely proportional to the level of doping.
7.5.6 Modes of Operation (MDU 2009; UPTU 2006)

The formation of a strong space charge instability depends on the condition that enough charge
is available in the crystal and the device is long enough so that a space charge of required strength
can be built up within the transit time of the electrons. In Gunn diode, there are four basic modes
of operation for uniformly doped bulk diodes with low resistance contacts.
According to material parameters and operating conditions. Gunn diode can be used in four
basic modes.
1. Gunn oscillation mode
2. Stable amplification mode
3. Limited space charge accumulation (LSA) mode
4. Bias-circuit oscillation mode.
1. Gunn oscillation mode: This mode is defined in the region where the product of
frequency multiplied by length is about 107 cm/s and the product of doping multiplied by
length is greater than 1012 cm2.
2. Stable amplification mode: This mode is defined in the region where the product of
frequency times length is about 107 cm/s and the product of doping times length is
between 1011 and 1012 cm2.
3. LSA oscillation mode: This node is defined in the region where the product of frequency
times length is above 107 cm/s and the quotient of doping divided by frequency is between
2 × 104 and 2 × 105.
4. Bias-circuit oscillation mode: This mode occurs only when there is either Gunn or LSA
oscillation, and it is usually at the region where the product of the frequency time length
is too small.
7.5.7 Criterion for Classifying the Mode

We have seen that due to negative resistance property there is accumulation of charge in diode.
During early stages of accumulation, the time rate of growth of the space charge layers is given
by
b
Q(x, t) = Q x − vt, 0 exp g FtI
GH τ JK
d
...(7.33)
ε ε
where τd = = ...(7.34)
σ en0 µ n
τd is magnitude of negative dielectric relaxation time.
ε = Semiconductor dielectric permittivity
n0 = Doping concentration
µn = Negative mobility
e = Electron charge
σ = Conductivity.
Domain starts to form near cathode and travels to anode. Equation (7.33) can be best
explained by Fig. 7.42.
C a tho d e Q (x – vt, 0 ) A (x, t) A n od e
t=0
x=0
x t
nt
Fig. 7.42. Space charge accumulation with a velocity of v.

During the travelling of domain it grows. The growth factor is given as
G =
b
Q L, L v g ...(7.35)
Q 0, 0b g
L F I
G = exp vτ GH JK
d
[Since t = L/v]
exp G
F Ln e µ I
H εv JK
0 n
G =
G should be greater than unity for large space charge growth.

Ø For n-type GaAs diode the criteria for classifying the modes of operation is
εv
n 0L > .
e µn
Thus, Ln0e|µn| > εv

εv
So n0L > ...(7.36)
e µn
This is the criterion for classifying the mode of operation for Gunn diodes.
7.5.8 Gunn Oscillator Mode

The characteristic of a Gunn generator depends on the semiconductor material, it also depends on
the microwave circuit to which it is connected, which may affect the operation of the device to a
small or large extent. Hence, a large number of modes of operation exist.
In the Gunn oscillation mode, the range of n0L is given by 1012/cm2 < (n0L) < 1014/cm2.
When n0L > 1012/cm2 in GaAs, the space charge perturbations in the specimen increase exponentially
in space and time, as given by equation (7.33). A high field domain is formed and moves from the
cathode to anode. The frequency of the oscillations is given by
v dom
f =
L eff
where vdom is the velocity of the electron in the domain and Leff is the effective length that the
domain travels from the time it is formed till the time a new domain starts forming.
Ø Gunn oscillator mode is also known as transit-time mode.

Ø For Gunn diode oscillation mode,
n0L > 1012/cm2
Gunn considered several circuit configurations for v

describing the behaviour of oscillations in GaAs devices.
D rift velo city, v(cm /s)
When the circuit is mainly resistive or the voltage across

the diode is constant, the period of oscillation is described 7
as the time required for the domain to drift from the v s = 1 0 cm /s
cathode to the anode. This mode is not usually used in vs

microwave oscillations. For this mode, fL = 107 cm/s
and n0L = 1012/cm2. Negative conductivity devices are
0
usually operated in resonant circuits, such as high Q
E s E th E
resonant microwave cavities. When the diode is in a
Fig. 7.43. Electron drift velocity versus
resonant circuit, the frequency can be tuned to a range
electric field.
of about an octave without loss of the efficiency.
In the normal Gunn domain mode, the high field domain drifts along the diode from the
cathode to the anode and the electric field is greater than the threshold value Eth. If the low field
value drops below the sustaining field Es as shown in Fig. 7.43, the drift of the high field domain
ends. The substaining drift velocity vs for GaAs is about 107 cm/s. Since the electron drift velocity
vd varies with the electric field, there are three possible domain modes for the Gunn oscillation
mode.
The Gunn oscillator mode the device is unstable. Higher oscillator frequency can be obtained
when the device is operated with a high Q cavity resonator.
Transit Time Gunn Domain Mode:

In this mode, fL ≅ 107 cm/s. When the electron drift velocity vd is equal to the sustaining
velocity vs the high field domain is stable. The electron drift velocity vd is therefore given by
vd = vs = fL = 107 cm/s ...[7.36(a)]
In this case, the period of oscillation τ0 is equal to the transit time τt that is, τ0 = τt.
Figure 7.44 (a) illustrates this situation. Here, the efficiency is below 10% because the current is
collected only when the domain arrives at the anode. The value of n0L for this mode is 1012/cm2.
The resonant frequency of the resonant circuit is equal to the transit time frequency for this mode.
This mode is the one observed by Gunn in his original experiments.
Delayed Domain Mode:

If the time period τ0 of the signal in the resonant circuit is greater than the transit time τt,
the domain (for E < Eth) is collected early in the negative half cycle of the voltage as shown in
Fig. 7.44 (b). The new domain cannot form until the field rises again above the threshold field Eth.
This mechanism increases the efficiency and is called the delayed domain mode or inhibited mode.
For this mode fL lies between 106–107 cm/s (106 cm/s < fL < 107 cm/s), and τ0 > τt. The
efficiency of the device is around 20%. This mode is advantageous because unlike the natural Gunn
mode or the transit time mode, the frequency of oscillation can be varied by the resonant circuit
and it can he tuned over a frequency band up to one octave.
Quenched Domain Mode:

In this mode, the DC bias field E falls below the sustaining field Es during the negative half cycle.
The domain collapses before it reaches the anode. A second domain is initiated only when the bias
field goes above Eth and then the process is repeated. This is called the quenched domain mode.
In this case τ0 < τ1, and the frequency of oscillation can be several times the transit time frequency.
For this mode, fL > 2 × 107 cm/s and the efficiency is up to 13%. The mode is tunable over a
broad frequency range.
7.5.9 Limited Space-Charge Accumulation

When the microwave signal frequency and amplitude are very high, the domains do not have
enough time to form while the field is above threshold. In this case, most of the sample lengths
are maintained in the negative conductance state during a large fraction of the voltage cycle. Any
accumulation of electrons near the cathode has enough time to collapse while the signal is below
the threshold. This mode is called the limited space-charge accumulation (LSA) mode and it is the
simplest mode of operation. It consists of a uniformly doped semiconductor without any internal
space-charge. The internal electric field is uniform and proportional to the applied voltage. The
current in the device is proportional to the drift velocity at this field level. The efficiency of the
device reaches a maximum of about 20%.
The LSA mode requires that the period τ0 of the resonant circuit is not more than a few times
the dielectric relaxation time τd in the negative conductance region, but should be much larger than
τd for the low conductance region so that any accumulation of electrons will collapse signal is below
threshold. This mode is shown in Fig. 7.44 (d) in which τ0 = 3τd. For n-type GaAs, the product of
doping and length (n0L) is about 1012/cm2. At the low frequency limit, the drift velocity is taken
to be
v1 = fL = 5 × 106 cm/s ...(7.37)
v
(a ) Tran sit-tim e m o de D C b ia s
t0 = tt
E th
Es
0 t
tt
v
(b ) D e la ye d m o d e D C b ia s
t0 > tt
E th
Es
0 t
tt
v
(c) Q u en ch e d m o de D C b ia s
t0 < tt
E th
Es
0 t
tt
v
(d ) L S A m o de D C b ia s
t0 < tt
t0 = 3 tt E th
Es
0 t
tt
Fig. 7.44. Gunn domain modes.

The ratio of n0L to fL yields
n0
= 2 × 105 ...(7.38)
f
At the upper frequency limit, it is assumed that the drift velocity is
v1 = fL = 5 × 107 cm/s
Therefore, the ratio of n0L to fL is found to be
n0
= 2 × 104 ...(7.39)
f
7.5.10 Stable Amplification Mode (n0L < 1012/cm2)

When the n0L product of the device is less than about 1012/cm2, the device exhibits amplification
at the transit time frequency rather than spontaneous oscillation. This is possible because the
negative conductance is utilized without domain formation. Generally, there are too few electrons
for domain formation within the transit time. Therefore, the amplification of signals near the transit
time frequency can be accomplished.
7.5.11 Gunn Diode Oscillator

A Gunn diode oscillator can be designed by mounting the diode inside a waveguide cavity formed
by a short-circuit termination at one end and by an iris at other end as shown in Fig. 7.45. The
diode is mounted at the centre perpendicular to the broad wall where the electric field component
is maximum under the dominant TE10 mode. The intrinsic frequency f0 of the oscillation depends
on the electron drift velocity vd due to high field domain through the effective length L
vd
f0 = ...(7.40)
L
W a ve g uid e
Tu ning scre w
G un n diod e
M eta l p ost
S h ort
Iris
D C b ia sin g
Fig. 7.45. Gunn diode oscillator circuit.

For GaAs, vd = 107 cm/s
Normally, the cavity is tuned to resonate at the intrinsic frequency f0 by adjusting the short
position. A tuning screw is inserted perpendicularly at the centre of the broad wall for fine
frequency tuning.
The cavity has an impedance transforming property between the high impedance of the
output waveguide and the required low value for the Gunn diode. The Gunn diode is placed on
a metal post. The top of the post is insulated from the waveguide to form RF bypass capacitor
and DC bias voltage is applied to the post. The degree of coupling to the external waveguide is
adjusted by selecting the inductive iris dimension.
The power output of the Gunn diode is limited by the difficulty of the heat dissipation from
the small chip. The advantages of Gunn diode are small size, ruggedness, and low cost.
7.5.12 Disadvantages of Gunn Diode

Gunn diode is very much temperature dependent i.e., a frequency shift of 0.5 to 3 MHz per °C.
By proper design this frequency shift can be reduced to 50 kHz for a range of − 40°C to 70°C.
Other disadvantages of Gunn diode is, the power output of the Gunn diode is limited by difficulty
of heat dissipation from the small chip.
Ø Gunn diode is very much temperature dependent.
7.5.13 Applications of Gunn Diode (UPTU 2006)

Gunn diode can be used as an amplifier and as an oscillator. The applications of Gunn diode are
1. In broadband linear amplifier.
2. In radar transmitters.
3. Used in transponders for air traffic control.
4. In fast combinational and sequential logic circuit.
5. In low and medium power oscillators in microwave receivers.
7.5.14 Comparison Between Microwave Transistors and TED’s

(MDU 2008)
The comparison between microwave transistors and TED’s is given in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2. Comparison between microwave transistor and TED’s.
Microwave transistors TED’s
1. Operate with junction or gates. 1. Operate with bulk devices having no junctions
and gates.
2. Fabricated from elemental semiconductors such 2. Fabricated from compound GaAs, CdTe or InP.
as Si or Ge.
3. Operate with warm electrons whose energy is 3. Operate with hot electrons whose energy is very
not much greater than their thermal energy much greater than the thermal energy.
(0.026 eV at room temperature).
Example 7.5. The drift velocity of electron is 2 × 107 cm/s, through the active region
of length 10 × 10−4 cm. Calculate the natural frequency of the diode and the critical voltage.
Solution. From equation (7.40), the natural frequency
vd 2 × 107
f0 = =
L 10 × 10−4
f0 = 20 GHz
The critical voltage V = L × critical field for GaAs.
We know that critical field for GaAs is 3.2 kV/cm.
Thus, V = L × 3.2 × 103 = 10 × 10−4 × 3.2 × 103
V = 3.2 Volts.
Example 7.6. An n-type GaAs Gunn diode has

Electron velocity vd = 3 × 105 m/s
Negative electron mobility |µn| = 0.16 m2/Vs
Determine the criterion for classifying the modes of operation. (RU-2004)
Solution. From equation (7.36), the criterion is
εvd ε 0 ε r vd
n0L > =
e µn e µn
8.854 × 10−12 × 129

. × 3 × 105
n0L >
. × 10−19 × 0.016
16
n0L > 1.34 × 1016/m2
n0L > 1.34 × 1012/cm2
This means that the product of doping concentration and device length must be
n0L = 1.34 × 1012/cm2
Example 7.7. Determine conductivity of an n-type GaAs Gunn diode if

Electron density n = 1016 cm−3
Electron density at lower valley nl = 1010 cm−3
Electron density at upper valley nu = 108 cm−3
Temperature T = 400 K
Solution. From equation (7.22), the conductivity is
σ = e (µlnl + µunu)
Given nl = 1010 cm−3 = 1016 m−3
nu = 108 cm−3 = 1014 m−3
and we know that, for GaAs
Mobility in lower valley µl = 8000 cm2/Vs
= 0.8 m2/Vs
Mobility in upper valley µu = 180 cm2/Vs
= 0.018 m2/Vs
The conductivity σ is σ = 1.6 × 10−19 (0.8 × 1016 + 0.018 × 1014)
For nl >> nu σ = 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.8 × 1016
σ = 1.28 × 10− 3 mho
Example 7.8. A n-type GaAs Gunn diode has

Threshold field Eth = 2600 V/cm
Applied field E = 3200 V/cm
Device length L = 9 µm
Doping concentration n0 = 1.8 × 1014 cm−3
Determine:
(a) Electron drift velocity
(b) Current density
(c) Negative electron mobility.
Solution.
(a) The drift velocity is given by
vd = fL = 11 × 109 × 9 × 10−6
vd = 99 × 103 m/sec
(b) The current density J is given by
J = qn vd = 1.6 × 10−19 × 1.8 × 1020 × 99 × 103
J = 3.38 × 106 A/m2
(c) The negative electron mobility is
vd 99 × 103
µn = =
E 3200 × 102
µn = 0.206 m2/Vs.
Example 7.9. In Gunn diode’s transit domain mode, the domain velocity is equal to the
carrier drift velocity and is about 107 cm/sec. Determine the drift length of a diode at a
frequency of 8 GHz.
Solution. The drift length of diode is
vd 107
L = =
f 8 × 109
L = 1.25 × 10− 3 cm
Example 7.10. Calculate the dielectric relaxation time of GaAs Gunn diode has the
following parameter:
Relative dielectric constant ε r = 13
Doping concentration n0 = 1015 cm−3
Mobility µn = 8500 cm2/Vs.
Solution. From equation (7.34), the dielectric relaxation time is
ε ε0ε r
τd = =
en0 µ n en0 µ n
8.854 × 10−12 × 13
τd = −19
. × 10
16 × 1015 × 106 × 8500 × 10 −4
τd = 0.84 × 10−12 sec
τ d = 0.84 p sec
7.6 AVALANCHE TRANSIT TIME DEVICES
In 1958, Read at Bell Telephone Laboratories proposed that the delay between voltage and
current in an avalanche, together with transit time through the material, could make a microwave
diode exhibit negative resistance such devices are called Avalanche transit time devices. Different
devices belonging to this family can be distinguished from one another on the basis of the mechanism
used for generation of charge carriers.
The prominent members of this family include the IMPATT and TRAPATT diode.
1. IMPATT (Impact Ionization Avalanche Transit Time) diode as the name suggests,
utilizes impact ionization for carrier generation.
2. TAPATT (Trapped Plasma Avalanche Triggered Transit Time) diode is derived from
the IMPATT with some modifications in the doping profiles so as to achieve higher pulsed
microwave powers at better efficiency values.
7.7 IMPATT DIODE (MDU 2004; UPTU 2005, 2007, 2009, 2010)
The IMPATT diode or IMPact Avalanche Transit time diode is an RF semiconductor device that is
used for generating microwave radio frequency signal, with the ability to operate at frequencies
between about 3 to 100 GHz or more, one of the main advantages is the relatively high power
capability of the IMPATT diode.
7.7.1 IMPATT Structures

There is a variety of structures that are used for the IMPATT diode like p+nin+ or n+pip+ read
device, p+nn+, and p+in+ diode, all are variations of a basic pn junction. Figure 7.46 shows the
various structure of the IMPATT diode along with their doping profiles. Such diode can be
manufactured from Ge, Si, GaAs or InP. However, GaAs provides the highest efficiency, the highest
operating frequency and least noise figure. But the fabrication process is more difficult and is more
expensive than Si. IMPATT diode consists of high doping avalanching region and drift region.
Ø IMPATT diode is semiconductor device which generate microwave signal from 3 to

100 GHz.
Ø In IMPATT diode, negative resistance effect phenomenon is taken into account.
+ +
p n n
26
10
D o ping
22
con ce n tratio n 10
p er cu bic
m etre
0 1 2 3 mm
(a ) A b ru pt ju nction
+ +
p p n n
26
10
D o ping
22
con ce n tratio n 10
p er cu bic
m etre
0 1 2 3 mm
(b ) L in ea rly g rad ed jun ctio n
+ +
p i n
26
D o ping 10
con ce n tratio n
p er cu bic
m etre
0 1 2 3 mm
+ +
(c) p in type IM PATT d io de s
Fig. 7.46
7.7.2 Operation of IMPATT

Any device which exhibits negative resistance for DC will also exhibit negative resistance for AC.
If an alternating voltage is applied, current will rise when voltage falls, at an AC rate. We may now
redefine negative resistance as that property of a device which causes the current through it to be
180° out of phase with the voltage across it. The point is important here, because this is the only
kind of negative resistance exhibited by the IMPATT diode. If we show voltage and current have
180° phase difference, then the negative resistance in IMPATT-diode is proved.
A cross-section of p+nn+ IMPATT diode structure is shown in Fig. 7.47. Note that it is a diode,
the junction being between p+ and then n layer.
An extremely high voltage gradient is applied in reverse bias to the IMPATT diode, of the
order of 400 kV/cm, eventually resulting in very high current. A normal diode would very quickly
breakdown under these conditions but IMPATT diode is constructed so as to be able to withstand
such condition repeatedly.
– – + + + + + + + +
– – + + + + + + + +
– – + + + + + + + +
– – + + + + + + + +
– – + + + + + + + +
– – + + + + + + + +
– – + + + + + + + +
– – + + + + + + + +
– – + + + + + + + +
– – + + + + + + + +
– – + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+
A n od e p n + C a tho d e
n
Jun ctio n D rift re gion
(a va la nch e reg io n )
– +
4 00 kV /cm R F vo lta ge
Fig. 7.47. IMPATT diode.
Such a high potential gradient, back-biasing the diode, causes a flow of minority carriers
across the junction. If it is now assumed that oscillations exist. Now we may consider the effect of
a positive swing of the RF voltage superimposed on top of the high DC voltage as shown in
Fig. 7.48.
V
D C vo ltag e (ava lan che th resh old)

D C ap plie d + R F volta g e
(a )
9 0° 9 0°
t
C u rren t p u lse
I m axim u m C u rren t p u lse
w h en V = 0 a t catho de
w h en V = – V m a x
C urre nt p ulse
C u rren t
(b ) p ulse
d rifts to
cath o de
t
(a) Applied and RF voltage
(b) Resulting current pulse and its drift across diode
Fig. 7.48. IMPATT diode behaviour.
Electron and hole velocity has now become so high that these carriers form additional holes
and electrons by knocking them out of the crystal structure, by so-called impact ionization. These
additional carriers continue the process at the junction, and it now snowballs into an avalanche. If
the original DC field was just at the threshold of allowing this situation to develop, this voltage will
be exceeded during the whole of the positive RF cycle, and avalanche current, multiplication will
be take place during entire time. Since it is a multiplication process, avalanche is not
instantaneous.
Ø Impact multiplication avalanche effect, which causes the hole current to lag the
microwave output voltage by 90°.
As shown in Fig. 7.48, this process takes a time such that the current pulse maximum, at
the junction, occurs at the instant when the RF voltage across the diode is zero and going negative.
A 90° phase difference between voltage and current has been obtained.
The current pulse in the IMPATT diode is situated at the junction (nn+). However, it does not
stay there. Because of the reverse bias, the current pulse moves towards the cathode at the drift
velocity dependent on the presence of the high DC field. The time taken by the current pulse to
reach the cathode depends on drift velocity and of course on the thickness of the highly doped (n+)
layer.
Ø The effect of transit time through the drift region, this result in the external current
lagging the microwave voltage by further 90°.
The thickness of drift space is adjusted such that time taken for current pulse to move from
V = 0 position to V = negative maximum of RF cycle. Corresponds to a further 90° phase
difference. Hence voltage and current are 180° out of phase and a dynamic RF negative resistance
has been proved to exist. When the electron moves across n+ regions an external current is seen,
and this occurs in peaks, resulting a repetitive waveform.
Since, the maximum negative resistance occurs at drift transit angle θ = ωτd = π, therefore,
the fundamental frequency of microwave oscillation f is given by
2πf τd = π
1
f =
2τ d
where is the drift time and is given by
l
τd =
vd
where, l is the length of drift space
vd is the drift velocity.
The operating frequency around the π-transit angle is
vd
f = ...(7.41)
2l
Note that the device thickness determines the transit time, to which the IMPATT diode is very
sensitive.
7.7.3 Materials and Construction

The IMPATT diode shown in Fig. 7.49 is a typical construction of commercial-diode for use below
about 50 GHz and could house either GaAs or Si chip. The construction is simple. However, a lot
of through and development has gone into its manufacture, particularly the contacts, which must
have extremely low ohmic and thermal resistance. Additionally, in a practical circuit, the IMPATT
diode is generally embedded in the wall of a cavity, which then acts as an external heat sink.
C o pp er n+
G o ld w ire
catho de n
p+
G o ld allo y co nta ct
E n la rge m en t o f active re gion
C e ram ic
C o pp er an od e
(to e xtern al
h ea t sin k)
Fig. 7.49. IMPATT construction.

IMPATT diode is generally embedded in the wall of a cavity, which acts as an external heat
sink.
7.7.4 Equivalent Circuit of IMPATT

A simplified equivalent circuit for IMPATT diode chip is shown in Fig. 7.50.
Lp
Rd
Cp
Cj
Fig. 7.50. Equivalent circuit of IMPATT diode.

Typically negative resistance varies between −0.7 Ω and −2 Ω, and capacitance ranges from
0.2 to 0.6 pF.
where Rd = Diode negative resistance consisting of the series lead resistance Rs and the negative
resistance − Rj due to impact avalanche process.
Cj = Junction capacitance.
Lp = Package lead inductance.
Cp = Package lead capacitance.
7.7.5 IMPATT Oscillator

Figure 7.51 shows a IMPATT diode oscillator with varactor electronic tuning. The IMPATT diode is
located at the end of the center conductor in a low-impedance coaxial resonator and a quarter
wave transformer is used to step up the impedance seen at its point of connection. Oscillations
occurs basically at the frequency at which the length of the coaxial resonator is a half-wave, but
this is influenced by the capacitance of the varactor diode. Varactor diode is used for tuning, with
its capacitance varied by a change in the applied bias.
l l
4 2
IM PATT d io de
C a vity re so na to r
D C b lo cking capa cito r
5 0 W coa xia l
re so na to r
Tra nsfo rm er E n d w all a nd

h ea t sin k
C o up ling an te nn a
Vara ctor diod e
+ 12 0 V D C
R F ch o ke s Vara ctor m ou nt
Fre q ue ncy ad ju st
In su la to r
C b yp as s
Fig. 7.51. IMPATT diode oscillator with varactor electronic tuning.

Because of their close dependence on transit time through the entire drift space, IMPATT
diode do not lends themselves tuning over nearly as wide a frequency range as Gunn diode.
7.7.6 Advantages of IMPATT Diode

IMPATT diodes are at present the most powerful solid-state microwave power sources. Some of the
major advantages of IMPATT diode are:
1. Higher operating range are obtain (up to 100 GHz).
2. Above about 20 GHz, the IMPATT diode produces a higher CW power output per unit
than any other semiconductor device.
Ø Higher operating range (up to 100 GHz) can be obtained from IMPATT diode.
7.7.7 Disadvantage of IMPATT Diode

The major disadvantages of IMPATT diode are:
1. Since DC power is drawn due to induced electron current in the external circuit, IMPATT
diode has low efficiency (RF power output/DC input power).
2. Tend to be noisy due primarily to the avalanche process and to the high level of operating
current. A typical noise figure is 30 dB which is worse than that of Gunn diode.
3. Tuning is difficult as compare to Gunn diode.
4. To run an IMPATT diode, a relatively high voltage is required.
7.7.8 Applications of IMPATT Diode

IMPATT diodes are used as microwave oscillators such as:
1. Used in final power stage of solid state microwave transmitter
for communication purpose.
2. Used in transmitter of TV system.
3. Used in FDM/TDM system.
4. Used in microwave source in laboratory for measurement
purpose. Fig. 7.52. IMPATT diode.
Photograph of a IMPATT diode is shown in Fig. 7.52.
7.7.9 Comparison Between Gunn Diode and IMPATT Diode

(UPTU 2004)
The comparison between Gunn diode and IMPATT diode is given by Table 7.3.
Table 7.3. Comparison between Gunn diode and IMPATT diode.
Gunn Diode IMPATT Diode
1. Gunn diodes used in oscillatiors, are capable 1. Broadband operation is not possible as compared
of broadband operation. to Gunn oscillator.
2. They posses much lower noise. 2. They posses more noise.
3. Power output is less. 3. More power output is obtained.
4. Efficiency is low. 4. Efficiency is high.
5. They can be used in pump oscillators. 5. They are not used in pump oscillators because
of noise problems.
6. Comparatively low voltage supply is required. 6. Higher voltage supply is required.
7. They are used for lower frequency operations. 7. They are used to higher frequency operations.
8. This is n+nn+ GaAs single crystal structure. 8. This is n+pip+ or p+nn+ structure.
Ø To run an IMPATT diode, a relatively high voltage is required.

Ø Tuning of IMPATT diode is difficult as compare to Gunn diode.
Example 7.11. An IMPATT DIODE has the following parameters:

Carrier drift velocity = 105 m/s
Length of the drift space = 5 µm
Calculate the frequency of oscillation produced.
Solution. Given
vd = 105 m/s
l = 5 × 10−6 m
The frequency of oscillation is given by
vd 105
f = = = 1010 Hz
2l 2 × 5 × 10−6
f = 10 GHz
Example 7.12. An IMPATT diode has a pulsed operating voltage of 120 V with a pulsed
operating current of 0.8 A. The efficiency is about 15%. Calculate:
(i) The output power
(ii) The duty cycle if the pulsed width is 0.01 ns and the frequency is 16 GHz.
Solution.
(i) The output power
Pout = η Pin = 0.15 × (120 × 0.8)
Pout = 14.4 W
(ii) The duty cycle = pulse duration/pulse repetition
τ
D = = τf
T
D = 0.01 × 10−9 × 16 × 109 = 0.16
Duty cycle (D) = 16%
Example 7.13. An IMPATT diode has a drift length of 22 µm and drift velocity of
105 m/s. Determine:
(i) The drift time of the carrier
(ii) Operating frequency of the IMPATT diode.
Solution.
(i) Drift time
l 2 × 10−6
τd = = = 20 × 10−11 sec
vd 105
= 200 pico second.
(ii) Operating frequency
vd 1
f = =
2l 2τ d
1
f = = 25 × 109
2 × 20 × 10 −12
f = 25 GHz
Example 7.14. An IMPATT diode with nominal frequency 10 GHz has Cj = 0.5 pF,
Lp = 0.5 nH and Cp = 0.3 pF at breakdown bias of 80 V and bias current 80 mA. The RF
peak current is 0.65 A for Rd = − 2 Ω. Find:
(i) The resonant frequency of oscillation
(ii) The efficiency.
Solution.
(i) From Fig. 7.46, the role of Cp in the circuit resonance is negligible. Therefore, the
resonant frequency is
1 1
f = = 12
2π C j L p 2π 0.5 × 10−12 × 0.5 × 10 −9
e j
103
f =
2π × 0.5
f = 10.06 GHz
(ii) The output power
1
PL =
2
b
RF Peak current g 2
× RL
1
2
2
× 0.65 × 2
PL = b g
PL = 0.4224 Watt
Average DC input power
PDC = Breakdown voltage × DC bias current
= 80 × 0.08 = 6.4 Watt
PL
Then efficiency η =
PDC
0.4225
η = = 0.0663
6.4
η = 6.63%
7.8 TRAPATT DIODE (MDU 2009; UPTU 2005, 2008, 2004)
The TRAPATT (Trapped Plasma Avalanche Triggered Transit) diodes are manufactured from Si or
GaAs, and have p+nn+ (or n+pp+) configuration as shown in Fig. 7.53.
The pn junction is reverse biased beyond the breakdown region, so that the current density
is higher. This causes electric field in the space charge region to be decreased and the current
transit time is increased. Consequently the frequency of operation becomes lower and is limited to
below 10 GHz, although efficiency of diode increase due to low power dissipation.
p+ n n+
R e ve rse b ia s
S q ua re w ave curre n t d rive

t/2
Fig. 7.53. Structure of TRAPATT diode
Ø TRAPATT diode is derived from IMPATT diode.

Ø In TRAPATT diodes the doping level between the junction and anode changes gradually.
7.8.1 Operation
A TRAPATT in operation is placed in a high resonant cavity and black biased to avalanche
threshold. When the RF oscillations begin, they build up extremely rapidly due to the resonant
structure thus taking the voltage across the diode to a value much above the avalanche threshold.
The result is generation of conducting plasma of holes and electrons which rapidly fills the entire
drift zone. As a consequence of this, the voltage across the diode falls which does not allow the
carriers in the plasma to escape as quickly as they would have in case of IMPATT operation where
there is high electric field in the drift region. The charge carriers are said to be trapped and hence
the name trapped plasma. The carriers are now able to drift with a relatively much lower velocity
due to the residual electric field. As they reach the device electrode, they constitute a large current.
When the entire plasma is extracted, the voltage again rises above the avalanche threshold and
another cycle is initiated.
Ø Si or GaAs is used for fabricating TRAPATT diodes.
Figure 7.54 shows the operation of TRAPATT, where AB shows charging, BC shows plasma
formation, DE shows plasma extraction, EF shows residual extraction and FG shows charging.
At point A the electric field is uniform throughout the sample and it’s magnitude is large but
less than the value required for avalanche breakdown. At A, charge carriers due to thermal
generations result in charging of diode like a linear capacitance AB driving the magnitude of the
electric field above the breakdown voltage. When a sufficient number of carriers are generated,
the particle current exceeds the external current and electric field is depressed throughout the
depletion region causing the voltage to decrease (BC). During this time interval the electric field
is sufficiently large for the avalanche to continue and dense plasma of electrons and holes is
created. As some of the electrons and holes drift out of the ends of the depletion layer, there field
is further depressed and traps the remaining plasma. The voltage decreases to point D. A long
time is required to remove the plasma because the total plasma charge is large compared to the
charge per unit time in the external circuit. At point E the plasma is removed but a residual change
of electrons remains in one end of the depletion layer and a residual charge of holes in the other
end. As the residual charge is removed, the voltage increases from point E to point F.
C h arg in g
P lasm a form a tio n
P lasm a e xtra ction

B R e sidu al e xtractio n
C h arg in g Vo lta ge
C G
Voltag e a n d cu rren t
E C u rren t
D
t
0 t/2 t
Tim e
Fig. 7.54. Voltage and current waveforms for TRAPATT diode.
At point F all the charge that was generated internally has been removed. This charge must
be greater than or equal to than or equal to that supplied by the external current otherwise the
voltage will exceed that at point A. From point F to G the diode charges up again like a fixed
capacitor. At point G the diode current goes to zero for half a period and the voltage remains
constants at VA until the current comes back on and the cycle repeats.
The avalanche zone velocity vz is given by
dx J
vz = = ...(7.42)
dt qN A
where, J is current density
q is the charge of electron
NA is doping concentration.
Thus the avalanche zone or avalanche shock front will quickly sweep across most of the diode,
leaving the diode filled by a highly conducting plasma of holes and electrons whose space charge
depresses the voltage to low values. Because of the dependence of the drift velocity on the field,
the electrons and holes will drift at velocities determined by the low-field mobilities, and the transit
time of the carriers is given by
L
τs = ...(7.43)
vs
where, vs = Saturated carrier drift velocity
L = Length of the specimen.
The total transit time is sum of the delay time in releasing the trapped plasma and the drift
time. Since the transit time is larger due to low voltage, the operating frequency is limited below
10 GHz.
7.8.2 Advantages of TRAPATT Diode

The major advantages of TRAPATT are:
1. Low power dissipation
2. High efficiency (up to 60%)
3. TRAPATT is a pulse device capable of operating at much larger pulse powers.
7.8.3 Disadvantages of TRAPATT Diode

The major disadvantages of TRAPATT are:
1. High noise figure (60 dB) limits its use as an amplifier.
2. It generates strong harmonics due to the short duration current pulse.
3. Operating frequency is limited below 10 GHz.
Ø High noise figure limits its use an amplifier.

Ø The total transit time is sum of the delay time in releasing the trapped plasma and
the drift time.
7.8.4 Application of TRAPATT

The main applications of TRAPATT are in low power doppler radars, as oscillators for radars, radio
altimeter and phase array radars etc.
7.8.5 Comparison Between the TRAPATT Diode and IMPATT Diode

(UPTU 2004, 2009)
The comparison between the TRAPATT diode and IMPATT diode is given in Table 7.4.
Table 7.4. Comparison between TRAPATT and IMPATT.
TRAPATT Diode IMPATT Diode
1. Transit time is low. 1. Transit time is more.

2. Operating frequency is low (1–10 GHz). 2. Higher operating frequencies are obtained
(0.5–100 GHz).
3. Higher efficiency. 3. Lower efficiency.
4. Power disposition is low. 4. Power dissipation is high.
5. They are more sensitive to harmonics. 5. They are less sensitive to harmonics.
7.8.6 Comparison Between Gunn, IMPATT and TRAPATT

The comparison between Gunn, IMPATT and TRAPATT is shown in Table 7.5.
Table 7.5. Comparison between Gunn, IMPATT and TRAPATT.
Characteristic Gunn IMPATT TRAPATT

Operating frequency 1–100 GHz 0.5–100 GHz 1–10 GHz
+ + + +
Construction n nn GaAs single crystal n pip p+nn+ or n+pp+
Bandwidth 2% of centre frequency One tenth of centre –
frequency
Application Oscillator Oscillator, amplifier Oscillator
Power output A few watts (CW) 100–200 W 1 W (CW) 400 W 100 W
(pulsed) (pulsed) (pulsed)
Basic semiconductor GaAs, InP Si, Ge, GaAs or InP Si
Harmonics – Less Strong
Size Small Small Small
Ruggedness Yes Yes Yes
Ø TRAPATT diodes are very sensitive to the harmonics, thus when operated in
fundamental mode precaution is to be taken that higher order mode cannot be
maintained in the circuit.
Example 7.15. A TRAPATT diode has the following parameters:

Doping concentration NA = 2 × 10−15 cm−3
Current density J = 18 kA/cm2
Calculate the avalanche zone velocity.
Solution. From equation (7.42), the avalanche-zone velocity is given by

J
vz =
qN A
18 × 103
vz =
. × 10 −19 × 2 × 1015
16
v z = 5.62 × 107 cm/s
7.9 FUNCTIONS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
The choice of the semiconductor material, the type of impurity and their distribution is determined
by the purpose of the diode and the range of its application. Depending on the application.
Microwave diodes are typically categorized as belonging to one of the following classes like detector,
mixer, oscillator, amplifier and switching diode. Each class of diode generally includes diodes of
various types. Table 7.6 shows the main function and limiting conditions of application for various
types of microwave diodes.
Table 7.6. Microwave diodes.
Type of diode Negative Application Maximum Maximum

conductivity frequency (GHz) average power
(W)
Point contact No Detector mixer 20 0.1

diode
(crystal diode)
Schottky diode No Detector mixer 300 0.1
PIN diode No Mixer, switching 20 10
element
Tunnel diode Statistical Oscillator, amplifier 100 10−5
Gunn diode Dynamic Oscillator, amplifer 150 1
IMPATT diode Dynamic Oscillator, amplifier 200 5
TRAPATT diode Dynamic Oscillator, amplifier 10 10
7.10 MICROWAVE TRANSISTORS
Microwave transistors are minaturized designs to reduce device and package parasitic capacitances
and inductances and to overcome the finite time of the charge carriers in semiconductor materials.
The most commonly used semiconductors are Si and GaAs. Since transit times are dependent on
the electron mobility and saturation velocity in the semiconductor material. GaAs is significantly
better than Si for high frequency devices because of high electron mobility and high saturation
velocity. Microwave transistors are used for amplifier and oscillator design. There are two basic
types of construction of microwave transistors, bipolar and unipolar. Bipolar is three semiconductor
(pnp or npn) region structure where charge carriers of both negative (electrons) and positive (holes)
polarities are involved in transistor operation. Unipolar transistors are junction gate and insulated
gate field-effect transistors (FETs). There are one or two semiconductors region structures where
dominant carriers are of single polarity (electrons or holes).
7.11 ADVANTAGES OF UNIPOLAR TRANSISTOR OVER BIPOLAR

TRANSISTOR
The unipolar transistor has several advantages over the bipolar transistor:
1. Operating frequency is high, up to X band.
2. Noise figure of unipolar transistor is low.
3. Efficiency of unipolar transistor is higher than that of a bipolar transistor.
4. Input resistance of unipolar transistor is very high, up to several megohms.
7.12 GaAs vs Si
Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is a material, most recently being used as a material for building microwave
solid state devices, that would operate at much higher frequencies and speeds than silicon (Si). If
gallium arsenide (GaAs) can be produced with sufficient uniformity in its semi-insulating and
semiconducting forms, it would become an ideal material for microwave solid state devices, with
performance advantages much better than silicon. GaAs has five times higher electron mobility than
silicon. The short minority lifetime and high saturated drift velocity of GaAs is useful for applications
such as planar schottky mixer diode, transferred electron devices, Gunn diodes and PIN diodes.
GaAs can be satisfactory used upto a frequency of 20 GHz.
Ø Microwave transistors are used for amplifier and oscillator design.

Ø GaAs is significantly better than Si for high frequency device because of high electron
mobility and high saturation velocity.
Ø GaAs has five times higher electron mobility than silicon.
7.13 MICROWAVE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR (BJT)
The microwave bipolar junction transistor is a multi-junction semiconductor device, where both the
types of charge carriers take part in current-carrying mechanism. Microwave BJT are essentially
scaled-down versions of low frequency transistors. The basic principle microwave bipolar junction
transistor is the same as that of a low frequency one, however, requirements of dimensions, process
control heat sinking and packaging are much more severe. There are two types of bipolar junction
transistors, one is npn and other is pnp.
7.13.1 Structure and Layout

In silicon, the mobility of electrons is higher than that of holes; hence all silicon microwave transistors
are of npn type. Figure 7.55 shows the structure of npn type microwave BJT. An n-type epitaxial
layer is grown on a n+ substrate that constitutes the collector. SiO2 layer is than thermally grown
over the n+ region in which p-type and heavily doped n-emitters are diffused into the base. Arsenic
is used as an emitter dopent to improve emitter efficiency.
B E B M eta liza tio n
S iO 2
n -diffuse
p -diffuse ba se layer e m itte r
la yer
n -ep itaxial co llecto r layer
n+ - su bstra te
(a) Cross-section of an npn BJT
E m itter
s e
Ba E
S iO 2
B
n - e pita xia l layer
n - sub strate
C o lle ctor co n ta ct
(b) Top-view showing base-emitter contacts
Fig. 7.55. Microwave bipolar transistor.
Contacts are then provided by means of opening in the oxide and connections are made
parallel. There are three types of surface geometry or layouts:
(a) Interdigitated
(b) Overlay
(c) Mesh or matrix.
Figure 7.56 shows the different layouts of the microwave BJT.
L
E m itters
E m itter
m eta llization
m eta llization
E m itters b E m itters
B a se
B a se
m eta llization
m eta llization
Ls (b ) O verlay
(a ) In te rdigita te d
E m itter
m eta llization
p + ba se d iffu sion
B a se
m eta llization
(c) M esh (m atrix)
Fig. 7.56. Different layouts of BJT.
Small signal transistors has interdigitated surface geometry while power transistors employ all
three surface geometries. The matrix geometry is sometimes called mesh or emitter grid.
The interdigitated geometry basically consists of a large number of emitter strips alternating
with base strips. Both of these are metallized. The overlay geometry has a large number of
segmented emitters over laid through a number of wide metal strips. The matrix or mesh geometry
has emitter that forms the grid, the base filling the meshes of this grid with a p+ contact area in
the middle of each mesh. Interdigitated structure is suitable for small signal applications in the L,
S and C bands whereas overlay and matrix structures are useful as power devices in the VHF and
UHF regions.
Ø The microwave BJTs are planar in form and mostly Si npn type, operating up to
5 GHz.
Ø Small signal transistor has interdigitated surface geometry.
Ø Overlay and matrix structures are useful as power devices in the VHF and UHF band.
7.13.2 Operation
In a microwave transistor, initially the emitter-base and collector-base junctions are reverse biased
corresponding to class C condition. The microwave signal is applied between emitter and base and
will forward bias this junction during the positive portion of the signal. If a pnp transistor is
considered, the holes in the p region diffuse and drift through the thin base region to the collector
and accelerate to the negative terminal of the bias voltage between collector and base terminals.
A pulse of current flows through the load connected in the collector circuit.
The bipolar junction transistors are an active three terminal device, which is commonly used
as an amplifier or switch. A BJT can operate in four different modes:
(i) Normal mode: In this mode emitter junction of npn transistor is forward biased and
collector is reverse biased. Generally at ON state a transistor remains in the normal
mode.
(ii) Saturation mode: When both the junctions are forward biased, the transistor is in its
saturation mode with very low resistance and acts like a short circuit.
(iii) Cut-off mode: If both transistor junctions are reverse biased, the transistor is operated
in cut-off mode and the transistor acts like an open circuit. Thus saturation and cut-off
modes are equivalent to the short and open state of a switch.
(iv) Inverse mode: A transistor is said to be in inverse mode when the emitter is reverse
biased and collector is forward biased. In practice transistor is not commonly used in
inverse mode. The microwave signal makes the base emitter junction forward biased at
the negative portion of the signal and as a result electrons from the emitter region
diffuses into the base and reaches the collector (n-layer) by drift mechanism. In the other
half of the input signal the transistor remains in the OFF state. Thus a pulse of current
flows through the load connected in the collector circuit.
Ø BJT can operate in four different modes : normal mode, saturation mode, cut-off
mode and inverse mode.
Ø The bipolar junction transistors are an active three terminal device, which is commonly
used as an amplifier or switch.
7.13.3 Advantages of Microwave BJT

Following are the advantages of microwave BJT:
1. High operating bandwidth.
2. High output power in lower bands of microwave region.
3. High operating frequency.
4. Low signal distortion and low noise figure.
7.13.4 Disadvantages of Microwave BJT

Microwave BJT has the following disadvantages:
1. Structure of microwave BJT is complex than that of two terminal devices.
2. Unstable due to thermal runaway and breakdown problem.
Applications
Microwave transistor is used in L-band transmitters for telemetry system and phase array radar
systems. It is used in L and S-band transmitter for communication systems.
Ø Microwave BJT has high operating bandwidth, high output power and low signal
distortion.
Ø Structure of microwave BJT is complex than two terminal device.
7.14 JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (JFET)
Unipolar field-effect transistors may be in the form of either of pn junction gate or a Schottky
barrier gate. The former is called a JFET and the latter is referred to as a metal-semiconductor
field effect transistor (MESFET). The JFET was originally proposed by Shockley. JFET and MESFET
are unipolar device because current flow is carried by one type of carriers (hole or electron) only,
whereas in conventional transistor (bipolar transistor) the current flow is carried by both the
majority and minority carriers. JFET may have voltage gain in addition to current gain and can
operate at much higher frequencies with higher efficiency and lower noise figure than the bipolar
transistor.
7.14.1 Structure and Operation

Figure 7.57 shows the cut view and circuit symbol for an n-channel JFET, in which n-type material
is sandwiched between two highly doped layers (region) of p+-type material. The two p+-type
regions in the n-channel JFET shown in Fig. 7.57 (a) are referred as gates. At the ends of the
channel there are two terminals referred as the source and the drain. If the middle part is a
p-type, sandwiched between two highly doped layers (regions) of n+-type material is called a
p-channel JFET. In either case the two regions are commonly joined to provide a single gate. When
a particular drain source voltage Vds is applied between the end terminals, the amount of current
flow Ids between the source and drain depends on the channel’s resistance. The biasing voltages
Vgs and Vds and direction of current flow in n-channel are also shown respectively in Fig. 7.57 (b).
p+ -typ e g ate
G ate
Z G
L
D ra in
S o urce
2a
n -ch an n el D
Ids
Vp
G +
S + – –
D –
V gs
G
p+ -typ e g ate
V ds Ids +
S S S
(a ) n -ch an n el JF E T (b ) S ym bo l
Fig. 7.57. Junction field effect transistor.

If a reverse-biased voltage is applied between the gate and source of an n-channels JFETs,
the depletion layers will spread more deeply into the channel and they almost touch [Fig. 7.57 (a)],
so that all free electron carriers are completely blocked in the joined region. This condition is called
Pinch-off. Under pinch-off condition.
The JFET has a conducting channel between the source and the drain electrodes when the
gate bias voltage is zero. This is the ON state, and the transistor is called a normally ON JFET.
In order to reach the OFF state, a gate voltage must be applied to deplete all carriers in the
channel. As result, this device is referred to as the depletion-mode JFET.
Ø JFET and MESFET are unipolar device because current flow is carried by one type
of carriers (hole or electron).
Ø JFET has a pn junction gate.
Ø The JFET has a conducting channel between the source and drain electrodes, when
the gate bias voltage is zero. This is the ON state.
7.15 METAL SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (MESFET)
If the field-effect transistor is constructed with metal-semiconductor schottky barrier diode, then the
device is called a metal semiconductor field-effect transistor (MESFET). The material may be either
silicon or gallium arsenide (GaAs), and channel type may be either n-channel or p-channel. The
GaAs MESFET has higher electron mobility, higher electric field, and higher peak drift velocity,
smaller parasitic resistance and smaller transit time are almost always preferred. Therefore the
GaAs MESFETs are very commonly used in microwave integrated circuits for high-power, low-noise
and broadband amplifier applications.
7.15.1 Construction
The schematic diagram of GaAs MESFET is shown in Fig. 7.58 (a). It used interdigitated structure
as shown in Fig. 7.58 (b). A moderately doped n-type GaAs epitaxial layer is grown on a high
resistivity, semi-insulating GaAs substrate. In many cases, a high resistivity GaAs epitaxial layer
called the buffer layer, is grown between the n-type layer and semi-insulating GaAs substrate. The
S o urce G ate D ra in
C o nta ct m etal
Ls L Ld
n -type e pita xial
G aA s
B u ffer la ye r
S e m icon du ctin g
G aA s su bstrate
(a ) S ch em atic d iagra m of a G aA s M E S FE T
D a rain
D
G ate S
S o urce S o urce
(b ) M E S F E T g eom e try (c) S ym bo l of M ES FE T

Fig. 7.58. GaAs MESFET.
two ohmic contacts for source and drain are made on the top of epitaxial layer using Au-Ge,
Au-Te or Au-Te-Ge alloys. In between these two contacts another contact made of metal (aluminium)
semiconductor schottky junction is added that is called the gate.
7.15.2 Operation
In the n-channel GaAs MESFET, the source and gate are reverse biased, whereas the source and
drain electrodes are forward biased. This bias condition enables the majority carrier (electrons) flow
in the n-type epitaxial layer from the source, through the channel beneath the gate, to the drain
electrode. The resulting current causes a voltage drop along the channel length so that the schottky
barrier gate electrode become progressively more reverse biased with respect to the drain electrode.
Due to this, a charge depletion region is set up in the channel and gradually pinch-off the channel
against the semi-insuline substrate towards the drain end. When the channel is pinched-off the drain
current (Id) saturates and remains almost constant for further increase of drain voltage. With
increase of reverse bias between source and the gate the width of the charge depletion layer
increase and results a decrease in channel width. This decrease in channel width increases the
channel resistance and which in turn decreases the rate of increase of current.
Thus the drain current Id is modulated by the gate voltage Vg. The VI characteristics Vd vs
Id for various values of Vg are as shown in Fig. 7.59.
35
30 V g = 0 .0
D ra in cu rre nt I d in m A
25 – 0.5
20
– 1.0
15
10 – 2.0
5 – 2.0
– 2.5
0 Vd
1 2 3 4 5 6
Fig. 7.59. VI characteristics of MESFET.
It is clearly seen that the drain current Id is completely controlled by the field effect of the
gate voltage Vg (hence the name FET). Pinch-off occurs when the Id increases continuously and the
ohmic voltage-drop between source and channel reverse biases the junction. When the channel is
pinched-off Id remains almost constant even if Vd is increased. The pinch-off voltage is the gate
reverse voltage that removes all the free charges from the channel and is given by the
relation.
eN d a 2
Vp = Volts
2ε s
where, e = Electron charge in
Nd = Electron doping concentration in m−3
εs = Permittivity of material in F/m
a = Height of the channel in m.
For a power GaAs MESFET, larger gate widths are required and the structure efficiency has
to be achieved with minimum effect of parasitic elements. The maximum value of doping
concentration Nd is limited by gate breakdown voltage. Therefore, the pinch-off voltage may be
made large enough so that drift saturation effects just become dominant.
If field effect transistor is constructed with metal semiconductor schottky barrier

diode, then the device is called metal semiconductor field effect transistor (MESFET).
The reason for using GaAs instead of Si is that GaAs has higher electron mobility
and can operate at higher temperature and higher power.
The pinch-off voltage is the gate reverse voltage that removes all the free charges
from the channel.
7.15.3 Applications of MESFET

Following are some applications of MESFET:
1. As power oscillators.
2. As power amplifiers for output stage of microwave links.
3. As driver amplifiers for high power transmitters.
4. As output amplifiers in broadband generators.
5. As front end low noise amplifier of microwave receivers in both radar and communication
systems.
JFET can operate at much higher frequencies with higher efficiency and lower noise
figure than bipolar transistor.
7.16 APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES OF VARIOUS SOLID STATE

DEVICES
Table 7.7. Applications and advantages of solid state devices.
Devices Applications Advantages
Transistor • L-band transmitters • Low cost

for telemetry system • Low power supply required
• Phase array radar system • Reliable
• High CW power output
• Light weight
Transferred electron • C, X and Ku-band ECM • Low power supply required

devices (Gunn diode, amplifiers for wideband • Low cost
tunnel diode) systems • Light weight
• Reliable
• Low noise
• High gain
IMPATT • Transmitters for millimeter-wave • Low power supply

communications systems • Low cost
• Reliable
• High CW power output
• Light weight
TRAPATT • S-band pulsed transmitters for • High peak and average power
phased array radar systems • Reliable
• Low power supply
• Low cost
7.17 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROWAVE TRANSISTORS
Table 7.8. Performance characteristics of microwave transistors.
Performance characteristics Bipolar transistor MOSFET MESFET
Frequency 1 10 40
Noise Poor Poor Good
Power Poor Very good Good
Speed Good Very good Good
7.18 MASER
MASER comes in the class of stimulated emission devices. A MASER, acronym for Microwave
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation is not really a semiconductor microwave
device. MASER is not even close to the semiconductor device that we have discussed in this
chapter so far in terms of structure or operational principle. It is a device that provides extremely
low noise amplification of microwave signals by a quantum mechanical process. This new idea
came from Towns and his colleagues in 1954. It is the utility of maser as a low noise amplifier
at microwave frequencies for which most of semiconductor microwave devices were develope.
Maser provides an extremely low noise amplification of microwave signal by quantum-mechanical
process.
7.18.1 Fundamentals of Maser

Ferrites have atomic system that can be made to resonate magnetically at frequency dependent
on the atomic structure of the material and the strength of the applied magnetic field. Alternatively
emission will be occurring, if the material is suitable excited or pumped from another source. The
material itself may be gaseous, such as ammonia or solid state, such as ruby.
7.18.2 Operational Principle

It is an established fact that electrons in any material, due to their motion around their respective
nuclei in different orbits, occupy certain discrete energy levels. In normal conditions of temperature
and in the absence of any other energy input, these would occupy only lower energy level, i.e.,
ground state (E0). If the material is supplied with a quantum of energy which is such that
∆E = hf with the help of a pump source, ∆E is the energy difference between the ground state
(E0) and another possible upper state (E2), then electrons in the ground level will absorb this energy
quantum and go to the upper energy state (E2) and a time will come when the atoms in the upper
state are equal or more than the ground state. So called population inversion takes place. After
some time, electrons would probably fall back to the lower energy state (intermediate state)
re-emitting energy of the same frequency as that of the pump source. Now assume that the
material has allowed energy levels like the one shown in Fig. 7.60, the energy difference between
the upper level (E2) and the intermediate level (E1) corresponds to the desired microwave frequency.
E2 Upper level
Emission
E1 Intermediate level
Absorption (pumping)
E0 Ground level
Fig. 7.60. Energy level in maser.

If such a material is kept in a resonant cavity and pumped with microwave energy such that
the energy quantum supplied (hf) equals to the energy difference (E2 − E0).
where, h = Planck’s constant = 6.626 × 10−34 J/s
f = Photon frequency in Hz
E2 − E0 = Energy difference in joules
Then electrons will get pumped from ground level to the upper level. Now if the resonant
frequency of resonant structure is such that it equal to the frequency corresponding to (E2 − E1),
then any microwave input at a frequency corresponding to an energy difference (E2 − E1) will get
amplified. In fact the input microwave energy stimulates the excited electrons at the upper level
(E2) to fall to intermediate level and the process is help by the resonant structure.
Electrons, during their transition from upper level (E2) to intermediate level (E1) gives their
energy to the input microwave signal. Which in turn gets amplified?
A device like this would be an extremely low noise device. There is no resistance involved
in amplification process which means that thermal noise would be absent and also there is no
moving stream of electrons to add short noise. In addition, if the device is cooled to cryogenic
temperatures, it reduces the noise level further.
MASER stand for microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
Maser provides extremely low noise amplification of microwave signal by quantum
mechanical process.
Materials used for maser are ammonia and ruby.
Quantum mechanical theory says that, the specific amount of energy or quantum
that can provide the necessary energy for raising the level of electron is given by
E = hf.
7.18.3 Ammonia Maser

In the same year of development of Maser, Gardon and Jeiger developed ammonia (NH3) maser
by using ammonia gas as working material.
Now in case of ammonia (NH3) – maser no pumping source is required because the ammonia
molecules are already distributed in two different energy levels E0 and E2 according to Boltzmann
distribution. With the help of a DC magnetic field the higher energy (E2) molecules are focused
into microwave cavity resonator, which has the natural resonant frequency of NH3-molecules.
Inside the cavity the downward transition of higher energy molecule takes place. With that energy,
the microwave input signal is coupled and get amplified.
After transition the low energy molecules are pumped out from the resonant cavity. The
amplification process in the maser cavity is regenerate, since the amplified signal energy will
stimulate further transitions.
The ammonia maser is generally operated with beam strength and cavity coupling conditions,
such that the gain increase to infinity and the cavity breaks into oscillations. Thus the device may
be use as oscillator of great stability and pure spectral density. Also, thermal noise is reduced by
putting the whole system into liquid Helium bath. The power output of ammonia maser is small
but the frequency stability is of the order of 1 part in 106 order in a minute period.
Thus, the ammonia maser has the advantage like low noise, frequency stability, spectral
purity but at the same time has the disadvantages like low power output, small bandwidth and
untunable.
Thus from the microwave point of view one cannot use ammonia maser, because it
works at only one frequency and whose bandwidth is narrow and at the same time untunable.
7.18.4 Ruby Cavity Maser

A gaseous material is inconvenient in a maser amplifier, search for more suitable materials revealed
ruby which is a crystaline form of silica (Al2O3) with a slight natural doping of chromium. Ruby
has the advantages of being solid, having suitably arranged energy levels, and being paramagnetic,
which virtually means slightly magnetic. This last property is due to the presence of chromium
atoms, which have unpaired electron spins like ferrites. These are capable of being aligned with
a DC magnetic field, and this permits not only reradiation of energy from atoms in the desired
direction but also some tuning facilities. Ruby had all the desirable characteristics required for a
maser device. It had suitable energy band structure and was paramagnetic. The slight magnetic
property permitted some tunability.
The energy levels of Ruby could be altered by changing the strength of strong magnetic field
of the order of 4000 A/m.
The cross-section of a ruby cavity maser is shown in Fig. 7.61. It is seen to be a single port
amplifier, so that a circulator is used, just as in so many other microwave amplifiers. In maser a
tuned circuit (Cavity) must be provided for the pump signal as well as for the signal to be amplified.
This is not difficult to achieve, but it should be realized that the cavity must be able to oscillate
at both frequencies.
In fro m a nte n na O ut to m ixe r
W a ve g uide
C ircu la to r
P u m p inp ut w in d ow
C o axia l lin e
R ub y
S ign al cou plin g p ro be
L iq uid n itrog en a t 7 7 K
C a vity re so na to r
L iq uid h eliu m
a t 4 .2 K
Fig. 7.61. Ruby cavity maser.

The ruby is located in a coupled unit of a cavity resonator. The pump excitation is provided
by a transient or any other form of excitation. Induced transition taken place at frequency of
resonator and microwave energy can be tapped off by coupling probe into coaxial cable, which
is connected to the port of circulator. Operational ruby maser is invariably cooled to liquid helium
temperature as it is observed that ruby has significant population of electrons at the upper level
at room temperature, cooling of ruby corrects that situation and depopulates the upper level so
that large number of electrons can be pumped from ground level to the upper level. In addition,
cooling significantly improve noise performance.
Ø In ammonia maser, no pumping source is required because the ammonia molecules

are already distributed in two different energy levels.
Ø Advantages of ammonia maser are low noise, frequency stability and spectral purity.
Ø Disadvantages of ammonia maser are low power output, small bandwidth and
untunable.
Ø In ruby maser, liquid helium is used for cooling purpose.
7.18.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Ruby Maser

The biggest advantage of ruby maser is its excellent noise performance. Noise figure of better than
0.3 dB is common. From the communications point of view, a disadvantage of the ruby maser is
that its bandwidth is very narrow. By using the travelling wave ruby structure instead of cavity, the
bandwidth can be increased.
7.18.6 Applications of Ruby Maser

Maser are used where the received signals are very weak like:
1. Radio telescopes and space probe receivers.
2. As a low noise low level amplifier.
3. Suitable for radio astronomy and other extra terrestrial communication.
Ruby has the advantages of being solid, having suitable arranged energy level and
being paramagnetic.
Ruby maser provides excellent noise performance.
In maser, cooling significantly improve the noise performance.
7.19 PARAMETRIC AMPLIFIER
Amplification of the microwave signals can be accomplished in a parametric amplifier utilizing non-
linear reactance or a reactance that can be varied as a function of time by applying a suitable pump
signal. The time variation of reactive parameter can be used to produce amplification. Since it is
essentially a reactance device, the thermal noise which is associated with resistance is very very
low with such amplifier. Thus, they can be used as low noise amplifiers; when a pn junction diode
(also called varactor) is biased in the reverse voltage. So, varactor diode is widely used as a
parametric amplifier.
A parametric amplifier is named because of its operation due to the periodic variation of the
device’s parameters such as capacitance of the varactor diode, under the influence of a suitable
pump signal. If a small input signal at a frequency fg and the AC power source operated as a
pumping signal at a frequency fp, are applied together to the varactor diodes linear amplification
of a small signal results due to time-varying capacitance of the diode. Pump signal provides the
power required for amplification and the power output is either at the input frequency fg or at the
idler frequency fi = fp − fg.
7.19.1 Manley-Rowe Relations

A set of power conservation (Manley-Rowe) relations are described below which are useful in
determining the maximum gain of the parametric amplifier. When two sinusoidal signals at frequencies
fg and fp are applied across a lossless time varying non-linear capacitance Cj(t), signals at the
harmonics of fg and fp are generated which can be separated by band-pass filters and their power
made to be dissipated in separate resistive loads (Fig. 7.62). From the conservation of power
fg fp fg + fp nfg +
– mfp
R R Cj(t) R R
fg fp
Fig. 7.62. Manley-Rowe relations.

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
n Pnm m Pnm
∑ ∑ n fg + m fp
= 0 = ∑ ∑ nfg + mfp
n = 0 m = −∞ n = −∞ m = 0
where Pnm represents the average power at the output frequencies ±ln fg + m fpl. The above
relations are called the Manley-Rowe or power-conservation relations. The sign convention for the
power term Pnm is such that it is positive when the power is supplied by the two generators or
power flowing into the non-linear capacitance, otherwise it is negative.
7.19.2 Applications of Parametric Amplifiers

Due to the advantage of low-noise amplifications, parametric amplifiers are extensively used in
system such as long range radar, satellite ground stations, radio telescopes, artificial satellites,
microwave ground wave communications, radio astronomy, etc.
K EYWORDS
• Backward diode: A special type of tunnel diode operated in the reverse bias condition.
• Gunn diode: A microwave negative resistance device whose operation depends upon as transferred
electron effect (or Gunn effect) originating from the bulk properties of the semiconductor
material.
• IMPATT diode: A type of transit time microwave diode. All transit time devices depend upon
two mechanisms namely generation of charge carriers and transit of these carriers through a drift
space.
• Parametric amplifier: A type of microwave circuit that uses a varactor diode for providing low
noise amplification of microwave signals.
• PIN-diode: A semiconductor diode comprising of two heavily doped p-type and n-type
semiconductor materials separated by a very high resistivity intrinsic material. It is used for
switching, phase shifting and attenuation purpose at microwave frequencies.
• Point contact diode: One of the early microwave devices. It uses a metal semiconductor
junction and was used earlier for microwave mixing and detection applications.
• Schottky barrier diode: Uses a schottky junction similar to metal semiconductor junction.
Commonly used mixer and detector diode at microwave and millimetre wave frequencies.
• Tunnel diode: A pn junction diode with a very high concentration of impurity atoms leading
to tunnelling phenomenon. It exhibits negative resistance characteristic.
• TRAPATT diode: A type of transit time microwave diode is similar to an IMPATT diode with
difference in aulandic invitation and carrier drift mechanisms.
• TUNNETT diode: A type of transit time device that uses tunnelling phenomenon for generation.
• Varactor diode: A pn junction diode designed to maximize capacitance variation as a function
of applied reverse bias.
4
1. Describe the operating principle and working of tunnel diode.
(MDU 2010; UPTU 2006, 2008)
2. Describe the operating principle and working of PIN diode. (UPTU 2006, 2008)
3. How can PIN diode be used as a microwave switch? Describe a single PIN switch in shunt and
series mounting configuration. (UPTU 2004)
4. Explain the working of PIN diode. (MDU 2010, 2007; UPTU 2010, 2007)
5. Discuss the formation and growth of the high field domain in a TED. (UPTU 2004)
6. Draw the banddiagram of GaAs and explain the Gunn effect, where by negative resistances and
therefore oscillations are obtained under certain conditions from bulk gallium arsenide.
(UPTU 2005)
7. What is transferred electron effect? In which type of material it is present. How the domain
formation is taking place in Gunn devices and what are its various modes of operation?
(MDU 2009; UPTU 2006)
8. What is transferred electron effect and how it is utilized in generation of microwave signal in
Gunn diodes? (MDU 2008; UPTU 2007)
9. What does acronym IMPATT stand for? Why does the device show a differential negative
resistance? Give the physical structure, doping profile and electric field distribution of a double
drift region IMPATT diode. What is the advantages of double drift region over single drift region?
(UPTU 2004)
10. Draw the schematic diagram of an IMPATT diode and fully explain the two effects that combine
to produce a 180° phase difference between the applied voltage and the resulting current pulse.
Give one biggest disadvantages of IMPATT diode oscillator. (UPTU 2005)
11. How avalanche effect is utilized to generate microwave signals? Explain the operation of
IMPATT. (UPTU 2006)
12. Explain the working of IMPATT. (UPTU 2007, 2009, 2010)
13. What is an IMPATT diode? Draw the schematic diagram and equivalent circuit of the IMPATT
diode. (UPTU 2003)
14. How is plasma trapped in a TRAPATT diode? Why is the operating frequency of this diode lower
than IMPATT? Give its major merits and demerits. (UPTU 2004)
15. Describe the basic operating mechanism of TRAPATT diode using a suitable sketch. Why is drift
through this diode much slower than through a comparable IMPATT diode?
(MDU 2009; UPTU 2005, 2008, 2009)
16. How avalanche effect is utilized to generate microwave signals? Explain the operation of
TRAPATT. (UPTU 2006)
17. A microwave point contact diode detector has a reverse saturation current of 1 µA. Find the
detector current of microwave signal amplitude of 1 V at room temperature when
n = 1.4 and VT = 26 mV. (UPTU 2007)
18. Explain working of varactor diode. (MDU 2010; UPTU 2007)
19. What is varactor diode? Discuss its two application. How TRAPATT can be designed using
IMPATT and how it is important? (UPTU 2009)
20. What is the operating principle of Gunn diode? Explain its working.
(UPTU 2008, 2009; MDU 2009)
21. What is the relevance of different modes of operation in Gunn diode? (UPTU 2008)
22. Explain the working of any two of the following: (UPTU 2007)
(i) IMPATT
(ii) Varactor diode
(iii) PIN diode.
1. The semiconductors diode which can be used in switching circuit at microwave range is
(a) PIN diode (b) Varactor diode
(c) Tunnel diode (d) Gunn diode
2. Which one of the following is a transferred electron device?
(a) TRAPATT (b) IMPATT
(c) Gunn diode (d) Step recovery diode
3. HEMT used in the microwave circuit is a
(a) source (b) high power amplifier
(c) low noise amplifier (d) detector
4. One of the following is an active microwave device
(a) Strip line (b) Microstrip line
(c) SAW device (d) IMPATT
5. One of the following semiconductor materials does not exhibit Gunn effect
(a) Si (b) GaAs
(c) lnP (d) GaAsp
6. The commonly used semiconductor material for fabrication of MESFET is
(a) GaAs (b) Si
(c) Ge (d) lnP
7. Punch through voltage is associated with
(a) IMPATT diode (b) TRAPATT diode
(c) Gunn diode (d) PIN diode
8. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
List I List II
(Solid state devices) (Applications)
A. PIN diode 1. Microwave amplification

B. GaAs MOSFET 2. Low noise microwave generation
C. Transferred electron devices 3. Electronic tuning of MW oscillator
D. Varactor diode 4. Light wave detection
Codes A B c D
(a) 1 2 4 3
(b) 4 1 2 3
(c) 2 3 1 4
(d) 3 4 2 1
9. One of the following is not used as a microwave mixer or detector
(a) Crystal diode (b) Schottky-barrier diode
(c) PIN diode (d) Backward diode
10. The biggest disadvantage of the IMPATT diode is its

(a) lower efficiency than that of the other microwave diode
(b) high noise
(c) inability to provide pulsed operation
(d) poor tuning
11. Negative resistance is obtained with Gunn diode because
(a) electron transfer to a less mobile energy level
(b) tunnelling across the junction
(c) avalanche breakdown with the high voltage gradient
(d) electron domains forming at the junction
12. For Gunn diodes, gallium arsenide is preferred to silicon because the former
(a) has a suitable empty energy band, which silicon does not have
(b) has a higher ion mobility
(c) has lower noise at the highest frequencies
(d) capable of handling higher power densities
13. The tunnel diode
(a) has tiny hole through its centre to facilitate tunnelling
(b) point contact diode with a very high reverse resistance
(c) uses a high doping level to provide a narrow junction
(d) works by quantum tunnelling exhibited by gallium arsenide only
14. A tunnel diode is loosely coupled to its cavity in order to
(a) increase the frequency stability (b) increase the available negative resistance
(c) facilitate tuning (d) allow operation at highest frequencies
15. The negative resistance in a tunnel diode
(a) maximum at the peak point of the characteristic
(b) available between the peak and valley points
(c) may be improved by the use of reverse bias
(d) maximum at the valley point
16. For a microwave transistor to operate at highest frequencies, indicate the false answer
(a) collector voltage must be large (b) collector current must be high
(c) base should be thin (d) emitter area must be large
17. A varactor diode may be useful at microwave frequencies indicate the false answer
(a) for a electronic tuning (b) for frequency multiplication
(c) as a parametric amplifier (d) as an oscillator
18. In IMPATT diode the peak of negative occurs when transit angle is near to
π
(a) (b) π
2
(c) 2π (d) 3π
19. Which of the following three terminal microwave transistor preferred for making MMICs?
(a) BJT (b) HBJT
(c) JEET (d) MESFET
20. Which one of the following microwave devices is used for low noise amplification of microwave
signal and needs another source of microwave signal for its operation?
(a) MASER (b) LASER
(c) Parametric amplifier (d) TWT
21. The most serious drawback of IMPATT diode is its
(a) low efficiency (b) high noise
(c) low power handling capacity (d) inability to provide pulsed operation
22. Gallium arsenide is preferred to silicon for Gunn diode because it has
(a) better frequency stability
(b) higher ion mobility
(c) capability of handling high power densities
(d) suitable employ energy band, which silicon does not have
23. The negative resistance in Gunn diode is due to
(a) electron transfer to a less mobile energy level
(b) high reverse bias
(c) electron domain formation at the junction
(d) tunnelling across the junction
24. One of the following microwave diodes is suitable for very low power oscillators only
(a) Tunnel (b) LSA
(c) Gunn (d) IMPATT
25. In the X-band, for best low level noise performance, an amplifier should be
(a) bipolar junction transistor (b) FET
(c) IMPATT diode (d) Gunn diode
26. Varactor diode is useful at microwave frequencies
(a) for frequency multiplication (b) as an oscillator
(c) as a parametric amplifier (d) for electronic tuning
27. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
List I (Device) List II (Property/use)
A. Zener diode 1. High speed switching

B. Tunnel diode 2. Multivibrator circuits
C. Gunn diode 3. Voltage stabilizer
D. PIN diode 4. Microwave oscillator
Codes A B C D
(a) 3 1, 2 4 1
(b) 4 2, 4 4 1
(c) 4 1, 2, 4 1 3
(d) 3 1, 2, 4 4 1
28. One of the following is not the reason for silicon being totally unsuited for fabrication of Gunn
diode.
(a) The electron velocity in silicon varies very slowly as a function of applied electric field.
(b) Silicon has a relatively lower resistivity as compared to gallium arsenide.
(c) Silicon does not exhibit negative differential mobility as function of applied electric field.
(d) Silicon is sensitive to ionizing radiation.
29. Indicate the false statement. FETs, are preferred to bipolar transistor at the highest frequencies
because they
(a) are less noisy (b) lend themselves more easily to integration
(c) are capable of higher efficiencies (d) can provide higher gains
30. The biggest advantage of the TRAPATT diode over the IMPATT diode is it
(a) lower noise (b) higher efficiency
(c) ability to operate at higher frequencies (d) lesser sensitivity to harmonics
31. One of the following microwave diodes is suitable for very low-power oscillators:
(a) Tunnel diode (b) Avalanche diode
(c) Gunn diode (d) IMPATT diode
32. The transferred-electron bulk effect occurs in
(a) Germanium (b) Silicon
(c) Metal semiconductor junction (d) Gallium arsenide
33. The following diode does not use negative resistance in its operation
(a) Gunn diode (b) Tunnel diode
(c) Backward diode (d) IMPATT diode
34. Which of the following diode is different from the remaining?
(a) Backward diode (b) Hot carrier diode
(c) ESBAR diode (d) Schottky barrier diode
35. The main advantage of microwave over lower frequencies is
(a) increased bandwidth
(b) greater privacy
(c) ability to use high gain, high directivity antenna
(d) all of these
36. Which one of the following diode is square low device?
(a) Varactor diode (b) Zener diode
(c) Tunnel diode (d) Crystal diode
A NSWERS
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (a)
7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (a) 12. (a)
13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (d) 17. (d) 18. (b)
19. (d) 20. (c) 21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (a)
25. (d) 26. (d) 27. (a) 28. (d) 29. (b) 30. (b)
31. (a) 32. (d) 33. (c) 34. (a) 35. (d) 36. (d)
qqq
CHAPTER
8
Principles of Radar
Introduction
Basic Radar Concepts
Basic Radar System
Signal Routing in Radar
Information Available from Radar System
Radar Frequencies
Advantages and Limitations of Radar
Radar Block Diagram
Radar Range Equation
Factors Affecting Radar Performance/Prediction of Radar Performance
INSIDE THE CHAPTER

Range Ambiguity
False Alarm
Doppler Effect
Classification of Radar
Common Parameters of Radar Pulse
Pulse and CW Radar
Simple Continuous Wave (CW) Radar
Frequency Modulated CW Radar
Moving Target Indicator (MTI) Radar
Blind Speed in MTI Radar
Pulsed Doppler Radar
Limitations of MTI and Pulsed Doppler Radar
Comparison Between MTI and Pulsed Doppler Radar
Applications Radar
Different Types of Radar
Keywords
Review Questions
480
Principles of Radar 481
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Radar is an electromagnetic system for detection and location of object. The word Radar is an
abberviation for Radio Detection and Ranging. It operates by transmitting a particular type of
waveform and detecting the nature of the signal reflected back from objects. It cannot resolve
details or colour. It can see in conditions which do not permit the eye to see such as darkness,
rain and smoke etc. It can also measure the distances of objects. It was radar that gave birth to
microwave technology. In fact the early researchers found out that the highest frequencies gave
the most accurate results. Higher frequencies produce the best echoes, make it possible to detect
smaller targets and permit the use of smaller antennas. Radar has been in use since before World
War II. It was developed to detect the enemy aircarft while they were still out of visual range. It
was only in February 1941 that radar was first used intentionally looking at precipitation. Since
then, huge advancements have been made in radar technology and its use in meteorology is
widespread now.
Ø Radar or Radio Detection and Ranging, has been in use since before World War II.
Ø Radar is an active radio sensor, generally operating in microwave frequency range.
Ø Radar is used detect the presence, direction, height and distance of objects by using
reflected electromagnetic energy.
8.2 BASIC RADAR CONCEPTS
The electronics principle on which radar operates is very similar to the principle of sound-wave
reflection. If you shout in the direction of sound-reflecting object, you will hear an echo. If you
know the speed of sound in air, you can then estimate the distance and general direction of the
object. The time required for return echo can be roughly converted to distance if the speed of
sound is known. Radar uses electromagnetic energy pulses in much the same way, as shown in
Fig. 8.1. The radio frequency (RF) energy is transmitted to and reflects from the reflecting object.
Fig. 8.1. Basic radar operation.

A small portion of the energy is reflected and returns to the radar set. This return energy is called
an ECHO, just as it is in sound terminology. Radar system use the echo to determine the direction
and distance of the reflecting object.
The line from the radar directly to the object is referred to as line of sight (LOS). The length
of this line is called range. Ranging is based on the principle of measuring the time delay between
the transmission of pulse of electromagnetic energy by the radar and detection of the received
echo. The product of measured time difference and the velocity of propagation of electromagnetic
waves gives twice the target range, i.e.,
2R = c ∆t ...(8.1)
Thus range will be
c ∆t
R = ...(8.2)
2
where R = Target range.
∆t = Time delay or round trip propagation time.
c = Velocity of light.
Ø The electronic principle of radar is very similar to the principle of sound-wave

reflection.
Ø Radar system use echo to determine the direction and distance of reflecting object.
8.3 BASIC RADAR SYSTEM (MDU 2008, 2003)
The basic components of a radar system are shown in the block schematic arrangement of
Fig. 8.2. The basic components of radar system are:
1. Transmitter 2. Receiver
3. Duplexer 4. Antenna
5. Display.
p u lse
T ra ns m itt ed
l
E ch o sig na
Tra nsm itter D u plexer R e ce ive r

D isp la y
Tra nsm itter D u plexer A n te nn a E lectro m ag ne tic w ave A im
D isp la y R e ce ive r D u plexer A n te nn a E cho sig na l A im
Fig. 8.2. Block diagram of basic radar system with signal flow.
1. Transmitter
The transmitter generates the radio wave to be sent and modulates it to from the pulse train. The
transmitter must also amplify the signal to a high power level to provide adequate range. The
source of the carrier wave could be a klystron, travelling wave tube (TWT), or magnetron. Each
has its own characteristics and limitations.
2. Receiver
The receiver is sensitive to the range of frequencies being transmitted and provides amplification
of the returned signal. In order to provide the greatest range, the receiver must be very sensitive
without introducing excessive noise.
3. Duplexer
Duplexer is an important block of the radar system. The function of duplexer are
• To isolate the transmitter and receiver during transmission and reception.
• To protect the receiver from high power transmitter.
• To help use a single transmitter/receiver antenna.
Ø Duplexer is a switch that alternately connects the transmitter or receiver to the

antenna.
4. Antenna
Antenna in radar system transfers the transmitter energy to signals in space with the required
distribution and efficiency. Antenna ensures that the signal has the required pattern in space. The
antenna structure must maintain the operating characteristics under all environmental conditions.
Radom’s are generally used where relatively severe environment conditions are experienced. The
basic performance of radar can be shown to be proportional to the product of antenna area or
aperture and the mean transmitted power. Taking into account these functions and the required
efficiency of a radar antenna, the parabolic dish antenna and array antenna are generally used.
Ø Parabolic dish antenna and array antenna are most widely used antenna in radar
system.
Ø The radar antenna should be highly directive and have a large gain so that it can
radiate a strong signal and receive a weak pulse.
5. Display
The display unit may take a variety of forms but in general is designed to present the received
information to an operator. Radar signals can be displayed on the traditional plan position inducator
(PPI) or other more advanced radar display systems. A PPI has a rotating vector with the radar
at the origin, which indicates the pointing direction of the antenna and hence the bearing of
targets. It shows a map-like picture of the area convered by the radar beam.
8.4 SIGNAL ROUTING IN RADAR
• The radar transmitter produces short duration high-power RF-pulse of energy.

• The duplexer alternately switches the antenna between the transmitter and receiver so
that only one antenna need be used. This switching is necessary because the high-power
pulses of the transmitter would destroy the receiver if energy were allowed to enter the
receiver.
• The antenna transfers the transmitter energy to signals in space with the required distribution
and efficiency. This process is applied in an identical way on reception.
• The transmitted pulses are radiated into space by the antenna as an electromagnetic
wave. This wave travels in a straight line with a constant velocity and will be reflected by
an aim (target).
• The antenna receives the back scattered echo signal.
• During reception the duplexer lead the weakly echo signals to the receiver.
• The hypersensitive receiver amplifies and demodulates the received RF-signals. The receiver
provides the signal to output indicator.
• The indicator should present to the observer a continuous, easily understandable, graphic
picture of the relative position of radar targets.
8.5 INFORMATION AVAILABLE FROM RADAR SYSTEM (MDU 2008)
Radar system not only detect the target but also provides other relevant information about the
target. The informations available from radar system are:
1. Range.
2. Radial velocity.
3. Angular direction.
4. Size and shape.
1. Range
The most primary feature of a basic radar is its ability to determine the range of a target by
measuring the time it takes for radar signal to propagate at the speed of light towards the target
and back to the radar. No other sensor can measure the distance to a remote target at long range
with the accuracy. The accuracy of range measurement depends on the radar signal bandwidth,
the wider the bandwidth, higher the accuracy.
2. Radial Velocity
The radial velocity of a target is obtained from the rate of change of range over a period of time.
Radial velocity can also be obtained from the measurement of doppler frequency shift by using
radar system.
3. Angular Direction
The method for determining the direction to a target is by determining the angle where the
magnitude of the echo signal from a scanning antenna is maximum. For determining the angular
direction, narrow beamwidth antenna is used.
4. Size and Shape

If the radar has sufficient resolution capability in range or angle, it can provide the information
about the target size and shape.
Ø Radar detect the targets and also provide some useful information about the
target.
Ø Radar system can provide the information about range, radial velocity, angular
direction, size and shape of the target.
8.6 RADAR FREQUENCIES (MDU 2004)
Most of the radars operate between 100 MHz to 35 GHz, but some special purpose radars operate
outside of this range, e.g.,
1. Skywave HF-OTH (over the horizon) can operate as low as 4 MHz.
2. Groundwave HF radars operate as low as 2 MHz.
3. Millimetre radar operate up to 95 GHz.
4. Laser radars (lidars) operate in infrared and visible spectrum.
There are two different significant radar frequency band nomenclatures in used. One system
uses a more historically originated system of latters and is defined even as an IEEE standard. These
letter designations were originally selected to describe the secret radar bands used in World
War II. These standard have been adopted in the united states by the IEEE and internationally by
the ITU. Military radar applications in NATO uses another nomenclature with easier abecedarian
letters. This system allows an easy extension with higher frequencies and is originally devised for
conducting support measures, counter measures and electronic warfare. Figure 8.3 shows the IEEE
and new military radar nomenclatures.
f [G H z] 0 .2 .2 5 0 .5 1 .0 2 3 4 6 81 0 20 40 60 11 0
+ IE E E H F V H F UHF L S C X K u K Ka V W
R a da r
A B C D E F G HI J K L M
l [cm ] 1 50 60 30 1 5 7 .5 5 3 1 .5 0 .75 0 .5 0 .3 0 .0 00 5 cm
Fig. 8.3. IEEE and new military standard of radar frequencies.

Table 8.1 lists the radar frequency latter band designations approved as an IEEE standard.
Table 8.1. IEEE frequency band nomenclature for radar.
Band designation Frequency range
HF 3–30 MHz
VHF 30–300 MHz
UHF 300–1000 MHz
L 1–2 GHz
S 2–4 GHz
C 4–8 GHz
X 8–12 GHz
Ku 12–18 GHz
K 18–27 GHz
Ka 27–40 GHz
Millimetre waves 40–300 GHz
Various IEEE frequency bands may be described as given below.

HF: Although the first British radar system, Chain Home, operated in HF band. It is
ordinarily not a good frequency region for radar. Antenna beamwidths are very wide, the spectrum
is crowded with other users, and the external noise both natural noise and noise due to other
transmitter is high. There is, nevertheless, an important application for radar in this band-namely,
long-range radar, which takes advantage of refraction by the ionosphere to extand ranges. Today
these frequencies are used for early warning radars and so called Over-The-Horizon (OTH) radars.
VHF: For reasons similar to those stated above, this frequency band is not too popular for
radar. However, very long-range radars for either aircraft or satellite detection can be built at the
VHF band more economically than at higher frequencies. Radar operations at such frequencies are
not bothered by rain clutter or insects, but auroras and meteors produce large echoes that can
interfere with target detection.
UHF: Military Airborne Early Warning (AEW) radars operate in the UHF band to detect
aircraft in the midst of clutter. This is a good frequency range for detecting extra terrestrial targets
(e.g., satellite and missiles), since large antennas and high power are readily obtained for this
application.
L band: This is the preferred frequency band for long range (200 nautical miles) air surveillance
radar, such as the air-traffic control systems used to track aircraft route between airports. It also
is a band of interest for military space surveillance and missile detection because it is not as
susceptible to nuclear blakout effects as radar systems that operate at the lower frequencies.
S band: Medium range (50 to 60 nautical miles) airport surveillance radars are well-suited
for this band. It is the preferred frequency band for long range weather observation radars. Military
3D radars that determine elevation angle as well as range and azimuth angle are often in S band,
but they may also be at L band. Frequencies lower than S band are good for long-range surveillance,
since large power, large antennas and good moving target detection are better there than at high
frequencies. Frequencies greater than S band are preferred for extracting target information, as
in tracking radars and weapon control systems. Therefore, when a single frequency must be used
for both surveillance and information extraction (as is necessary when only a single frequency
phased-array antenna is employed), S band can be a compromise.
C band: Single frequency phased-array radars that must perform both surveillance and
weapon control for air defense operate at these frequencies as well as at S band. This frequency
region is well-suited for long-range, precision-tracking radars.
X band: This frequency band is used for shipboard civil marine radar, tracking radar,
airborne weather avoidance radar, systems for detecting mortar and artillery projectiles, and police
speed meters. Most synthetic aperture radars operate at X band, the exceptions are some remote
sensing SARs that are designed for lower frequencies.
K band: Radars at this frequency band are usually of short range, because it is difficult to
obtain the large antennas and large power necessary for long-range applications. This band has
been used for airborne radar and for short range airport detection equipment.
Millimetre waves: Although there has been much interest in exploring the potential radars
at millimetre wavelengths, it has not been practical for most applications because of high attenuation
even in the “clear” atmosphere. It is difficult to use millimetre wave radar for anything other than
short range (a few kilometre) within the atmosphere. Table 8.2 list the new nomenclature for
military radar approved by NATO.
Table 8.2. New nomenclature for military radar.
Band designation Frequency range Applications
HF 3–30 MHz Over-the-horizon and surface scanning.

A 30–250 MHz Space surveillance.
B 250–500 MHz Military early warning and surveillance, wind scanners
C 500 MHz–1 GHz Shipboard long-range surveillance, space research, test
range instrumentation, wind profiling.
D 1–2 GHz Air traffic control, military early warning, synthetic
aperture radar, ground battlefield sensors, space based
radar.
E 2–3 GHz Planetary exploration, air traffic control, marine
navigation, weather.
F 3–4 GHz Air surveillance and tracking, test range instrumentation.
G 4–6 GHz Radar altimeters, weather radar, airport terminal Doppler
weather radar, military surveillance and air defense.
H 6–8 GHz Air and ship surveillance and navigation, fire control,
test range instrumentation, synthetic aperture radar.
I 8–10 GHz Air and ship surveillance and navigation, airborne
weather, police speed radar, radar altimeters, air
navigation aids, fire control, test range instrumentation.
J 10–20 GHz Doppler navigation, police speed radar, airborne and
seaborne and acquisition, Airport Surface Detection
Equipment (ASDE), atmospheric research.
K 20–40 GHz Airborne navigation, surface mapping, police speed radar,
terrain following radar, test range instrumentation,
atmospheric and oceanographic research.
L 40–60 GHz Airborne navigation, radar beacons
M 60–100 GHz Aircraft fire control, radar beacons, missible autonomous
guidance, wheather and specialized imaging radars.
Ø Most of radars operate between 100 MHz to 35 GHz.

8.7 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF RADAR
Radar system has some following advantages:

1. Radar can see in conditions which do not permit the eye to see such as darkness, haze,
rain, and smoke.
2. Radar has ability to determine the range and angle, i.e., location of target with high
accuracy in all weather conditions.
Radar system also has some following limitations:
1. Radar cannot recognise the colour of the target.
2. Radar cannot give the detail like the human eye, especially at short distance.
8.8 RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM (MDU 2012, 2009, 2008, 2005)
The block diagram of radar system is given in Fig. 8.4. The operation of radar can be explained
with the help of this block diagram. Radar system consist of two section, one is transmitter and
second is receiver. Duplexer is used to allows the same antenna for both transmitter as well as
receiver. In radar system, transmitter may be power amplifier or power oscillator. For amplification,
R e ce iver
L ow n o ise IF
a m p lifie r M ixer a m p lifie r L im ite r D e tecto r
L ocal V id eo
D u plexer
o scilla tor a m p lifie r
A n te nn a
P o w er W a ve form
D isp la y
a m p lifie r g en era to r
Tra nsm itter
Fig. 8.4. Block diagram of radar.

klystron, TWT, or transistor amplifier are used and for oscillation commonly magnetron is used. A
radar signal is produced at low power by waveform generator. Pulse modulator is used to generate
a pulse waveform to turned on and off the oscillator. Operation and types of radar transmitters are
describe in chapter 9.
The receiver of radar is almost superheterodyne. The RF received signal is converted to IF
signal with the help of mixer and local oscillator, than it is amplified by the IF amplifier. After
amplification, signal is filtered, passed through a limiter that prevents saturation of subsequent
stages, and applied to an amplitude, phase or synchronous detector. Then the output from detector
is amplified by video amplifier. Finally video signals are display on the display unit. Radar receiver
is discussed in detail in chapter 9.
Ø Radar system consist of two section, one is transmitter and second is receiver.
Ø Duplexer is used to allow the same antenna for both the transmitter and receiver.
Ø The transmitter may be a power amplifier or power oscillator.
Ø The receiver is almost always a superheterodyne.
8.9 RADAR RANGE EQUATION (MDU 2012, 2010, 2009, 2007, 2004)
The radar range equation relates the range of the radar to the characteristics of transmitter,
receiver, antenna, target, and environment. It is used as a tool to help in specifying radar subsystem
specifications in the design phase of a program.
Free space condition implies that the radar system and target are isolated in an unbounded
empty space. The condition in realized well enough for practical purposes if the following conditions
are fulfilled.
(i) No large obstacles lie between antenna and the target along an optical line of sight.
(ii) No alternative transmission path via any reflecting surface can be followed by a substantial
fraction of total radiated energy.
(iii) The intervening medium is transparent, i.e., it does not absorb energy from the
electromagnetic waves at the frequency used.
(iv) The intervening medium is homogeneous with respect to the refractive index at the
radar frequency.
If the radar transmitter delivers Pt watt power into space using an hypothetical isotropic
antenna (one which radiates power uniformly in all directions) as shown in Fig. 8.5. Then the
power density (W/m2) at distance R from the radar antenna is equal to the radiated power (Pt)
divided by the surface area of sphere of radius R is given as
H ypo th etica l
iso trop ic a nten na
Targ et
P o w er de nsity
Pt
= 2
4 pR
R
Fig. 8.5. Radar transmission using hypothetical isotropic antenna.
Pt
Power density at distance R = ...(8.3)
4πR 2
Here 4πR2 represents the surface area of the sphere at distance R.
But practically, radar systems employ directional antennas to channel the radiated power (Pt)
in a particular direction as shown in Fig. 8.6.
E ffe ctive
re ce ivin g
a rea a eff P tG
P o w er de nsity = 2
4 pR
Tx Pt Sph ere × g ain

o f a nte n na
G
R a da r cross-sectio n s
Fra ctio n of in cide n t
p ow e r d en sity
P tG 1 o f sou rce
P o w er de nsity = 2
s. 2
4 pR 4 pR
R
Fig. 8.6. Radar transmission using directional antenna.
The gain of an antenna is a measure of the increased power density radiated in some
direction as compared to the power density that would appear from an isotropic antenna. The
gain ‘G’ from an antenna may be defined as
Power density radiated by a directive antenna
G =
Power density radiated by lossless isotropic antenna
Pt G
So, power density from a directive antenna of gain G = W m2 ...(8.4)
4 πR 2
The target intercepts a portion of the incident power and re-radiates in various direction. A
measure of the amount of incident power intercepted by the target and re-radiated back in the
direction of radar is denoted by the radar cross-section of target denoted as σ.
Thus the total power intercepted by a target having radar cross-section area σ is
Pt G
= ⋅ σ Watts ...(8.5)
4 πR 2
Ø The radar cross-section has units of area (m2), but it can be misleading to associate
the radar cross-section directly with the targets physical size. It can be thought of
as size of target as seen by radar.
Ø Radar cross-section (RCS) is made up of three components namely the size and
shape of the target reflectivity and directionality of reflected power.
The power denoted by equation (8.5) propagates towards the radar and the power density
at the radar’s antenna can be expressed by
Pt Gσ 1
= 2
⋅
4πR 4πR 2
Pt Gσ
= 2
W m ...(8.6)
e4πR j 2
The radar antenna received a portion of this power. If the effective area of receiving antenna
is denoted by Ae, the power received (Pr) by the radar is given by
Pt GσA e
Pr = 2
Watts ...(8.7)
e 4πR 2 j
Maximum Radar Range (Rmax)
The maximum radar range (Rmax) is the distance beyond which the target cannot be detected due
to insufficient received power Pr. The minimum power which the receiver can detect is called the
minimum detectable signal (Smin).
If Pr = Smin then R = Rmax
Now substituting these values in equation (8.7), we get
Pt GσA e
Smin =
b4π g R2 4
max
LM P GσA t e
OP 14
or Rmax = ...(8.8)
MN b4π g S 2
min
PQ
This is the fundamental from of radar range equation. The important parameters are the
transmitting gain and receiving effective area.
If the same antenna is used for both transmitting and receiving, as it usually is in radar.
Antenna theory gives the relationship between antenna gain (G) and effective area is
4 πA e
G = ...(8.9)
λ2
where λ = Wavelength of radiated energy
Substituting eqn. (8.9) in eqn. (8.8), we get
LM P ⋅ 4πA σA e OP 14
t 2 e
Rmax = MM λ PP
MN b4πg S
2
min
PQ
or Rmax =
LM P A σ OP
t
2
e
14
...(8.10)
MN 4πλ S PQ 2
min
Gλ2
From eqn. (8.9), substituting Ae = in eqn. (8.8), we get
4π
LM P F Gλ I σG OP 2
14
Rmax =
MM GH 4π JK PP
t
MM b4πg S PP 2
min
N Q
LM P G λ σ
t
2 2 OP 14
Rmax = ...(8.11)
MN b4π g S
2
min
PQ
Equations (8.10) and (8.11) are the two alternative forms of maximum radar range equation.
Ø The radar equation relates the range of radar to the characteristics of the transmitter,
receiver, antenna, target and the environment.
Ø Radar equation is useful to determine the maximum range at which particular
radar can detect a target and its makes to understand the factor affecting radar
performance.
Example 8.1. Calculate the maximum range of a radar system which operates at 3 cm
wavelength with a peak power of 500 kW, if its Smin is 10−12 W, the capture area of its antenna
is 5 m2 and radar cross-section area of target is 20 m2. (MDU 2007)
Solution. Given
Wavelength (λ) = 3 cm
Transmitting power (Pt) = 500 kW
Minimum detectable signal (Smin) = 10−12 W
Capture area of antenna (Ae) = 5 m2
Radar cross-section area (σ) = 20 m2
We know that the radar range equation is given as [From eqn. (8.8)]
LM P A σ OP
t
2
e
14
Rmax =
MN 4π λ S PQ
2
min
LM e500 × 10 j × b5g × b20g OP

3 2
14
Rmax = MM b4πg b0.03g × e10 j PP 2 −12

N Q
14
Rmax = 2.211 × 1022
Rmax = 3.85 × 105 m
Thus, maximum range
Rmax = 385 km or 208 nm (1 nm = 1853 m)
Example 8.2. A radar operating at 10 GHz has a maximum range of 50 km with an

antenna gain of 4000. If the transmitter has a power of 250 kW and minimum detectable
signal is 10−11 W. Calculate the cross-section of the target the radar can sight. (MDU 2006)
Solution. Given
Maximum radar range (Rmax) = 50 km
Transmitter power (Pt) = 250 kW
The maximum radar range is given as
LM P GσA
t e
OP 14
Rmax = ...(1)
MN b4πg S 2
min
PQ
Gλ2
Since, Ae =
4π
λ = c f = 3 × 108 10 × 109 = 3 cm = 0.03 m
Ae =
4000 × 0.03 b g 2
= 0286
. m2
4π
From eqn. (8.8), the radar cross-section area is
σ =
b 4πg 2
S min R 4max
Pt G A e
4
σ =
b4πg × e10 j × e50 × 10 j
2 −11 3
= 34.46 m2
e250 × 10 j × b4000g × b0.0286g
3
σ ) = 34.46 m2
Radar cross-section area (σ
Example 8.3. Calculate the range of radar if it has to detect a target with a radar cross-
section of 2 m2 when it operates at a frequency of 2.9 GHz with a rectangular shaped
antenna that is 5 m wide, 2.7 m height, antenna aperture efficiency of 0.6, minimum
detectable signal is 10−12 W, and transmitted peak power is 200 kW. (MDU 2011)
Solution. Given
Transmitting power (Pt) = 200 kW
Radar cross-section area (σ) = 2 m2
Rectangular antenna shape = 5 m × 2.7 m
Antenna aperture efficiency (ρ) = 0.6
The physical area of antenna (A) is
A = 5 m × 2.7 m
= 13.5 m2
From antenna theory, we know that
Effective area of antenna (Ae) = ρ ⋅ A
Ae = 0.6 × 13.5
Ae = 8.10 m2
Wavelength of signal (λ) = c/f
λ = 3 × 108/2.9 × 109
λ = 0.103 m
We know that the maximum radar range equation is
LM P A σ OP
t
2
e
14
Rmax =
MN 4π λ S PQ
2
min
LM e200 × 10 j × b810
. g × b2g O
3
PP
2
14
Rmax = MM b4πg × b0103

. g × 10 PQ 2 −12
N
14
. × 1017
Rmax = 19212
Rmax = 117.74 km.
8.10 FACTORS AFFECTING RADAR PERFORMANCE/PREDICTION OF

RADAR PERFORMANCE (MDU 2009, 2007, 2003)
The performance of radar system can be predict by following factors:

1. The maximum range at which it can be see a target of a specified size.
2. The accuracy of its measurement of target location in range and angle.
3. Its ability to distinguish one target from another.
4. Its ability to detect the desired target echo when marked by large clutter echoes, unintentional
interfering signal from other “friendly” transmitters, or intentional radiation from hostile
jamming (if a military radar).
5. Its ability to recognize the type of target.
6. Its availability (ability to operate when needed), reliability and maintainability.
Some of the major factors that affect performance are discussed below.
1. Transmitter Power
In case the radar range is to be doubled, we have to increase the transmitter power 16 times since
Rmax α (Pt)1/4.
The power Pt in the radar equation is called by the radar engineer, the peak power. The peak
pulse power as used in the radar equation is not the instantaneous peak power of the pulse. It
is defined as the power averaged over that carrier-frequency cycle which occurs at the maximum
of the pulse of power. The average radar power (Pav) is also of interest in the radar and is defined
as the average transmitter power over the pulse-repetition period or pulse repetition time (PRT).
Ø Pulse repetition time (PRT) is the time between the beginning of one pulse and
beginning of next pulse and is reciprocal of pulse-repetition frequency (PRF).
If the transmitted waveform is a train of rectangular pulses of width (PW) and pulse-repetition
time is PRT as shown in Fig. 8.7.
PRT
R e st tim e (R T)
P u lse
w id th (P W )
Fig. 8.7. Rectangular pulse.

The average power is related to peak power by
Pulse width
Pav = Pt ...(8.12)
PRT
or Pav = Pt ⋅ PW ⋅ PRF ...(8.13)

We know that duty cycle (D) is
PW
Duty cycle =
PRT
Then Pav = Pt × duty cycle ...(8.14)
Ø The maximum detection range varies as the fourth root of transmitter power, i.e.,
Rmax α (Pt)1/4.
2. Operating Frequency
From the radar range equation, we know that, R max α 1 λ or R max α f . This implies that
increase in frequency increase the range. However this requirement is in conflict with the dependance
of beam width of the antenna which directly proportional to the wavelength (λ).
3. Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) (MDU 2009)

The pulse-repetition frequency determines the maximum measurable range of the radar. Sufficient
time must be allowed between pulse for an echo to return from any target located within the
maximum workable range of the system. As the pulse repetition frequency (PRF) is increased, the
maximum value of two way travel time decreases and hence the maximum range decreases. Thus,
maximum allowable pulse repetition frequency is limited by the effective range of the radar set.
On the other hand, the PRF should not be below certain minimum value so that effective integration
of weak echo pulses may take place, due to greater number of pulses received per second.
Echoes signal received after an interval exceeding the PRT are called multiple time around
echo. The range beyond which target appear as second-time around echoes is called maximum
unambiguous range.
The pulse repetition time PRT is
1
PRT = TON + TOFF =
PRF
But maximum radar range is

c ⋅ PRT
Rmax = ...(8.15)
2
The maximum actual range that can be detected and displayed without ambiguity or the
maximum unambiguous range, is just the range corresponding to a time interval equal to the pulse
repetition time (PRT).
Hence, maximum unambiguous range is
Runamb =
c
c TON + TOFF h =
c ⋅ PRT
2 2
c
or Runamb = ...(8.16)
2 ⋅ PRF
Ø The PRF is determined primarily by the maximum range at which targets are expected.
Ø Echoes signals received after an interval exceeding the PRT are called multiple
times around echoes.
Ø Range beyond which target appear as second time around echoes is called maximum
unambiguous range.
4. Antenna Characteristics
The maximum detection range is a function of antenna gain and aperture area. Detection range
varies as the square root of antenna gain. Thus, antenna gain has a greater influence than
transmitter power on long range performance.
5. Receiver Noise
The chief factor which limit the receiver sensitivity is noise, it is necessary to obtain some means
of calculating it quantitatively. Noise is unwanted electromagnetic energy which interferes with the
ability of the receiver to detect the wanted signal. It may originate within the receiver itself or it
may enter via the receiving antenna along with the desired signal.
If Si/Ni is the signal to noise ratio (S/N) at the input of the radar receiver, So/No is the signal
to noise ratio at the receiver output and G is the overall gain of the receiver as shown in Fig. 8.8.
Then noise figure (F) is given by
Si Ni
F =
So N o
Si No
or F = × ...(8.17)
So Ni
In pu t Si O utpu t
sig na l R e ce iver ga in (G ) sig na l
So = GSi
(a )
Ni R e ce iver ga in (G )
N o = G N i + DN
N o ise at in pu t + ( DN )
N o ise at ou tpu t of
o f re ce ive r re ce iver
(b )
Fig. 8.8. Effect of noise on receiver.
In Fig. 8.8,
Si = Signal at receiver input
So = Signal at receiver output
G = Receiver gain
Ni = Noise at input of receiver
No = Noise at output of receiver
∆N = Equivalent noise generated in receiver.
From Fig. 8.8 (a), the signal at the receiver output
So = GSi ...(8.18)
From Fig. 8.8 (b), noise at the receiver output
No = (GNi + ∆N) ...(8.19)
Now substituting eqns. (8.18) and (8.19) in eqn. (8.17), we get
Si F GN + ∆N I
× i
F =
GS GH N JK
i i
1 F ∆N I
⋅ GG +
N JK
F =
G H i
∆N
F = 1+
GN i
or ∆N = (F − 1) GNi ...(8.20)
This is the equivalent noise power generated in the receiver.
The input noise power (Ni) can be expressed in terms of temperature.
i.e., Ni = kToB ...(8.21)
where, k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K
To = Temperature in degree kelvin
B = Bandwidth of the receiver
Now substituting eqn. (8.21) in eqn. (8.20), we get
∆N = (F − 1) G kToB ...(8.22)
If this equivalent noise power at the input of the receiver is more than the minimum received
radar echo power (Smin ), then, it is not possible to detector the target data in the receiver. For this
to be possible, the minimum received signal at the receiver input (Smin) must be at least equal to
the equivalent noise power (∆N), i.e., this is the limit on the receiver sensitivity. Substituting ∆N
from eqn. (8.22) in eqn. (8.10), we get the maximum radar range.
Rmax =
LM PA σ
t
2 OP 14
...(8.23)
MN 4πλ bF − 1g kT BG PQ
2
o
We know that for parabolic antenna

0.65 πd2
A = ...(8.24)
4
where d is diameter of antenna.
Now substituting eqn. (8.24), Boltzmann’s constant (k) = 1.38 × 10–23 J/K, and standard
ambient temperature (To) = 23°C = 300 K in eqn. (8.23), we obtain a practical radar range in
kilometres.
LM P ⋅ e0.65 πd j σ 16
t
2
2 OP
Rmax = MM 4 × 314 P
N . × λ ⋅ bF − 1g e138 . × 10 j b300g B.G P
2 23
Q
Rmax = 48000 M
L P d σ OP
t
4
MN B.Gλ bF − 1g PQ
2
or Rmax = 48 M
L P d σ OP in km
t
4
...(8.25)
MN B.Gλ bF − 1g PQ
2
6. Interference
Signals from nearby radars and other transmitters can be strong enough to enter a radar receiver
and produce spurious response. Well-trained operates are not often received by interference,
through they may find it a nuisance. Interference is not as easily ignored by automatic detection
and tracking systems, however and so some method is usually needed to recognize and remove
interference pulses before they enter the automatic detector and tracker of a radar.
7. Electronic Countermeasures
The purpose of hostile electronic countermeasures (ECM) is to deliberately degrade the effectiveness
of military radar. Electronic countmeasures (ECM) can consists of (1) noise jamming that enters the
receiver via the antenna and increases the noise level at the input of the receiver, (2) false target
generation, or repeater jamming, by which hostile jammer introduce additional signals into the
radar receiver in an attempt to confuse the receiver into thinking they are real target echoes,
(3) chaff, which is an artifical cloud consisting of a large number of tiny metallic reflecting strips
that create strong echoes over a large area to mask the presence of real target echoes or to
create confusion.
8. Target Size
The size of a target as “seen” by radar is not always related to the physical size of the object. The
measure of the target size as observed by radar is called the radar cross-section and is given in
units of area (square metres). It is possible for two target with same physical cross-sectional area
to differ considerably in radar size, or radar cross-sectional area. For example, a flat plate one
square metre in area will produce a radar cross-section of about 1,000 square metres at a
frequency of 3 GHz (S band) when viewed perpendicular to the surface. A cone-sphere (an object
resembling an ice-cream cone) when viewed in the direction of the cone rather than the sphere
could have a radar cross-section one thousandth of a square metre even through its projected area
is also one square metre. In theory, this value does not depend to a great extent on the size of
the cone or the cone angle. Thus, the flat plate and the cone-sphere can have radar cross-sections
that differ by a million to one even though their physical projected areas are the same. The sphere
is an unusual target in that its radar cross-section area (when its circumference is large compared
to the radar wavelength). That is to say, a sphere with a projected area of one square metre has
a radar cross-section of one square metre.
Commerical aircraft might have radar cross-sections from about 10 to 100 square metres,
except when viewed broadside, where it is much larger. Most air traffic control radars are required
to detect aircraft with a radar cross-section as low as two square metres, since some small general
aviation aircraft can be of this value. For comparison, the radar cross-section of a man has been
measured at microwave frequencies to be about one square metre. A bird can have a cross-section
of 0.01 square metre. Although this is a small value, a bird can be readily detected at ranges of
several tens of miles by long-range radar. In general, many birds can be picked up by radar so that
special measures must usually be taken to insure that echoes from birds do not interfere with the
detection of desired targets.
The radar cross-section of an aircraft and most other targets of practical interest is not a
constant but, rather, fluctuates rapidly as the aspect of the target changes with respect to the radar
unit. It would not be unusual for a slight change in aspect to cause the radar cross-section to
change by a factor of 10 to 1,000.
9. Clutter
Echoes from land, sea, rain, snow, hail, birds, insects and meteors are of interest to those who
observe and study the environment, but they are a nuisance to those who want to detect and follow
aircraft, ships, missiles, or other similar targets. Clutter echoes can seriously limit the capability of
a radar system, thus a significant part of radar design is devoted to minimizing the effects of clutter
without reducing the echoes from desired targets. The Doppler frequency shift is the usual means
by which moving targets are distinguished from the clutter of stationary objects. Detection of
targets in rain is less of a problem at the lower frequencies, since the radar echo from rain
decreases rapidly with decreasing frequency and the average cross-section of aircraft is relatively
independent of frequency in the microwave region. Because raindrops are more or less spherical
(symmetrical) and aircraft are asymmetrical the use of circular polarization can enhance the detection
of aircraft in rain. With circular polarization, the electric field rotates at the radar frequency.
Because of this, the electromagnetic energy reflected by the rain and the aircraft will be affected
differently, thereby making it easier to distinguish between the two (in fair weather, most radars use
linear polarization, i.e., the direction of the field is fixed).
10. Atmospheric Effects

Rain, wind, snow and other forms of atmospheric effect can cause echo signals that mark the
desired target echoes. There are other atmospheric phenomena that can affect radar performance
as well. The decrease in density of the earth’s atmosphere with increasing altitude causes radar
waves to bend as they propagate through the atmosphere. This usually increases the detection
range at low angles to a slight extent. The atmosphere can form “ducts” that trap and guide radar
energy around the curvature of the earth and allow detection at ranges beyond the normal horizon.
Ducts can sometimes extend the range of an airborne radar, but on other occasions they may
cause the radar energy to be diverted and not illuminate regions, below the ducts. This results in
the formation of what are called radar holes in the coverage. Since it is not predictable or reliable,
ducting can in some instances be more of a nuisance than a help.
8.11 RANGE AMBIGUITY (MDU 2012, 2009, 2005, 2004)
As described earlier, the pulse repetition frequency (PRF) largely determines the maximum range
of the radar system. If the period between successive pulse is too short, i.e., high PRF an echo
from a distant target may return after the transmitter has emitted another pulse. This would make
it impossible to tell whether the observed pulse is the echo of the pulse just transmitted or the echo
of the preceding pulse. This produces a situation referred to as range ambiguity. The radar is
unable to distinguish between pulses, and derives range information that is ambiguous (unreliable).
In theory, it is best to strike a target with as many pulses of energy as possible during a given scan.
Thus, the higher the PRF gives the better performance of radar. A high PRF improve resolution
and range accuracy by sampling the position of the target more often. But if PRF is higher than
a limit, the range ambiguity situation occur.
The maximum actual range that can be detected and displayed without ambiguity is known
as maximum unambiguous range, is just the range corresponding to a time interval equal to the
pulse repetition time (PRT). Therefore, the maximum unambiguous range.
c ⋅ PRT c
Run = = ...(8.26)
2 2 ⋅ PRF
Ø The maximum unambiguous range is the longest range at which a transmitted pulse
can travel and return to the radar before the next pulse is transmitted.
Example 8.4. Use the radar range to determine the required transmit power for the
TRACS radar given,
Smin = 10−13 W
G = 2000
λ = 0.23 m
PRF = 524 Hz
σ = 2.0 m2
Solution. The maximum radar range is given as
c
Rmax =
2 PRF
3 × 108
=
2 × 524
= 286.2 km
The transmitted power is given as
Pt =
b g
S min 4 π
3
⋅ R 4max
G 2 λ2 σ
4
Pt =
e10 j b4πg e286.2 × 10 j
−13 3 3
b2000g b0.23g b2.0g

2 2
Pt = 3.1 MW
Example 8.5. A radar is to have a maximum range of 250 km. Determine the maximum
allowable PRF for unambiguous reception.
Solution. Rmax (unamb) = 250 km
We know that
c
Run =
2 PRF
Then maximum allowable PRF for unambiguous reception is
c
PRF =
2 R un
3 × 108
PRF =
2 × 250 × 103
PRF = 600 Hz.
8.12 FALSE ALARM (MDU 2008)
A false alarm is “an erroneous radar target detection decision caused by noise or other interfering
signals exceeding the detection threshold”. In general, it is an indication of the presence of a radar
target when there is no valid target. False alarms are generated when thermal noise exceeds a
preset threshold level, by the presence of spurious signals (either interval to the radar receiver or
from sources external to the radar), or by equipment malfunction. A false alarm may be manifested
as a momentary blip on a display, a digital signal processor output, an audio signal, or by all these
means. If the detection threshold is set too high, there will be very few false alarms, but the high
signal-to-noise ratio should required for detection of valid target. If the threshold is set too low, the
large number of false alarms will mask detection of valid targets. In Fig. 8.9, A represent the valid
target, and B represent an unvalid target known as false alarm.
Valid targ et Fa lse alarm

A B
Th re sh old le ve l
Vo lta ge
R M S n oise va lu e
Tim e
Fig. 8.9. Output of radar as a function of time.
Ø The detection of target may be decided by the crossing the threshold level and this
type of detection is known as threshold detection.
Ø The unvalid target detection is known as false alarm.
8.13 DOPPLER EFFECT (MDU 2011, 2004)
Everyday life has multiple examples of the doppler phenomenon with sound, the whistle from a
moving train is a good example. As the train approaches towards the stationary listener, the pitch
(frequency) of whistle sounds will increase. As the train moves away from stationary listener, the
pitch decreases. This pitch variation, due to the relative motion between train and listener, is
known as the doppler effect. Car horns exhibit the same effect, as does all sound. Figure 8.10
shows the doppler effect.
Electromagnetic waves radiated by radar obey the doppler phenomenon. The doppler effect
is the change in the observed frequency of radar, due to the relative motion between the radar
and target or object.
M otion a w ay
E cho freq ue ncy
d ecrea ses
M otion tow a rds

E cho freq ue ncy
in crea se s
Fig. 8.10. Doppler shift phenomenon.
If target is at a distance R from the radar, as shown in Fig. 8.11, the total number of
wavelength contained in the two way path between radar and target is
Distance cover by EM wave
=
Transmitted wavelength
2R
=
λo
fo
vr
TX
2 .v r
fo + fo
c
D o pp le r shift
Fig. 8.11. Doppler frequency shift.
One wavelength corresponds to an angular phase shift of 2π radian. The total angular shift φ
made by EM wave during its two way path between target and radar is
2R
φ = 2π ×
λo
4πR
φ = radians ...(8.27)
λo
If the target is in motion, the distance R and phase shift φ are continuously changing. A
change in phase with respect to the time is equal to angular frequency (ωd) and is given as
ωd =
dφ
=
d 4πR F I
dt dt λ o GH JK
ωd =
4π dRFG IJ ...(8.28)
λ o dtH K
dR
Since = vr is the relative velocity between radar and target.
dt
Thus,
4π
Angular frequency (ωd ) = ⋅v ...(8.29)
λo r
The angular frequency (ωd ) may be represented as
ωd = 2π fd ...(8.30)
where fd is doppler frequency shift.
Substituting the value of ωd in eqn. (8.29), we get
2vr
fd = ...(8.31)
λo
2vr fo
or fd = ...(8.32)
c
where fo is the transmitted signal frequency.
If the angle between the target and the radar is θ, as shown in Fig. 8.12.
q M ovin g targ et
v r = v cos q
R a da r a nte nn a
Fig. 8.12. Angle between target and radar.

Then relative velocity may be written as
vr = v cos θ, as per Fig. 8.12
The substituting vr in eqn. (8.31), doppler frequency shift fd is
2v ⋅ cos θ
fd = ...(8.33)
λ
where, v = Speed of the target
θ = Angle made by target trajectory and line joining radar target
2v
When θ = 0, doppler frequency is maximum, i.e., fd =
λ
When θ = 90°, doppler frequency is zero, i.e., fd = 0
Ø On the basis of doppler frequency shift, it is possible to determine the relative

velocity of target with either pulsed or CW radar.
Example 8.6. A car is moving towards a stationary CW doppler radar transmittering at

10 GHz along the axis of the radar with a speed of 108 km/hr. Determine the doppler shift
and the frequency of the received signal. What would be the received signal frequency if the
car was moving away from the radar along the same axis?
Solution. Given
Signal frequency ( f ) = 10 GHz
Speed of car (vr) = 108 km/hr
Doppler frequency shift ( fd) is given as

2vr
fd =
λ
Since wavelength (λ) = c/f = 3 × 108/10 × 109
= 0.03 m
Thus,
2 × 108 × 1000
Doppler frequency ( f d) =
60 × 60 × 0.3
fd = 2 × 103 = 2 kHz
Received frequency = 10 GHz + 2 kHz
= 10000002 kHz
If the car is moving away from the radar, the received frequency is given by
= 10 GHz − 2 kHz
= 9999998 kHz
Example 8.7. A target is closing on a radial of a radar with a relative velocity of

200 knots. The radar transmits continuous wave energy at a wavelength of 5 cm. What will
be the doppler shift of the target? What will the doppler shift if the target alters its course
by 45° ?
Solution. Given
Relative velocity (vr) = 200 knots
= 200 × 0.508
= 101.60 m/s
Wavelength (λ) = 5 cm = 0.05 m
The doppler frequency shift is given by
2vr
fd =
λ
2 × 10160
.
fd =
0.05
fd = 4064 Hz
Doppler shift, fd = 4.06 kHz
The velocity component (v) in course direction can be calculated by using
v = vr cos θ
v = 101.60 cos 45°
v = 71.84 m/s
The doppler shift if the target alters its course by 45° is given as
2v 2 × 7184
.
∆fd = =
λ 0.05
∆fd = 2873 Hz
∆ f d = 2.873 kHz
8.14 CLASSIFICATION OF RADAR
Classification of radar system is shown in Fig. 8.13. Radar system may be broadly categories into
two type:
(i) Continuous wave (CW) radar.
(ii) Pulse radar.
R a da r u nits
C o ntinu ou s w a ve (C W ) ra da r P u lse rad ar (tra nsm its a high

(tra n sm its con tinu ou s w ave) fre qu e ncy im pu lsive sig na l o f
h igh p ow e r)
U n m o du la te d C W Fre q ue ncy-m o du la te d M TI, ra da r P u lse do pp le r ra da r

ra da r (can d etect C W rad a r (can d ete ct, (D isting u ishe s m o vin g (u se s high P R F to a vo id
o bje cts, m e a su res m ea sure s ran ge a nd targ e ts from th e b lin d sp ee d s)
velocity from d op p le r ra dial ve lo city) sta tion ary b ackgro un d
shift, b ut ca n no t b y d o pp le r shift)
m ea sure ra ng e)
8.13. Classification of radar system.

Continuous wave (CW) radar system emit electromagnetic radiation at all times as shown in
Fig. 8.14 (a). As opposed to CW radar, pulsed radar system transmits a sequence of short pulses
of RF energy as shown in Fig. 8.14 (b).
(a ) C o ntinu o us w a ve
P u lse rep etition tim e

(P R T)
PW
R a da r
carrier
R e st tim e fre qu e ncy
Tim e
(b ) P u lsed tran sm issio n

Fig. 8.14. Continuous wave and pulse transmission.
Ø CW radar transmit a high frequency signal continuously.

Ø Pulsed radar transmits a sequence of short pulses of RF energy.
8.15 COMMON PARAMETERS OF RADAR PULSE (MDU 2008)
Pulse radar system transmit a high-frequency impulsive signal of high power. Some common
parameters of radar pulse are:
(i) Pulse width: Pulse width is the duration of the pulse as shown in Fig. 8.14. Pulse
width (PW) has units and is expressed in ms.
(ii) Rest time: Rest time (RT) is the interval between pulses. This is the period when
transmitter is silence (not firing) and receiver is ready to receive the reflected signal from
the target. It is measured in ms.
(iii) Pulse repetition time: Pulse repetition time (PRT) is the interval between the start of
one pulse and start of another pulse. PRT has units of time and is commonly expressed
in ms. PRT is also equal to the sum of pulse width (PW) and rest time (RT). It can be
written as
PRT = PW + RT ...(8.34)
(iv) Pulse repetition frequency: Pulse repetition frequency is the number of pulses
transmitted per second and is equal to the inverse of PRT.
PRF = 1/PRT ...(8.35)
PRF is commonly expressed in Hz.
(v) Peak power (Pt): The peak power in the radar equation is called, by the radar
engineer, the peak power. The peak power as used in the radar equation is not the
instantaneous peak power of a sine wave. It is defined as the power averaged over that
carrier frequency cycle which occurs at the maximum of the pulse power. Peak power
is usually equal to one-half of the maximum instantaneous power.
(vi) Average power (Pav): The average power (Pav) is defined as the average transmitted
power over the pulse repetition time or period. The average power can be expressed
as
Pulse width
Average power (Pav) = Peak power ×
Pulse repetition time
PW
Thus, Pav = Pt × ...(8.36)
PRT
Since PRT = 1/PRF
Pav = Pt × PW × PRF ...(8.37)
(vii) Duty cycle (DC): The ratio of average power to the peak power or pulse width to the
PRT is called the duty cycle of the radar.
PW
Duty cycle = ...(8.38)
PRT
or Duty cycle = PW × PRF ...(8.39)
Ø PW is the duration of the pulse.

Ø Rest time (RT) is the period when transmitter is silence, i.e., not firing.
Ø Average power is the average transmitted power over the PRT.
Ø Duty cycle is the ratio of pulse width to pulse repetition time.
Example 8.8. A radar system has a peak power 300 kW on the display. If the pulse
width is 2 µ sec and rest time is 2 m sec, find average power of radar system.
Solution. Given
Peak power (Pt) = 300 kW
Pulse width (PW) = 2 µ sec
Rest time (RT) = 2 m sec
The pulse repetition time (PRT) is given as
Pulse repetition time = Pulse width + rest time
= PW + RT
= 2 × 10−6 + 2 × 10−3
≈ 2 × 10−3 sec
Since, Duty cycle =

b g
Pulse width PW
b g
Pulse repetition time PRT
2 × 10−6
Duty cycle =
2 × 10−3
Duty cycle = 0.001
The average power is given as
Average power = Pt × duty cycle
= (300 × 103) × (0.001)
= 300 W
Example 8.9. The given data for radar system are

Transmitted power (Pt) = 100 kW
Pulse width (PW) = 0.5 µs
Pulse repetition frequency (PRF) = 1000 Hz
Calculate the average power. (MDU 2005)
Solution. The duty cycle is given as
Duty cycle = PW × PRF
Duty cycle = (0.5 × 10−6) × 1000
Duty cycle = 0.0005
The average power is given as
Average power = Pt × duty cycle
= (100 × 103) × 0.0005
= 50 W
Example 8.10. What is the duty cycle of a radar with a PW of 4 µ s and a PRT of
8 m s?
Solution. Given
Pulse width (PW) = 4 µ s
Pulse repetition time (PRT) = 8 m s
Duty cycle is given as
PW
Duty cycle =
PRT
4 × 10−6
Duty cycle =
8 × 10−3
Duty cycle = 0.5 × 10−3
Duty cycle = 0.0005
8.16 PULSE AND CW RADAR
A pulse radar transmits a sequence of short pulses of RF energy, as opposed to pulsed radar
systems, continuous wave (CW) radar systems emit electromagnetic radiation at all times.
8.16.1 Continuous Wave (CW) Radar

Continuous wave (CW) radar transmit a high frequency signal continuously. The echo signal is
received and processed permanently too. Conventional CW radar cannot measure range because
there is no basis for measurement of the time delay. Recall that the basic radar system created
pulses and used the time interval between transmission and reception to determine the target’s
range. If the energy is transmitted continuously then this will not be possible. It is possible to use
a CW radar system to measure range by using the frequency modulation. Thus, continuous wave
radar may be divided into two type:
(i) Unmodulated or simple CW radar.
(ii) Frequency modulated continuous wave (FM-CW) radar.
8.16.2 Pulsed Radar

A pulsed radar system transmits a sequence of short pulses of RF energy. By measuring the time
for echoes of these pules scattered off a target to return to the radar, the range to the target can
be estimated by pulse radar. Two broad categories of pulsed radar are:
(i) Moving Target Indicator (MTI) radar.
(ii) Pulse doppler radar.
MTI radar distinguishes moving targets from the stationary background by doppler shift. Only
those echoes with a frequency shift are displayed. Pulsed doppler radar uses high PRF to avoid
blind speed.
Table 8.3 shows comparison between pulsed radar and continuous wave radar.
Table 8.3. Comparison between pulsed and CW radar.
S.No. Pulsed radar Continuous wave radar
1. Only one antenna is required. Requires two antennas.

2. Gives range, usually altitude as well. Gives range or altitude.
3. Susceptible to Jamming. More difficult to Jam but easily deceived.
4. Physical range determined by pulse Amplifier can be tuned to look for expected
width (PW) and PRF. frequencies.
5. Resolution is worse. Resolution is better.
6. It requires comparatively higher Requires lower transmitting power.
transmitting power.
8.17 SIMPLE CONTINUOUS WAVE (CW) RADAR
The block diagram of a simple CW radar is shown in Fig. 8.15. A CW radar works on the principle
of doppler frequency shift due to the motion of the target. The block diagram of simple CW radar
is shown in Fig. 8.15. The antenna sendout continuous signals and it uses the doppler effect to
detect the frequency change caused by a moving target and display as a relative velocity.
ft
ft ± fd
D u plexer C W tra nsm itter

(f t )
ft
ft
ft ± fd
M ixer fd D o pp le r In dica to r
(D e te ctor) filte r/A m p lifie r o r display
Fig. 8.15. Block diagram of simple CW radar.

The operation of CW radar is explained below.
CW transmitter: The transmitter generates a unmodulated continuous signals of frequency
ft, which is radiated by the antenna. A portion of the radiated energy is intercepted by the target
and is scattered some of it in the direction of radar, where it is collected by the receiving antenna.
According to the movement of the target the received signal frequency will vary. If the target is
moving towards the radar, then the received signal will have the frequency ft + fd and if the target
is moving away than the received signal frequency will be ft − fd. In other words we can say that
if the target is approaching to the radar the frequency will increase and if it is moving away from
the radar, the received frequency will be less than the transmitted frequency.
Mixer: The received echo signal at a frequency ft ± fd enters the radar via the antenna and
is heterodyned in the mixer (detector) with a portion of the transmitter signal ft to produce a
doppler frequency fd the transmitter leakage signal acts as a reference to determine that a
frequency.
Doppler filter/amplifier: The output of mixer is the signal having the doppler frequency
fd and this signal is further pass to the doppler filter and amplifier. The purpose of using doppler
filter/amplifier is to eliminate echoes from stationary targets and amplify the doppler signal to a
level where it can operate an indicating device.
Indicator: The amplified doppler signal is pass to the indicating device such as frequency
meter or audio phone. The indicator or display provide the information about the target to the
radar operator. After getting information about doppler frequency shift, accurate measurement of
relative velocities may be calculated.
The transmitter in a CW doppler radar is not modulated. Therefore, it can neither provide
range the target nor sense which particular cycle of oscillation is being received at any instant. This
is the major drawback of CW doppler radar.
8.17.1 Advantages of Simple CW Radar

1. CW doppler radar is capable of giving accurate measurement of relative velocities using
low transmitting power, simple circuitry and low power consumption.
2. Equipment size of CW doppler radar is quite smaller than the pulse radar equipment.
3. CW radar is unaffected by the presence of stationary targets.
4. CW radar can operate down to zero range because, unlike in the pulsed radar system,
the transmitter is ON at all times.
5. CW radar can measure the direction of the targets in addition to its speed, moment of
troops and vehicles even in bad weather.
6. CW radar can be used for mobile applications because it used low transmiting power, low
power consumption, simple circuitry and small size.
8.17.2 Limitation of CW Radar

1. CW radar is limited in maximum transmitter power which effect on its maximum range
measurements.
2. CW radar is easily confused by the presence of a large number of targets.
3. The greatest drawback of CW radar is that the CW radar is incapable of measuring the
range of target.
4. In the CW radar transmitter power is ON all the time,
since necessary isolation is required between the
receiver and the transmitter. For isolation, filter may
be placed at the receiver input and many CW radar
uses two different antennas for transmission and
reception.
8.17.3 Applications of CW Radar

The CW radar provides a measurement of relative velocity
which may be used to distinguish moving targets from stationary
objects or clutter. The CW radar system has quite a number
of application. Some of the CW radar applications are:
1. Used in aircraft navigation for speed measurement.
2. Used in radar speed meters, photograph of radar speed
meter is shown in Fig. 8.16. Fig. 8.16. Photograph of radar
speed meter.
3. Used in rate-of-climb meter for vertical take-off planes.

4. Used to measure the speed of automobiles, shells, guides missiles etc.
5. CW radar may be used for the control of traffic lights, regulation of toll booths, vehicle
counting etc.
8.18 FREQUENCY MODULATED CW RADAR
CW radars have the disadvantage that they cannot measure the range, because there are no pulses
to time. In order to correct for this problem, frequency shifting methods can be used. In the
frequency shifting method, a signal that constantly changes in frequency around a fixed reference
is used to detect stationary objects. When a reflection is received the frequencies can be examined,
and by knowing when in the past that particular frequency was sent out, now range calculation
can be done as in the pulse radar. It is generally not easy to make a broadcaster that can sent
out random frequencies cleanly, so insteaded these Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave
(FM-CW) radars, use a smoothly varying “ramp” of frequencies up and down. Although use of
frequency modulation (FM) will involve an increase in bandwidth of the system this will also enable
more information to be transmitted.
Block Diagram: A block diagram of a frequency modulated CW (FM-CW) radar is shown
in Fig. 8.17. The signals from the saw tooth generator are frequency modulated. Thus transmitted
signal frequency increases linearly with the increasing amplitude of the modulating signal. A portion
of the transmitter signal acts as the reference signal required to produce that beat frequency in
mixer.
FM Fre q ue ncy S a w to oth

tra nsm itter m od ulator g en era to r
Tra nsm ittin g

a nte nn a R e feren ce
sig na l
M ixer A m p lifie r L im ite r
R e ce ivin g
a nte nn a
Fre q ue ncy
cou nter
In dica to r
Fig. 8.17. Block diagram of FM-CW radar.

The reference signal is directly introduced in the receiver through a cable. The output of the
mixer which produces the frequency difference between transmitted and received signal (i.e., beat
frequency) is amplified and remove any type of amplitude fluctuations. The frequency of the beat
note is measured with cycle counting frequency counter calibrated in distance. Finally indicated on
an indicator, which may be calibrated in feet or metre.
Operation: By measuring the frequency of the return signal, the time delay between
transmission and reception can be measure and therefore the range can be determine. The
simplest wave to modulate the wave is to linearly increase the frequency as shown in Fig. 8.18.
In other words, the transmitted frequency will change at a constant rate.
FM -C W
w a ve
Tra nsm itted R e ce ived

fre q
fre qu e ncy fre qu e ncy
f2
f1
Df
Tim e
T
Df
Tim e
Fig. 8.18. FM-CW theory of operation.

The FM-CW system measures the instantaneous difference between the transmitted and
received frequencies (∆f). This difference is directly proportional to the time delay (∆t), which is time
taken by the radar signal to reach the target and return back. From this the range can be found
using the usual formula
c ⋅ ∆t
R = ...(8.40)
2
The time delay (∆t) can be found as follows
∆t = T ∆f f2 − f1 c h ...(8.41)
where, f1 = Minimum frequency.
f2 = Maximum frequency.
T = Period of sweep from f1 and f2.
∆f = Frequency difference between transmitted and received signal.
There is a slight problem which occurs when the sweep resets the frequency and the frequency
difference becomes negative (as shown in the plot of ∆f vs time). The system uses a discriminator
to clip off the negative signal, leaving only the positive part, which is directly proportional to the
range.
Substituting eqn. (8.41) in eqn. (8.40), the range is
c
R = 2cT ∆f f2 − f1 h ...(8.42)
where ∆f is the difference between the transmitted and received frequency (when both are from
the same sweep, i.e., when it is positive).
8.18.1 FM-CW Radar Application

One of the major application of the FM-CW radar is aircraft radio altimeter to measure height
above the surface of the earth. The large target cross-section and the relatively short range
required of altimeters permit low transmitter power and low antenna gain.
8.18.2 Limitations of FM-CW Radar

FM-CW radar are not suitable for long range detection, because the continuous power level they
transmit at must be considerably lower than the peak power of a pulsed system. You may recall
that the peak and average power in a pulse system were related by duty cycle
Pave = DC × Ppeak ...(8.43)
For a continuous wave system, the duty cycle is one, or alternatively, the peak power is the
same as the average power. In pulsed system the peak power is many times greater than the
average power.
Example 8.11. With a CW transmitter frequency of 5 GHz, calculate the doppler
frequency seen by a stationary radar when the target radial velocity is 100 km/hr.
Solution. Given
Transmitter frequency ( f ) = 5 GHz
Target radial velocity (vr) = 100 km/hr
100 × 103
=
60 × 60
= 27.8 m/s
The doppler frequency is given as
2v r
fd =
λ
c 3 × 108
λ = = = 0.06 m
f 5 × 109
2 × 27.8
Thus, fd = = 926.66 Hz
0.06
Doppler frequency (fd) = 926.66 Hz
Example 8.12. A frequency modulated radar sweeps from 400 Hz to 800 MHz in
10 µ s. What is the maximum unambiguous range which can be measured by this radar?
Solution. From equation
c ⋅ ∆t
Rmax =
2
We have ∆t = 10 µ s
c = 3 × 108 m/s
By putting the values in above equation, we get
−6
Rmax =
e3 × 10 j × e10 × 10 j
8
= 1500 m
2
Maximum unambiguous range Rmax = 1.5 km
Example 8.13. CW radar transmit frequency of 10 GHz and doppler frequency is

1000 Hz. Calculate the radial velocity of the target is knots.
Solution. Given
Radar transmitter frequencies ( f ) = 10 GHz
Doppler frequency ( fd) = 1000 Hz
The doppler frequency ( fd ) is given as
2v r
fd =
λ
λ ⋅ fd
vr =
2
c 3 × 108
Since, λ = = = 0.03 m
f 10 × 109
By putting the value of λ and fd, we can get vr
0.03 × 1000
vr = = 15 m s
2
We know that 1 knot = 0.508 m/s
Thus, radial velocity in knot is
15
vr =
0.508
vr = 29.52 knots.
8.19 MOVING TARGET INDICATOR (MTI) RADAR
The moving target indicator (MTI) radar system very effectively handles moving targets such as
aircraft and is capable of measuring their range in the presence of strong clutter due to stationary
and even slow moving undesired objects such as building, clouds, rain etc.
Working Principle: A moving target indicator radar depends on the principle of doppler
shift. The doppler shift is not measured exactly in the same way as it is in case of a CW radar
where the process is more or less straight forward. A MTI radar, being a pulse system, relies on
the phase difference between the transmitted signal and the corresponding echo to compute the
doppler. The moving target indicator system compares a set of received echoes with those received
during the previous sweep and cancels out those whose phase has remained unchanged. This
applies to echoes due to stationary object but those due to moving target undergo a phase change
and are not cancelled. Since the clutter due to stationary target is removed, it permits not only a
easier determination of moving targets but also a reduction in time taken by an operator to take
in the display. The range of course, is measured from the time lapse between the transmit signal
and the received echo.
Ø MTI radar distinguish the moving target in the presence of fixed target even the
echo signal from fixed targets has comparatively greater magnitude than the moving
targets such as aircraft.
Ø MTI radar depends on the principle of doppler shift.
Ø MTI radar measures changes in phase of returned signal to determine target
motion.
Block Diagram of MTI Radar

The block diagram of moving target indicator (MTI) radar is shown in Fig. 8.19. MTI radar
employing a power amplifier as the transmitter. A multicavity klystron is used as power amplifier.
This amplifier provides the desired amplification for providing a high power pulse when modulator
switches on klystron tube. This transmitter pulse is connected to the duplexer. Duplexer connects
antenna to the receiver section and the transmitter section at proper instant of time.
P u lse
m od ulator
fv + fc
P o w er
D u plexer
a m p lifie r
A n te nn a
fo + fc fo + fc
fo Sta lo fo
M ixer 1 fo M ixer 2
fc
fc
IF C o ho
A m p lifie r fc
fc
P h ase
d ete ctor
A m p lifie r
2
D e la y A m p lifie r
S u btracto r
line r 1
M TI vide o ou tp ut
Fig. 8.19. Block diagram of MTI radar.
The reflected pulse from the target is received by the radar antenna. If the echo (reflected
pulse) is due to moving target, it undergoes a doppler frequency shift. The received pulse then pass
through mixer (1) of the receiver which heterodyne the received signal (fo + fc) with the output of
the Stable Local Oscillator (STALO) at fo and produces a difference frequency fc at its output.
Two mixers are used in MTI radar. Both the mixers are identical in all respects except that
phase relationship existing in their inputs, i.e., mixer (1) produces difference frequency output and
mixer (2) produces sum frequency output. The output frequency or difference frequency (fc) of the
mixer (1) is further amplified by an IF amplifier and is given to the phase sensitive detector or phase
discriminator. This is a mixer like device that combines the received signal (at IF) and the reference
signal from the COHO so as produce the difference between received signal (at IF) and reference
frequencies. The name COHO stands for coherent oscillator to signify that it is the reference signal
that has the same phase as the transmitter signal. The phase detector provides output for both
fixed and moving targets. Phase difference is same for all fixed targets but varies for moving
targets. For the moving targets, the doppler frequency shift is responsible for variation of phase
difference. If echo received by the MTI radar is due to the moving target, the echo pulse undergoes
a doppler frequency shift (± fd). The received echo pulses (fo + fc ± fd) then pass through mixer
(1) of the receiver which hytrodynes this signal with the output of STALO at fo and produces a
difference frequency (fc ± fd) at its output. After that.
This signal is amplified by IF amplifier and is given to the phase detector. The phase detector
compares the IF signal with the reference signal of COHO. The detector provides an output
depending upon the phase difference between these two signals. Doppler frequency shift causes
this variation in phase difference.
Therefore, the output of the phase detector will have an output that has different magnitudes
and polarities for successive pulses in case of a moving target. However, for fixed target the
magnitude and the polority will remain the same for all transmitted pulses as shown in Fig. 8.20
Fixe d ta rge t (P ha se re m ains

con stan t for a ll p ulse s)
(a ) P h ase
(b ) P h ase
(c) P h ase
(d ) S u btracting
N o ise
circuit o utpu t
M ovin g
ta rge ts
Fig. 8.20
The output of the phase detector is the input to the delay line which has a delay time
corresponding to PRF of the transmitted pulse (delay time Td = 1/PRF). The delayed output is
amplified by the amplifier (1) and given to the substracting circuit. At the same time the undelayed
output of the phase detector is amplified by an identical amplifier (2) and given to the substracting
circuit. For a stationary target signal pulses when substracted will cancel out and for moving target
at the subtractor input will have different magnitude and phase would not cancel each other. This
output then displayed in the usual manner.
8.20 BLIND SPEED IN MTI RADAR (MDU 2012, 2008)
Blind speed in a vary serious problem in MTI radar. If the target moving with uniform velocity, the
phase difference between successive pulses will have exactly 2π radian (360°). This is same as
having no phase shift at all. The target thus appears stationary and echoes from it are cancelled
by the MTI action. A radial velocity corresponding to this situation is known as blind speed. The
blind speed gives wrong radar indication.
Blind speed situation occur if a target moves an integer multiple of half wavelength (nλ/2,
n = 1, 2, ...), between successive pulse, the change in the phase shift will be precisely 2π radians.
This is equivalent to no phase
We may state that
nλ
vn = ...(8.44)
2⋅ T
nλ
or vn = PRF ⋅ ...(8.45)
2
where, vn = nth blind speed
λ = Wavelength of transmitted signal
n = Any integer (1, 2, 3, ...)
Blind speed can be a serious limitation in MTI radar, since they cause some desired moving
target to be cancelled along with the undesired clutter at zero frequency.
8.20.1 Methods for Reducing the Effect of Blind Speeds

The limitation of blind speed can be reduced up to some extend by employing following steps:
1. Operate the radar at long wavelength (means low frequency).
2. Operate with higher PRF.
3. Operate with more than one RF frequency.
4. Operate with more than one PRF.
Choice of these methods has particular advantages as well as limitations.
Example 8.14. A 3 cm MTI radar is operating at a PRF of 2000 Hz. Find the lowest
blind speed. (MDU 2011)
Solution. Given
Operating wavelength (λ) = 3 cm
Pulse repetition frequency (PRF) = 2000 Hz
Blind speed = (nλ/2) ⋅ PRF
For n = 1, the lowest blind speed
= (λ/2) ⋅ PRF
= (0.03/2) × 2000
= 30 m/s.
Example 8.15. Verify that the product of maximum unambiguous radial velocity ‘vr’ and
maximum unambiguous range ‘R’ is independent for radar’s PRF and is equal to ‘Kλ’, where
K is a constant.
Solution. Maximum unambiguous Doppler shift is related to the radar’s PRF as
fd = PRF/2
2v r
Since, fd =
λ
2v rPRF
Therefore, =
λ 2
which gives vr = λ ⋅ PRF/4 ...(1)
Also, the maximum unambiguous range ‘R’ is given as
c
R = ⋅ PRF ...(2)
2
From eqns. (1) and (2), we get
vr ⋅ R =
FG c IJ ⋅ λ
H 8K
Thus, vr ⋅ R = K ⋅ λ
where ‘K’ is constant and equal to (c/8).
Example 8.16. A MTI radar is operating at a PRF of 1 kHz. Find the lowest blind speed.
If it is operating at 2 cm wavelength.
Solution. Given
PRF = 1 kHz
Wavelength (λ) = 2 cm = 0.02 m
The blind speed is given as
nλ
Vb = ⋅ PRF
2
The blind speed will be lowest when n = 1.
Thus, lowest blind speed is
λ
Lowest blind speed = ⋅ PRF
2
0.02
= × 1000 = 10 m s
2
10 × 60 × 60
=
1000
Lowest blind speed = 36 km/hr
Example 8.17. If two MTI radar system are operating at the same PRF but with the
different operating frequencies and the second blind speed of one is equal to fourth speed
of the other radar. Find the ratio of their operating frequencies.
Solution. Let the operating frequency of first radar is fa and operating frequency of second
radar is fb.
We know that blind speed of radar is
nλ nc
Vb = ⋅ PRF = ⋅ PRF
2 2f
Second blind of first radar = 2 ×

c
⋅ PRF
2fa
Fourth blind speed of second radar
c
= 4× ⋅ PRF
2 fb
c c
Therefore, 2× ⋅ PRF = 4 × ⋅ PRF
2 fa 2 fb
fa 2 1
= =
fb 4 2
The ratio of operating frequency will be
fa 1
=
fb 2
Example 8.18. If two MTI radar system are operating at same PRF but with different
operating frequencies. The second blind speed of one is equal to fourth blind speed of the
other. Find the ratio of their operating frequencies.
Solution. Let the operating frequency of first radar is f1 and operating frequency of second
radar is f2.
Now, second blind speed of first radar =

LM2 × c OP × PRF
MN 2f PQ 1
L c OP × PRF
and fourth blind speed of second radar = M4 ×
MN 2f PQ 2
Therefore,
LM2 × c OP × PRF = LM4 × c OP × PRF
MN 2f PQ1 MN 2f PQ 2
2 4
=
f1 f2
f1 1
=
f2 2
Thus, operating frequency ratio is
f1 1
=
f2 2
Example 8.19. The MTI radar is used by traffic control police to measure the speed of
vehicles. If the doppler frequency shift measured from the moving vehicle is 1.5 kHz. Calculate
the speed of vehicle, if radar is operating at 1 GHz with PRF of 1000 Hz.
Solution. Given
Doppler frequency shift ( fd) = 1.5 kHz
Pulse repetition frequency (PRF ) = 1000 Hz
The wavelength of signal is
λ = c f = 3 × 108 1 × 109 = 0.3 m
The doppler frequency shift is
2vr
fd =
λ
The speed of vehicle (vr) is
fd ⋅ λ
vr =
2
1500 × 0.3
vr =
2
vr = 225 m/s
225 × 60 × 60
or vr = km hr
1000
vr = 810 km/hr.
8.21 PULSED DOPPLER RADAR
Pulsed doppler radar measures changes in frequency shift of returned signal to determine target
motion in the presence of clutter. Ambiguities can arise in both the doppler frequency (relative
velocity) and the range measurement. Doppler frequency ambiguities are avoided with high pulse
repetition frequency (PRF). In most application the pulse repetition frequency cannot be selected
to avoid both types of measurement ambiguities.
MTI usually refers to a radar in which the pulse repetition frequency is chosen enough low
to avoid ambiguities in range, but with the consequence that the frequency measurement is
ambiguous and the pulsed doppler radar, on the other hand, has a high pulse repetition frequency
that avoids blind speeds, but it experiences ambiguities in range. Therefore, a radar that increases
its PRF high enough to avoid the problem of blind speed is known as pulsed doppler radar.
Pulsed doppler radar is classified as high PRF and as medium PRF. In high PRF pulsed radar
there is ambiguity in the range but unambiguities in velocity. In the medium PRF there is ambiguities
in range and velocity both.
Block Diagram
This system adds additional processing equipment to the basic pulse radar system. A sample of the
transmitted signal is directed to the mixer, which also samples the output from the receiver as
shown in Fig. 8.21. The output of mixer is the doppler shift (∆f). The doppler shift passed to a
filter, which modifies the display information accordingly. The most common application of doppler
filter is to colour code the return information on the PPI display as shown in Fig. 8.22.
ft
Tra nsm itter
D u plexer
fr
M ixer R e ce ive r
Df
D o pp le r D isp la y
filte r (P P I)
Fig. 8.21. Block diagram of pulsed doppler radar system.

0 00 °
5°
31
04
5°
M ovin g
P o sitive
to w ards = B la ck B lack
2 70 °
09 0°
Ze ro
Df W h ite
M ovin g N e ga tive
a w ay = W h ite G re y
S tation ary = G re y
(b ) D o pp le r filte r
5°
22
13
5°
1 80 °
(a ) P P I d isplay
Fig. 8.22. Pulsed doppler radar system.
The doppler shift is sorted into three possible categories, as shown in Fig. 8.22 (b), for
example positive, zero and negative, which are then associated with colours. Here three colours
are used: white, grey and black. If there is a black spot on the PPI indicator, then this indicate that
target is moving towards the radar. The white spot on PPI indicates that the target is moving away
from radar and grey spot indicate the stationary target.
8.21.1 Applications of Pulse Doppler Radar
Pulse doppler radar systems are used in numerous military applications. They are also the standard
weather radar throughout the country. The pulse doppler radar can detect and graphically display
information about the relative motion of wind inside the strom cells and has proved useful in
detecting tornadoes.
8.21.2 Pulsed Doppler Applications and Requirements

Table 8.4 shows the various applications of pulse doppler radar and requirements.
Table 8.4. Pulse doppler applications and requirements.
S.No. Radar application Requirements
1. Airborne or space borne surveillance. Long detection range, accurate range data.
2. Airborne interceptor or fire control. Medium detection range, accurate range, velocity
data.
3. Ground-base surveillance. Medium detection range, accurate range data.
4. Battlefield surveillance (slow-moving Medium detection range, accurate range, velocity
target detection). data.
5. Missile seeker. May not need true range information.
6. Ground based weapon control. Short range, accurate range, velocity data.
7. Meteorological. High velocity and range data resolution.
8. Missile warning. Short detection range, very low false-alarm rate.
Example 8.20. A MTI radar is operating at 10 GHz frequency. Find the 4th blind
speed, if pulse repetition frequency is 1 kHz.
Solution. Given
PRF = 1 kHz
Operating frequency ( f ) = 10 GHz = 10 × 109
= 1010 Hz
c 3 × 108
Since, λ = = = 0.03 m
f 1010
The blind speed is given as
nλ
Vb = ⋅ PRF
2
n × 0.03
Vb = × 1000
2
= n.15 m/s
The 4th blind speed, for n = 4, is
4th blind speed = 4 × 15
= 60 m/s
Example 8.21. A pulse doppler radar has a carrier frequency of 9 GHz and PRF of
4000 Hz. Find its blind doppler frequencies and the radial velocity of target which would be
undected by the radar.
Solution. Given
Carrier frequency ( f ) = 9 GHz
PRF = 400 Hz
The blind doppler frequency is given as

Blind doppler frequency = n ⋅ PRF
= n ⋅ 4000 Hz
The first blind doppler frequency (n = 1) is = 4000 Hz
The second blind doppler frequency (n = 2) is = 2 × 4000 Hz = 8000 Hz
Now, radial velocity of target which would be undected by the radar or blind speed is given
as
nλ
Vb = ⋅ PRF
2
c 3 × 108
Wavelength (λ) = = = 0.033 m
f 9 × 109
n × 0.033
Vb = × 4000
2
Vb = n ⋅ 66.67 m/s
Any integer multiple of 66.67 m/s is undected by this radar system.
Example 8.22. A pulse doppler radar has carrier frequency of 9 GHz. What modification
can be made to radar that would eliminate blind speeds below 2000 m/s? Find out the
maximum unambigious range of that modified radar system.
Solution. Given
Blind speed (Vb ) = 2000 m/s
We know that
c 3 × 108
λ = = = 0.033 m
f 9 × 109
and blind speed is given as
nλ
Vb = ⋅ PRF
2
n × 0.033
2000 = ⋅ PRF
2
For n = 1, i.e., first blind speed
2 × 2000
PRF = = 121212 Hz
0.033
PRF = 121.21 kHz
Maximum unambiguous range is given as
c ⋅ ∆t
Runam =
2
1 1
where ∆t = PRT = = sec
PRF 121.12 × 103
3 × 108 1
Thus, Runam = ×
2 . × 103
12121
Runam = 1237.52 m
Runam = 1.237 km.
8.22 LIMITATIONS OF MTI AND PULSED DOPPLER RADAR
Disadvantage of MTI and pulse doppler radar is that they cannot measure velocities above a certain
value, known as the first blind speed or maximum unambiguous speed.
There are two ways to fix this problem. The first is to increase the PRF of course, this will
reduce the maximum unambiguous detection range accordingly. The other is to vary the PRF.
Ambiguous returns will vary either in range or velocity, while accurate ones will not. This does not
solve the problem, but can be used to identify conditions where the target range and target radial
speed are beyond the unambiguous limit.
8.23 COMPARISON BETWEEN MTI AND PULSED DOPPLER RADAR
Table 8.5 gives the comparison between MTI and pulsed doppler radar.
Table 8.5. Comparison between MTI and pulsed doppler radar.
S.No. MTI Radar Pulse Doppler
1. Measures changes in phase of returned Measures changes in frequency shift of returned

signal to determine target motion. signal to determine target motion.
2. Low PRF High PRF
3. Duty cycle < 10% Duty cycle > 10%
4. Commonly used in search radar Used as weather radar and military radar
5. Low sensitivity High sensitivity
6. Less capable of reducing clutter. More capable of reducting clutter.
7. Do not provide target velocity Provide good estimates of target velocity.
estimation.
8. Low PRF MTI radar with no range High PRF pulsed doppler radar with just the
ambiguities and many doppler frequency opposite: many range ambiguities and no doppler
ambiguities. frequency ambiguities.
Moving Target Indicator (MTI) Radar

• Distinguishes moving target from the stationary background by doppler shift. Only those
echoes with a frequency shift are displayed. The reflections from the background are
known as clutter.
• MTI uses a low PRF to avoid range ambiguity, and gives a large range.
• The blind range is small because the receiver is only disabled for a small percentage of
the time.
• The low PRF reduces the number of hit per target as the radar beam is scanned. This
reduces the radar sensitivity.
Pulse Doppler Radar

• Uses high PRF to avoid blind speeds.
• Short unambiguous range, more extended blind range.
• More hits per target increases sensitivity.
Ø Hits per target gives the number of pulses that hit the target as the radar beam
is scanned.
8.24 APPLICATIONS RADAR (MDU 2009, 2005, 2004)
Radar is used for variety of applications. Major areas of application can be categorized into three
type as shown in Fig. 8.23.
1. Civilian applications.
2. Military applications.
3. Space applications.
A p plicatio ns o f ra da r
C ivilia n ap plicatio ns M ilitary a pp lication s S cie ntific ap plicatio ns
• A ir tra ffic co ntro l • A ir a nd m arine n avig atio n • Space

• S h ip safe ty • D e tection a nd tra cking o f • R e m o te sen sing
• La w e nforce m e nt aircra ft a nd m issile • A stro no m y
• W ea th er forecasting • G uide d m issile s • D istan ce m e asu rem e nt
• A ltim e te r • A ircraft lan d in g system • G eo g rap hica l m a pp in g
• M ap ping an d im ag in g
• A ircraft lan d in g system • In strum e nta tio n
Fig. 8.23. Various applications of radar.
8.24.1 Civilian Applications

Radar system has many civilian applications. Some civilian applications of radar are given below.
1. Air Traffic control: Radar used to provide air traffic controllers with position and other
information on aircraft flying within their area of responsibility. The high resolution radar
is used at large airports to monitor aircraft and ground vehicles on the runways taxiways
and ramps. The GCA (ground controlled approach) or PAR (precision approach radar)
provides on operator with high accuracy aircraft position information in both the vertical
and horizontal. The operator uses this information to guide the aircraft to a landing in bad
weather. The MLS (microwave landing system) and ATC radar beacon systems are based
on radar technology.
2. Ship Safety: There are one of the least expensive, most reliable and largest applications
of radar. Radar is found on ships and boats for collision avoidance and to observe
navigation buoys, especially when the visibility is poor. The automatic detection and
tracking equipments are available with these radar for collision avoidance. Similarly shore
based radar of moderate resolution are used from harbour surveilliance.
3. Law Enforcement: The radar speed meter, familiar to many, is used by police for
enforcing speed limits. Radar has been considered for making vehicles safer by warning
of ponding collision, actuating the air bag or warning of obstructions or people behind a
vehicle or in the side blind zone.
4. Weather Forecasting: Weather radar is a key tool for meteorology, with display of
precipitation and wind speeds types being quite familiar to the general public. More
specialized meteorological radars detect and measure extreme wind phenomena, such as
tornadoes, wind shear at airports, and hurricanes. Due to the large areas covered by
cyclones, hurricanes, tropical storms and typhoons, radar for that application are likely to
be in a space satellite.
5. Altimeter: The major application of radar is aircraft radio altimeter to measure hight
above the surface of the earth.
8.24.2 Military Applications

Radar originally was developed to meet the needs of the military, and it continues to have
significant applications for military purposes. For instance, radars are used to detect aircrafts,
missiles, artillery and mortar projectiles, ships, land vehicles, and satellities. In addition, radar
controls and guides weapons. Some of the military application of radar are given below.
Land Warfare: Various radars are used for warning of incoming mortar shells, free-flight
rockets, and howitzer shells. These radar can track the incoming fire’s trajactory back to its source,
and send targeting information to retaliatory weapons before the incoming fire lands.
Marine Navigation: Radars for navigation need to high immunity to rain and waves, and
still see small targets such as buoys as well as nearby ships and land masses. Military marine
navigation radars operates in G-band (4–6 GHz).
Guided Missiles: In guided missiles system, there are co-operating radar set both on the
ground and the missiles. By downlinking its radar picture to the ground control station, the
missible control system can be extremely accurate by correlating the missible view with the ground
radar view.
Air Navigation: The radar altimeter measures the height of an enemy’s aircraft above the
local terrain, Doppler navigation radar determines the aircraft’s own speed and direction, and high-
resolution radar mapping of the ground contributes to its navigation. Radars carried aboard aircraft
also provide information about the location of dangerous weather so that it can be avoided. Military
aircraft can fly at low altitudes with the aid of terrain-avoidance and terrain-following radars that
warn of obstacles.
8.24.3 Space Applications

Radars have been used in space for docking and landing of spacecraft. The large ground based
radars are used for detection and tracking of satellites. The satellite-borne radars used for remote
sensing (SAR, Synthetic Aperture Radar).
Remote Sensing: All radars are remote sensors, and used for sensing geophysical object
(the environment). The radar astronomy are used to probe the moon and planets. The earth
resources monitoring radars measure and map sea conditions, water resources, ice cover, agricultural
land use, forest conditions, geological formations, environment pollution.
Instrumentation: Surveyors may make use of special radars to measure distances. CW
radar are used to measure speed in certain industrial application. For this sensor does not make
contact with the object whose speed is to be determined. Instrumentation radars are employed at
missile test ranges for precision tracking of targets.
8.25 DIFFERENT TYPES OF RADAR
Radar system may be divided into types based on the designed used. This section presents the
general characteristics of several commonly used radar systems.
Search Radar: Search radars continuously scans a volume of space and provides initial
detection of all targets within that space. Search radar systems are further divided into specific
types, according to the type of object they are designed to detect. For example, surface-search,
air-search, and height-finding radars are all types of search radar.
Surface-search Radar: A surface-search radar systems has two primary functions (1) the
detection and determination of accurate ranges and bearing of surface objects and low-flying
aircraft and (2) the maintenance of a 360° search pattern for all objects within line-of-sight distance
from the radar antenna. Surface-search radar is used to dected the presence of surface craft and
low-flying aircraft and to determine their presence.
Air-search Radar: Air-search radar systems initially detect and determine the position,
course, and speed of air targets in a relatively large area. The maximum range of air-search radar
can exceed 300 miles, and the bearing converage 360° circle.
Height-finding Search Radar: The primary function of height-finding radar (sometimes
referred to as a three-coordinate or 3D radar) is that of computing accurate ranges, bearing, and
altitudes of aircraft targets detected by air-search radars.
Laser Radar: Laser radars or lidars operates at infrared and optical frequencies, also suffer
from attenuation by the atmosphere, especially in bad weather, and therefore are limited utility.
Laser radar systems, however, have been used for precision range, finding in weapon control and
for distance measuring in surveying. They also have been considered for use on board spacecraft
to probe the nature of the atmosphere.
Tracking Radar: Conceptually, a tracking radar continuously follows a single target in angle
(azimuth and elevation) and range to determine its current position and projected path. The most
tracking radar systems used by the military are also called fire-control radar, the two names are
often used interchangeably. Fire-control tracking radar systems usually produce a very narrow,
circular beam.
High Frequency Over-the-Horizon Radar: The high frequency over-the-horizon

(HF- OTH) radar operates in the high frequency (HF) portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
(3–30 MHz), where the electromagnetic wave “bounce” off the ionospheric layer of the upper
atmosphere. OTH radar of this type can give coarse early warning of targets up to 2,000 nm away.
Synthetic Aperture Radar: Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is employed on an aircraft or
satellite and generally its antenna beam is oriented perpendicular to its direction of travel. The SAR
achieves high resolution in angle (cross range) by storing the sequentially received signals in
memory over a period of time and then adding them as if they were from a large array antenna.
Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar: Inverse synthetic aperture radar (ISAR) is similar to
SAR, except that it obtains cross range resolution by using Doppler frequency shift that results
from target movements relative to the radar.
K EYWORDS
• Blind speed: These are those radial speeds of the moving targets which produce a doppler shift
that is integral multiple of the PRF of the transmitted pulse train. Radar fails to detect such
speeds and to the radar it appears as if the target were stationary.
• Monopulse radar: A type of tracking radar that generates the required tracking error signals
from a single pulse.
• Moving target indicator: A type of radar display that can effectively measure the radial velocity
and range of a moving target even in the presence of clutters.
• Radar: Radar is an electronic system that uses reflected electromagnetic energy to detect the
presence and position of objects invisible to the eye.
• Range: Range is distance from the radar site to the target measured along and line of sight.
• Pulse-repetition time: Pulse-repetition time (PRT) is the time between the beginning of one
pulse and beginning of the next pulse and is reciprocal of PRF.
• Doppler radar: A radar system which differentiates between fixed and moving targets by
detecting the change in frequency of the reflected wave caused by the doppler effects. The
system can also measure target velocity with high accuracy.
• Doppler frequency: The doppler frequency is the change in observed frequency of radar, due
to the relative motion between the radar and target or object.
• Radar cross-section (RCS): Measure of radar reflectivity. The radar cross-section (RCS) is
expressed in terms of the physical size of an hypothetical uniform scattering sphere that would
give rise to the same level of reflection as that observed from the sample target.
• Airborne radar: An airborne radar is carried by an aircraft.
• Bistatic radar: A bistatic radar system uses different antennas for transmission and reception.
• Blind range: Targets falling within the blind range from the radar system are not detected.
• Maximum unambiguous range: The pusle repetition frequency (PRF) of a radar system determines
the maximum operating range of the radar before ambiguities start to occur. This is called the
maximum unambiguous range of the radar.
• Resolution: It is the ability of the radar to distinguish between two closely spaced targets.
• Ambiguity: The inability of the radar to distinguish between two closely spaced targets.
1. Discuss various radar applications. Discuss various microwave signal generator used as radar
transmitters. (MDU 2009, 2005, 2004)
2. With the !help of schematic block diagram, explain radar transreceiver system. Derive the
expression for radar range equation. (MDU 2012, 2010, 2009, 2007)
3. With the help of block diagram, explain the working of pulse radar. (UPTU 2006)
4. Describe doppler effect and how it is utilized in CW radars. With support of mathematical
equations. Explain the operating principle and working of FM-CW radar. (UPTU 2006)
5. Describe MTI radars. (UPTU 2006)
6. Derive rad!ar range equation. What is doppler effect and how it is useful in long distance
communication? (MDU 2004; UPTU 2007)
7. Write short note on pulse radar. (UPTU 2007)
8. With block diagram explain the working of any radar. (MDU 2012, 2009; UPTU 2008)
9. Describe the operating principle and application of MTI radars. (UPTU 2008)
10. Explain the working of CW radar with help of block diagram. (UPTU 2004)
11. Explain, with neat diagram, how target velocity can be obtained by CW radar. (UPTU 2003)
12. Draw block diagram of CW doppler radar with non-zero IF receiver and explain it..
(UPTU 2006)
13. Calculate the minimum receivable signal in radar receiver which has an intermediate bandwidth
of 1. 9 MHz and a 8 dB noise figure. (UPTU 2004)
14. Calculate tlhe maximum range of radar operating at 3 GHz and using a peak pulse power of
28 MW. The antenna diameter is 60 m, the target cross-section is 1 m 2 , the receiver noise
Fig. 8.8 (power factor) and receiver bandwidth is 6 kHz. (UPTU 2004)
15. Derive an radar range equation considering internal noise of receiver. (UPTU 2003)
1. If the antenna diameter in a radar system is increased by a factor of 9, then the maximum range
will increase by a factor of
(a) ..J3 (b) 3
(c) 9 (d) 81
2. The pulse repetition frequency in a radar system is determined primarily from
(a) transmitter power
(b) SIN ratio
(c) the minimum range at which targets are expected
(d) the maximum range at which targets are expected
3. For a given bandwidth of the receiver in a radar system, high discrimination between targets is
achieved, when the
(a) PRF is high (b) receiver sensitivity is high
(c) pulse width is increased (d) diameter of the antenna aperture is increased
4. The blind speed of an MTI radar can be avoided by changing the
(a) carrier frequency (b) pulse repetition frequency
(c) antenna rotation rate (d) transmitted power
5. The maximum unambiguous range is a system depeneds on
(a) maximum power of the transmitter (b) pulse repetition frequency
(c) width of the transmitted pulse (d) sensitivity of the radar receiver
6. Which one of the following is referred to as the “night effect” in radio direction finding?
(a) Errors due to additional propagation paths
(b) Site errors due to reflection of energy from nearby objects
(c) Errors due to bats flying
(d) Error due to fog
7. In radar system, pulse repetition frequency is used to resolve range and doppler ambiguities using
(a) CW radar (b) pulsed radar
(c) moving target indicator (d) pulse-doppler radar
8. A pulse compression radar is operating with expanded and compressed pulse widths of
5 microseconds and 100 nanoseconds respectively. Its range resolution is
(a) 160 m (b) 1.7 km
(c) indeterminate from given data (d) 15 m
9. One of the following is an HF radar system
(a) MTI (b) Pulse doppler
(c) FM-CW (d) Over the horizon radar
10. One of the following radar systems has both a higher detection capability as well as a higher
range resolution
(a) MTI (b) Tracking radar
(c) Pulse doppler radar (d) Pulse compression radar
11. When the target is moving with a speed equal to the lowest blind speed, the doppler shift equals
(a) twice the PRF (b) one half the PRF
(c) equals to PRF (d) none of these
12. A radar in which the radar beam is steered electronically is
(a) tracking radar (b) synthetic aperture radar
(c) phase array radar (d) MTI radar
13. If the target cross-section is rapidly changing, the best choice for accurate tracking is
(a) monopulse tracking (b) sequential loping
(c) lobe switching (d) conical scan tracking
14. The maximum PRF that can be used for a maximum unambiguous range is given by
(a) c 2 R max (b) c R max
(c) 2 c Rmax (d) R max 2c

15. A ship sailing at a radial speed of 10 m/s towards an HF radar operating at 3 MHz would
produce a doppler shift of
(a) 0.1 Hz (b) 0.2 Hz
(c) 1 Hz (d) 2 kHz
16. A high PRF will not
(a) increase the maximum range
(b) make the returned echoes easier to distinguish from noise
(c) make target tracking easier with conical scanning
(d) have any effect on the range resolution
17. The problem of third blind speed can be overcome by
(a) varying the PRF (b) using monopulse
(c) using MTI (d) changing the doppler frequency
18. In MTI radars, a quartz delay line is provided to
(a) match the phase of the COHO and the output oscillator
(b) match the phase of the COHO and the stalo
(c) help in substracting a complete scan from the previous scan
(d) delay a sweep so that the next sweep can be substracted from it
19. A CW doppler radar does not gives
(a) the target range (b) the target position
(c) the target velocity (d) all of the above
20. Doppler effect is not used in
(a) FM radar (b) MTI radar
(c) CW radar (d) moving target plotting on the PPI
A NSWERS
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (c)
7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. (c)
13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (c)
19. (a) 20. (d)
qqq
CHAPTER
9
Radar Transmitters and Receivers
Introduction
Radar Transmitter
Division of Radar Transmitters
Radar RF Sources
Vacuum Tube Transmitter
Solid State Transmitter
Vacuum Tube vs Solid State Transmitter
Radar Receiver
Front End Amplifier
INSIDE THE CHAPTER
Modulators
Mixer
Duplexer
Receiver Protector
Receiver Noise
Radar Antenna
Feed Systems for Paraboloid Reflector
Radar Display
Types of Radar Display
Radar Clutter
Types of Radar Clutter
Radar Equations for Surface Clutter
Sea Clutter
Clutter Reduction
Land Clutter
Radome
Keywords
Review Questions
533
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Radar transmitter is used to generate the adequate RF power in any radar system. Radar transmitters
are based on either a power amplifier, such as klystron, travelling wave tube, cross-field amplifier
or solid state device. A power oscillator such as magnetron can also be used as the transmitter,
but the magnetron usually is of limited average power compared with power amplifier especially
the klystron, which can produce much larger average power than the magnetron and is more
stable. The radar signal waveforms are generated by the waveform generator, modulated by a high
frequency carrier and the modulated signal is raised to the desired power level in the transmitter
portion.
The radar receiver detect the presence of the echo and extract information in the presence
of noise. The radar receiver evolved directly from the simple radio receiver. The radar receiver
operates on exactly the same principles as the radio receiver. However, the overall requirements
and limitations of a radar receiver differ somewhat from those of radio receiver because of the
higher frequencies involved and the greater sensitivity desired. The superheterodyne receiver is
widely used in radars because of its sensitivity high gain.
Ø Radar transmitter is used to generate the adequate RF power in any radar system.
Ø Superheterodyne receiver is widely used in radars.
9.2 RADAR TRANSMITTER (MDU 2004)
The radar transmitter produces the adequate high power RF power in any radar system. The radar
range equation shows that the transmitter power depends on the fourth power of radar range.
Hence, to double the range, it is necessary to increase transmitter power 16-fold. The transmitter
system is generally the main consumer of the power, cost, and weight, budgets, and is the prime
thermal load of radar system. The radar transmitter is required to have the following technical and
operating characteristics.
• The transmitter must have a suitable RF bandwidth.
• The transmitter must have a high RF stability to meet signal processing requirements.
• The transmitter must be easily modulated to meet waveform design requirements.
• The transmitter must be efficient, reliable and easy to maintain.
• The transmitter size and weight must be suitable for intended applications.
• The life expectancy and cost of transmitter must be acceptable.
Other considerations include modulation requirement, X-ray protection, and the method of
cooling. A transmitter is a major part of radar system, hence its size, cost, reliability, and
maintainability can significantly affect the size, cost, reliability and maintainability of the radar
system of which it is a part.
Ø Radar transmitter is used to generate the adequate RF power in any radar system.
Ø Radar transmitter should provide sufficient power to detect a target, be easily
modulated to produce the desired waveform, provide the proper signal bandwidth,
be easy to maintain, have long life, be of a size and weight suitable for intended
applications.
Radar Transmitters and Receivers 535
9.3 DIVISION OF RADAR TRANSMITTERS
Radar transmitters are based on either a power oscillator or power amplifier such as magnetron
oscillator and klystron or TWT or CFA amplifier respectively.
9.3.1 High Power Oscillator as Transmitter

In this transmitter one stage or tube, usually magnetron produces RF pulse. The oscillator tube is
keyed by a high power DC pulse of energy generated by a separate unit called the modulator.
There must be a DC power supply for generating the necessary voltage and current to operate
the RF power devices, modulator, cooling for the tube, protection devices, safety interlocks and
mointoring devices insulators. This transmitting system is called POT (Power Oscillator Transmitter).
A self-excited oscillator transmitter configuration is shown in Fig. 9.1.
H ig h po w e r
P o w er R a da r o scilla tor
sup ply m od ulator (M ag ne tro n)
Fig. 9.1. Power oscillator transmitter.
9.3.2 High Power Amplifier as Transmitter

Power Amplifier Transmitter (PAT) is used in many recently developed radar sets. This type of
transmitter consist of a low power stable oscillator (example crystal oscillator) whose output is
amplified to the required power level by one or more amplifier states as shown in Fig. 9.2. The
klystron, travelling wave tube, and the crossed-field amplifier are examples of microwave power
amplifier tubes.
A m p lifie r stag e s
P o w er S tab le 1 st A m plifier 2 nd A m p lifie r

sup ply o scilla tor TW T klystron
Fig. 9.2. Power amplifier transmitter.

The choice between the two types of transmitter is governed by particular radar application.
Table 9.1 gives the comparison between the power oscillator transmitter and power amplifier
transmitter.
Table 9.1. Comparison between power oscillator and power amplifier radar transmitter.
S.No. Power oscillator transmitter Power amplifier transmitter
1. Physical size is smaller. Larger physical size.

2. Generate lower power. Generate higher power.
3. Low frequency stability. Better frequency stability.
4. Used in airborne radar where high Used in MTI and doppler radar, where high power
frequency stability are not much needed and frequency stability are important.
but small size and portability are
important.
Ø Radar transmitters are based on either a power oscillator or power amplifier.

Ø Magnetron is used in power oscillator transmitter.
Ø The klystron, travelling wave tube, and the cross-field amplifier are examples of
microwave power amplifier tubes.
9.4 RADAR RF SOURCES
There are different RF power sources available for high power radar application include the
klystron, travelling wave tube, solid state transistor amplifier magnetron, cross-field amplifier gyrotron
and others. None provide all desirable features that might be wanted. Each of these devices are
briefly summarized below. All are power amplifier except magnetron. The gyrotron can be either
an amplifier or an oscillator.
1. Klystron: Klystron has high gain and good efficiency and is capable of higher average
and peak power than most other RF power sources. It can have a wide bandwidth when
its power is large enough, long life, low interpulse noise, and good stability for doppler
processing.
2. Travelling Wave Tube: In comparison to the klystron, TWTs have slightly less power,
slightly less gain, and slightly less efficiency but they are capable of wide bandwidth,
especially at low power levels.
3. Hybrid Klystron: By combining the advantages of the klystron and the travelling wave
tube into a single device it is possible to obtain a high power amplifier with a bandwidth,
efficiency and gain better than can be obtained with either the usual klystron or TWT. One
of such device is the Twystron, which is a hybrid consisting of multicavity klystron input
section coupled to an extended interaction travelling wave output section. The limitation
to bandwidth of a klystron is generally the output cavity. It cannot be made broadband
without a decrease in efficiency. The slow-wave circuits of travelling wave tubes have a
broader bandwidth than klystron resonant cavities, and when used for the output of a
klystron, as in the Twystron, a broad bandwidth can be achieved with peak and average
power capabilities of a klystron.
4. Solid State Transmitter Amplifier: These types of RF sources are operated with low
voltage. They are inherently of low power so that a large number of individual devices
must be combined to generate sufficient power for most radar application for better
efficiency. Microwave transistor, microwave diode, or electron bombarded semiconductor
devices are used in solid-state radar transmitter.
5. Cross-Field Amplifier: In cross-field amplifier, like the magnetron, electric field and
magnetic field are perpendicular to each other. These are capable of high power, good
efficiency and wide bandwidth, but are of relatively low gain.
6. Magnetron: The magnetron is a oscillator, which utilize lower power than klystron. The
magnetron power oscillator has probably seen more application in radar than any other
tube. It is the only power oscillator widely used in radar. The magnetron is of low cost,
small size and weight, high efficiency and has an operating voltage low enough not to
generate dangerous X-rays.
7. Gyrotron: A gyrotron is a microwave device using a relativistic electron beam and
converting constant electron energy to microwave energies in an intense electromagnetic
field. They can produce very high power in millimetre wave region, but they requires large
magnetic field. Its use in radar is limited.
The klystron amplifier provides the high power, high gain, good efficiency and
stability for MTI and pulse compression applications.
Magnetron is the only power oscillator widely used in radar.
Travelling wave tube have wider bandwidth but at the expense of less gain.
9.5 VACUUM TUBE TRANSMITTER
A vacuum tube transmitter uses as the principal components that are microwave tube oscillators
or amplifiers. The most common types are crossed-field tubes such as magnetron, crossed-field
amplifier (amplitron), and linear beam tubes like klystron, travelling wave tube. Each of these
components has some advantages and disadvantages, which have to be assessed when the choice
is made for specific transmitter. The factors that most often dominate in tube selection are
obtainable peak and average power, gain, bandwidth, operating voltage, spurious noise level, size,
weight, cost and availability. All these factors must be considered for the chosen frequency band
of radar operation. In general, linear beam tubes are less noisy and have higher gain compared
with crossed-field tubes, but the latter are smaller, lighter, have lower operating voltages and are
less costly.
Vacuum tube transmitter provides high power signal than solid state transmitter.
9.6 SOLID STATE TRANSMITTER
A solid state transmitter is a transmitter using solid state devices as the principal active components.
There are three main groups of solid state devices that can be used in radar transmitters microwave
transistors, microwave diode and electron bombardment semiconductor devices.
The main representatives of microwave transistors that can be a choice for solid state
transmitters are bipolar transistors and field effect transistors (FETs). There are three main
disadvantages that have power transistors from the point of view of their use in radar transmitters.
1. The CW power that can be obtained from a single transistor is small compared with the
power that can be obtained with a tube, typically not exceeding tens of watts. To increase
the power output, transistors may be operated in parallel, but too large number cannot
be used because of losses occurring in combining. Typically two to eight transistors can
be combined in single power module.
2. Transistors in principle are average power devices (while tubes typically are peak power
devices), their peak power outputs being limited by electrical characteristics, and as a
result they are usually operated with relatively long pulse widths and high duty cycles.
3. The power output of microwave transistor decreases inversely as the square of frequency
(approximately 6 dB/octave), so conventional silicon bipolar transistor with appreciable
power output can be used only up to S-band. To increase operating frequency, frequency
multipliers can be used (e.g., varactor frequency multiplier).
Diode components operating as low power oscillators or negative resistance amplifiers are
usually considered for millimetre wave solid state power sources. The most promising results have
been obtained for IMPATT and Gunn diodes. The output power of tens watts and efficiency up
to 20% for these devices has been reported. A hybrid approach that combines semiconductor and
vacuum tube technology resulted in electron bombardment semiconductor device containing a
heated cathode that generates an electron beam striking a semiconductor diode at high energy.
Such device can be broadband, have a high gain (25 to 35 dB), high efficiency (50%), but at the
expense of lacking of some primary advantages of solid state devices as it requires high power
supply and cathode heating.
9.7 VACUUM TUBE VS SOLID STATE TRANSMITTER
The cohice between vacuum tube and the solid state components is of primary importance for
radar designer when the type of transmitter is under consideration, as it affects the image of the
whole facility. The main advantages of solid state transmitters as compared with tube transmitters
are the following:
1. Considerable simplification of operational service, and maintenance requirements as the
transmitter operates at much lower voltages.
2. There is no need in hot cathodes, high power modulators and other complex high power
elements.
3. Air-cooling may be employed.
4. The risk of dangerous X-rays and electric shock is eliminated.
5. No pulse modulator is required, as solid state microwave devices generally are self-pulsing.
6. Wide bandwidth (up to 50% compared with 10 to 20% in tubes).
7. Long, failure free life and graceful degradation of system performance as the system
usually consists of large number of modules.
8. Improved and compact technology (e.g., employing active transceiver modules for phased
array radars), that makes it possible to develop inexpensive, compact, light and reliable
entirely solid state radars.
The main problem restricting usage of entirely solid state transmitters arises from the fact that
in many radar applications the requirement for high average power is fundamental, while the
output power of the basic power generating, solid state unit is rather small. The solution is to
combine large numbers of solid state components to achieve required power levels. This requires
careful design to minimize combining losses and ensure good transmitter efficiency. Table 9.2 gives
some characteristics comparison between vacuum tube and solid state transmitter.
Table 9.2. Comparison between vacuum tube and solid state transmitter
Parameters Vacuum tube transmitter Solid state transmitter
Output power High (10 kW to 1 MW) Low (10 W to 100 W)

Cost per unit High Low
Size Bulky and heavy Small
Application • Dish antenna • Active array
• Passive array • Digital array
Bandwidth Wide bandwidth (up to 50%) Narrow bandwidth (up to 20%)
Figure 9.3 shows the photographs of the vacuum tube and solid state radar transmitter and
Fig. 9.4 shows the cut-view of a typical waveguide coupled magnetron oscillator transmitter.
(a ) S e lf-oscillating tran sm itte r u sing (b ) S o lid state am plifier of th e AT C -ra da r A S R -E

a m ag ne tro n (AT C - rad ar A S R - 91 0 ) (m an u factu rer : E A D S )
Fig. 9.3. Photographs of radar transmitters.
A n te nn a
A n te nn a
Tw ist fe ed
9 0° (E -p la ne
b en ds) Iris
R o ta ry
jo in t
Iris
D irection al
cou pler
C h oke jo in t 9 0° (E -p la ne
W a ve g uide b en ds)
slo tte d se ctio n
ATR de vice
TR de vice
R e ce ive r in pu t circu it
IF ou tp ut
L ocal o scilla to r in pu t
M ag ne tro n oscillator
Fig. 9.4. Cut-view of a typical waveguide-coupled magnetron oscillator transmitter.

9.8 RADAR RECEIVER (MDU 2006)
The receiver is a radar subsystem whose function is to receive the returned echo signals, amplify
them, convert in frequency, and filter in a manner to provide maximum discrimination between
the desired echoes and undesired interference. The main RF characteristics of a receiver are
sensitivity, selectivity, bandwidth, dynamic range and interference immunity. The main type of
radar receiver in virtually all modern radar is the superheterodyne receivers. Other types receivers,
such as crystal video, tuned radio frequency and superregenerative receivers are seldom used
except in the simplest radars. A general configuration of radar receiver is shown in Fig. 9.5.
L ow n o ise
IF
E cho sig na l a m p lifie r M ixer L im ite r D e tecto r
a m p lifie r
fro m d up le xe r (L N A )
L ocal
V id eo
o scilla tor
a m p lifie r
(L O )
S ign al
D isp la y
p rocessor
Fig. 9.5. Basic elements of superheterodyne radar receiver.

The reflected echo signals which are picked by the antenna and passes through the duplexer.
The signals are being feed to the first stage, or front end, that is a low noise RF amplifier. The
front end of the receiver must not introduce excessive noise which would interfere with the signal
to be detected. A transistor amplifier as the front end offers acceptably low noise for many radar
applications. The low noise amplifier (LNA) is followed by the downconverter, including a mixer
and a local oscillator (LO) whose function is to convert the carrier to lower intermediate frequency
(usually 30 or 60 MHz) giving sufficient gain and the desired shape of frequency response. The
intermediate frequency (IF) is easier to amplified by two or more stages of IF amplifier that whose
overall bandwidth is sufficient to pass all the frequencies in the pulse so that the pulse is not a
appreciably distorted. After amplification at IF, the signal is filtered, passed through a limiter that
prevents saturation of subsequent stages and applied to an amplitude, phase or synchronous
detector. The detector in the receiver is an envelope detector which eliminates the IF carrier and
video modulation envelope. After that video signals are being amplified by means of wideband RC
coupled voltage amplifier called the video amplifier. The amplified video signals are feed to signal
processor. The purpose of the signal processor is to reject the undesired signals such as clutter and
enhance the desired signals due to targets and the output of signal processor is connected to the
display unit. Finally videos are displayed over the display unit.
Ø The ability of a radar receiver is to detect the presence of the echo and extract
information in the presence of noise.
Ø Superheterodyne receiver has been widely used in radar because of its sensitivity
and high gain.
Ø The main RF characteristics of a receiver are sensitivity, selectivity, bandwidth and
noise immunity.
Ø The front end or first stage of the receiver is a low noise amplifier.
9.9 FRONT END AMPLIFIER (MDU 2005)
A low noise amplifier (LNA), such as a parametric amplifier or a low noise transistor amplifier, is
used as front end amplifier or first stage of the radar receiver. The purpose of low noise amplifier
(LNA) is to boost the desired signal power while adding as little noise and distortion as possible
so that retrival of this signal is possible in the later stages in the system. A LNA is an amplifier
with low noise figure. Noise figure is defined as the input signal to noise ratio (SNR) divided by
the output SNR. For an amplifier, it can also be interpreted as the amount of noise introduced by
the amplifier seen at the output.
The noise generated by the front end or first stage of receiver determines the receiver
sensitivity. The noise figure of radar receiver establishes the receiver sensitivity, or minimum
detectable signal. Since the front end or first stage of multistage receiver generally establishes the
noise figure, provided the noise contribution from RF losses ahead of the receiver is small in
comparison.
Typically front end amplifier has following three function:
(i) To decrease noise figure and therefore to increase receiver sensitivity. It is first in an
amplification chain and so to the greatest extent defines noise figure of the whole
receiver. That is why low noise amplifier (LNA) preferable to serve as the front end
amplifier.
(ii) To amplify the received echo.
(iii) To provide RF selectivity.
There are the following few different kinds of amplifiers that can provide suitable low noise
figures:
(i) Parametric amplifier
(ii) Bipolar transistor amplifier
(iii) Gallium arsenide field effect transistor (GaAs-FET) amplifier.
Figure 9.6 shows the variation of the noise figure as a function of frequency for the several
receiver front-end amplifiers used in radar system.
6 .0
5 .0
N o ise figu re –d B
4 .0
3 .0
S ilico n b ip olar
tra nsisto r G aA s-F E T
2 .0
1 .0
P a ram e tric a m plifier
0
5 00 1 00 0 5 00 0 1 0,0 00 3 0,0 00
Fre q ue ncy – M H z
Fig. 9.6. Variation of noise figure of front-end as a function of frequency.
Parametric amplifiers have lowest noise figure, at the room temperature, especially at high
microwave frequencies. But parametric amplifiers have some disadvantage like more complex and
expensive compared to other front end amplifier. The transistor amplifier can be applied over most
of the range frequencies used for radar. The silicon bipolar transistor amplifier is used at the lower
radar frequencies (below L band) and gallium arsenide field effect transistor (GaAs-FET) is preferred
at the higher frequencies.
The lower the noise figure of the receiver, the less need there is for be transmitter power
for the same performance. In addition to noise figure, cost, burnout, and dynamic range must
also be considered when selecting a receiver front end.
Ø A low noise amplifier (LNA) is used as front end of radar receiver.

Ø A LNA is amplifier with low noise figure.
Ø A low noise front end increases the receiver sensitivity.
Ø Parametric amplifier, bipolar transistor amplifier or GaAs-FET may be used as low
noise amplifier.
Advantages of Low Noise Front Ends

Following are some advantages of a low noise front end:
1. A low noise front end amplifier reduces the required transmitter power and transmitter
size.
2. Low noise front end amplifier reduces the size of antenna.
Limitations of Low Noise Front Ends

There are some limitations to use of a low noise front end in some radar application. A low noise
amplifier as the front end generally reduces the dynamic range of the radar receiver when faced
with hostile electronic counter measures (ECM) or when the doppler effect is used to detect small
targets in the presence of large clutter. For these applications, the low noise front end is omitted
and mixer stage is employed as the receiver front end. A receiver with a mixer as the input stage
will be less sensitive because of the mixer higher noise figure, but it will have greater dynamic
range, less susceptibility to overload and less vulnerability to electronic interference than a receiver
with a low noise front end.
Ø Dynamic range is defined as the ratio of the maximum signal that can be handled
to the smallest signal capable of being detected.
Ø A low noise front end reduces the dynamic range of the radar receiver.
Photograph of a GaAs low noise amplifier with isolator is shown in Fig. 9.7.
Fig. 9.7. Photograph of a GaAs-FFT low noise amplifier with input isolator.
9.10 MODULATORS
A modulator is the heart in the transmitter. It not only controls the radio frequency energy to be
produced in sharp pulses but also controls the repetition frequency and shape of the pulse. The
modulator is the device which turns the transmitting tube ON and OFF in such a manner as to
generate the desired waveform. When the transmitted waveform is a pulse, the modulator is some
time called pulser. Each transmitter power tube has its own particular characteristics, which determine
the type of modulator. For example, magnetron modulator must be designed to handle the full
pulse power. On the other hand, the full power of the klystron and travelling wave tube can be
switched by a modulator handling only a small fraction of the total beam power.
A simple block diagram of a radar modulator is shown in Fig. 9.8. It consists of energy
source, charging impedance, a switch, energy storage element and load. Energy from an external
energy source is accumulated in the energy storage element at a slow rate during the period of
interpulse. The charging impedance limits the rate at which energy can be delivered to the storage
element. At the proper time, the switch is closed and the stored energy is quickly discharged
through the load, or RF tube, to form the pulse. During the discharge part of the cycle, the
charging impedance prevents energy from the storage element from being dissipated.
C h arg in g E n erg y
im p ed an ce storag e
e lem e nt
E n erg y L oa d/
S w itch
sou rce R F tu be
C h arg in g path D ischa rg e pa th
Fig. 9.8. Basic elements of radar modulator.
Ø The function of the modulator is to turn the transmitter tube ON and OFF to
generate the desired waveform.
Ø When the transmitted waveform is a pulse, the modulator is sometimes called a
pulser.
Figure 9.9 (a) shows the modulator switch open and the storage element charging. With the
modulator switch open the transmitter produces no power output, but the storage element stores
a large amount of energy. Figure 9.9 (b) shows the modulator switch closed and the storage
element discharging through the transmitter. The energy stored by the storage element is released
in the form of a high-power, DC modulator pulse.
C h arg in g Storag e C h arg in g Storag e

im p ed an ce e le m e nt im p ed an ce e le m e nt
E n erg y M od ulator Tra nsm itter E n erg y M od ulator Tra nsm itter
sou rce sw itch (R F tu be) sou rce sw itch (R F tu be)
(a ) M od ulator sw itch o p en -stora ge e le m en t cha rg in g (b ) M od ulator sw itch closed-storag e e le m en t d ischa rging
Fig. 9.9. Operation of a modulator.
Types of Modulator
The two types of modulators are:
(i) Line-type modulator with a gas tube switch and a delay line storage element.
(ii) Hard-tube modulator incorporating a high vacuum tube switch and a capacitor storage
elements.
Line-Type Modulator
The modulator consist of a gas-tube switch and a delay line, or pulse forming network (PFN) as
the storage element is known as line-type modulator as shown in Fig. 9.10. The switch shown in
Fig. 9.10 is a hydrogen thyratron. A gas tube switch such as a thyratron is capable of handing
high power and presents a low impedance when conducting. The delay line of the line-type
modulator is called pulse forming network (PFN). The PFN consist of capacitors (C) and inductors
(L) to simulate sections of transmission line. The PFN serves two purposes (1) to store energy when
the thyratron switch is open and (2) to discharge and form a rectangular DC pulse (modulator
pulse) of required duration when the modulator switch is closed. The modulator pulse of high
voltage is used for switching the microwave tube on/off.
The line-type modulator is the most common radar modulator. It employs a pulse forming
network that is charged up slowly to a high value of voltage. The network is discharged rapidly
through a pulse transformer by thyratron keyed tube to develop an output pulse. The shape and
duration of the pulse are determined by the electrical characteristics of the pulse forming network
and of the pulse transformer.
C h arg in g diod e D
P u lse form ing n etw ork
H ig h volta ge C h arg in g co il
p ow e r sup ply
Trigg er P u lse
p ulse Th yratron tra nsfo rm er
C1
g as-fille d
tu be To the
R1 R F tu be
Fig. 9.10. Line-type modulator.

Via the charging path the PFN is charged on the double voltage of the high voltage power
supply with help of the magnetic field of charging impedance. Simultaneously this charging impedance
limits the charging current. The charging diode prevents that PFN discharge him about the intrinsic
resistance of the power supply again.
The function of thyratron is to act as an electronic switch which requires a positive trigger
of only 150 volts. The thyratron requires a sharp leading edge for a trigger pulse and depends on
a sudden drop in anode voltage (controlled by the pulse forming network) to terminate the pulse
and cut-off the tube. The RC combination acts as a DC shield and protect the grid of the thyratron.
This trigger pulse initiates the ionization of the complete thyratron by the charging voltage. This
ionization allows conduction from the charged pulse forming network through pulse transformer.
The output pulse is then applied to an oscillating device, such as a magnetron.
The Charge Path
The charge path includes the primary of the pulse transformer, the DC power supply and the
charging impedance. The thyratron (as the modulator switching device) is an open circuit in
the time between the trigger pulses. Therefore it is shown as an open switch in Fig. 9.11. Once
the power supply is switch on, the current flows through the charging diode and the charging coil,
charges the capacitor of pulse forming network (PFN). The coils of the PFN are not yet functional.
However, the induction of the charging impedance offers a great inductive resistance to the current
and builds up a strong magnetic field.
C h arg in g diod e D M ag ne tic fie ld

H ig h volta ge + + + +
p ow e r sup ply C h arg in g co il
– – – –
Trigg er P u lse
p ulse Th yratron tra nsfo rm er
C1
g as-fille d
tu be
R1 S TO P
To the
R F tu be
Fig. 9.11. Charge path.
The Discharge Path

When a positive trigger pulse is applied to the grid of the thyratron, the tube ionizes causing the
pulse forming network to discharge through the thyratron and the primary of the pulse transformer
(the thyratron is fired) as shown in Fig. 9.12. The fired thyratron grounds the pulse line at the
charging coil and the charging diode effectively. Therefore, a current flows for the duration PW
through the pulse transformer primary coil to ground and from ground through the thyratron,
which is now conducting to the other side of the pulse forming network. The high voltage pulse
for the transmitting tube can be taken on the secondary coil of the pulse transformer. Exactly for
this time an oscillating device swings on the transmit frequency. Because of the inductive properties
of the PFN, the positive discharge voltage has a tandency to swing negative.
C h arg in g diod e D M ag ne tic fie ld
H ig h volta ge C h arg in g co il + + + +
p ow e r sup ply
– – – –
C1
P u lse
tra nsfo rm er
Th yratron
R1 g as-tu be
R F tu be
Fig. 9.12. Discharge path.

If the oscillator and pulse transformer circuit impedance is properly matched to the line
impedance, the voltage pulse that appears across the transformer primary equals one-half the
voltage to which the line was initially charged.
Actual photograph of a line type modulator and a thyratron switch are shown in Fig. 9.13.
(a ) (b ) T hyra tro n sw itch

Fig. 9.13. Photograph of line-type modulator and thyratron.
Hard-Tube Modulator
The line-type modulator stores energy and forms pulses in the same circuit element. This element
is usually the pulse forming network. On the other hand, the hard tube (hard tube is high vacuum
electron tube) modulator forms the pulse in the driver and the pulse is then amplified. In the hard
tube modulator the switching is accomplished with hard vacuum tubes instead of soft gas tubes.
Basically it is a high power video pulse generator. A block diagram of a particular hard tube
modulator is shown in Fig. 9.14. The trigger pulse initiate the driver at the proper instants of time.
The driver generates the desired pulse wave shape. The power amplifier is being used to amplify
the waveform generated by the driver, to the level requires pulsing the transmitter. There are many
numbers of pulse forming circuit, which could be for the driver. The video amplifiers using high
power tubes, are being used as power amplifier. A single high power tube working as a blocking
oscillator can be used as pulse modulator. A blocking oscillator is a self-excited overdriven oscillator.
Trigg er P o w er
in p ut D rive r a m p lifie r To tran sm itte r
Fig. 9.14. Block diagram of hard-tube modulator.

Table 9.3 gives comparison between line type and hard-tube modulator.
Table 9.3. Comparison between line type and hard-tube modulator.
S.No. Line type modulator Hard tube modulator
1. Line type modulator stores energy and The hard tube modulator forms the pulse in the
for ms pulses in the same circuit driver, the pulse is then amplified to the modulator.
element. This element is usually the
pulse forming network.
2. Switching is accomplished with soft gas Switching is accomplished with hard vacuum tube.
tube.
3. High efficiency Low efficiency.

4. Circuit is less complex. Circuit is more complex.
5. Less sensitive to voltage changes. More sensitive to voltage change.
6. Small power supply voltage is required. Higher power supply voltage is required.
7. Permits less flexibility and precision. Permits more flexibility and precision. It is capable
of operating at a various pulse widths and various
pulse repetition frequencies, and it can generate
closely spaced pulses.
9.11 MIXER (MDU 2002)
Mixers are used to transform signals in one spectrum D o w ncon vert

range to some other spectrum range. In radar
transmitters, mixers are used to transform intermediate
frequency (IF) signals produced by the waveform
generator into RF signals. This process is called
upconversion. In radar receivers, the opposite operation
is performed. The RF signals are downconverted into wIF wR F
IF signal. This process is demonstrated in Fig. 9.15. U p co nve rt
Mixing is accomplished by combining RF signal
Fig. 9.15. Upconversion and
with another signal frequency from the local oscillation
downconversion operation of a mixer.
(LO) as shown in Fig. 9.16. What results is either the
sum or difference between the two, for upconversion M ixer
and downconversion, respectively? Various kinds of
oscillators and frequency synthesizers are used as the RF IF f L O + f RF , f L O – f R F
LO.
The simplest type of radar mixer is the unbalanced
crystal mixer. One advantage of the unbalanced crystal ~ LO
mixer is its simplicity. The crystal most commonly used
is the point contact diode, however, recent developments
Fig. 9.16. Mixer schematic.
in the field of solid state microwave devices may soon
replace the point contact diode with devices that produce
even less noise. The Schottky barrier diode is an example of a relatively recent development that
produces less noise than the point contact crystal diode. The unbalanced crystal mixer has one
major disadvantage; its inability to cancel local oscillator noise. Difficulty in detecting weak signals
will exist if noise is allowed to pass through the mixer along with the signal.
Ø Mixer translates the receiver RF signal into an intermidiate frequency.

Ø The simplest type of radar mixer is unbalanced mixer.
Ø Point contact and Schottky-barrier diodes based on the nonlinear resistance
characteristics of metal to semiconductor contacts have been used as mixing element.
9.11.1 Balance Mixer

The noise generated in local oscillator (LO) can
R F sign al in
apper at the IF frequency because of the non-
linearity of the mixer. A narrow bandpass RF
filter may be used between local oscillator and
4
mixer for reducing the local oscillator noise. The
centre frequency of the filter is that of the local
oscillator, and its bandwidth must be narrow so 3
that local oscillator noise at the signal and image
frequencies donot appear at the mixer.
A method of reducing LO noise without the
2
use of narrow bandwidth filter is balanced mixer. 1
The balance mixer consist of a hibrid junction (a
LO
magic tee) and two diode mixer as shown in D io d e-1
Fig. 9.17. RF LO D io d e-2 LO RF
The LO and RF signal are applied to the H
and E arms of magic tee and diode mixers are
B a la nce tra nsfo rm er
connected to remaining two arms of the magic
tee. The sum of LO and RF signals is appears at
the one diode and difference of LO and RF signals IF ou tp ut
is obtained at other diode. The two-diode mixers
Fig. 9.17. Balance mixer.
should have identical characteristics and be well-
matched.
Operation
When local oscillator (LO) signal is applied to H-arm of magic tee, then output at ports 2 and
3 will be in same phase (from the action of H-plane tee). When RF signal is introduce to E-arm
of magic tee, then output at ports 2 and 3 will be out of phase (from the action of E-plane tee).
Thus both RF signal and LO signal components at diode mixer 1 are in phase and both components
at diode mixer 2 will be out of phase. This means that an IF signal on one polarity will produced
across diode mixer 1 and an IF signal of opposite polarity will be produced across diode mixer 2.
When these two signals are applied to the balanced output transformer the secondary of which
is tuned to the desired IF, they will add. Outputs of the same polarity will cancel across the balanced
transformer. This action eleminates the noise of the local oscillator. Noise components introduced
from the local oscillator are in phase across the diode mixers and are, therefore cancelled in
balanced transformer.
Advantages of Balanced Mixer

The main advantages of balanced mixer in comparison with a conventional one are:
1. Reduction in the noise factor by 2 to 10 dB because of phase suppression of LO noise.
2. Improved decoupling of signal and local oscillator circuits.
3. Permitting use of LOs with lower power.
4. Higher input power handling capability.
5. Suppression of even IF harmonics.
Ø Balance mixer reduces the local oscillator noise without the use of narrow bandwidth
filter.
Ø Balance mixer consist of a magic tee, a balance transformer and two diode mixer.
9.11.2 Image Reject Mixer

A conventional mixer has two input responses at points above and below the LO frequency where
the frequency separation equals the IF, described as fLO + fRF and fLO − fRF. The unused response
is known as the image frequency. This image frequency can be suppressed by image reject or
single sideband mixer shown in Fig. 9.18.
D io d e m ixe r
LO U p pe r sid eb an d
RF 9 0° hybrid 9 0° hybrid
in pu t ju nction ju nction
L ow e r sid eb an d
D io d e m ixe r
Fig. 9.18. Image reject mixer.
The image reject mixer consist of two 90° hybrid junction and two diode mixer. The hybrid
junction on the left of the circuit produces a 90° phase difference between the LO inputs to the
two diode mixers. The effect of this phase differential on the IF outputs of mixers is + 90° shift
in one sideband and − 90° shift in the other. The second hybrid junction, adding or substracting
another 90° differential, produces the high sideband signal (fLO + fRF) at one output port and low
sideband signal (fLO − fRF) at the other output port.
An image rejection mixer is often used to eliminate one sideband from converting to the IF
frequency. The reason for this is the noise figure: image noise from the unwanted sideband can
easily pollute the noise figure of receiver by 3 dB. The second reason to suppress the image
frequency in the radar receiver is a protection against jamming.
In practice, image reject mixers often do not provide sufficient rejection of the image response
alone without filtering. In this case, mixer can be used in conjunction with an image rejection filter.
Ø The unused response of mixer is known as image frequency.

Ø Image reject mixer suppressed the image frequency.
Ø Image reject mixer consist of two 90° hybrid junction and two diode mixer.
9.12 DUPLEXER (MDU 2002, 2008)
Whenever a single antenna is used for both transmitting and receiving as in a radar system,
problems arise. Switching the antenna between the transmit and receive modes presents one
problem and ensuring that maximum use is made of the

available energy is another. The simplest solution is to use
a switch to transfer the antenna connection from the
receiver to the transmitter during the transmitted pulse
and back to the receiver during the return (echo) pulse.
No practical mechanical switches are available that can
E lectro nic sw itch
open and close in a few microseconds. Therefore,
electronic switches must be used. Switching systems of
this type are called duplexer. Operation of the duplexer is
shown in Fig. 9.19.
The duplexer enables a radar system to transmit Tra nsm itter R e ce iver
powerful signals and still receive very weak radar echoes.
The duplexer acts as a gate between the antenna, the Fig. 9.19. Operation of duplexer.
receiver and transmitter. It keeps away high power
transmitter signal from receiver and also ensures that weak signals coming in from the antenna
go to the receiver.
A duplexer system, in radar, perform the following function:
1. During the period of transmission, duplexer must connect the antenna to the transmitter
and disconnect it from the receiver.
2. The receiver must be thoroughly isolated from the transmitter during the transmission of
the high power pulse to avoid damage to sensitive receiver components.
3. After transmission, the duplexer must rapidly disconnect the transmitter and connect the
receiver to the antenna. For targets close to the radar to be seen, the action of duplexer
must be extremely rapid.
4. The duplexer should absorb an absolute minimum of power both during transmission and
reception.
Ø Duplexer is an electronic switch that allow a single antenna to serve both transmitter
and the receiver.
Ø On transmission, duplexer must protect the receiver from high power pulse and on
reception it must channel the echo signal to the receiver.
Ø A radar duplexer is a microwave equivalent a fast, low-loss, single-pole, double
throw switch.
9.12.1 Branch Type Duplexer

The branch type duplexer shown in Fig. 9.20 is a type often used in radar. It has two switches,
the TR and the ATR (anti-TR), arranged in such a manner that the receiver and the transmitter
are alternately connected to the antenna, without ever being connected to each other. The operation
is as follows.
During the transmission, when the transmitter produces an RF impulse, both switches TR and
ATR are ionized and become short-circuit.
l
4
To
Tra nsm itter
a nte nn a
l l
4 4
ATR TR
sw itch sw itch
R e ce iver
Fig. 9.20. Branch type duplexer for radar.

The TR in fired or ionized condition acts as a short-circuit to prevent transmitter power from
entering the receiver. Since TR is located a quarter wavelength from main transmission line, it
appears as a short-circuit at the receiver but as an open circuit at the main transmission line so
that it does not affect the flow of transmitter power. Since the ATR is displaced a quarter
wavelength from the main transmission line, the short-circuit is produces during ionized or fired
condition and appears as an open circuit on the main transmission line. Therefore, ATR has no
effect on transmission.
During reception, the transmitter is off and neither the TR nor the ATR is ionized (fired). The
open circuit of the ATR, being a quarter wave from the main transmission line, appears as a short-
circuit across the line. Since this short-circuit is located a quarter wave from the receiver branch
line, the transmitter is effectively disconnected from the line and the echo signal power is directed
to the receiver. In this condition TR is open and all signal from the antenna can thus go directly
to the receiver.
Limitations of Branch Type Duplexer

The branch type duplexer has following limitations:
1. It has limited power handling capability.
2. Branch type duplexer is a narrowband device, because it relies on the length of line
connecting the switches to main line. Branch type duplexer is used in low cost radars.
Ø Branch-type duplexer consists of TR switch and ATR switch both of which are gas
discharge tubes.
Ø Branch-type duplexer has limited bandwidth and power handling capability.
9.12.2 Balanced Duplexers

A balanced duplexer consist of a hybrid junction (which consists of two sections of waveguides
joined along one of their narrow walls with a slot cut in the common narrow wall to provide
coupling between the two) and two TR tubes (one TR tube in each waveguide section) as shown
in Fig. 9.21. In balanced duplexer, the hybrid junction is basically a 3 dB directional coupler
(3 dB directional coupler divides the power into two equal part). The operation of balanced
duplexer is as follows.
During transmission, both the TR tubes are fired or ionized. Thus signal from the transmitter
is reflected toward the antenna arm as shown in Fig. 9.21 (a).
On the reception the TR tubes are unfired and acts as an open circuit. The echo signals from
the antenna pass through the duplexer and whole energy should reach to the receiver. The hybrid
junction has the property that each time the energy passes through the slot in either direction, its
phase is advanced 90°. As shown in Fig. 9.21 (b) first the received energy is divided into two equal
parts and due to 90° phase advanced introduced by the slot, the energy joined in the receiving
arm. No energy will enter in the dummy load.
To a n ten n a
D u al T R
tu be s
D u m m y loa d
te rm in ation
Fro m
tra nsm itter
To receive r
(a ) Tran sm it con d ition (b oth TR tub es a re fired )
To a n ten n a
D u al T R
tu be s
D u m m y loa d
Fro m te rm in ation
tra nsm itter
To receive r
(b ) R e ce ive con ditio n (bo th T R tu be s are u n fire d)

Fig. 9.21. Function of balance duplexer.
9.12.3 Ferrite Duplexers

Ferrite devices like circulator, isolator or phase shifter may be used in some duplexer. A ferrite
duplexer using two circulator is shown in Fig. 9.22. In ferrite devices, direction of the magnetic
field can be reversed by changing the bias. For the transmission, transmitter power goes towards
the antenna and a very little power from the transmitter will enter the second circulator, and most
of the power that does will be dissipated in the matched load. During reception, the magnetic bias
will be reversed for the second circulator, so that the signal from the antenna will be coupled to
the receiver.
Tra nsm itter L oa d Tra nsm itter L oa d
A n te nn a R e ce ive r A n te nn a R e ce ive r
(a ) Tran sm issio n (b ) R e ce ptio n

Fig. 9.22. Schematic diagram of ferrite duplexer.
The ferrite duplexer has many advantages over gas discharge tubes. It has wide bandwidth
and fast recovery time than the gas discharge tubes. But it has large size and weight and it require
magnetic field for operation.
Ø Ferrite duplexer consist of isolators, phase shifters or circulators.

Ø Ferrite duplexer has wide bandwidth and large power handling capabilities than the
gas discharge tubes.
9.13 RECEIVER PROTECTOR
A receiver protector is a device that supplements the duplexer in diverting or absorbing transmitter
power or pulses from external sources before they reach the sensitive circuits of a radar receiver.
The basic function is provided by the duplexer, which passes most of the transmitter power to the
antenna. Residual leakage of power toward the receiver must sometimes be controlled by inclusion
of a limiter. The main limiter devices are solid state diode (PIN or PN diodes). The combination
of duplexer and diode limiter is widely used as a receiver protector as shown in Fig. 9.23.
A n te nn a
TR tu be D io d e
Tra nsm itter To receive r
(d up le xe r) lim ite r
R e ce iver pro te ctor
M atch ed loa d
Fig. 9.23. Circulator with receiver protector.
A four port circulator is shown with the fourth port terminated in a mathced load to provide
greater isolation between the transmitter and the receiver than provided by a three port circulator.
A combination of duplexer (TR tube) and diode limiter are used as receiver protectors.
Ø Combination of duplexer and diode limiter is used as receiver protectors.

Ø The residual leakage power towards the receiver is controlled by diode limiter.
Ø PIN or PN diode is used as a diode limiter.
9.14 RECEIVER NOISE (MDU 2009)
Receiver noise is a very important factor in a radar receiver because sensitivity (minimum signal
level that can detect) of receiver directly depends on the receiver noise. In the radar portion of the
RF spectrum, external sources of noise interference are usually negligible, consequently, the sensitivity
that can be achieved in a radar receiver is usually determined by the noise produced in the receiver.
A weak signal from a distant target is received and displayed on an ‘A’ scope along with noise,
if the noise amplitude is more than the signal amplitude, the signal merges in the noise and the
target remain undetected. If noise amplitude can be reduced considerably, the same weak signal
is detectable. Thus, by increasing the signal to noise ratio the maximum detection range and
sensitivity of radar set can be increased. If there is no noise present in the receiver, it would be
possible to detect any weak signal, by providing the receiver with sufficient amplification. Practically
it cannot be achieved since noise is always present and unlimited amplification of weak signals
amplifiers noise as well.
Noise is unwanted EM energy, which interfere with the ability of receiver to detect the
wanted signal. It may originate within receiver itself, or it may enter via the receiving antenna along
with the desired signal. There are various types of noise generated inside the receiver, which are
as follows:
1. Thermal noise
2. Shot noise
3. Partition noise
4. Flicker noise.
Ø Most predominant source of receiver noise is thermal noise.
9.14.1 Receiver Noise Figure

Noise figure (F) of a receiver, over the bandwidth of interest, the contribution by the receiver itself
to thermal noise at its output. Noise figure (F) is a measure of thermal noise generated in a receiver
as compared to noise produced by an ideal receiver. Noise figure is noise factor expressed in
decibels (dB). The noise figure (F) of a linear system may be defined as
S N ratio at input
F =
S N ratio at output
Si Ni Si No
Thus, F = = ⋅ ...(9.1)
So No So Ni
No
F = ...(9.2)
G ⋅ Ni
where, Si = Input signal power
Ni = Input noise power
So = Output signal power
No = Output signal power
G = So/Si is gain of receiver.
The input noise power (Ni) is function of the standard temperature (T) and bandwidth (Bn),
which is directly proportional to T and Bn.
Ni ∝ TBn
or Ni = kTBn ...(9.3)
−23
where k is Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10 J/K and T is standard temperature (in kelvin
290 K).
Now substituting eqn. (9.3) in eqn. (9.2), we get
F = No/kTBnG ...(9.4)
From eqn. (9.4), noise figure (F) may be interpreted as the ratio of the actual available output
noise power to the noise power which would be available if the receiver merely amplified the
thermal noise.
The noise figure may also written as
F = (kTBnG + ∆N)/kTBnG ...(9.5)
or F = 1 + ∆N/kTBnG ...(9.6)
where ∆N is additional noise added by the receiver itself.
Ø Noise figure represents the degradation of signal to noise ratio caused by the
receiver.
Ø The noise figure is commonly expressed in decibels i.e., 10 log10 F.
Ø The term noise factor is also used instead of noise figure.
Noise Figure of Networks in Cascade

If we consider two networks in cascade, with different noise figure and available gain but have
same Noise bandwidth (Bn) as shown in Fig. 9.24.
In pu t
F1, G 1, B n F 2, G 2, B n No
Fig. 9.24. Two networks in cascade.
where, F1 and F2 are the noise figure of two networks.

G1 and G2 are the available gain of respective networks.
The output noise No of the two networks in cascade is
No = noise from network (1) at output of network (2) + noise ∆N2 introduced by network (2)
kTBn F0 G1 G2 = kTBn F1 G1 G2 + ∆N2
kTBn F0 G1 G2 = kTBn F1 G1 G2 + (F2 − 1) kT Bn G2 ...(9.7)
Now dividing eqn. (9.7) by kTBnG1G2, we get
F2 − 1
F0 = F1 + ...(9.8)
G1
The contribution of the second circuit to the overall noise figure may be made negligible if
the gain of the first network is large. This is of importance in the design of multi-stage receivers.
It is not sufficient that only the first stage of a low-noise receiver have a small noise figure. The
succeeding stage must also have a small noise figure or the gain of the first stage must be high
enough to swamp the noise of succeeding stage.
The noise figure of N networks in cascade may be written as
F2 − 1 F3 − 1 FN − 1
F0 = F1 + + + ... ...(9.9)
G1 G1G2 G1G2 ... G N − 1
9.14.2 Noise Temperature

The noise introduced by a receiver network may also be expressed as a noise temperature (Te)
defined as that temperature at the input of the network which would account for the noise ∆N at
the input. The advantage of the use of noise temperature is that if shows a greater variation for
any given noise level change than does the noise figure so changes are easier grasp in their ture
perspective.
∴ ∆N = kTe Bn G ...(9.10)
Te
and Fn = 1 + ...(9.11)
T0
or Te = (Fn − 1) T0
The effective noise temperature of a receiver consisting of a number of networks in cascade
is
T2 T3
Te = T1 + + + ... ...(9.12)
G1 G1G2
9.15 RADAR ANTENNA (MDU 2005, 2001)
The antenna is one of the most critical parts of a radar system. It performs the following essential
functions:
• It transfers the transmitter energy to signals in space with required distribution and
efficiency. This process is applied in an identical way on reception.
• It ensures that the signal has required pattern in space. Generally this has to be sufficiently
narrow in azimuth to provide the required azimuth resolution.
• It has to provide the required frequency of target position updates. In the case of a
mechanically scanned antenna scanned antenna this equates to the revolution rate.
• It must measure the pointing direction with a high degree of accuracy.
The antenna structure must maintain the operating characteristics under all environmental
conditions. The basic performance of radar can be shown to be proportional to the product of the
antenna area or aperture and the mean transmitted power. Investment in the antenna therefore
brings direct results in terms of system performance.
Ø A radar antenna acts as a transducer between free space propagation and guided
wave (transmission line) propagation.
Ø The function of the antenna during transmission is to concentrate the radiated
energy into a shaped beam which points in the desired direction in space.
Taking into account these functions and required efficiency of a radar antenna, following
types of radar antennas are used.
1. Parabolic reflection antenna
2. Horn antenna
3. Lens antenna
4. Antenna array.
9.15.1 Parabolic Reflector Antenna

The parabolic reflector antenna is the most frequently used antenna in radar engineering.
Figure 9.25 illustrates the parabolic antenna. It consist of one circular parabolic reflector and a
point source situated in the focal point of this reflector. This point source is called “primary feed”
or “feed”. According to the laws of optics and analytical geometry, for this type of reflector all rays
will be parallel to the axis of the parabola which gives us ideally one single reflected ray parallel
to the main axis with no side lobes.
R e flecto r
(S e con da ry rad ia to r)
Fe ed
(P rim ary ra diator)
W aveguide
Fig. 9.25. Principle of a parabolic reflector.

The parabolic reflector so far we have studied is two dimensional structure. In practical
applications, a three dimensional structure of the parabolic reflector is used. The three dimensional
structure of the parabolic reflector can be obtained by rotating the parabola around its axis and
it is called paraboloid. The paraboloid is as shown in Fig. 9.26 (a). The radiation pattern of the
paraboloid is as shown in Fig. 9.26 (b). As the mouth of the paraboloid is circular in shape, the
parallel, beam produced are of the circular cross-section. The radiation pattern consists very sharp
major lobe and smaller minor lobes.
P a rab o loid
re fle ctor
M in or lo be s
P yra m ida l P a rab o loid

h orn a xis
M ajor lo be s
(a ) P a rab o loid (b ) R a diation pa tte rn

Fig. 9.26. Paraboloid and its radiation pattern.
Ø The vast majority of radar antennas use the parabolic reflector.

Ø The radiation pattern of parabolic reflector consists very sharp major lobe and
smaller minor lobes.
Ø A point source situated at the focal point of reflector known as “feed”.
Fig. 9.27. Photograph of parabolic antenna.
9.15.2 Types of Paraboloid Reflector

Depending upon the use the paraboloid is modified in various types of structure. Some of the
important type of the paraboloid are as follows.
1. Truncated Paraboloid or Cut Paraboloid

This type of the paraboloid is formed by cutting some of the portion
of the paraboloid to meet the requirements. Figure 9.28 shows a
horizontally turncated paraboloid. Since the reflector is parabolic in
horizontal plane, the energy is focused into a narrow horizontal beam.
The paraboloid may be turncated vertically. For the vertically
turncated paraboloid, the beam spreads out vertically instead of being
focused. Fig. 9.28. Truncated
paraboloid.
Fig. 9.29. Photographs of truncated paraboloid reflector.

2. Cylindrical Paraboloid
The cylindrical structure of the parabolic reflector is as
shown in Fig. 9.30. The structure is obtained by moving
the parabola side ways. This paraboloid structure has focal
line instead of a focal point and similarly a vertex line
instead of a vertex.
Fig. 9.30. Cylindrical paraboloid.

3. Corner Paraboloid
The corner paraboloid consists of two flat conducting sheets
that meet at an angle to form a corner as shown in
Fig. 9.31. This reflector is normally driven by a half wave
radiator located on a line which bisects the angle formed
by the sheet reflectors.
Fig. 9.31. Corner paraboloid.
9.16 FEED SYSTEMS FOR PARABOLOID REFLECTOR
The most widely used feed system in the paraboloid reflector antenna is horn antenna. Horn
antennas are constructed in a variety of shapes as illustrated in Fig. 9.32. Horn antenna is also
known as horn feed because it is used to feed energy into paraboloid dish.
R e ctan gu la r P yra m ida l C o nica l

Fig. 9.32. Horn antenna.
In all the case feed or primary radiator is placed at the focus
to obtain maximum beam pattern as shown in Fig. 9.33. One
problem associated with horn feed is the shadow introduced by
the horn feed if it is in the path of the beam. The shadow is a H o rn
dead spot directly in front of the horn feed. To solve this problem
the horn feed can be offset from the center.
Offset Feed System

To overcome the shadow or aperture blocking effects due feed
which is one of the major causes of side lobes. In applications Fig. 9.33. Horn feed for
paraboloid reflector.
where the horn feed antenna is rather large so as to back a portion of the reflector aperture with
significant effects on the radiated beam in terms of increased side lobe content, offset feed system
is one of the solutions. Figure 9.34 shows the arrangement of feed and reflector in this type of
system. As shown in the figure, the reflected waves do not get blocked by the feed.
P a rt o f
pa rab olic
re fle ctor C o llim ate d
ra ys
H o rn fee d
F w a ve gu id e
Fig. 9.34. Offset feed system.

Figure 9.35 shows a typical antenna using on offset feed antenna.
Fig. 9.35. Typical antenna of a height finder using an offset feed antenna.
Cassegrain Feed System

Some of the shortcomings of the focal point feed paraboloid reflector antennas such as shadowing
or aperture blockage particularly when the feed is large and lack of control over the main reflector
illumination can be overcome by adding a secondary reflector. The contour of the secondary
reflector determines the distribution of the power along the main reflector thereby giving control
over both amplitude and phase in the aperture. In cassegrain feed paraboloid reflector, the horn
feed antenna which illuminates the secondary reflector, also called the subreflector, is a hyperboloid.
The reflector is turn illuminates the main or primary reflector. One of the foci of secondary
reflector (hyperboloid) and the focus of the main reflector coincide and feed is placed at the other
focus of the secondary reflector as shown in Fig. 9.36.
H o rn
a nte nn a
B locked
F ra ys
W a ve g uid e
P a rab olic H ype rbo lo id

re fle ctor re fle ctor
(S u b-reflecto r)
F : F ocus o f pa rabo lic re flecto r
a nd hyp erb oloid
Fig. 9.36. Cassegrain feed system.
Lens Antenna
The most common type of radar antenna is the parabolic
reflector. The lens antenna which is analogous to an optical
lens is also found in the radar. The working principle of lens
antenna is similar to optical concave lens as shown in
Fig. 9.37. If a point source is placed at focal point of lens is H o rn
along the axis of the lens. Due to the radiation from the point fe ed
source, spherical wavefront is produced. When the rays travel
to the lens, refraction takes place due to the refraction index
of the lens and thus rays are collimated to obtain plane Fig. 9.37. Lens antenna.
wavefront of the parallel rays.
The lens antennas are classified according to the material used to construct the lens or
according to the geometrical shape of the lens.
Basically lens antennas can be classified as
(i) Delay lens
(ii) Fast lens.
A delay lens antenna is the antenna in which the electrical path length is increased by the
lens medium and the wave is retarded. The examples of delay lens antenna is dielectric lens. The
materials used for the dielectric lens are polyethylene, polystyrene, and teflon.
On the other hand, fast lens antenna is the antenna in which electrical path length is
decreased by the lens medium and the wave is accelerated. The example of fast lens antennas is
waveguide type antenna. It consist of several parallel concave metallic strips which are placed to
the electric field of the radiated energy fed to the lens. These strips act as waveguide in parallel
for the incident wave. The action at delay and fast lens antennas are shown in Figs. 9.38 (a) and
9.38 (b).
Ø Lens antenna forces all radial segment of spherical wavefront into parallel paths.
Ø Working principle of lens antenna is analogous to the optical lens.
Ø Basically lens antennas can be classified as delay lens and fast lens.
Fa st E -p la n e m e ta l plate len s
D ie le ctric d elay len s
S o urce S o urce
of of
ra diation ra diation
P lan e w avefron t
W a ve W a ve P lan e w avefron t
re ta rd ed a ccelerate d
(a ) D e la y le ns a nte nn a (b ) Fa st len s an ten n a
Fig. 3.38. Delay and fast lens antenna.
Antenna Array
Sharply directive antennas for radar system can be constructed from two or more simple half wave
dipole elements. They must be positioned so that the field from the elements add in some
directions and cancel in others. Such a set of antenna elements is called an antenna array. When
a reflector is placed behind the dipole array, radiation occurs in one direction. Antenna array is
usually made up of half wave dipoles positioned and phased so that the desired directional pattern
will be achieved. Figure 9.39 (a) shows a simple antenna array consisting of two horizontally
mounted elements, each a half wavelength long and fed in phase. The resulting radiation pattern
is in a direction at right angles to the plane containing the antenna conductor. Three and four
element arrays are shown in Fig. 9.39 (b) and (c), respectively. The flat reflector is located
l l
2 2 l l l
2 2 2
+ – + – + – + – + –
l
4
(a ) Tw o elem e nts an te nn a arra y (b ) T hre e elem e nts an te nn a arra y
l l l l
2 2 2 2
+ – + – + – + –
l
4
(c) F ou r e lem e nts a nte n na array

Fig. 9.39. Antenna array.
approximately one-eighth wavelength behind the dipole elements and makes possible the unidirection
characteristics of the antenna system. Figure 9.40 shows a photograph of broad side antenna
array.
Fig. 9.40. Photograph of broad side antenna array.
9.17 RADAR DISPLAY (MDU 2009, 2005)
When radar was first used by the military, the information it provided was displayed on a single
unit console. The console included a radar indicator (scope) and its associated controls, and a
number of receiver and transmitter controls. As the development of radar progressed, ships,
aircrafts and other equipments were furnished with more than one type of radar (air search,
surface search etc.) The displaying of radar information began to get complicated. It soon become
apparent that information from several different radars had to be available at each of several
physically separated consoles. Also in some cases, information from the same radar needed to be
displayed in more than one way at the same time.
The information available from a radar receiver may contain as many as several million
separate data bits per second. From these and other data, such as orientation of the antenna, the
display or indicator should present to the observer a continuous, easily understandable, graphic
picture of the relative position of radar targets. It should provide size, shape and indications of the
type of targets.
Ø Radar display or indicator uses the received signal routed from the radar receiver
to produce a visual indication of target information.
Ø Radar display also provides the information about size, shape and indications of
the type of targets.
There are two basic methods of displaying information on the cathode ray tube:
1. Deflection modulated CRT
2. Intensity modulated CRT.
In deflection modulated CRT targets are indicated by the deflection of electron beam such
as A-scope. The other display method is the intensity modulated CRT, such as PPI, and B-scope.
9.18 TYPES OF RADAR DISPLAY
Various types of displays are used with radar system. Some of them are common while others are
used for specific applications. Some of more commonly used radar displays are
1. A-scope.
2. B-scope.
3. C-scope.
4. E-scope.
5. Range height indicator (RHI) display.
6. Plan position indicator (PPI) display.
1. A-Scope Display (MDU 2009)

The A-scope is the most popular deflection modulated rectangular. A display which presents only
the range of target and relative strength of the echo as shown in Fig. 9.41. A-scope represents
an cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) like display where the horizontal coordinate represents the
range and the vertical coordinate represents the targets echo amplitude. Its operation is similar to
that of an ordinary CRO. In A-scope display, a sweep waveform is applied to the horizontal
deflection plates of the CRT and moves the beam slowly from left to right across the face of the
tube, and than back to the starting point. Horizontal sweep is triggered every time a pulse is
transmitted providing a reference point. The end of sweep, i.e., the right extreme of the display
Tra nsm itted

p ulse Tra nsm itted Targ et
Targ et e ch o e ch o
p ulse
A m p litud e
CRT
0 m ax scre e n
R a ng e
Fig. 9.41. A-scope display.

represents the maximum range capability of the radar. The demodulated echo (reflected) signals
from the receiver is applied to the vertical deflection plates that echo signal causes a deflection
in the vertical direction from the horizontal line. The first ‘blip’ is due to the transmitted pulse, of
part of which is applied to the CRT for reference. Then come various small blips due to nearby
objects and noise although the blips due to noise are not constant, then various targets shows up
as large blips. The height of each blip corrosponds to the strength of the returned echo, while its
distance from the reference blip is the measure of its range. In the absence of any echo signal,
the display is simply a horizontal line.
Ø A scope display indicate the range of target and strength of the echo.
Ø Operation of A-scope display is similar to the ordinary oscilloscope.
Ø A-scope display provides target signal amplitude vs range information.
Ø Any strong blip on display indicates the presence of target.
Limitations of A-Scope Display

A-scope display only indicates the range of the target not its direction therefore only returned
echoes from direction are displayed.
Application
A-scope display mainly used for tracking than search antennas.
2. B-Scope Display
B-scope display is an intensity modulated display with horizontal
and vertical axis respectively representing azimuth angle and
range as shown in Fig. 9.42. The entire lower edge of the
display is the radar location. It is commonly use in an airborne R a ng e
radar particularly.
When the aircraft is on an intercept mission. B-scope A zim u th an gle
display provides the true range of target (provide the distance
and azimuth angle). Fig. 9.42. B-scope display.
Ø B-scope indicates range vs azimuth angle display.
3. C-Scope
An intensity-modulated two angle rectangular display has azimuth angle indicated by the horizontal
coordinate and elevation angle by the vertical coordinate.
4. E-Scope
An intensity modulated rectangular display with range indicated by horizontal coordinate and
elevation angle indicated by the vertical coordinate.
5. Range Height Indicator (RHI) Display

RHI display is an intensity modulated
rectangular display with height (target 1 0-M ile R a ng e M arke rs
altitude) as the vertical axis and range as
horizontal axis as shown in Fig. 9.43. The
M ova ble
RHI display is used with height finding search
h eigh t lin e
radars to obtain altitude information. In RHI
display, sweep originates in the lower left
A ir
side of the scope. It moves across the scope, ta rge t
to the right, at an angle that is the same as
the angle of transmission of height finding
radar. The line of sight to the horizon is
indicated by the bottom horizontal line. The L ocatio n
area directly overhead is straight up the left o f ra da r
side of the scope. Target echoes are
displayed on the scope as the vertical blips
(spots of increased intensity that indicate Fig. 9.43. RHI display.
a target location). The operator determines altitude by adjusting a movable height line to the point
where it bisects the center of the blip. Target height is then read directly from an altitude dial or
digital readout. Vertical range markers are also provided to estimate target range.
Ø RHI is an intensity modulated rectangular display with height as the vertical axis
and range as the horizontal axis.
Ø The RHI is used with height finding search radars to obtain altitude information.
6. Plan Position Indicator (PPI) (MDU 2009)

It is an intensity modulated map like circular display that gives target location in polar coordinates
as shown in Fig. 9.44. The radar location is in the center of the display. In this case CRT is the
intensity modulated therefore the signal from the receiver after demodulation is applied to the grid
of the cathode ray tube. The CRT is biased slightly beyond cut-off and thus blip due to the target
permits beam current and therefore result in screen brightness. The sawtooth scanning waveform
is now applied to a pair of coils on opposite sides of the neck of the tube. The coils are situated
in yoke similar to that of TV picture tube and are rotated mechanically at same angular velocity
as the antenna, hence the beam is not only deflected radially out from the center but it also rotates
continuously around the tube. Therefore, the brightness at any point on the screen indicates the
presence of a target. The target range is represented by the radial distance from the center and
the target’s azimuth angle is given by the angle from the top of display. The top of the display
is usually true north, clockwise.
N
0° 30
33 °
Isla nd
N o rth
0°
60
30
Sc
°
an
C S h ip
B
p
ee
Sw
A
W E
e
ng
Ra
Tra nsm itter

A zim u th R a da r p ulse
a ng le ( qa z )
0°
12
24
0°
0° 15
21 0°
S
Fig. 9.44. Plan position indicator.
The actual view of PPI is shown in Fig. 9.45. Normally PPI screens are circular with of
40 cm or 50 cm. The long persistance phosphorus are used to ensure that the PPI screen does
not flicker. The resolution on the screen depends on beamwidth of the antenna, transmitter
frequency, pulse length and also on the diameter of the CRT beams. The PPI display systems are
used in search radars particularly when conical scanning is used.
Fig. 9.45. Actual view of PPI.
Limitations of PPI
1. In PPI display distortion of true map position will occur if it is used on an aircraft and its
antenna is not pointing straight down.
2. The PPI display system is expensive compare of other display.
Ø PPI is an intensity modulated map like circular display that gives target location
in polar coordinates.
Ø The range of target is represented by the radial distance from the center.
Ø Target azimuth angle is given by the angle from the top of display usually true
north, clockwise.
9.19 RADAR CLUTTER (MDU 2007)
Clutter may be defined as an unwanted echo received by the radar system. Radar clutter consists
of backscatters from all objects that are in the radar beam except the main target. Some causes
of these unwanted echo which is known as radar clutter are
• Reflection from land or surface ground.
• Reflection from sea.
• Due to weather like rain or snow.
• Due to man made structure like buildings towers or pole.
• Reflection due to mountain, hill etc.
• Due to atmospheric turbulence and other atmospheric effect.
• Due to birds.
• Chaff.
Ø Chaff is an artificial cloud consisting of large number of tiny metallic reflecting

strip or cluster of fiber glass or strip of foils or wires that create strong echo
signal. Chaff is used to confuse enemy radar.
The definition of clutter depends on function of the radar. For example weather is not clutter
in the weather detecting radar.
Clutter can be fluctuating or non-fluctuating. Ground clutter is generally non-fluctuating in
nature because the physical features are normally static. On the other hand, weather clutter is
mobile under the influence of wind and is generally considered fluctuating in nature. Figure 9.46
gives relation between echo signal power and target velocity.
70
60 1 – La nd
1 2 – S ea
50 3 – R ain
4 – C ha ff
R elative p ow er (d B )
40 5 – B ird s
30 4
3
20 5
2
10
Targ et
0
– 10
– 20
0 50 1 00 1 50 2 00
Ve lo city (m /s)
Fig. 9.46. Relation between echo power and target velocity.
Clutter can be defined as homogeneous if the density of all the return is uniform. Most types
of surface and volume clutter are analysed on this basis, however, in practice this simplification
does not hold good in all cases. Non-homogeneous clutter is non-uniform clutter where the
amplitude of the clutter varies significantly from cell to cell. Typically non-homogeneous clutter is
generated by tall building in built up area. The clutter may be distributed in surface or volume.
Because of the distributed nature of the clutter, the measurement of the backscattering echo
from clutter is generally given in terms of a radar cross-section density rather than the radar cross-
section as was described for conventional targets.
For surface clutter

The cross-section per unit area for surface distributed clutter is defined as
σc
σo = ...(9.13)
Ac
where σc is the radar cross-section from area Ac.
For volume clutter

The cross-section per unit volume for volume distributed clutter is given as
σc
η = ...(9.14)
Vc
where σc is radar cross-section from volume Vc.
Figure 9.47 gives the PPI display of target and clutter.

W ea th er
clu tte r
G ro un d
clu tte r
Targ ets
Fig. 9.47. PPI screen of an ATC-radar with targets and clutter.
9.20 TYPES OF RADAR CLUTTER
Radar clutter may be divided into three type:

1. Point clutter.
2. Surface clutter.
3. Volume clutter.
1. Point clutter: The echoes from birds, towers, poles, windmills and individual tell building
are the typical point clutter and are not extended in nature. Moving point clutter is
sometimes described as angles. Birds and insects produce clutter, which can be very
difficult to remove because the characteristic are very much like aircraft.
2. Surface clutter: Echoes from ground or sea are typical surface clutter. Echoes from
geographical land masses are generally stationary, however, the effect of wind on trees
etc. means that the target can introduce a doppler shift to the radar return. This doppler
shift is an important method of removing unwanted signals in the signal processing part
of a radar system. Clutter returned from the sea generally also has movement associated
with waves.
3. Volume clutter: The echoes from rain, snow or chaff are known as volume clutter. In
the air, the most significant problem is weather clutter. This can be produced from rain
or snow and can have a significant doppler content.
9.21 RADAR EQUATIONS FOR SURFACE CLUTTER
The geometry of radar clutter having the grazing angle φ is shown in Fig. 9.48. It is assumed that
the clutter area Ac is determined by the azimuth beamwidth θB.
Using the simple radar equation, the power received from the clutter is given by
Pt GA e σ c
Pc = ...(9.15)
b4π g 2
R4
where, Pc = Power received from clutter

G = Antenna gain
Ae = Antenna effective aperture
R = Range of radar
σc = Clutter cross-section.
R a da r
h E levatio n view
c t/ 2
f
1 c t se c f
(a ) 2
C lutter
R a da r P lan vie w
qB
A c = R qB [½ c t se c f]
R qB
(b )
Fig. 9.48. Geometry of radar clutter.
The cross-section per unit area for the surface distributed clutter is defined as
σc
σ° =
Ac
Thus clutter cross-section is
σc = σ°Ac
Since, Ac = (cτ/2) sec φ ⋅ RθB
Thus, σc = σ° RθB (cτ/2) sec φ ...(9.16)
Substituting eqn. (9.16) into eqn. (9.15), we get
Pc =
b g
Pt GA e σ o θ B cτ 2 sec φ
...(9.17)
b4 π g 2
R3
The echo from surface clutter varies inversely as the cube of the range, rather than inversely
as the fourth power as in the case for point targets.
The signal power returned from the target with cross-section σt is given as
Pt G t A e σ t
Pt = ...(9.18)
b4 π g 2
R4
From eqns. (9.18) and (9.17), the signal to clutter ratio for a target in the presence of surface
clutter is given as
Pt σt
= σ o R θ cτ 2 sec φ ...(9.19)
Pc B b g
If the maximum radar range Rmax corresponds to the minimum signal to clutter ratio, i.e.,
(Pt/Pc)min, then the radar equation for surface clutter can be writen from, eqn. (9.19),
σt
Rmax = ...(9.20)
cP P h
t c min σ
2
b g
θ B cτ 2 sec φ
The range in eqn. (9.20) appears as the first power rather than as the fourth power (R4) in
the usual radar equation. This means that greater variation in the maximum range of a clutter
dominated radar than a noise dominated radar.
Ø Surface clutter radar range appears as the first power rather than as the fourth
power in usual radar equation.
Ø The narrower the pulse width the greater the surface clutter radar range. This is
just opposite to the case of conventional radar detection of targets in noise.
9.22 SEA CLUTTER
Sea clutters are disturbing radar echoes of sea wave crests. The dynamics of the sea could be, at
least at the coarse level, characterized by the sea state and the direction of the sea waves. The
sea state synthesizes the amplitude of the waves are encountered at the surface of the sea,
generated by two different mechanisms known as capillarity waves and the gravity waves as shown
in Fig. 9.49. The capillarity wave is mainly generated by the influence of the wind and expresses
the superficial tension of the water. These waves are of small amplitude and in very large number,
having a short wavelength (less than 2 centimetres). The capillarity waves are superposed on to
S catte red
W ind ra da r w a ve s
In cide n t ra da r w a ve
M asked a rea
G ra vity
G ra vity w a ve
w a ve
C a pilla rity w ave s
C a pilla rity w ave s
Fig. 9.49. The phenomenological model of sea surface and interaction with electromagnetic waves.
the gravity waves. The gravity wave is mainly generated by the accumulation of gravitational forces.
Unlike the capillarity waves, the gravity waves have larger amplitudes and larger wavelengths (more
than 2 centimetres). Figure 9.49 also illustrated the scattering the electromagnetic waves at the
sea surface. Obviously, the irregular surface of the sea will scatter the incident electromagnetic
waves in almost every direction. On the other hand, some masked areas are invisible to the radar
system. The electromagnetic waves scattered by the two kinds of sea waves will exhibit different
statistic and correlation properties. It is their combined effect that allows us to characterize the
properties of the sea clutter.
9.22.1 Factor Affecting Mean Cross-section of Sea Clutter

Mean cross-section of sea clutter depends on many variables.
1. Wind and weather: Sea clutter get also a doppler speed by the wind. This means, “the
scenario moves away”, i.e., change with time while for ground clutter stays the same.
Therefore, in practice, sea clutter is very difficult to control without some loss in direction.
2. Grazing angle: At the higher grazing angle the mean cross-section of sea-clutter become
high and the eacho due to sea clutter is high. At near vertical incidence (φ ≈ 90°) the mean
cross-section of sea clutter is maximum as shown in Fig. 9.50.
R e fle ctivity o f L-b an d se a clutter
20
P o la rizatio n
H – H o rizo ntal
V – Vertical
0
M ea n R C S p e r un it are a s0 (dB )
– 20
– 40
W ind spe e d
1 0 – 2 0 kn ots
– 60
0 30 60 90
G ra zing a ng le (d eg ree s)
Fig. 9.50. Graph between grazing angle and mean radar cross-section area.
3. Radar frequency and polarization: With horizontal polarization, the mean cross-
section of clutter decreases with decreasing frequency. This is most pronounced at the
lower grazing angle.
4. Radar resolution.
5. Cross range resolution.
Ø Mean sea backscatter is about 100 times less than ground backscatter.
Figure 9.51 shows sea clutter on a PPI scope.
Fig. 9.51. Sea clutter on a PPI scope.
9.23 CLUTTER REDUCTION
Various steps can be taken to reduce the effects of clutter on the echo signal, such as
1. Filter out echo signals that are do not have a doppler frequency shift, this permits the
removal of the clutter component from echoes from moving targets. For this purpose
moving target indicator (MTI) radars are used.
2. Effect of clutter may be reduce by using narrow beam antenna as shown in Fig. 9.52.
S e a su rfa ce S e a su rfa ce
Fig. 9.52. Narrowing of radar beam to reduce clutter.
3. To de-sensitise the receiver for a short time after the transmission of a radar pulse, so
that we can reduce the signal from the receiver due to clutter from the close environment,
which is likely to be dominant. This reduce the sensitivity (gain) for short ranges to reduce
clutter signal as shown in Fig. 9.53. This is done to avoid saturating the receiver for short
range. It does not improve the signal to clutter ratio for the receiver.
A vo id s
re ce ive r
Tx satu ra tio n
R e ce iver
sen sitivity
Tim e
Fig. 9.53. Receiver sensitivity (gain) reduction for short ranges to reduce clutter signal.
4. If the statistical distribution of the clutter (it probability distribution function, PDF) is known
it may be possible to reduce its effect by appropriate signal processing.
9.24 LAND CLUTTER
The land clutter from land creates more problem then the sea clutter, both in theory and in
practice. Land clutter is an unavoidable form of radar contamination. It occurs when fixed objects,
such as building, trees or terrain, obstruct the radar beam and produce non-meteorological echoes.
Echoes resulting from land clutter are usually exaggerated in both size and intensity and may cause
radar systems to overestimate precipitation intensity near the radar. Clutter is normally found close
to the antenna where the radar beam is nearest to the ground. Further out, the beam points gently
skyward and overshoots most obstacles. Under certain circumstances, however, clutter may exist
for away. A tall mountain range would be a good example of this. The key to dealing with land
clutter is operator awareness and experience.
Land clutter is most evident when low tilt angles are used since the radar energy travels close
to the earth’s surface especially at close ranges to the radar.
Land clutter is returns to the radar emitted energy scattering of object on an near
the earth’s surface such as trees, buildings, insects and hills.
9.25 RADOME
A radome is a structural, weather proof enclosure that protects the radar antenna. The radome
is constructed of material the minimally attenuates the electromagnetic signal transmitted or received
by the antenna. In other words, the radome is transparent to radar or radio waves. Radomes
protect the antenna surfaces from the environment (e.g., wind, rain, ice, sand and ultraviolet rays)
and/or conceal antenna electronic equipment from public view. Radomes must be mechanically
strong if they are to provide the necessary protection if they are to provide the necessary protection,
yet they must not interfere with normal operation of the antenna.
The design of radomes for antennas may be divided into two separate and relatively distinct
class, depending upon whether the antenna is for airborne or ground based (or slip-based) applications.
The airborne radome is characterized by smaller size than ground based radomes since the
antennas that can be carried in an aircraft are generally smaller. The airborne radome must be
strong enough to form a part of aircraft structure and usually must be designed to conform to the
aerodynamic shape of the aircraft, missible or space vehicle in which it is to operate.
Radomes can be constructed in several shapes (spherical, cylindrical, geodesic, planar etc.)
depending upon the particular application using various construction materials. The shape of a
radome for a ground based antenna is usually a portion of a sphere. The sphere is good mechanical
structure and offers aerodynamic advantage in high winds. The materials used for radomes are
nylon fabric, Teflon coated fiberglass and hypalon coated Dacron.
Fig. 9.54. Photographs of various radar radomes.
Ø Radome is a sheltering structure for radar antennas.

Ø Radomes protect the antenna surface from the environment e.g., wind, rain, ice
and temperature extremes.
Ø Radome must be mechanically strong and they must not interfere with the normal
operation of the antenna.
Ø Materals used for radome are single polyneoprene coated terylene or nylon fabric,
Dacron, and Taflon coated fiberglass.
K EYWORDS
• A-Scope: A radar display on which slant range is shown as the distance along a horizontal trace.
• Clutter: All those objects which reflect the radar signal and which are other than the target are
termed as clutter.
• Directivity: An antenna that radiates most effectively in only one direction.
• Duplexer: A radar device that switches the antenna from the transmitter to receiver and vice
versa.
• Duty cycle: In a transmitter, duty cycle ratio of ON to time OFF.
• Ground clutter: Unwanted echoes from surrounding land masses that appear on a radar indicator.
• IF Amplifier: Usually a narrow bandwidth IF amplifier that is tuned to one of the output frequency.
• Omnidirectional antenna: An antenna that radiates equally in all directions (nondirectional).
• Sea clutter: Unwanted echoes from the irregular surface of the sea that appear on a radar
indicator.
• Transmit-receiver (TR) tube: Gas filled RF switch that is used as a duplexer.
• Plan position indicator (PPI): Display on which radar signals are shown in plan position with
range azimuth angle displayed in polar coordinates, forming a map-like display.
• Range height indicator (RHI): An intensity modulated rectangular display with height as the
vertical axis and range as the horizontal axis.
• Noise figure: Factor that describes the noise level in a radar receiver relative to that in a
theoretically perfect receiver. The noise figure, which is always larger than one, is typically two or
more and is usually expressed in decibels.
• Chaff: Chaff refers to large quantities of passive reflecting material deployed in the atmosphere
to counter or confuse enemy radar. Chaff was (almost) simultaneously introduced during World War
II (1943) by the Germans and British. The British called their version of chaff window.
• Frequency agility: Frequency agility refers to the radar’s ability to rapidly change its operating
frequency in a pseudo-random fashion to maintain a narrow instantaneous bandwidth over a wide
operating bandwidth.
• Jammer: A jammer aims to degrade the operation of a radio receiver by transmitting a jamming
signal that is received at higher power than other signals, and hopefully prevents them from being
received at all.
• B-Scope: A type of radar display. It is an intensity modulated display with horizontal and
vertical axis representing azimuth angle and range respectively.
• PPI: Stands for plan position indicator. It is an intensity modulated map like display that gives
target location in polar coordinates. Radar location is in the center of the display.
4
1. What is the role of duplexers, radar antennas and front end amplifiers? (UPTU 2006)
2. Write the short notes on the following: (MDU 2009; UPTU 2007)
(i) Radar receiver for continuous wave radar
(ii) Radar displays.
3. Explain the working of radar receiver for pulse radar. (UPTU 2008)
4. Discuss the importance of radar clutters. (MDU 2007; UPTU 2008)
5. The PRF of a radar transmitter is 1000 per second. The average power measured by a calorimeter
method is 1 kW. The pulse width is 1 µsec. What is peak power level? Illustrate a method of
average power measurement of the transmitter. (UPTU 2004)
6. Explain a line type modulator with the help of a block diagram. (UPTU 2003)
7. Draw the circuit of line pulsing modulator and explain its working. (UPTU 2004)
8. With a neat diagram explain the principle and working of a line type modulator.
(UPTU 2006)
9. Discuss noise figure of a receiver and noise figure due to RF losses. (UPTU 2003)
10. What are the factors influencing the bandwidth of a radar receiver? (UPTU 2004)
11. Explain the terms "the duplexer cannot do the entire job of protecting the receiver" .
(UPTU 2004)
12. Explain the working of image recovery mixer and give its limitations. (UPTU 2006; MDU 2006)
13. Discuss principle and working of balanced duplexer. (UPTU 2006)
14. Explain A·scope radar display. (MDU 2009; UPTU 2003, 2006)
15. What do you understand by PPl display? Explain where it is used. (UPTU 2004)
16. Write short notes on: (UPTU 2006)
(i) Noise figure
(ii) Noise temperature
(iii) Low noise front ends
(iv) Receiver protections.
1. A duplexer is used to
(a) couple two antennas to a transmitter without interference.
(b) isolate the antenna from local oscillator.
(c) prevent interference between two antennas connected to a receuver.
(d) use an antenna for reception or transmission without interference.
2. In radar systems, the term "rat-race" is used in connection with
(a) modulator (b) pulse characteristics
(c) receiver bandwidth (d) duplexer
3. The type of radar that is used to eliminate clutter is navigational applications is
(a) pulse radar (b) tracking radar
(c) MTI radar (d) monopulse radar
4. Cassegrain feed is used with parabolic reflector to
(a) increase the gain of the system.
(b) increase the beamwidth of the system.
(c) reduce the size of the main reflector.
(d) allow the feed to be placed at a convenient point.
5. Consider the following statements:
A duplexer is used in a radar system to
1. Protect the receiver when high power signal is transmitted.
2. Enable the use o f a common antenna for transmission and reception.
3. Allow the antenna to only receive when the signal is arriving.
4 . Avoid noise interference in the radar system.
Of these statements
(a) 1 and 2 are correct (b) 4 and 2 are correct
(c) 1 and 3 are correct (d) 3 and 2 are correct
6. The display where the horizontal coordinate represents the range (in terms of time) and the vertical
coordinate represents the target echo amplitude is
(a) PPI (b) A-scope
(c) B-scope (d) F-scope
7. The intensity modulated map like circular display that gives target location in polar coordinates
(a) F-scope (b) A-scope
(c) B-scope (d) PPI
8. PPI scan indicator can
(a) indicate the range of the target only
(b) indicate the direction of the target only
(c) indicate both range as well as direction
(d) none of the these
9. In a radar receiver the IF amplifier is usually
(a) broadband to permit the use of wide pulses
(b) broadband to permit the use of fairly narrow pulses
(c) narrowband in order to use narrow pulses
(d) narrowband in order to use wider pulses
10. A radome is a
(a) dome shaped radar antenna (b) protective cover for the antenna
(c) radar housed in a dome (d) dish shaped radar antenna
11. Side lope in a radar antenna causes
(a) reduction in beamwidth of antenna (b) ambiguity in direction finding
(c) increase in gain of antenna (d) reduction in the gain of antenna
12. For an antenna of given aperture size, the beamwidth
(a) increases with decreases in wavelength
(b) increases with increases in wavelength
(c) remains constant
(d) has no relationship with wavelength
13. Which of the following could be a source of noise in a radar receiver?
(a) Local oscillator (b) Diode mixer
(c) IF amplifier (d) None of the
14. The output tube for a pulsed radar system may be a
(a) magnetron (b) klystron
(c) TWT (d) any of the above
15. In a radar receiver the first stage is most likely to be semiconductor diode because
(a) it has low noise figure
(b) it can operate at low as well as high frequency
(c) it is light
(d) all of the above
16. Magnetrons are commonly used as radar transmitters because

(a) it is easily cooled (b) it is light
(c) it is a handy device
(d) high power can be generated and transmitted to aerial directly from oscillator
17. The sensitivity of a radar receiver is ultimately set by
(a) high S/N ratio (b) lower limit of useful signal input
(c) overall noise temperature (d) all of the above
18. IF bandwidth in a radar receiver is inversely proportional to
(a) pulse width (b) pulse interval
(c) pulse repetitions frequency (d) peak transmitted power
19. The large antenna is used in radar because
(a) it give higher gain (b) it give lesser side lobes
(c) it increases the beamwidth (d) it increases frequency range
20. The main difference between the echo from the target and the noise is that
(a) echoes have low frequency while noise has high frequency
(b) echoes have high frequency while noise has low frequency
(c) echoes are repetitive while noise impulses are random
(d) echo impulses are random while noise impulses are repetitive.
A NSWERS
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (b)
7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (b) 11. (d) 12. (b)
13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (d) 17. (c) 18. (a)
19. (a) 20. (c)
qqq
Microwave Engineering Lab
List of Experiments:
1. To study waveguide components.
2. Study of various microwave components and instruments like frequency meter, attenuator,
detector and VSWR meter.
3. Measurement of guide wavelength and frequency of the signal in a rectangular waveguide.
4. Measurement of VSWR (small as well as large values) and reflection coefficient.
5. Study of mode characteristics of reflex klystron and determination and mode number,
transit time and electronic tuning sensitivity.
6. Study of characteristics of Gunn oscillator.
7. Study of Gunn diode as modulated source (PIN modulation) and determination of
modulation depth.
8. Measurement of coupling coefficient and directivity of a directional coupler.
9. Study of insulation and coupling coefficient of a magic Tee.
10. Study of waveguide horn and its radiation pattern and determination of the beam width.
11. Study of a ferrite circulator and measurement of isolation, insertion loss, cross coupling
and input VSWR.
12. Measurement of microwave power using power meter.
581
EXPERIMENT 1
Aim
To study waveguide components.
Equipments Required
Flanges, Twisted waveguide, Waveguide tees, Directional coupler, Attenuator, Isolators, Circulators,
Matched terminator, Slide screw tuner, Slotted section, Tunable probe, Horn antennas, Movable
short, Detector mount.
Theory
Waveguide is a hollow metallic tube of a rectangular or circular cross-section. The conducting walls
of waveguide confine the electromagnetic field and guide the electromagnetic wave.
1. Flange: Flange is used to couple sections of waveguide components. These flanges are
designed to have not only mechanical strength but also desirable electric characteristics.
2. Twisted Waveguide: If a change in polarization direction is required, twisted section
may be used. It is also called rotator.
3. Waveguide Tee: Tees are junctions which are required to combine or split two signals
in a waveguide. Different type of tees are:
(a) H-Plane Tee: All the arm of the H-plane Tee lies in the plane of the magnetic field
which divide among the arm. This is thus a current or parallel junction.
(b) E-Plane Tee: It lies in the plane of electric field. It is voltage or series junction. In
this signal is divided into two parts having same magnitude but in opposite phase.
(c) Magic Tee: If another arm is added to either of the T-junction. Then a hybrid
T-junction or magic tee is obtained. The arm three or four is connected to arm 1
and 2 but not to each other.
4. Direction Coupler: The power delivered to a load or an antenna can be measured
using sampling technique in which a known fraction of the power is measured so that
the total may be calculated. A number of coupling units used for such purpose are
known as directional coupler.
5. Attenuators: It consists of a resistive wane inside the waveguide to absorb microwave
power according to its position w.r.t. side wall of the waveguide. Attenuation will be
maximum if the wane is placed at center.
(a) Fixed Attenuators: In this the position of resistive wane is fixed, it absorbs
constant amount of power.
(b) Variable Attenuators: In this the position of resistive wane can be changed with
the help of micrometer.
6. Isolators: Ferrite is used as the main material in isolator. Isolator is a microwave device
which allows RF energy to pass through in one direction with very little loss, while RF
power in the reverse direction is absorbed.
7. Circulator: A microwave circulator is a multi port junction device where the power
may flow in the direction from 1 to 2, 2 to 3, and so on.
Microwave Engineering Lab 583
8. Matched Termination: A termination producing no reflected wave at any transverse

section of the waveguide. It absorbs all the incident wave. This is also equivalent to
connecting the line with its characteristic impedance.
9. Slotted Section: A length of waveguide in which a non-radiating slot is cut on the
broader side. This is used to measure the VSWR.
10. Slide Screw Tuner: A screw or probe inserted at the top of waveguide (parallel
to E) to develop susceptance the magnitude and sign of which is controlled by depth
of penetration of screw and it can be moved along the length of waveguide.
11. H-Plane Bend: An H-plane bend is a peace of waveguide smoothly bend in a plane
parallel to magnetic field for the dominant mode (Hard bend).
12. E-Plane Bend: An E-plane bend is a peace of waveguide smoothly bend in a plane
of electric field (Easy bend).
13. Horn Antennas: The components which radiate and intercept EM energy is of course
the antenna. The open-ended waveguide in which the open end is flared so that it looks
like a horn, is called horn antenna. There are several type of horns—Sectional E-plane
horn, Sectional H-plane horn and Pyramidal horn.
14. Movable Short: It is adjustable load which moves along the length of waveguide and
adjusted to get SWR.
15. Detector Mount: It is used to detect the modulated signal. A PIN diode is mounted
in it.
Result
We have studied to appreciate the purpose of various components.
Precautions
1. Handle all components with care and do not allow any damage to take place.
2. Do not rub/scratch the inner polished surfaces of the components with any sharp edged
body.
3. If demonstrating any assembly of components, ensure that there is not cross threading
and proper tightening.
EXPERIMENT 2
Aim
Study of various microwave components and instruments like frequency meter, attenuator, detector
and VSWR meter.
Equipments Required
1. Signal generator 2. Isolator
3. Attenuator 4. Frequency meter
5. Slotted line 6. Tunable probe
7. VSWR meter
1. Signal Generator
The signal generator is a microwave source whose output is of the order of milliwatts. Generally
there are two type of signal generator for the microwave bench in X-bend.
(a) Reflex klystron tube based signal generator.
(b) Gunn diode based signal generator.
(a) Reflex Klystron Tube Based Signal Generator

Klystron tube based signal generator consists of klystron power supply, reflex klystron and klystron
mount.
Klystron Power Supply

For the klystron based microwave bench. Klystron power supply generates required beam and
repeller voltage for the X-Band klystron tube like 2K25. It is very stable and contains the short
circuit protection circuit. Also it has amplitude and frequency modulation circuits for the generation
of 1 kHz square wave and the saw tooth wave.
Fig. 1. Klystron power supply.
Reflex Klystron
The reflex klystron is a single cavity variable frequency microwave generator of low power and low
efficiency. It consist of electron gun, focusing electrode, single cavity (anode cavity) and a repeller
electrode at a high negative voltage. Reflex klystron is not widely used in application where variable
frequency is desired as in radar receiver, local oscillator in microwave receivers and a pump
oscillator in parametric amplifier.
Klystron Mount
It consists of movable short at one end of the waveguide to direct the microwave energy generated
by the klystron tube. A small hole located exactly at the center of the broad wall of the waveguide
is used to put the coupling pin of the tube as the electric field vector of EM energy is maximum
at the center only. The maximum power transfer can be achieved by tuning of the movable
plunger.
Fig. 2. Klystron mount.
(b) Gunn Diode Based Signal Generator

Gunn diode based signal generator consists of Gunn power supply and Gunn oscillator.
Gunn Power Supply

For Gunn based bench. It is regulated power supply to operate the Gunn oscillator. It also contains
square wave generator to provide 1 kHz frequency to the PIN modulator for amplitude modulation.
Fig. 3. Gunn power supply.
Gunn Oscillator
This is an economical source of microwave power in which Gunn diode is used which work on
negative resistance produced by application of DC bias. Precision micrometer fitted with the
plungers is used to change the frequency of the oscillations.
Fig. 4. Gunn oscillator.
2. Isolator
An isolator is an unidirectional, two port device which provides very small amount of attenuation
for transmission from port (1) to port (2) but provide maximum attenuation for transmission from
port (2) to port (1). When isolator is inserted between generator and load, the generator is coupled
to the load with zero attenuation and reflections if any from the load are completely absorbed by
the isolator without affecting the generator output.
Fig. 5. Isolator.
3. Attenuators
For perfect matching sometimes it is required that the microwave power in a waveguide be
absorbed completely without any reflection and also insensitive to frequency. For this attenuators
are used. Attenuators are commonly used for measuring power gain or loss in dBs for providing
isolation between instruments, for reducing the power input to a particular stage to prevent
overloading. Scientific microwave offers fixed and variable attenuators to its customers.
Fig. 6. Attenuator.
4. Frequency Meter
In microwave benches direct reading frequency meter (DRF) are generally used: direct reading
frequency meter (DRF) is constructed from a cylindrical cavity resonator with a variable short-circuit
termination. The shorting plunger is used to change the resonance frequency of the cavity by
changing the cavity length. DRF measures the frequency directly. It is particularly useful when
measuring frequency differences of small changes.
Fig. 7. Direct reading frequency meter.
Micrometer Type Frequency Meters

These frequency meters are intended for moderate accuracy application in microwave measurements
and are usually best for this purpose. These permit full power flow down the transmission line
except at the tuned frequency. It consists of a cavity, plunger and the section of standard waveguide.
The plunger ensures precise control of its position enabling frequency measurement with high
accuracy.
Fig. 8. Micrometer type frequency meter.
5. Slotted Line
This system consists of a transmission line (waveguide), a travelling probe carriage and facility for
attaching/detecting instruments. The slot made in the center of the broad face do not radiate for
any power of dominant mode. Slotted section is basically used to measure standing wave ratio
(VSWR). The precision built probe carriage having centimeters scale with a vernier reading of
0.1 mm least count is used to note the position of the probe. Additionally slotted section can be
used to measure impedance, reflection coefficient and the return loss.
Fig. 9. Slotted line

6. Tunable Probe
A tunable probe helps in detecting the low frequency square wave modulated microwave signal.
It is made by the use of crystal diode mounted in the transmission line. The probe is connected
to the crystal detector so that the output from the detector is proportional to the square of the
input voltage at the position of the probe. As the position of the probe is moved along the
waveguide slot is gives output proportional to the standing wave pattern inside the waveguide.
Fig. 10. Tunable probe.
7. Voltage Standing Wave Ratio Meters

It is a high gain, voltage amplifier tuned at the center frequency of 1 kHz. It is used for VSWR,
attenuation and total mismatch on the line.
Fig. 11. VSWR meter.
Quiz
1. What is the purpose of waveguide flange?
2. What is a waveguide?
3. Why the waveguide is air filled?
4. What is a waveguide bend?
5. What is isolator?
6. What is circulator?
7. What is Attenuator?
8. What are Tees? How many types of Tees are there?
9. What is slotted line?
10. What is tunable detector?
Answers
1. It is used to connect two similar types of waveguides or waveguide components.
2. It is a metallic structure of rectangular or circular cross-section, highly polished and silver
plated from inside. It is used for flow of electromagnetic energy.
3. The waveguide is filled with dry air under pressure to remove any moisture from the
waveguide that might cause corrosion. It also increases the power handling capacity of
waveguide.
4. It is bend, which is used to change the path of flow of EM energy in the waveguide.
5. It is a device, which allow the flow of EM energy in one direction but does not permit
energy to travel in the opposite direction.
6. It is a multi port device. It has a property that energy entering in one port is permitted
to come out from the next port only hand and not from any other port.
7. It is a device that is used to reduce the strength of signal.
8. Junction of waveguide in different configurations is called Tee. Following types of Tees
are there: E-plane Tee, H-plane Tee, Magic Tee, Rat Race.
9. It is a waveguide in which a slot is made on the broacher side, in the center of the side
along the axis of the waveguide. It is used to facilitate movement of travelling proble
along the waveguide to detect and measure the standing wave ratio.
10. It is a device that is used to detect microwave signal. Detector diode can be Point
Contact Diode or Schottky Barrier Diode.
EXPERIMENT 3
Aim
Measurement of guide wavelength and frequency of the signal in a rectangular waveguide.
Equipments Required
1. Reflex klystron 2K25 2. Klystron power supply
3. Klystron mount 4. Isolator
5. Variable attenuator 6. Frequency meter
7. Detector 8. VSWR meter.
Theory
The wavelength is measured by measuring the distance between two consecutive minimas on
slotted line scale. The distance between two minimas gives half wavelength. Using the system as
shown in Fig. 1 observe dip in power level while rotating plunger of frequency meter. At a plunger
position where resonance frequency of frequency meter will be same as that of klystron or Gunn
source. A dip in power level of detector output will be observed. This frequency will be same as
frequency calculated using slotted line.
Procedure I: Measurement of Frequency Using Slotted Line

1. Assemble the equipment as shown in Fig. 1. Take care that all components are mechanically
aligned and firmly screwed.
2. Set-up the klystron for maximum power output. Short the slotted line at load end using
reflector or shorting plate.
3. Tune tunable probe for maximum power.
4. Move slotted line probe until you get a position of minimum signal power as observed on
dB scale of VSWR meter (red scale). Note down this reading. Let it be x.
5. Now move further probe on slotted line until you get next minimum slotted line. Let it
be y.
6. Wavelength is then given by 2 × (y − x) = .........
From compute frequency using formula f = c/λ
7. Take a few more reading and average them to get accurate frequency.
Block Diagram
Klystron power VSWR

supply meter
Klystron mount Variable Frequency Slotted Short

with tube Isolator attenuator meter line termination
Fig. 1. Measurements of guide wavelength and frequency.
Procedure II: Measurement of Frequency Using Frequency Meter

In this method frequency meter is rotated until a dip in power level is observed. Using the system
as shown in Fig. 1 observe dip in power level while rotating plunger of frequency meter. At a
plunger position where resonance frequency of frequency meter will be same as that of klystron
or Gunn source. A dip in power level of detector output will be observed. This frequency will be
same as frequency, calculated using slotted line.
λ0
λg =
1−
Fλ I 0
2
GH λ JK
c
where λ0 is free space wavelength.

λc is cut-off wavelength = 2a for TE10 mode.
Calculation
Wavelength = 2 (y − x)
= ..... cm
c
Frequency =
λ
Result
We have measured frequency and wavelength of rectangular waveguide.
Precautions
1. Handle all components with care and do not allow and damage to take place.
body.
Quiz
1. What is wavelength?
2. What is guide wavelength ‘λg’?
3. What is cut-off wavelength for a waveguide?
4. What is the relationship between frequency and velocity of light?
5. Name various methods that can be used to measure frequency/wavelength.
6. What is wave meter?
7. What is down frequency conversion method of measuring frequency?
8. In a wave meter ‘dip’ indicates what?
9. In a wave meter, how resonant frequency can be changed?
10. For TE10 mode, why λc = 2a?
Answers
1. Amount of distance travelled by electromagnetic wave in one cycle is known as wave-
length.
2. Distance travelled by an EM wave to undergo a phase difference of 2π radians is called
guide wavelength.
3. Maximum wavelength that can travel in a waveguide is called cut-off wavelength.
4. c = fλ.
5. Wave meter, frequency down conversion method, 2d method. Double minimum method.
6. It is a cylindrical cavity resonator used to measure frequency.
7. With the help of local oscillator and mixer, the RF frequency is converted to low
frequency and then measured with conventional equipment.
8. It indicates that resonant frequency has been achieved and power transfer has taken
place.
9. By changing the length of the cavity through movement of plunger.
2
λc =
FG mIJ + FG nIJ
2 2
H a K H bK
For m = 1 and n = 0
10. λc = 2a.
EXPERIMENT 4
Aim
Measurement of VSWR (small as well as large values) and reflection coefficient.
Equipments Required
1. Reflex klystron 2. Klystron supply
5. Variable attenuator 6. Wave meter
7. Detector 8. Slotted line
9. CRO 10. VSWR meter.
Theory
Slotted line is a transmission line with a slot cut longitudinally in the centre of waveguide. Standing
waves are formed due to mismatch between source and load. The incident signals entering from
source end and the reflected signals coming from opposite load side combine to form minimum
and maximum is slotted line. The signal levels of minimum and maximum are detected and their
ratio gives VSWR. The maximum is adjusted to read as reference 1.0, the subsequent minimum
is so calibrated that it directly reads as VSWR.
Procedure
1. Assemble equipment as shown in Fig. 1. Take care that all the components are mechanically
aligned and firmly screwed.
2. Set-up the klystron for maximum power output.
3. Put the probe on a standing wave minimum, increase the sensitivity of the amplifier to
nearly maximum, adjust the probe depth to the minimum sensitivity. Measure the output
frequency of the klystron as in previous experiment.
A. For Measurement of Low and Medium VSWR

1. Let the slotted section be connected directly to a matched termination. Move the probe
carriage and calculate the VSWR by noting the maximum and minimum output readings.
(For a matched condition, the square root of the maximum of the minimum reading
should be less than or equal to 1.1).
2. Insert the element under test. Move the probe in the slotted line to a voltage maximum.
Adjust the gain control on the VSWR meter so that the pointer on the output meter is
set exactly to full scale on the VSWR scale. Move the probe in the slotted line to a voltage
minimum and note the reading on the output meter scale. This value is directly the voltage
standing wave ratio (VSWR).
3. In case VSWR is a greater than 2, voltage minimum become too small for accurate
reading on the same range as the voltage maximum. In such a case measure the voltage
minimum on two separate ranges of amplifier sensitivity such that both the values are read
accurately near half scale of the indication meter. The VSWR can be computed from the
actual value of maximum and minimum.
Block Diagram
Klystron power VSWR

supply meter
Klystron mount Variable Freq Slotted

with tube Isolator attenuator meter line DUT
Termination
Fig. 1. Measurement of VSWR.
B. For High Standing Wave Ratio

We can calculate high VSWR by double minima method: Move the probe slowly in the
direction of the minimum and reach a point giving full-scale deflection. Plot a graph between
power output and probe position as shown in Fig. 2. Determine ∆x the distance between the two
double minimum power points from the Fig. 2. Compute the value of wavelength in free space
from the expression λ0 = c/f, where c is the velocity of electromagnetic waves in free space and
f is the frequency measured by the frequency meter. Compute the value of wavelength in the
waveguide from the expression.
λ0
λg =
Fλ I
1−G J 0
2
H 2a K
where a is the larger internal dimension of the waveguide (here a = 22.86 mm). Compute the
value of the VSWR by the expression:
λg
VSWR =
b π ∆ xg
Output Waveform
Output
Emax 2Vmax
Vmin
Emin
,x
X1 X2
Probe position
Fig. 2. Double minima method.
Result
We have measured VSWR and reflection coefficient.
Precautions
body.
EXPERIMENT 5
Aim
Study of mode characteristics of reflex klystron and determination of mode number, transit time
and electronic tuning sensitivity.
Equipments Required
1. Reflex klystron 2. Klystron supply
5. Variable attenuator 6. Wave-meter
7. Detector 8. Slotted line
9. VSWR meter or CRO 10. Match termination
Theory
A reflex klystron is a single cavity resonator klystron. It is low power microwave source delivering
about 10 to 100 milliwatt output in the microwave frequency range of 1 to 30 GHz with an
efficiency of 30% maximum. Reflex klystrons as microwave sources have application as local
oscillators in commercial, military radar, doppler radar and in most of microwave measurement
systems. Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of reflex klystron.
Modes of Operation
In a reflex klystron repeller voltage plays a key role in deciding the oscillating condition and the
mode of operation. If the resonant frequency of the cavity and the beam voltage are kept constant,
then the amplitude and frequency of oscillations obtained from the reflex klystron very with the
repeller voltage. The different oscillating regions correspond to different transit time modes. Power
and frequency characteristics of a reflex klystron are shown in the mode diagram Fig. 2.
Display of Modes
The variation of the microwave power output of a klystron and the frequency of oscillations with
reflector voltage can be displayed on the oscilloscope. V is varied through its operating range by
means of an AC voltage which is simultaneously applied to the horizontal deflecting plates. The
microwave output of the klystron is rectified by a crystal detector and is applied to vertical
deflecting plates of CRT. The pattern obtained on the oscilloscope is a plot of power against
reflector voltage. A wavemeter in the microwave bench between the klystron and the detector will
show a dip at the frequency of wavemeter. Common klystron and the detector will show a dip at
the frequency of wave-meter. Common klystron source in laboratories is 2L25 or 723 A/B which
requires a beam voltage of 300 volts beam current of 22 mA, reflector voltage up to 160 volts
and the power output is 25 mW.
Reflex Klystron
Mechanical Reflector Cover

tuning
Grids
–
Output
– + Resonator Cathode
cavity
Heater
Fig. 1. Reflex klystron.
mW
Output
power
20
Volts
–50 –100 –150 –250
Reflector voltage
MHz
50
Frequency
change
0 Volts
–50
Fig. 2. Modes of reflex klystron.

Block Diagram
Klystron
power supply
CRO/VSWR meter
Klystron mount Variable Freq Detector

with tube Isolator attenuator meter mount
Fig. 3. Study of klystron characteristics.
Procedure
1. Set-up the components and equipment as shown in Fig. 3.
2. Switch ON klystron power supply and check following:
(a) Beam voltage is set near 270 volts.
(b) Repeller is set near to 70 volts.
(c) Modulation is set to AM.
(d) Keep variable attenuator at min position.
3. Keep the time/division scale of oscilloscope around 100 Hz frequency measurement and
volt/div to lower scale.
4. Observe detector output on CRO of in VSWR meter. Adjust following to get neat square
wave pulses and maximum output.
5. After getting maximum output about 1 volt on CRO, adjust variable attenuator and reduce
output power to one-fourth about 200 millivolt.
6. Plot klystron modes by observing output for different values of repeller voltage 40 V to
160 volt and tabulate results for following:
(a) Amplitude and frequency of AM.
(b) Beam voltage.
(c) Repeller voltage.
Observations
Tabulate the data is below:
Beam voltage = 270 Volts (fixed)
Repeller Power Frequency

S.No. voltage Output (dB)
Dip mm Corr. Frequency
1.
2.
3.
4.
Precautions
Never keep repeller zero.
Result
We have studied Reflex Klystron.
Precautions
body.
Quiz
1. How many cavity reflex klystron does have?
2. On which principle klystron tube operates?
3. What are the applications of reflex klystron?
4. On what principle multi cavity klystron amplifier works?
5. What are different modes in a reflex klystron?
6. The secondary cavity in a two cavity klystron is called.
7. What is the efficiency of reflex klystron?
8. The single cavity in reflex klystron is acts as.
9. What should be the transit time?
10. Why negative voltage is given to the repeller?
Answers
1. Only one.
2. Velocity modulation.
3. As a oscillator, microwave generator.
4. Velocity modulation and current modulation.
5. They give same frequency but different transit time.
6. Catcher cavity.
7. 20 to 30%.
8. Both buncher and catcher cavity.
9. T = n +¾
10. The electron beam should never reach the repeller because of the −ve field and returned
back towards the gap.
EXPERIMENT 6, 7
Aim
To study the following characteristic of Gunn diode:
1. V-I Characteristic.
2. Output power and frequency as a function of voltage.
3. Square wave modulation through PIN diode.
Equipments Required
Gunn oscillator, Gunn power supply, PIN modulator, Isolator, Frequency meter, Variable attenuator,
Detector mount, Waveguide stands, SWR meter, Cables and Accessories.
Theory
The Gunn oscillator is based on negative differential conductivity effect in bulk semiconductors
which has two conductions bands minima separated by an energy gap (greater than thermal
agitational energies). A disturbance at the cathode gives rise to high field region which travels
towards the anode. When this high field domains reach the anode. It disappears and another
domain is formed at the cathode and starts moving towards anode and so on. The time required
for domain to travel from cathode to anode (transit time) gives oscillation frequency. In a Gunn
oscillator, the Gunn diode is placed in a resonant cavity. In this case, the oscillation frequency is
determined by cavity dimensions than by diode itself. Although Gunn oscillator can be amplitude-
modulated with the bias voltage. We have used separate PIN modulator through PIN diode for
square wave modulation. A measurement of the square wave modulation capability is the modulation
depth, i.e., the output ratio between ‘ON’ and ‘OFF’ state.
Procedure
1. Set the components and equipments as shown in Fig. 1.
2. Initially set the variable attenuator for minimum attenuation.
3. Keep the control knob of Gunn power supply as below:
Meter switch – OFF
Gunn bias knob – Fully anticlockwise
PIN bias knob – Fully anticlockwise
PIN Mod frequency – Any position
4. Keep the control knob of VSWR meter as below:
Meter switch – Normal
Input switch – Low Impedance
Range dB switch – 40 dB
Gain Control knob – Fully clockwise
5. Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator for required frequency of operation.
6. Switch ON the Gunn power supply. VSWR meter and cooling fan.
Block Diagram
Gunn power
supply
Gunn PIN Frequency Variable

Isolator
oscillator modulator meter attenuator
Oscilloscope VSWR Detector

meter mount
Fig. 1. Set-up of study of Gunn oscillator.
V-I Characteristic of Gunn Oscillator
Threshold voltage
Current
Voltage
Fig. 2. V-I curve of Gunn oscillator.
(A) Voltage-Current Characteristics

1. Turn the meter switch of Gunn power supply to voltage position.
2. Measure the Gunn diode current corresponding to the various voltage controlled by Gunn
bias knob through the panel meter and meter switch. So not exceed the bias voltage
above 10 volts.
3. Plot the voltage and current readings on the graph as shown in Fig. 2.
4. Measure the threshold voltage which corresponds to maximum current.
(B) Output Power and Frequency as a Function of Bias Voltage

1. Turn the meter switch of Gunn power supply to voltage position.
2. Increase the Gunn bias control knob.
3. Rotate PIN bias knob to around maximum position.
4. Tune the output in the VSWR meter through frequency control knob of modulation.
5. If necessary change the range dB switch of VSWR meter to higher or lower dB position
to get deflection on VSWR meter. Any level can be set through variable attenuator and
gain control knob of VSWR meter.
6. Reduce the Gunn bias voltage in the interval of 0.5 V or 1.0 V and note down corresponding
reading of output at VSWR meter and frequency by frequency meter.
7. Use the reading to draw the power v/s voltage curve and frequency v/s voltage and plot
the graph.
8. Measure the pushing factor (in MHz/volt) which is frequency sensitivity against variation
in bias voltage for an oscillator. The pushing factor should be measured around 8 volt bias.
Result
We have studied Gunn Oscillator.
Precautions
body.
Quiz
1. What are the basic of classification of microwave devices?
2. What is Gunn effect?
3. What are the applications of Gunn diode?
4. What is negative resistance?
5. What are the advantages of Gunn diode?
6. What are the disadvantages of Gunn diode?
7. What is threshold voltage?
8. What is the role of PIN diode in the test set-up?
9. What is the role of Isolator in the test set-up?
10. In a Gunn oscillator, Gunn diode is placed in a resonant cavity. In your opinion what
shall be the effect of this?
Answers
1. Based on electrical behavior. Based on conduction.
2. There are periodic fluctuations of current passing through n type GaAs when applied
voltage exceeded certain critical voltage.
3. Used as amplifier and oscillators.
4. In negative resistance devices, voltage and current phases are 180° to each other.
Voltage drop across it is negative and (− I2R) power is generated.
5. It has very less noise.
6. It is very temperature dependent. Frequency of oscillations changes with change in
temperature.
7. It is that voltage on curve, which corresponds to maximum current.
8. PIN diode is used to square modulate the output of Gunn oscillator.
9. To avoid the flow of reflected energy back to Gunn oscillator. This reflected energy shall
destabilize the frequency, phase and amplitude of output wave from oscillator.
10. The frequency of oscillations shall be determined by the dimensions of the cavity, rather
than by the diode itself.
EXPERIMENT 8
Aim
Measurement of coupling coefficient and directivity of a directional coupler.
Equipments Required
1. Gunn/Klystron oscillator 2. PIN modulator
3. Isolator 4. Variable attenuator
5. Frequency meter 6. VSWR meter or CRO
7. Detector 8. Directional coupler
9. Termination-2 nos 10. Gunn/Klystron power supply.
Theory
A directional coupler is a four-port waveguide junction. It consists of a primary waveguide (Ports
(1) and (2) and a secondary waverguide (Ports (3) and (4). Port (3) is terminated by matched load.
There is free transmission of power, without reflection, between port (1) and port (2) and there
is no transmission of power between ports (1) and (4) or between port (2) and port (3) because
no coupling exists between these two pairs of ports. The degree of coupling between port (1) and
port (3) and between port (2) and port (4) depends on the structure of the coupler. The characteristics
of a directional coupler can be expressed in terms of its coupling factors and its directivity and
isolation. Assuming that the wave is propagating from port (1) to port (2) in the primary line, the
coupling factor and directivity and isolation are defined respectively by as:
Port (3) Port (4)
Port (1) Port (2)

Fig. 1. Directional coupler.
1. Coupling factor (dB) = 10 log10 P1/P4

2. Directivity (dB) = 10 log10 P4/P3
3. Isolation (dB) = 10 log10 P1/P3
The coupling factor measure the ratio of input level at the primary to the power level at the
coupled port, which signifies how much power coupled at the secondary output. Isolation gives the
ratio bandwidth input power at port (1) to the power at the port (3). Actually well-designed
directional couplers have a directivity above 30 dB.
Block Diagram
Klystron power VSWR Detector

supply meter mount
4
1 2
Klystron mount Variable Directional

with tube Isolator attenuator coupler Termination
Coupling = P1 – P4 (dB)
(a) Measurement of coupling factor
Klystron power VSWR Detector

supply meter mount
3
2 1
Klystron mount Variable Directional

with tube Isolator attenuator coupler Termination
Directivity = P4 – P3 (dB)
(b) Measurement of directivity
Fig. 2
Procedure
1. Arrange the experimental set-up and switch on the Gunn Power Supply and tune Gunn
Oscillator until, we get a clear square pulse in the range of min 100 millivolts signal.
2. Terminate the directional coupler in a matched load in port (2) and arrange the detector
unit on the auxiliary arm. Since the output of the main arm is terminated, there will be
no reflection. The power going from the auxiliary arm can be measured by the meter and
the difference of the reading of main and auxiliary arm in dB gives the value of the
coupling factor in dB. Do not change the setting of the variable attenuator.
3. Fix the direction coupler in the power input at port (1) and arrange the detector in
port (2). Set the variable attenuator to get the full-scale reading on the VSWR meter on
30 or 40 dB scale. Note the reading.
4. For directivity measurement note down the reading of the meter in the above setting with
the detector in the auxiliary arm. Reverse the direction of the power flow in the directional
coupler (by physically reversing the directional coupler in microwave test bench). The
difference of the two reading will give the directivity of the directional coupler in dB.
5. Determine the VSWR of the coupler at port (1), port (2), port (3) and port (4), (By
reversing) with the help of the standing wave detector.
Observation
I. Measurement of Coupling Factor
S.No. Repeller voltage Corr. Freq. Power (dB) Power (dB) Coupling factor
(V) GHz Port (1) Port (4) P1 − P4 (dB)
1.
2.
3.
4.
II. Measurement of Directivity
S.No. Repeller voltage Corr. Freq. Power (dB) Power (dB) Directivity
(V) GHz Port (4) Port (3) P4 − P3 (dB)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Result
We have studied Direction Coupler.
Precautions
body.
Quiz
1. What is directional coupler?
2. What is coupling?
3. What is directivity?
4. What is isolation?
5. What is insertion loss?
6. In a two hole directional coupler, what is the distance between two holes?
7. What is the material of directional coupler?
8. Name a few other types of directional couplers.
9. In a directional coupler, are ports matches.
10. How many holes can be there in a directional coupler?
Answers
1. It is combination of two waveguides electrically connected to each other through a hole
or orifice. It is used to measure the power of EM wave by taking a small fraction of
it.
2. Coupling, C (dB) = 10 log10 (Pi/Pf).
3. Directivity, D (dB) = 10 log10 (Pf/Pb).
4. Isolation, I (dB) = 10 log10 (Pi/Pb).
5. Insertion loss (dB) = 10 log10 (Pi/Pr).
6. The distance is λg/4.
7. These are two metallic rectangular waveguides, made of brass/copper. These are finely
polished and silver plated from inside.
8. Two hole cross guide coupler.
Two hole branching guide coupler.
Short slot coupler.
Bifurcated coupler.
Loop directional coupler.
9. All ports are perfectly matched to the junctions.
10. It can be one, two or more than two depending upon requirement. Degree of coupling
shall be decided by number and location of holes.
EXPERIMENT 9
Aim
Study of insulation and coupling coefficient of a Magic Tee.
Equipments Required
Microwave source, Isolator, Variable attenuator, Frequency meter, Slotted line, Tunable probe,
Migic Tee, Circulator, Matched terminations, Waveguide stand, Detector mount, VSWR meter and
accessories.
Theory
The device magic Tee is a combination of the E and H plane Tee. Arm 3, the H-arm forms an
H plane Tee and arm 4, the E-arm, forms an E plane Tee in combination of arms 1 and 2 as
side or collinear arms. If the power is fed into arm 3 (H-arm), the electric field divides equally
between arms 1 and 2 with the same phase, and no electric field exists in arm 4, Reciprocity
demands no coupling in port 3 (H-arm); if power is fed in arm 4 (E-arm), it divides equally into
arms 1 and 2 but out of phase with no power to arm 3. Further, if the power is fed from arms
1 and 2, it is added in arm 3 (H-arm), and it is subtracted in E-arm, i.e., arm 4 as shown in
Fig. 1. The basic parameters to be measured for magic Tee are defined follows:
(a) Input VSWR: Value of SWR corresponding to each port, as a load to the line while other
ports are terminated in matched load.
(b) Isolation: The isolation between E and H arms is defined as the ratio of the power
supplied by the generator connected to the E-arm (port (4)) to the power detected at
H-arm (port (3)) when side arms 1 and 2 are terminated in matched load. Hence, Isolation
3–4 = 10 log10 P4/P3 (dB). Similarly, isolation between other ports may also be defined.
(c) Coupling Coefficient: It is defined as Cij = 10− α/20.
where α is attenuation/isolation in dB when ‘i’ is input arm and ‘j’ is output arm.
Thus, α = 10 log10 Pi/Pj
where Pi is the power delivered to arm ‘i’ and Pj is power detected at j arm.
1 3
Fig. 1. Magic tee.
Procedure
A. VSWR Measurement of the Ports
1. Set-up the components and equipments as shown in Fig. 2 keeping E-arm towards slotted
line and matched termination to other ports.
2. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operation.
3. Measure the VSWR of E-arm as described in measurement of SWR for low and medium
value.
4. Connect another arm to slotted line and terminate the other port with matched termination.
Measure the VSWR as above. As the above VSWR of any port can be measured.
B. Measurement of Isolation and Coupling Coefficient

1. Remove the tunable probe and magic Tee from the slotted line and connect the detector
mount to slotted line.
2. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operation and tune the detector
mount of maximum output.
3. With the help of variable attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter, set any power
level in the VSWR meter and note down. Let is be P3.
4. Without disturbing the position of variable attenuator and gain control knob, carefully
place the magic Tee after slotted line keeping H-arm to slotted line, detector to E-arm
and matched termination to arms 1 and 2. Note down the reading of VSWR meter. Let
it be P4.
5. Determine the isolation between ports (3) and (4) as P4 − P3 in dB.
6. Determine the coupling coefficient from equation given in the theory part.
7. The same experiment may be repeated for other ports also.
8. Repeat the above experiment for other frequencies.
Block Diagram
Matched
Detector termination
mount 1
Matched
3 Tee 4
termination
Slotted 2
line
Matched VSWR
termination meter
Probe
Microwave Frequency Variable Slotted
Isolator
source meter attenuator line
4
Matched 1 Tee 2 Matched
termination termination
3
Matched
termination
Fig. 2. Study of magic tee.
Quiz
1. What are the various type of Tees?
2. What is H-plane Tee?
3. What E-plane Tee?
4. What is magic Tee?
5. What is the electric property of H-plane Tee?
6. What are the properties of E-plane Tee?
7. What are the properties of magic Tee?
8. What are the applications of magic Tee?
9. What is the isolation between E and H arm?
10. Define coupling coefficient.
Answers
1. E-plane Tee, H-plane Tee, magic Tee, rat race etc.
2. An H-plane Tee is formed by cutting a rectangular slot along the width of a main
waveguide and attaching another waveguide on the slot. It is three-port device.
3. A rectangular slot is cut along the broader dimension of a waveguide and a side arm
is attached. This is a three-port device.
4. Rectangular slots are cut along the breadth and width of a long waveguide and side arms
are attached. It is a four-port device.
5. If equal input are given at ports (1) and (2) (collinear ports), the output at the port (3)
shall be the sum of these two inputs.
6. If equal, in phase inputs are given at collinear ports, the output at port (3) shall be
difference of the two i.e., zero. Similarly, if same input is given at port (3), there shall
be equal but opposite outputs at ports (1) and (2).
7. It has got the properties of both H and E plane Tees. However if some input is given
to port (1), nothing comes out of 2.
8. Used for measurement of impedance.
Used as duplexer.
Used as mixer.
9. It is defined as ratio of power supplied by generator connected to E-arm (port 4) to the
power detected at H-arm (port 3) side arms 1 and 2 are terminated in matched load.
Isolation 3 – 4 = 10 log10 P4/P3.
− α/20
10. Cij = 10 , where is attenuation/isolation in dB when i is input arm and j is output
arm. Thus, α = 10 log10 Pi/Pj, where Pi is the power delivered to arm ‘i’ and Pj is
power detected at ‘j’ arm.
EXPERIMENT 10
Aim
Study of waveguide horn and its radiation pattern and determination of the beam width.
Equipments Required
1. Reflex klystron 2K25 2. Klystron supply
5. Variable attenuator 6. Horn antenna - 2nos
7. Detector 8. VSWR meter or CRO
9. Tripod stand.
Theory
The term radiation pattern refers simply to a graph of the radiation power supplied by the antenna
to some detecting device plotted against angular position of the antenna when it is rotated in a
uniform plane polarized electromagnetic field. The radiation pattern of horn antenna is shown in
Fig. 1. The horn antenna is a common form of microwave antenna. Physically the horn is simply
a tapered section of waveguide providing a transition between a waveguide and free space.
Although antenna do not provide a perfect match with rectangular waveguide propagating in a
TE10 mode, the radiated waveform will be linearly polarized. Radiation pattern and the other
characteristics are dependent on the horn length and the dimensions of the horn aperture a and
b for a pyramidal horn with a small flare angle, the gain is approximately.
Procedure
1. Arrange the experimental set-up in the sequence shown: A receiving horn followed by a
waveguide crystal detector (tunable) on the elevated mobile stand which can move axially
as well as along an angular all round the horn radiator. Klystron is connected to the power
supply and the detector output is connected to the VSWR meter.
2. Switch on the klystron as per instructions discussed in the experiment 5.
3. The horn in allowed to radiate towards an empty space. Remove all metallic objects from
the vicinity of measurements. The detector is kept at a distance from the aperture of the
horn radiator.
4. The crystal detector is rolated in angular fashion on both sides of the axis and the
normalised intensity output in dB below the intensity measured along the axis is recorded
at different angles.
5. The measurements are repeated at different distances and with different horn angles in
the H and E planes.
6. The radiation pattern is plotted on a polar graph as shown in Fig. 3.
7. Measure the variation of the intensity with distance along the axis of the horn radiator.
8. Measure the frequency of the radiation by the wave meter.
Relative power in dB
0
–3
Main lobe of antenna

with gain G dB
–G
Lobe of omnidirectional antenna
Side lobe
Back lobe
Fig. 1. Antenna radiation pattern.
Some Antenna Parameters

Following parameters can be measured to approximate values:
1. 3 dB beamwidth: One can measure directly from polar plots plotted above.
2. Antenna Gain: This can also measured by following Method.
(a) Use a standard horn antenna (Gain 16 dB).
(b) Measure output on VSWR meter using standard horn antenna. Let it be x dB.
(c) Replace the standard horn antenna with unknown antenna whose gain is to be measured.
Let it be y dB.
(d) From above gain of antenna can be calculate by taking difference of two reading, i.e.,
(x − y) dB.
Block Diagram
Klystron power
supply CRO
Klystron mount Freq Variable Detector

VSWR
with tube meter attenuator mount
Fig. 2. Study of radiation pattern horn parabola.

Polar plot:
100 90° 80
70
110 60
120 50
0
13 40
0
14
30
0
15
20
190 180° 170 160
10
dB
0°
7 14 21 28 35
350 3
40
200
33
0
0
21
32
0
0 31
22 0
0 30
23 0
0
24 290
250 270° 260
280
Fig. 3. Polar plot.
Quiz
1. What is horn antenna?
2. What is radiation pattern?
3. What are various types of lobes?
4. Where in the lobe the intensity is maximum?
5. Are side lobes/back lobes desirable? Discuss.
6. What are the disadvantages of side lobes/back lobes?

7. What is beamwidth?
8. What is antenna gain?
9. What are the advantages of flaring?
10. What are the various types of microwave antennas?
Answers
1. This is an open ended waveguide, in which open end is flared so that it looks like horn.
It can be H plane, E plane, Pyramid horn or Conical horn.
2. It is a diagram of field strength or power intensity.
3. These are main lobe, side lobe, back lobe.
4. At the center of the lobe.
5. These are not desirable but at the same time it is not possible to design an antenna
without side lobes/back lobes. Through proper design, these can be reduced.
6. Loss of energy and susceptible to interference and jamming.
7. The angle between two points on a main lobe where power intensity is half of the
maximum power intensity.
8. It is a measure of increased power radiated in the direction of target as compared with
the power that would have been radiated from an isotropic antenna.
9. Flaring improves directivity, increases efficiency and reduces VSWR.
10. Horn antenna, Lens antenna, Slot antenna and Microstrip antenna.
EXPERIMENT 11
Aim
Study of ferrite circulator and measurement of isolation, insertion loss, cross coupling and input
VSWR.
Equipments Required
Microwave source, Isolator, Variable attenuator, Frequency meter, Slotted line, Tunable Probe,
Magic Tee, Circulator, Matched terminations, Waveguide stand, Detector mount, VSWR meter and
accessories.
Theory
Circulator: The circulator is a multiport junction that permits transmission in certain ways. Refer
to the Fig. 1. A wave incident in port (1) is coupled to port (2) only, a wave incident at port (2)
is coupled to port (3) only and so on. Following are the basic parameters of isolator and circulator
for study.
(a) Insertion Loss: The ratio of power supplied by a source to the input port to the power
detected by a detector in the coupling arm, i.e., output arm with other port terminated
in the matched load, is defined as insertion loss or forward loss.
(b) Isolation: It is the ratio of power fed to input arm to the power detected at not coupled
port with other port terminated in the matched load.
(c) Input VSWR: The input VSWR of an isolator or circulator is the ratio of voltage
maximum to voltage minimum of the standing wave existing on the line, when one port
of it terminates the line and others have matched termination.
Note. When port which is not coupled to input port is terminated by matched termination, it marks
as Isolator (two port device).
2
1 3
Fig. 1. Circulator.
Procedure
A. Input VSWR Measurement
1. Set-up the components and equipments as shown in Fig. 2 with input port of isolator or
circulator towards slotted line and matched load on other ports of it.
2. Energize the microwave source for particular operation of frequency.
3. With the help of slotted line, probe and VSWR meter, find out SWR of the isolator or
circulator as described earlier for low and medium SWR measurements.
4. The above procedure can be repeated for other ports or for other frequencies.
B. Measurement of Insertion Loss and Isolation

1. Remove the probe and isolator or circulator from slotted line and connect the detector
mount to the slotted section. The output of the detector mount should be connected with
VSWR meter as shown in Fig. 3.
2. Energize the microwave source for maximum output for a particular frequency of operation.
Tune the detector mount for maximum output in the VSWR meter.
3. Set any reference level of power in VSWR meter with the help of variable attenuator and
gain control knob of VSWR meter. Let is P1.
4. Carefully remove the detector mount from slotted line without disturbing and position of
set-up. Insert the isolator/circulator between slotted line and detector mount. Keeping
input port to slotted line and detector as its output port. A matched termination should
be placed at third port in case of circulator.
5. Record the reading in the VSWR meter. If necessary change range dB switch to higher
or lower position and taking 10 dB change for one step change of switch position. Let
it is P2.
6. Compute insertion loss as P1 − P2 in dB.

7. For measurement of isolation, the isolator or circulator has to be connected revise i.e.,
output port to slotted line and detector to input port with other port terminated by
matched termination (in case circulator) after setting a reference level without isolator or
circulator in the set-up as described in insertion loss measurement. Let same P1 level is
set.
8. Record the reading of VSWR meter inserting the isolator or circulator as given in
step 7 let it be P3.
9. Compute isolation as P1 – P3 in dB.
10. The same experiment can be done for other ports of circulator.
11. Repeat the above experiment for other frequencies if needed.
Block Diagram
VSWR
meter
Probe
Microwave Isolator Frequency Variable Slotted

Isolator
Matched
or
load
circulator
Fig. 2. Measurement of VSWR of isolator or circulator.
Microwave Frequency Variable Slotted

Isolator
2 1
Isolator Isolator Detector
or or
mount
circulator circulator
1 2
Detector Detector VSWR

mount mount meter
Fig. 3. Measurement of insertion loss of isolator and circulator.
Result
We have studied Ferrite Circulator.
Precautions
body.
Quiz
1. What is an isolator?
2. What is circulator?
3. What is insertion loss?
4. What is isolation?
5. What is input VSWR of a circulator or isolator?
6. What is Faraday rotation in ferrites?
7. If direction of travel of wave reverses, does the direction of polarization change?
8. What is the function of resistive card in an isolator?
9. How many ports as circulator can have?
10. What are the applications of circulator?
Answers
1. It is a two port device which have low insertion loss in forward direction and very high
insertion loss in the opposite direction.
2. It is a multi port junction that permits transmission in certain ways. For example, a wave
incident at port (1) is coupled to port (2) only, wave incident at port (2) is coupled to
port (3) only and so on.
3. It is the ratio power supplied by a source to the input port to the power detected at
the output port.
4. It is the ratio of power fed to input arm to the power detected at the not coupled port,
with other ports terminated into matched loads.
5. It is the ratio of voltage maximum to voltage minimum of the standing wave existing
on line and others have matched terminations.
6. When a linearly polarized wave along x-axis is made to travel through ferrite in the
z-direction, the plane of polarization of this wave will rotate with distance. This
phenomenon is known as Faraday rotation.
7. No, the wave continues to rotate in the same direction even if the direction of travel
of wave reverses.
8. Resistive card does not absorb any energy from the wave whose plane of polarization
is perpendicular to its own plane and allows the wave to pass.
9. There is no restriction about number of ports. However, normally a circulator has four
ports.
10. It can be used as a duplexer in radar antenna system.
EXPERIMENT 12
Aim
Measurement of microwave power using power meter.
Theory
A sensitive power meter is a very useful instrument when doing experiments. A few years ago
when I started my microwave radio hobby up again, the first project I undertook was building a
23 cm transverter. During the development, a diode in front of analog meter (VOM) was used
to tune the microwave circuits to the resonance frequency. During the experiment, the need for
a more sensitive and precise power meter was recognized. After some experiments it turned out
that, based on the principle of the diode rectifier with a cheap amplifier behind it, a simple but
also sensitive and accurate power meter could be built.
Block Diagram
Dual
power
Power head meter
A A B
Input network Power Output network

supplies
and
Attenuator meters
A1
Attenuator
Isolator A2
FL1
Coupler or Power head
power divider DUT B
Cable A Cable B
Cable C
Source 1 Source 2
(RF signal) (LO signal)
Fig. 1. Power test bench in operation.
Measurement Procedure
The following measurement procedure is used for measuring a two-port device such as an amplifier!
Although it is not explicity stated, it is good practice to turn off the RF power when making
changes to the set-up, then turn it on when you need to make a measurement.
1. Make sure that the power meter has warmed up for one hour with the power
heads connected. Have another donot while you wait.
2. Hit the preset button, this eliminates all of the offsets and calibration factors stored by
the last guy who used the power meter.
3. Select dBm for your data, not watts (dBm is preferred by 9 out of 10 microwave
engineers!).
4. Turn off all RF source power and high power amplifiers on your bench and zero the
power heads. The power meter should eventually read “LOG ERROR” for both power
heads.
5. Calibrate both power heads using the power meter’s built in 50 MHz reference
oscillator. Attach power head A to the reference oscillator output (the type N jack on
the face of the power meter), select power head A to display (hit the “A” button). Now
hit “CAL ADJ”, and input the calibration reference setting for power head A (typically
100%).
6. Check the calibration adjustment of power head A by turning the 50 MHz oscillator on,
with the calibration factor set to the calibration reference setting (typically 100%). You
should read 0.00 dBm for all power heads except the ones that require the 30 dB
reference attenuator. These power heads should read 30.00 dBm.
7. Repear steps 5 and 6 for power head B. Turn off the reference oscillator.
8. Enter the calibration factor for power head B (output power) for the first frequency you
will be measuring.
9. Now it’s time to determine input coupling coefficient C1. Attach the power heads
to their proper locations in the test set-up for calibrating the input network (see Fig. 1).
Turn on the RF power and it at the midrange of where you plan to sweep. Display
A/B on the meter. This is the input coupling coefficient at your first frequency. Write
it down.
10. Determine if you have enough power range from your set-up while observing
power meter B (at his step it reads the input power to your DUT), vary the RF power
using the sweeper’s built in attenuator and/or the external variable attenuator (if you
have one). Observe that you can reach the minimum and maximum input power that
your measurement requires.
11. You can now measure your worst-case directivity error. Display power meter A,
then hit “REL” to reference the meter to the current power level (meter should read
0.00 dB). Then briefly remove power head B and replace it with a short-circuit. If you
have excellent directivity, the power meter reading should only change by perhaps
0.1 dB. Write it down. Put power head B back and continue.
12. Repeat steps 8, 9 and 10 for each frequency you will be measuring, and create a table
for the input coupling coefficient C1 over the frequency range. You can skip the
directivity error measurement (step 11) on the additional frequencies if you are confident
that your set-up has good directivity at each frequency. Don’t forget to change the
power head B calibration factor when you change frequencies.
13. Now it’s time to measure the output loss coefficient C2. Note. Connect up the
test bench without the DUT, as shown in Fig. 1. For the first frequency, enter the input
network coefficient C1 as an offset to power head A, and be sure to set the proper
calibration factor for power head B. Turn on the RF and set it near your midrange
power level. Due to the C1 offset, power head A is now reading your DUT input power
directly. Display A/B on the power meter; this is equal to your output network loss
coefficient C2. Write it down.
14. Repear step 13 for each frequency that you will be measuring, and create a table for
C2 over the frequency range.
15. Now it’s time to measure the power transfer characteristics of your DUT. For
each frequency, enter the proper calibration factor for power head B, enter the input
coupling coefficient C1 as an offset to power head A, and enter the output loss coefficient
C2 as an offset to power head B. Install the DUT and bias it to the target quiescent
point. Turn on the RF, and set it to the lowest power setting you want to take data.
16. You now have your choice of displaying input power (power meter A), output power
(power meter B) or gain (A/B). You only need to write down two of these, we like a
record input power and gain. Using steps of approximately 1 or 2 dB, measure the
input power, gain and drain current IDS for the amplifier. Start at 20 dB below the P1
dB point on the data sheet and continue until the amplifier output is saturated (one dB
change in PIN results in less than 0.1 dB change in Pout).
17. Using Excel, enter the data and plot output power, gain and power-added efficiency
versus input power.
Characteristics
0
–5
–10
–15
–20
–25
–30
–35
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Freq. (GHz)
Fig. 2. The reflection of the detector head when Cin is 18 pF.
EPM Series power meters: Figure 3 shows E4418B power meter.
Fig. 3. E4418B features many user-conveniences and a 90 dB

dynamic measurement range.
GGG

Vinith Chauhan - Microwave and Radar Engineering With Lab Manual-University Science Press PDF

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Vinith Chauhan - Microwave and Radar Engineering With Lab Manual-University Science Press PDF

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Microwave

(An Imprint of Laxmi Publications Pvt. Ltd.)

© by Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.

Typeset at ABRO Enterprises, Delhi

& Bengaluru 080-26 75 69 30

& Hyderabad 040-27 55 53 83, 27 55 53 93

UNIVERSITY SCIENCE PRESS

An ISO 9001:2008 Company

Preface .................................................................................................................... (xiii)

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVE ENGINEERING 1–11

CHAPTER 2 MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINES 12–138

2.12 Excitation of Modes in Rectangular Waveguide .................................................... 74

CHATER 3 MICROWAVE COMPONENTS 139–215

3.21 Summary of Transmission Line Components ..................................................... 211

CHAPTER 4 CAVITY RESONATORS 216–239

CHAPTER 5 MICROWAVE MEASUREMENTS 240–293

CHAPTER 6 MICROWAVE TUBES 294–400

CHAPTER 7 MICROWAVE SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE 401–479

7.5 Transferred Electron Devices (Gunn Diode) ........................................................ 432

CHAPTER 8 PRINCIPLES OF RADAR 480–532

8.20 Blind Speed in MTI Radar ................................................................................ 518

CHAPTER 9 RADAR TRANSMITTERS AND RECEIVERS 533–580

Microwave Engineering Lab ........................................................ 581– 617

Uttar Pradesh Technical University, Lucknow

1 Rectangular Waveguide: Field Components, TE, TM Modes, Dominant TE10

2 Scattering Matrix, Passive Microwave Devices: Microwave Hybrid Circuits. ,

3 Microwave Tubes: Limitation of Conventional Active Devices at Microwave

4 Solid State Amplifiers and Oscillators: Microwave Bipolar Transistor, Microwave

5 Microwave Measurements: General set-up of a microwave test bench, Slotted

Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak

1 Waveguides: Introduction, comparison with transmission lines, propagation in TE

2 Microwave Components and Tubes: Directional couplers, tees, hybrid ring, S

3 Microwave Solid State Devices and Measurements: Varactor diode, Tunnel

 Microwave Frequency Range

¾ Microwave spectrum ranging approximately from 1 GHz to 300 GHz.

1.2 MICROWAVE FREQUENCY RANGE

Table 1.1. IEEE microwave frequency bands.

Band designation Frequency range in GHz

Submillimeter > 300

Above 300 GHz, the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by Earth-atmosphere is so great

Table 1.2. Radio spectrum and their application.

Fig. 1.1. Electromagnetic spectrum.

¾ X-band (8–12 GHz) is normally used in laboratories.

1.3 HISTORICAL RESUME OF MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

1.4 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF MICROWAVES

¾ Microwaves are characterized by small size of wavelength and large bandwidth.

1.5 ADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVES (MDU 2008)

where, C = Channel capacity,

2. Improve Directivity of Antenna

3. Reduced* Fading Effect and Higher Reliability

5. Lower Power Requirements

1.6 APPLICATIONS OF MICROWAVES (MDU 2008)

1.6.1 Communication Related Application

1.6.2 Microwave Weapons

1.6.3 Medical Applications

1.6.4 Radio Astronomy and Remote Sensing Applications

1.6.5 Commercial and Industrial Applications

Operation of Microwave Oven

Horn Rotating Cavity

Motor Rotating table

Fig. 1.2. Construction of microwave oven.

Communication Radar Industrial and Heating

Terrestrial Civilian Process control Industrial

Microwave Frequency Range

Power Losses in Rectangular Waveguide