Saline crops,

from halophyte research to sea vegetable markets

Joost Bogemans*, László Erdeib

Abstract

A spin-off company was established in 1999 from EU research on the cultivation, selection and do-
mestication of a selection of halophytes. The mission of the company has always been focused on
plant breeding, selection and seed production. Salicornia europaea and Aster tripolium were, from
the beginning, the key products of the company. Today the range of sea vegetable species has been
extended with Salicornia bigelovii, Salsola komarovii, Salsola soda, Crithmum maritimum, Plantago
coronopus, Beta maritima, Crambe maritima and Mertensia maritima. Among them, different races
are under development with respect to marketable characteristics (e.g. shape, yield, pest resistance…)

At an early stage, the company established cultivation systems and had the reclamation of saline soils
as a primary task. Later, new cultivation systems were deployed to fit horticultural needs (e.g. impro-
ving non-seasonality, greenhouse cultivation, mechanization); today we give new growers advice in es-
tablishing the new crops. Grower-adapted cultivation systems are setup from hydroponics over saline
soil reclamation and highlighting facets like salinity and irrigation control, mineral nutrition under
salt regimes and advice on the particular saline crop.

Simultaneously with the introduction of new halophyte crops and appropriate cultivation systems, a
marketing development was built up to highlight interesting features of sea vegetable crops such as
taste, functional components, ease of use. to new consumers. This review focuses on the establishment
of a sea vegetable market under advanced agro-food markets . Introducing new halophyte crops to
less developed agro food markets need different approaches but is not made easier . In terms of develo-
ping new applications from saline crops (forage, cosmetics, environmental issues, biofuel) a marketing
strategy should be focused on the derived products, bearing in mind that the consumer compares and
decides.
a
Intellicrops bvba, Abdijstraat 14, 9400 Ninove, Belgium
b
Department of Plant Biology, University of Szeged, Közép fasor 52, 6726 Szeged, Hungary
*Corresponding author.
Tel.: +32 54329093; fax: +32 54331175.
E-mail addresses: joost.bogemans@scrops.com (J.Bogemans), erdei@bio.u-szeged.hu (L.Erdei)
published by Intellicrops bvba , Ninove 2012 ©
Saline Crops, from halophyte research to sea vegetable markets

1.From research to spin-off.

From 1993 until 1996 an EU research project running under the name ‘Saline crops. A contribution to the diver-
sification of the production of vegetable crops by research on the cultivation methods and selection of halophytes.
(AIR3-CT92-0198)’,whose overall objective was to domesticate a number of plant species, naturally growing in
saline or brackish soils that are locally gathered for consumption as a vegetable in the EU (Huiskes, Lemeur et al.
1997). Species of Salicornia, Aster tripolium., Beta maritima. and Crambe maritima were envisaged. Three of the
species are harvested from wild populations along European coastal areas, but in the case of Crambe maritima (Sea
kale) the cultivation disappeared in the 20th century. The aim of the project was to develop commercial agricultural
products that could be cultivated as horticultural crop. As research topics the focus was on new cultivation me-
thods, breeding and the reclamation of saline soils.
Research institutes from the Netherlands (NIOO) , Belgium (UGent and VUB Brussels) and Portugal (IBET, EAN)
were involved with The Foundation for Marine Cultures Oosterchelde (SMCO, the Netherlands) coordinating the
project. Experimental field plots were established in Burg-Haamstede (Netherlands), Aveiro and Leziria (Portugal)
and .in a later stage the project was partially reinforced with an EU-Phare project on "Oxygen toxicity and abiotic
stress in crops” (H 9112-0163) under the direction of Prof. Dr. László Erdei (University of Szeged, Hungary) (Sági
and Erdei 2002). The work plan comprised: germination and propagation, primary production, nutrition and sali-
nity, selection and breeding, crops production in the field and pests and diseases.

According to the work plan promising results were obtained with Aster tripolium and Beta maritima. At the end of
the "Saline Crops" project, the specie Salicornia was still difficult to control in terms of germination and growth. The
research on Crambe was abandoned at that time as new cultivation and propagation systems were setup by Péron
(Peron 1987). Given the progress that was made with Aster tripolium a spin-off company was established in 1999

Fig. 1 Aster tripolium selection trial. EU project Saline

Crops 1993-1996 .Experimental field Burgh Haamstede
with its founders Prof. Dr. László Erdei (University of Szeged, Hungary) and Dr. Joost Bogemans (VUB Brussels,
Belgium). It was the start of a journey with ups and downs.
In 1999 Scrops nv was established. At a time when venture capital was readily available, we easily found commercial
partners . Together with one of the commercial partners a cultivation field was found in Portugal. This ancient rice
field flooded for years by sea water was reclaimed and the flooded field turned into a dry compact lime soil. Due to
the conversion from anaerobic to aerobic soil conditions, we had to start with a soil pH of 3.5. A lot of liming was
needed to cultivate Sea aster (Aster tripolium L.) as the first sea vegetable crop. Although in the years thereafter the
field was flooded three times more due to heavy rains or the weakness of the natural ditchesand twice destroyed by
cattle through poor fencing, the work proved the use of halophytes as forage crops. The field had to be abandoned
and although the Salicornia greenhouse cultures, were successful, the resources of Scrops were depleted.
In 2004 the founders continued the activities under Intellicrops bvba . The activities were focused on seed produc-
tion and consultancy. In 2007 a partial transfer of technology was realised through the establishment of Serra Maris
bvba. Serra Maris is today the seed company for sea vegetable seeds. Intellicrops still has its role as developer of
non-food applications and runs the management of Serra Maris bvba. Today Serra Maris operates in an internatio-
nal context by setting up cultures in France, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Portugal, Turkey, Israel and the delivery
of seeds to the US and Japan.
From having a tentative start with only two crops (Salicornia spp. and Aster tripolium L.) we are today dealing with
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Bogemans J and Erdei L.

twelve saline crops and working on different races among them. The evolution of the sea vegetable seed business and
its forthcoming sea vegetable products can serve as a case study in how to deal with markets and the marketing of
new saline crops. Here the different sea vegetables products will be briefly discussed. We define sea vegetables as a
range of edible halophytic crops as they all refer to vascular plants.

2. Salicornia

Salicornia or samphire (syn. glasswort) was already mentioned in medieval times as a medicinal plant (Blankaart
1698). The plant was primarily denoted as a famine food but gained popularity with time. Whereas in the Nether-
lands the use of Salicornia was primarily as vegetable, in France the pickling of Salicornia in vinegar is a traditional
business. In the Netherlands and France the wild harvest was and is still limited by a system of permits. In the nine-
ties early attempts to make from Salicornia an oil crop came to a dead end (Glenn, Hicks et al. 1996).
Projects in Mexico and Saudi Arabia developed the market for fresh Salicornia in Europe and started to offer Sali-
cornia during the European winter season. The import from Saudi Arabia disappeared but in the last five years Israel
became a big exporter of Salicornia . According to previous marketing studies and data , the market of Salicornia in
the Benelux alone easily exceeds 300 ton fresh product. A year-round supply or non-seasonality of Salicornia was an
important step in the dissemination of the crop. The introduction of cultivated Salicornia by EU growers does not
seem to influence the current market as they organized their proper sales. Wholesale prices vary from 6 to 7 Euro/
kg in the Netherlands. A consumer easily pays 18 to 21 Euro/kg in the shop or supermarket. The above mentioned
factors are an indication of a non-saturated market in fresh Salicornia tips.
Serra Maris anticipates the development of this market with an offer of seeds of Salicornia europaea . Three races
are regularly used in production, which differ in response to flooding resistance, shape, color or yield. Although the

Fig. 2 Salicornia europaea L.

nomenclature of Salicornia is still a topic of debate among taxonomists (Teege, Kadereit et al. 2011) , for the distri-
bution of seeds we refer to the nomenclature of the GRIN database (Germplasm Resources Information Network
(IRRI 1985)(IRRI 1985)) a database commonly used among plant breeders. Within the customer basis of Serra Maris
the cultivation of Salicornia is almost completely switched towards artificial systems of hydroculture or hydroponics.
Salinity control, adapted mineral nutrition, appropriate light conditions and sowing planning are all elements by

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Saline Crops, from halophyte research to sea vegetable markets

which the grower can control growth and extend the growing season. The type of cultivation we propose is similar to the
cultivation of micro greens or baby leaf production. A dense stand of Salicornia is established. The erected young tips
can then easily been cut in the non-lignified zone of the crop.

The introduction of a mechanic harvesting machine resulted in a boost for the dissemination of the Salicornia cultures.
Depending on the type of cultivation one can expect 20-30 ton FW/ha .

3. Aster tripolium

Aster tripolium L. or Sea aster is found on the higher levels on the sea shore. They are mainly flooded by sea water at
spring tides. The use of Aster tripolium as vegetable is almost exclusive to the Netherlands, where like Salicornia it was
considered as a famine food. The young leaves, 6 to 10 cm long, can be cut early in spring and are considered as a re-
placement for the Salicornia tips that only emerge in early June. The non-seasonal offer through import from Israel and
Portugal gives this product opportunities for a broader familiarization.
Aster tripolium has some interesting characteristics. The yield of young leaves can reach 35 - 50 ton FW/ha, harvested in
6-7 cuttings (Martins, Duvekot et al. 1997). Young leaves are rich in protein and amino acids in the very young stage of
the crop. Values of 1.6 to 2% protein on dry weight basis were recorded. Sea aster is generally cooked like spinach and
may be mixed with common spinach in order to add texture and a salty taste.

Fig. 3 Aster tripolium L. Fig. 4 Salsola soda L.

4. Salsola

We are currently dealing with two types of Salsola. Salsola komarovii Iljin.(Heywood 1999; 2010) and a European
variant of Salsola soda is locally known in Italy as “agretti,” , “barbe di frati” or “Barilla” (1990; Coiffard 1991). Salsola
komarovii called “Oka Hijiki” in Japan is known as the oldest vegetable crop there., having been collected along shores
for more than 3000 years Oka Hijiki has long needle like leaves with a crispy bite and is best consumed fresh.: it e is not
that salt resistant , however salinity brings up a sharp flavor, giving rise to the name “Sea mustard”.
The market is still to be explored but with the internationalization of the European cuisine (e.g. sushi business) will
certainly gain more attention. The nomenclature of Salsola komarovii Iljin. is still under debate and is referred as Salsola
soda in the GRIN database .
The name of Barilla refers to the glass industry in Medieval time. Plants like Salicornia and Salsola were cut and burnt.
The ash was used as the soda for glass industry. As a vegetable the young shoots were collected and sold in bunches. The
“agretti” type is fleshier than the “oka hijiki” type and is sometimes referred as the Italian Salicornia

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 Bogemans J and Erdei L.

Fig. 5 Crithmum maritimum Fig. 6 Crambe maritima

5 Crithmum maritimum

Crithmum maritimum is known as “rock samphire” in the United Kingdom or as “Criste marine” in France (Coif-
fard 1991; Cornara, La Rocca et al. 2009). Crithmum maritimum is especially known in the Mediterranean basin. The
plant is rich in more than 23 different volatile oils. We can consider Crithmum as an aromatic potherb. The plant was
harvested in France along the rocky shores in Brittany (France) and sold on the London markets. A traditional use
was to blend leaves in butter and serve it on a fish plate. On the isle of Mallorca Crithmum leaves are pickled in vine-
gar. The use as a potherb was not known in Italy , instead it was known as a phyto-veterinary product.

6. Crambe maritima

Sea kale was a traditional crop in France and Great Britain, typically produced bythe large gardens of castles and ma-
nors . The crop is cultivated for the shoots forced under terracotta pots. As the cultivation became too intensive for a
short supply period on the market, the crop almost disappeared. The crop comes again into consideration by the work
of Péron but we had to wait for a revival until Crambe maritima was positioned as sea vegetable.
The cultivation is merely in open soil and forced under dark conditions from November till April. Serra Maris is wor
king on the forcing of roots like it exists for
Brussels endives (Chicorum intybus L.) This
approach will certainly help in making Cram-
be maritima towards a non-seasonal crop and
by doing so improving its marketing .

7. Beta maritima

Sea beet or Beta maritima is found on the

higher places on the shores. The soils are
saline but the plant is not flooded regularly
by seawater. Sea beet has a tradition of use in
Portugal and Great Britain where the plant is
locally gathered. The saline environment make
the leaves of sea beet tougher and improves
the texture when cooking. With a saline and
nutty taste, sea beet is an ideal winter sea
vegetable crop. As the crop has some tradition
in the UK demand for that seeds are growing
in this region.

Fig. 7 Beta maritima

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Saline Crops, from halophyte research to sea vegetable markets

8. Marketing of sea vegetables

There are still a number of halophyte plants (Plantago coronopus L., Mertensia maritima L., Atriplex prostrata L.
…. ) that are explored within the range of sea vegetables. However we have to bear in mind that the introduction of
new edible halophytic crops should fit within the EU regulation 258/97 on novel foods and novel foods ingredients.
Through the enumeration of the various sea vegetables, the salinity of the growing medium plays an important role in
building up a quality. The saline environment is responsible for the salty taste, influences the shape, texture or brings
up some typical flavors. In setting up the cultivation, the grower looks to find an optimal mix between production and
quality.
Salicornia can be grown under seawater conditions but in greenhouse conditions this could mean an extension of the
growing period with 4 to 6 weeks and hampering the rotation system at extra costs.
As the salty taste denotes a quality marker, consumers have a changing behavior with respect to the salty tast e . Bri-
tish consumers are not so fond of a dominant salty taste whereas for Dutch and French enjoy the preponderant salt in
the vegetables . In describing the different products the non-seasonality is an important element in building up a mar-
ket. The almost constant availability of a product on the shelves draws the attention of the consumer. Another peculiar
characteristic of sea vegetables like Salicornia and Aster tripolium lies in its convenience factor. Today markets are
oriented towards ease of use (e.g. readymade lettuce mixtures, pre-cut green beans) and cooking. Sea vegetables like
samphire , sea aster, sea kale have this advantage , they need only some short stir frying to accompany a dish.
Moreover the sea vegetables we mentioned have all a strong ethno-botanical background that can be used by a marke-
ter to draw the attention of the customer.
Another factor which is not yet fully exploited in the marketing sea vegetables is the aspect of functional ingredients.
Sea vegetables can be a source of polyunsaturated oils, protein , carbohydrates, vitamins (Rasing, Luyten et al. 2002)
the aspect of their richness in micro-elements like zinc, iodine, iron or selenium is underestimated.
Sales or production numbers on sea vegetable are nonexistent or outdated. We can only guess that the market is not
yet saturated. As fruits and vegetables are long-term products once established - Products like Asparagus, egg plant ,
broccoli just got a boost the last ten years on the EU market- we can expect that the market of Salicornia has potential
to grow.
The appreciation for taste and shape of fruit and vegetables can change along with time. It’s up to the plant breeder to
select new and better products to keep the markets going on.

Fig. 9 Salicornia production field the Netherlands

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Bogemans J and Erdei L.

9. Marketing halophyte products

The above description of the sea vegetable market applies within the context of Europe According to Jansen and van
Tilburg (1997) , the agro-food markets can be divided into five different stages of development (primitive, emerging,
intermediate, industrialized and advanced). The EU market can be positioned into the advanced stage. For every
stage the authors defined typical characteristics for supply, input markets, demand and market function. Conside-
ring less organized distribution channels, restrained access to seed and fertilizers products, the demand for product
differentiation is much lower with respect to a lower developmental stage. This means that after the example of the
introduction of halophytic food for compensating the malnutrition of micro-elements in regions with a less develo-
ped agro-food stage will need a more intensive marketing approach.
Besides edible crops, many studies and developments have been realized in order to demonstrate the use of halop-
hytes. The potential of halophytes as forage crops has been widely studied (Gihad and El Shaer 1992; Le Houérou
1992; Malcolm 1996) . Clear cut solutions are found in literature, yet we are awaiting commercialization. Another
current issue is the use of halophytes as biofuel. According to a recent study the scope of commercialization is not
seen within the first decade. Without judging the feasibility of the potential halophytic products we must realize that
in view of an average consumer their time framework is merely focused on immediate needs and any decision process
will be directed by factors like availability, price or special features. These factors are only part of a total marketing
mix but need some considerations in terms of establishing a “halophyte” based enterprise.
In order to draw the attention of a consumer, a product with special characteristics or properties is likely to be succes-
sful on the market . Threats for a starting company are related to the protection of the intellectual properties in order
to secure the marketable product. The more the “halophyte” product is technology-based the more a starting com-
pany must be aware of alternative technologies that could shortcut the technology. A permanent innovation should be
the motive for such a company.
To be and to stay on the market requires an almost continuous availability of the product. Halophyte-based products
are the result of a primary production and special agricultural technologies. If cultivation hampers and/or yields work
out badly the supply of the products is at risk. The further the marketable product is down the production chain the
slower will be the response to counteract the need for raw materials. Establishing a stock of raw materials is some-
times a solution but represents a cost even before the product is sold.
Price is another important aspect that defines the marketable “halophyte” product. The more exclusive the product is,
the higher the freedom to settle the price. If the halophyte product is, however, positioned among basic commodities
(e.g. biofuel, feed products) the price of the halophyte product must be competitive with available products .

10. Marketing saline agriculture

All elements of the marketing mix as partially described above define the “halophyte” product with its unique selling
properties (USP). Considering the saline agricultural practices as part of the unique selling properties of a “halop-
hyte” product is not relevant. Saline agriculture or more precisely saline agricultural biotechnology is more focused
on the production process instead of the product itself.
In promoting its products Serra Maris is offering seed material and cultivation technology with consultancy. Within
any product chain of “saline” raw materials the production technology plays an important role. The transfer of this
technology should be considered as a marketable “services” product on itself and part of the “halophyte” product.
Also with respect to the technology, the use of Salicornia sp. is often used as model to emphasis the extreme bounda-
ries wherein saline agriculture can work. Though the exceptional physiological characteristics of the plant, the crop
has limitations in offering “halophyte” products. In promoting saline agriculture - besides the technology - more
emphasis should be put on the diversity of potential halophyte crops and the wide range of preferable unique pro-
ducts.

11. Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank the organizers of the workshop “Sustainable cultivation and exploitation of halophyte crops
in a salinizing world’ held at the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam on the 18th and 19th April 2012. Supported by
COST FA0901.

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Saline Crops, from halophyte research to sea vegetable markets

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