INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDIES-

NEW IDEAS NEW PERSPECTIVES

 INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDIES-
NEW IDEAS NEW PERSPECTIVES

Writers of The Chapters

Sema Orsoy-Nurettin Gemici-Selahattin

Bayram-Sevde Nur Güldiken-Sümeyye
Bahşi Akyüz-Abdülhak Malkoç-Mustafa
Subaşı-Hüseyin Yazıcı-Zehra Öztürk-Mualla
Uydu Yücel-Gülbeyaz Göztaş-Fatma
Bölükbaş-Mine Yazıcı-Eyüp Sarıtaş-
—Tarık Demir-Wang Xiufu-—
Gülşen Erdal-Umut Akyüz

Editor
Eyup Saritas
Copyright © 2016 by Eyup Saritas.

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Rev. date: 12/21/2016

 Contents

PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

PART ONE: HISTORICAL STUDIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

CHAPTER 1: According To The Jin Shu The Xiong-nu(Hun)
in 3.rd Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
CHAPTER 2: An Evaluation Of The Report Prepared By Franz
Schmidt About The German Scholars Preparing To Work at Istanbul
University. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
CHAPTER 3: Societal Problems in the Islamic World in the 1
1th Century in Light of the Metaphors in al-Ḥarīrī’s Maqāmāt . . . . . 41
CHAPTER 4: Historical Adventure of Gaza and An Overall Look at
Gaza Under Administration of the Ottomans in Century XVI . . . . . . 71
CHAPTER 5: French Schools Established in The Ottoman State . . . 99

PART TWO: LITERARY STUDIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

CHAPTER 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
A Review On Bai Juyi-A Prominent Poet of Tang Period . . . . . . . . . 123
CHAPTER 7: PİR-İ HERAT SHAYK AL-ISLAM ABDULLAH
ANSARI AND MYSTICISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
CHAPTER 8: Longing Theme in Mehver (Mugration) Literature . . 145
CHAPTER 9: Woman Writers and Poets Who Wrote on Islamic Topics
in the Last Period of Ottoman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
CHAPTER 10: Woman Image in Turkish Epics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

PART THREE: LANGUISTIC STUDIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

CHAPTER 11: A Research on Phonology Terminology in Turkish as
Spoken in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
CHAPTER 12: The Significance of Idioms in Teaching Turkish as a
Foreign Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
PART FOUR: TRANSLATION STUDIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
CHAPTER 13: Position of Translation Studies in Third Generation
University Understanding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

PART FIVE: INTERNATIONALR RELATIONS STUDIES . . . . 241

CHAPTER 14: Nuclear Aspect of China-Iran Relations . . . . . . . . . 243
CHAPTER 15: Kaliningrad Oblast in the Context of EU-Russia
Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
CHAPTER 16: The Victory of a Defeated Navy: An Analysis of the
Foreign Affairs Movement in China, 1861-1895 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

PART SIX: MUSICOLOGY STUDIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

CHAPTER 17: Effects of the Concept of “National Ideology” in the
Formation Phases of Turkish Music Revolution on Musical Structuring
and Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

PART SEVEN: ARCHITECTURAL STUDIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

CHAPTER 18: Use of Galleries as an Architectural Element in
SÜLEYMANİYE Mosque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
 CHAPTER 11

A RESEARCH ON PHONOLOGY TERMINOLOGY IN

TURKISH AS SPOKEN IN TURKEY
Gülbeyaz GÖZTAŞ1*

ABSTRACT
This is a research study on phonology terminology of Turkish as spoken
in Turkey. Absence of a common language in grammar terminology is
a challenging obstacle for teaching and learning skills. For this reason,
good efforts have been made to refer to phonology terminology and
classification complex in Turkish. The work Ses Dizimi/Phonology a
comprehensive work by Ömer Demircan has been relied on for this
study, and comparison with other works on phonology has been utilised.
Concepts that are often confused have been determined; variation in
terminology and classification complex in Turkish. Such complex has also
been channelling learning and teaching phonetics.
Key Words: Turkish as spoken in Turkey, grammar, phonology terms,
comparison.

INTRODUCTION
Grammar is what arranges all uniformity if a given language starting from
the sound(s) extending up to a sentence and that sets the binding principles
applicable thereto. Grammar discusses lingual uniformities in terms of
forms and structures, use values, semantics etc. In this context, lingual
examinations are divided into a set of branches. Phonetics is the principle
that examines and concentrates upon lingual vocal (Özkan, 2009: 275)..
In modern grammar examination, every aspect of a language ahs been
discussed starting from the smallest constituent. Thanks to phonological
examinations, the vocals in the official Turkish have been revealed by
examining affixes morphologically. In addition to this, they have also been

1 *
Gülbeyaz Göztaş, gulbeyazgoztas@hotmail.com

185
186 Eyup Saritas

discussed and a linguistic chart has been created on in the light of and by
relying on other linguistic branches. The very first grammar work on the
official Turkish is Müyessiretü’l-Ulûm, a work by Bergamalı Kadri in the 16th
century (Özkan, 2009: 277). A number of works have been produced
thereafter, making good efforts to issue a grammar chart for the official
Turkish. Phonetics, morphology, syntax are discussed in this particular
study.
It is already known and evident that no uniform language has
been established for grammar glossary in Turkey. Numerous works
concentrating on terms have been created and dictionaries have been
produced since the Administrative Reforms period. Despite all these
works, uniformity has not been established in language. Mustafa Özkan
argues that terminological uniformity could not be reached due to lack
of a competent team and lack of consensus (Özkan, 2009: 280). He
further argues that the Turkish Language Society could hold a meeting
and release common dictionaries to resolve and overcome the complexity
(Özkan, 2009: 280).
It is observed especially in the Turkish language and linguistics that
more than one terms is assigned for a single concept. Competent names
in the field have re-named a given concept with a name designated by
themselves, and used that name when teaching. When this is the case,
more than one name comes into use for one concept, and more than
one term corresponds to the same concept. This leads to troubles in
language teaching and comprehension as well. This study intends to reveal
complexity of phonology terms. Ömer Demircan is one of the prominent
scientists in phonetics in the official Turkish. Turkish Phonology by
Demircan has been relied on as a crucial, informative and detailed guide.
Having relied on the aforecited work by Demircan, definitions and
explanations referred to in the word have been compared and contrasted
with those of the other phonological sources.

I. CHAPTER
A. PHONOLOGY
Syntax is a scientific principle that examines, when creating semantic units
in a given language, how sounds are made, what their phonetics are like,
simultaneous and environmental characteristics amendments in sounds,
in brief, interaction by and between sounds and how sound-oriented rules
and requirements are altered in the course of time (Demircan, 2009: 2).
Phonetics is a scientific discipline that examines natural characteristics of
sounds in a given language (Demircan, 2009: 1).
Interdisciplinary Studies-New Ideas New Perspectives 187

Grammarians Phonology Phonetics

Banguoğlu Sonics p. 22 Phonetics p. 20
Korkmaz Sonics p. 183 Phonics p. 183
Karaağaç Specific sonic p. 17 General sonic p. 17
Demir, Yılmaz Phonology (sonic) p. 126 Phonetics p. 126
Eker Phonics p. 225 Sonics p. 225
1. Formation of Sounds
a. Sound Organs
1. Articulation sound organs: Lungs, vocal cords, tongue, soft
palate, lips, uvula
2. Inactive sound organs: Hard palate, teeth ridge, teeth.
b. Resonance Cavity (Vibration Cavity)
1. Volume changing: Pharyngeal cavity, oral cavity, predental
cavity
2. Volume non-changing cavity: Nasal cavity (Demircan,
2009: 9-10).
Karaağaç demonstrates it as follows: Lungs, trachea, pharynx, vocal
cords, pharyngeal cavity, nasal cavity, tongue, teeth, cheeks, frontal palate,
rear palate, uvula, lips (Karaağaç: 2010: 26).
c. Pronunciation Features: driving force, vibration, resonance,
variation, diaphragm (Demircan, 2009: 11).
KARAAĞAÇ:
Making a sound: stretching and exhaling, posture and calling, relaxing
and articulation (Karaağaç: 2010: 28).
Banguoğlu refers to the following alignment as far as formation of sounds
is concerned:
Formation of sounds: Sound is composed of spliced cavities in
different forms, and a track named vocal tract. (Banguoğlu:1959: 27).
a. Calling,
b. Articulation:
1. Function of the organs: throat, epipharynx: nasal cavity,
nostrils, mouth: knur, palate, cheeks, hard palate, soft palate
(a.k.a. frontal plate and rear palate), jawbones, teeth, gum,
lower jaw, upper jaw, tongue.
188 Eyup Saritas

2. Vocals and consonants (Banguoğlu: 1959: 30-32).

Eker: Vocal tract and sound
Speech organs:
a. Respiratory chain: lungs, peripheral muscles, trachea
b. Pronunciation chain: throat and vocal tract (lungs, trachea,
oesophagi, oral cavity, nasal fosse, nose and respiratory organs.
c. Articulation chain: mount, nose and lips (Eker, 2010: 227).

d. Vowels
1. Syllable (intonation)
A sound or a group of sounds released at the time of contraction forms
a syllable. If the vocal track is blocked when pressurised air is released, the
general name give to sounds that are released along with the air flow due
to opening and closing or friction is consonant. When the vocal track is
unblocked, the sounds formed are called vowel. (Demircan, 2009: 13).
Syllable
Grammarians Vowels Consonants
(intonation)
Vowels p. 34 Consonants p. 34
Banguoğlu Syllable p. 10
Vocal p. 34 Consonant p. 34
Korkmaz Vowels p. 225 Vowels p. 230 Syllable p. 115
Karaağaç Vowels p. 41 Vowels p. 33 Syllable p. 107
Demir, Yılmaz Vowels p. 128 Vowels p. 131 Syllable p. 179
Eker Vowels p. 235 Vowels p. 235 Syllable p. 250
Ergin Vocals. 34 Consonant p. 36 Syllable p. 39

2. Sounds as per the overall structure of syllable

3. Types of syllables in Turkish
4. Construction and dispersion of sounds (Demircan, 2009: 13-
18).
A. UTILISATION OF SOUNDS
1. PHONEME
Phoneme is one of the units of sound that distinguish one word
from another in a particular language (Demircan, 2009: 20). Minimal
pair is two words with separate meanings if and when a single sound is
Interdisciplinary Studies-New Ideas New Perspectives 189

changed (Demircan, 2009: 21). Allophones with no resultant difference

of meanings are called allophone (Eker, 2010: 235; Demircan, 2009: 1).
Allophone /
Grammarians Phoneme Minimal Pair phoneme
member
Korkmaz Phoneme p. 184
Branch
Karaağaç Phoneme p. 32 phoneme p.
32
Contrasting pairs p. Allophone p.
Demir, Yılmaz Phoneme p. 126
127 127
Opposite pairs p. Allophone p.
Eker Phoneme p. 235
227 235

Phoneme is divided into two: segmental phoneme (Demircan, 2009:

21), suprasegmental phoneme (Demircan, 2009: 21; (Eker, 2010: 279).
2. Semantic Distinguisher /Contrasting Characteristics
a. The ones related to segmental phoneme
Segmental phoneme is separated by contrasting characteristics.
1. Vibration of vocal cords: This is not a distinctive characteristic
for vowels.
Vocalised consonants: b,d,g,ğ,-c,v,j,-l,r,m,n (y)
Unvoiced consonants: p,t,k,-?,ç,f,s,ş,h,— (Demircan, 2009: 22)
Vocalised
Grammarians Unvoiced ç,f,h,k,s,ş,p,t
b,c,d,g,ğ,j,l,m,n,r,v,y,z
Toned, soft: Non-toned, hard:
Banguoğlu
b,c,d,g,ğ,j,l,m,n,r,v,y,z s. 44 ç,f,h,k,s,ş,p,t s. 44
Toned: b,c,d,g,ğ,j,l,m,n,r,v,y,z Non-toned: ç,f,h,k,s,ş,p,t
Korkmaz
s. 215 s. 215
Vocalised, loud: Unvoiced, non-loud:
Karaağaç
b,c,d,g,ğ,j,l,m,n,r,v,y,z s. 33 ç,f,h,k,s,ş,p,t s. 33
Vocalised: Unvoiced: ç,f,h,k,s,ş,p,t s.
Demir, Yılmaz
b,c,d,g,ğ,j,l,m,n,r,v,y,z s. 133 133
Vocalised: Unvoiced: ç,f,h,k,s,ş,p,t s.
Eker
b,c,d,g,ğ,j,l,m,n,r,v,y,z s. 245 245
190 Eyup Saritas

Voiced: b,c,d,g,ğ,j,l,m,n,r,v,y,z Non-voiced: ç,f,h,k,s,ş,p,t

Ergin
s. 34 s. 34

2. Organs of sound and place of outlet (Demircan, 2009: 22),

Point of formation (Demir, Yılmaz, 2012: 131), articulation
area (Korkmaz, 10: 49), outlet (Karaağaç, 2010: 34), point of
organising (Ergin, 2012: 46), articulation (Banguoğlu: 1959: 30),
point of formation (Eker, 2010: 239).

a. For vowels (Demircan, 2009: 22).

Grammarians Palatal/hard palate: Dorsum/mid palate/rear:
frontal: i,ü,e,ö ı,u,a,o
Banguoğlu Front vowels p. 35 Back vowels p. 35
Korkmaz Slender/ front vowels p. 170 Back /rear vowels p. 25
Karaağaç Slender/ front vowels p. 42 Back /rear vowels p. 42
Demir, Yılmaz Front vowels p. 131 Back vowels p. 131
Eker Front vowels p. 239 Back vowels p. 239
Ergin Front/slender vocal p. 40 Back/rear vocal p. 40

b. For consonants (Demircan, 2009: 23).

Grammarians Double Lower Apical- Apical— Palatal- Palatal— Glottis /
lip lip dental Teeth hard soft Oesophagi
b,p,m upper t,d ridge palate palate h,?
teeth s,z,n, ş,j,y k,g
f, v l,r,ç,c
Karaağaç Double Teeth— Teeth Gingiva: Interdentil Rear
lip: lip: v,f vocals: palate:
b,p,m p. p.35 d,t,n,l p. ç, c, r,ş : k,g,ğ,ŋ,h
35 36 p. 37 ġ,ķ,ğ,ŋ,ĥ
Interdentil p. 37
z,s. p. 37
Korkmaz Double Teeth— Teeth Teeth Frontal Rear Oesophagi:
lip: lip: v,f vocals: ridge: palate: palate: h,ħ, hemze,
b,p,m p.73 d,t,z,s, c,ç,j,ş p. k,g,ŋ p. ayın p. 107
p.61 n,l,r p. 69 169 ġ,ķ,ğ,ŋ
70 p. 25
Banguoğl. Double Teeth— Primary Teeth Frontal Rear Oesophagi:
lip: lip: v,f p. teeth: ridge: j,ş palate palate h,ħ, hemze,
b,p,m p. 47 d,t,z,s, s. 48 k,g,ğ,y k,g,ğ ayın p. 51
47 n,l,r p.
48 Sliding (ŋ) p. 49 (ŋ) p. 49
cons.: c, ç
Interdisciplinary Studies-New Ideas New Perspectives 191

Demir, Yılmaz Double Teeth— Apex Gingiva Frontal Rear Oesophagi:h

lip: lip: f, v teeth:d,n palate: palate: palate: p.132
b,p,m p. p. 132 s,t,z p. c,ç,j,ş p. g,k,l,r,y p. g,ğ,k,l p.
132 132 132 132 132
Eker Double Teeth— Teeth: Gum Frontal Back Oesophagi:h
lip: lip: f, v d,n,s,t,z palate: palate: palate: g, p.244
b,p,m, ps. 244 p. 244 c,ç,j,ş p. g,k,l,r,y p.
w p. 244 244 ğ,ġ,x,q,ŋ
244 p. 244
Ergin Lip Teeth— Teeth Frontal Frontal Back Oesophagi:h
con.: lip: v,f con: palate: palate: palate: p.46
b,p,m p.46 t,d,n c,ç,j,ş p. g,k,l,r,y ġ,ğ,ħ,ķ,ŋ
p.46 46 p. 46 p. 46
s,z
n (gnz)
p. 46

3. Outflow Forms (Demircan, 2009: 23).

1. For vowels (Demircan, 2009: 23).
a) According to palatoglossal space (Demircan, 2009: 23).
Grammarians Wide: a Medium: e, ö, o Narrow: i, ü, ı, u
Karaağaç Wide: a, e, ö, o p. 43 Narrow: i, ü, ı, u p. 43
Korkmaz Wide: a, e, ö, o p. 100 Narrow: i, ü, ı, u p. 64
Banguoğlu Wide: a, e, ö, o p. 36 Narrow: i, ü, ı, u p. 36
Demir, Yılmaz Wide: a, e, ö, o p. 131 Narrow: i, ü, ı, u p. 131
Eker Wide: a, e, ö, o p. 140 Narrow: i, ü, ı, u p. 140
Ergin Wide: a, e, ö, o p. 41 Narrow: i, ü, ı, u p. 41

b) According to shape of the lips (Demircan, 2009: 23).

Plan/ordinary (not round) i,
Grammarians Round ü, u, o, ö
ı, a, e
Karaağaç Plane: i, ı, a, e p. 43 Round: ü, u, o, ö p. 43
Korkmaz Plane: i, ı, a, e p. 77 Round: ü, u, o, ö p. 246
Banguoğlu Plane: i, ı, a, e p. 36 Round: ü, u, o, ö p. 36
Demir, Yılmaz Plane: i, ı, a, e p. 131 Round: ü, u, o, ö p. 131
Eker Plane: i, ı, a, e p. 240 Round: ü, u, o, ö p. 240
Ergin Plane: i, ı, a, e p. 41 Round: ü, u, o, ö p. 41
192 Eyup Saritas

2. For consonants
Vowels are divided into two depending on whether exhaled from the
mouth or from the nasal passage (Demircan, 2009: 24).
a) Oral consonants
When these vowels are sounded out, the soft palate rises up, blocking
the nasal passage (Demircan, 2009: 24).

1. Plosive consonants
The vocal track is blocked for a short while with the sound organs at
the outlet of the oral passage. At this time respiratory pressure increases
behind the closure. Once it is unblocked again, the respiration that is now
free creates an explosive sound (Demircan, 2009: 24).
2. Strident consonants
Lower lip—upper teeth inside the mouth, apical—teeth ridge, palatal-
hard plates are narrowed in a way that causes friction in the oral passage
by way of using vocal cords when the respiration is let go at a certain
pressure. Air passing in-between yields to friction or striding sound
(Demircan, 2009: 24).
3. Plosive—strident consonants
These are the consonants that begin as if plosive consonants but end
as if strident consonants. These sounds can be made with the apical and
teeth ridge (Demircan, 2009: 24).
Plosive
Strident consonants Plosive-strident
Grammarians consonants b, p,
v, f, z, s, (j) ş, h consonants c, ç
g, k, d, t, ?
Plosive
Fricative v,f,ş,s,c,ç,z,j
Karaağaç b,p,d,t,g,k,ġ,ķ p.
p. 40
40
Plosive
Fricative f,v,y,h,s,z,ş,j,ğ
Korkmaz p,b,m,t,d,k,g p.
p. 193
173
Plosive/
noncontinuant/ Strident/
Banguoğlu closure continuant/ narrow
b,p,c,ç,d,t,g,k,m,n f,v,ğ,h,j,ş,l,r,s,z,y p. 44
p. 43
Noncontinuant/
Fricative /
plosive
Demir, Yılmaz noncontinuant
b,p,c,ç,d,t,g,k p.
f,ğ,h,j,s,ş,v,z p. 133
133
Interdisciplinary Studies-New Ideas New Perspectives 193

Noncontinuant Fricative/ continuant

/plosive consonants: f,ğ,h,x,s,
Eker
b,c,ç,d,g,ġ,k,q,p,t
p. 245 ş,j,v,z p.245
Plosive/
noncontinuant Fricative/ continuant
Ergin
b,c,ç,d,g,ġ,k,ķ,p,t f,ğ,h,ħ,j,s,ş,v,z p. 48
p. 47

Glide (Vowel outflow, consonant functions)

4. Lateral
When apical contact the teeth ridge, the lower chin is half-open and is
let out with the vocal cords vibration and resonance from the sides of the
tongue. It is deemed a vowel as far as the way of letting out is concerned.
There is no obstacle for breath flow (Demircan, 2009: 25).
5. Roll consonant (+glide)
This is formed when the tip contacts the teeth ridge. As vocal cords
vibration and resonance accompany the breath flow, it is deemed a vowel
(Demircan, 2009: 25).
Slide (neither a vowel nor a consonant)
Sounds of /y, v, w, ğ, h/ may convert into a sliding sound if they
function inside the syllabic peak (Demircan, 2009: 25).
6. Semi vowels (+slide)
These are sounds such as /w,y,ğ,h/ when sound organs like a vowel
slide from one position to another and that follow the vowel both in the
beginning of the syllable and in the middle of it.
Sliding vowels (vowel+slide)
These are sounds characterised of vowels when sound organs slide
from one vowel position to another vowel position. It occurs in the form of
sliding, narrowing/closure or enlargement. Closure moves either towards
a front vowel or towards a back vowel (ei/ey, ai/ay). In written language,
the first vowel designates the inception position while the second vowel
designates direction of slide. A sliding vowel never becomes a second
vowel. It merely reveals and functions as if in a position of a second vowel.
Sliding vowels come to an end with a sliding sound (Demircan, 2009:
25).
194 Eyup Saritas

Glide (*l,m,n,r almost a semi-

Slide y, v, w, ğ, h
consonant.)

Grammarians Lateral Roll

Sliding consonants:
Tip-teeth ridge: consonant Semi-consonants
ei/ey
l, palatal-front Tip—teeth y, v, w, ğ, h
(Diphthong)
palate: l ridge: r
Two-consonant
syllable: semi-vowel+
Sliding/ semi- vowel,
Karaağaç Side tones: tip l p. 40 Trill: r p. 40 consonant:
l,r,v,y,ğ,h p. 41
Vowel+semi-vowal.
p. 46
Glide: l,m,n,r,y (most abundant vocal Diphthong: ai,ei p.
Korkmaz
l,r) p.14 None on 127 TT.
Vowel consonants: y,l,r,m,n p. 53-55
Glide consonants Nasal k. m, Dual vocal: None at
Banguoğlu n, ŋ
Semi vocals y,w Cheek con. TT. p. 74
Vibrant
k.: r
Front: l, rear: l
Demir, Yılmaz Glide: l,m,n,r,y p. 133
Diphthong:
Glide continuant consonants:
Eker
l,m,n,ŋ,r,y p. 245
None at TT p. 258

b) Nasal Consonants
These are the consonants that are formed at certain points of air outlet
orally when two lips, lower lip-upper teeth or tip-teeth ridge are closer
and breath is let out through the nasal passage (Demircan, 2009: 25).
Grammarians Nasal Consonants: m, n,ŋ
Karaağaç Nasal sounds/nasals: m,n,ŋ,ŋ (thick) p. 40
Korkmaz Nasal consonant: m,n,ŋ p. 103
Banguoğlu Nasal consonant: m, n,ŋ p. 55
Demir, Yılmaz Nasal/nose consonant: m,n,ŋ p. 133
Eker Nasal consonants: m, n,ŋ p. 245
Ergin Nasal consonant: m, n,ŋ s. 48

b. Suprasegmental/ Prosodic Characteristics

Segmental phoneme enveloper distinguisher or planish pronunciation
characteristics used to be called suprasegmental phoneme. Prodoy, a thing
that enfolds and pervades became commonly used afterwards. Semantic
Interdisciplinary Studies-New Ideas New Perspectives 195

distinguisher prosodic characteristics in Turkish are length/time, emphasis,

stop, pitch change/tone, and melody (Demircan, 2009: 26).
1. Time: Used whether vowels are long or short.
2. Emphasis: Formed based on contrast to emphasis, force of breath
and role of it. Force of breath comes in 2 phases, being strong and
weak.
3. Tone: An enveloping of sound that is specific to syllable
phonetically. It is formed with the direction of contrast change,
which is composed of these: decreasing, increasing, decreasing
and increasing, increasing and decreasing, straight.
4. Coherence: Instead of establishing a distinction like other
suprasegments do, the coherence, which is an extra-root
enveloping that regulates contrasts, should not be qualified as a
suprasegmental phoneme. There is no load of meaning (Demircan,
2009: 26-32).
Suprasegmental/ Prosodic Characteristics
Grammarians
Time, emphasis, rhythm, melody, tone, pause
Karaağaç Emphasis, intonation (tone), length p. 107-109
Korkmaz -
Speech melody: emphasis, intonation, cadence, pause p. 179-
Banguoğlu
191
Suprasegmental/prosodic phoneme: emphasise, melody,
Demir, Yılmaz
cadence, connexion, tone, length. p. 142
Suprasegmental phoneme: emphasise, pitch, tone, intonation,
Eker
connexion, stop and cadence, speed p. 279-285
Ergin -

II. CHAPTER
This is a chapter of practice. It is captioned as Sounds in Turkish as
Spoken in Turkey. Most of the terminology as used herein is shown above.
Terminology that is not emphasised is given below.
Morphophoneme: Morphophoneme is contrary to vowel order.
There is no morphophoneme but formal phoneme/ formal where contrast
used to be aligned. They are written with morphophoneme if and when
functionally needed in relation to words and affixes:
Morphophoneme Morphophoneme of conversion
A, I, U: a/e, ı/i, u/ü
196 Eyup Saritas

P, T, K,Ç, M, S, Ş,Y p/b, t/d, k/g, ç/c, m/n/ŋ, s/z, ç/ş . . . (Demircan,
2009: 37).
This particular term has not been found in other sources.
Crown: tip is involved in pronunciation (Demircan, 2009: 59). This
particular term has not been found in other sources, either.

III. CHAPTER
PHONOLOGICAL INTERACTION
Combination of Sounds (Banguoğlu, 0959: 62).
Demircan has scrutinised syllable in this chapter. This phonology
branch is called YO-phonology. Accordingly, a syllable is examined at
three levels: Syllable phase, Y (consonant)O(vowel)—hard, phoneme,
sounds (Demircan, 2009: 65). Glossary entry is syllabic. Each word is
entered in the phonology section after syllabic structure is designated.
Most common types of syllables: YO, O, YOY, OY. General syllable
structure is YOY (Demircan, 2009: 67). Syllables that end with a vowel
are called open syllable, syllables that end with a consonant are called
closed syllable (Demircan, 2009: 17).
Grammarians Y(consonant) O Open syllable Closed syllable
(vowel)
Eker C(consonant) Open/free syl. p. Closed syllable
V(vowel) p.251 251 p.251
Banguoğlu B(consonant) Open syllable p. 64 Closed syllable p. 64
A(vocal) p. 64
Demir, Yılmaz Consonant, Vowel Open syllable p.180 Closed syllable p.
p.179 180

C. PHONETIC CHANGE
1. Neutralisation
Neutralisation is the elimination of semantic distinguisher
characteristics at certain phonetic media. Morphophoneme exists at
neutralisation position (Demircan, 2009: 69).
Grammarians Neutralisation
Vardar Neutralisation (Demircan, 2009: 70).
Interdisciplinary Studies-New Ideas New Perspectives 197

2. Assimilation
Assimilation or consonance is when, in case of meaningful units,
sounds are subject to changes in a set of ways due to influence of the
previously or subsequently adjacent sounds (Demircan, 2009: 71).
a. Modifications That Only Affect Vowels
1. Opening
A simple or derived bisyllabic word, first syllable of which starts with
+ rear, + wide vowel and the second syllable of which starts with /ğ/ and
also contains a coherent narrow vowel, that second vowel of the word is
subject to opening in an effortless and hastily pronunciation (Demircan,
2009: 72).
2. Closing
In case of either of—yor (present tense suffix in Turkish),—acak
(future tense suffix in Turkish) is added or is a affix containing /y as a
transitional sound is added to a base that ends with a wide vowel, because
/y/ is + high =narrow consonant, the last +wide vowel of the root gets
closed, maintaining, however coherence characteristics (Demircan, 2009:
72).
3. Labialisation
An unrounded vowel that remains in between two round vowels gets
rounded for coherence purposes in addition to closing. Such change also
occurs after labial sounds that start with the identical syllable such as v, w,
b, m (Demircan, 2009: 72).
4. Nasalisation
When making vowel sounds, the oral passage and the nasal passage
open up, thus these vowels attain and + nasal characteristic, which is used
as a distinguisher in case of vowels. It is explained by environmental and
medium factors in Turkish (Demircan, 2009: 73).
5. Vowel Shortening
Vowels of the monosyllabic Turkish words that end with /ğ/ are
pronounced lengthily. Here, /ğ/ is added to the previous vowel in terms
of length (Demircan, 2009: 73).
6. Blending/Adding
Syllables that are in the beginning or in the middle of a word have
to start with a consonant for spelling purposes. If two vowels, in case of
transitions from one word to another, is successive, an actual modification
may occur, but if / . . . O+?O . . . is successive that the spelling may be
198 Eyup Saritas

changed. In this case /?/ mark can be added. /?/ may not be pronounced
and these syllables can be combined (Demircan, 2009: 74).
7. Slide-vocalisation
If a structural word that starts with a close vowel follows a root
that ends with a narrow vowel or that follows a base, either a /?/ gets in
between the two vowels, and if the previous syllable is a vowel then the
second vowel converts to a semi-vowel, combining the previous vowel.
Phoneme that occurs in this way is called slide vocalisation. When the
two words combine, vowels of the second word are harmonised. This is
also construed and accepted as syneresis (Demircan, 2009: 76).
Vowel Slide
Grammarians Opening Closing Labialisation Nasalisation Blending
Shortening Vocalisation
Labialisation
Closing p. Conflicting
Banguoğl. Rounding p.
161 p.121
144, 165
Flattening Labialisation
Develi
(?) p. 48 p. 55
Flattening Labialisation
Karaağaç
(?) p. 75 p. 103
Opening Closing p. Labialisation Shortening Stretching
Eker
p.267 267 p.268 p. 268 p. 268

Term match-up given in the table above does not correspond to

assimilation differentiation as Demircan suggests. In addition, when
comparing his classification with those of others, it will be seen that
the first has a relatively more complex structure. For instance, the term
nasalisation is used for e and ö sounds that are influenced by ŋ sound
as in beŋgi, döŋgü according to Demircan. Nevertheless some other
grammarians utilises this particular term for b>modification. The term
is not referred to herein as it shows different sounds. A classification
by all grammarians is given in the table below for a more proper and
appropriate comparison of terms and to minimise confusion (See the
table of assimilation).
b. Modifications That only Affect Consonants
1. Devoicing
Since devoicing plosives are +blown at the beginning and ending of
the syllable; /l, r, y/ sounds that come after them get devoiced. It can be
said that they are influenced by the previous devoicing. Such influence can
be owed to the subsequent consonant. /z, r, y/ that come before devoicing
consonants get devoiced (Demircan, 2009: 77).
Interdisciplinary Studies-New Ideas New Perspectives 199

2. Voicing
Devoiced plosive consonants are at the end of words in Turkish as
spoken in Turkey. There are very few examples containing voiced ones. In
case of a affix that starts with a vowel and is added to words that, in turn,
end with a plosive consonant, /p, t, k,ç/ sounds get voiced (Demircan,
2009: 77).
3. Vowel assimilation
Apart from consonant devoicing, there is also a vowel assimilation
that affects plosive consonants in between the root and the suffix. If an
affix starts with a plosive consonant, a selection is made depending on
whether the previous sound is voiced or not. If the last sound of the base
is voiced, +voiced member of the morphophoneme at the beginning of
the affix is selected, otherwise—devoiced member is selected. In other
words, semantic distinguishing in between p/b, t/d, k/g, ç/c, f/v, s/z, the
plosive consonant pairs at the beginning of affixes are eliminated. Vowel
assimilation can function bilaterally, both prospectively and retrospectively
(Demircan, 2009: 78).
4. Blowing
Devoiced plosive consonants are followed by a very brief blowing at
the beginning of the word or of the syllable. These consonants at the
beginning of the syllable are blown. The ones at the end of the syllable are
followed by a delayed-release and poor blowing (Demircan, 2009: 78).
5. Place of articulation assimilation
In an effortless and careless pronunciation, the nasal sounds may be
subject to k/g sounds depending on the consonant that follows them and
k/g sounds may be likewise subject to k/g sounds due to front-rear vowel
harmony. Penbe>pembe is an example . . . (Demircan, 2009: 79).
6. Manner of articulation assimilation
In case of transition from word to word and syllable to syllable, some of
the sounds may get assimilated as per the previous or subsequently sound
in terms of the manner of articulation. In addition to a set of singular
interactions, vowel harmony can also be construed as a combination.
Assimilation with previous consonant: gelinlik>gelinnik. Assimilation
with the subsequent consonant: tütsü>tüssü . . . (Demircan, 2009: 79).
7. Dissimilation
Dissimilation is a phonetic change that does not result in any loss
of meaning and does not get assimilated in tune with an adjacent sound
so as to prevent monotony in pronunciation due to repeating similar
200 Eyup Saritas

phonetic features on the one hand and to facilitate spelling on the other
hand. Tepme>tekme is an example for that . . . (Demircan, 2009: 80).
Place of Place of
Vowel
Grammarians Devoicing Voicing Blowing articulation articulation Dissimilation
Assimilation
assimilation assimilation
Dissimilation:
Pronunciation assimilation
Articulation assimilation Oralisation
Banguoğlu Vowel assimilation
p. 172
Dispersion p.
Assimilation in between solids p. 167
177
Sonoriousness-voicelessness
Labialisation
assimilation
Develi Palatalisation (?)
After sonorant consonants
Nasalisation s. 166
After non-sonorant consonants p. 148
Voicing/sonorisation/ tonisation
Labialisation p. 71
Contrariness
Karaağaç
Devoicing/loss of voicedness/ p. 63
Nasalisation p. 75
tonelesness p. 90
Contrariness
Voicing
Other morphophonetic
Eker
interchanges p. 278 /alteration p.
Devoicing p. 275
273

c. Phonetic Change That Affect Both Vowels and Consonants

A. Concordance
1. Vowel Harmony
What is intended for studying is actually progressive harmony under
this caption. Three phonemic contrarinesses are observed with the first
syllable of Turkish roots. These are front-rear, narrow-wide, flat*round.
It cannot however be said that such contrariness continues at the second
syllable.
Palatal harmony: If there is a front vowel at the last syllable of a root
or base in Turkish, it follows another front vowel on the next syllable; if
there is a back vowel, it then follows another back vowel.
Labial harmony: If there is a unrounded vowel at the at the last
syllable of a root or base in Turkish, it follows another unrounded vowel
on the next syllable; if there is a round vowel on the last syllable of a
root or base in Turkish, the next syllable contains narrow-round or wide-
unrounded vowel.
Interdisciplinary Studies-New Ideas New Perspectives 201

Vowel harmony can be amended depending on the consonant-vowel

assimilation principles, or consonant-vowel assimilation may affect vowel
harmony (Demircan, 2009: 83).
2. Consonant Harmony
Response to front-rear, unrounded-round vowel harmony: Some
consonants are affected by vowel harmony and are articulated at two
separation locations and manners. Distinction is phonetic and depends
on the frontal or back of the tongue is closer to the palate. Consonants
get assimilated in tune with the previous/subsequent vowels in terms with
the condition of the lips: kıl/kül/kil, kız/köz/kaz/kez . . . (Demircan, 2009:
84).
3. Consonant-Vowel Harmony
Affix harmony that is affected by front consonants whether in the
middle or at the end of polysyllabic foreign words select sub-forms consist
of front vowel, which is not characterised as intra-root, but is recognised
as a sort of harmony between the root and the affix (Demircan, 2009: 84).
B. Affix Forms
As a lingual unit, words have sole writing form. Likewise it is
mandatory that suffixes also have a sole writing form (Demircan, 2009:
84).
Harmony
Affix
Grammarians Vowel harmony Consonant Vowel-consonant Forms
palatal harmony Labial harmony harmony harmony

Toning of small
Labial
Convergence voice Thinning (due to
Banguoğlu assimilation p.
p. 132 Consonant wetness) p. 164
133
skipping p. 151
Front palatalisation
Eker rearness-frontness Labial p. 272 Rear palatalisation
p.268
Place of
Thickness- Labial/ Labial Vowel thinning
articulation
Karaağaç thinness/palate assimilation p.81
assimilation
harmony p. 83 p. 70 Thickening p. 82
p. 120
Labial
Convergence
Develi assimilation
p.27
p. 48

Closing of vocals ‘y’ and labial assimilation have been studied under
the caption assimilation of vocals and consonants by Banguoğlu. Demircan
refers to that in vowel assimilation and consonant assimilation. Tongue
and labial assimilation as referred to in vocal assimilation by Banguoğlu
202 Eyup Saritas

is used at this section by Demircan. Again, Develi refers to a different

classification than that of Demircan.
Grammarians Assimilation
Demircan p. 1. Modifications that affect the vowels only: opening, closing,
72-86 rounding, nasalisation, vowel shortening, blending: adding, slide—
vocalisation.

2. Modifications that affect the consonants only: devoicing,

voicing, vowel assimilation, blowing, place of articulation assimilation,
manner of articulation assimilation, dissimilation.

3. Phonetic changes that affect both vowels and consonants:

harmony: vowel harmony, consonant harmony; affix forms.
Eker p. 272- Assimilation
273
1. Vowels: back—frontal assimilation, labial assimilation.

2. Consonants: progressive, regressive.

Demir, Yılmaz Assimilation
p. 178-179
1. Vowels: back—frontal assimilation, unround-round assimilation.

2. Consonants: voicing-devoicing, vowel-consonant assimilation

In addition to these, such assimilation may also be referred to as

progressive and regressive.
Banguoğlu p. Assimilation
132-177
1. Vocal assimilation (progressive) a. Tongue assimilation b. Labial
assimilation

2. Assimilation of vocals and consonants a. Tonation of small

voice: Final phoneme writing, Final phoneme of affixes, intoning of
combined sounds, initial phoneme of affixes b. Skipping in consonants:
consonant skip, escaped sounds, thinning of cheek sounds c. Closing in
vocals: thinning of unrounded vocals, thinning of round vocals, d.
Thinning in vocals e. Assimilation of labial sounds

3. Consonant assimilation a. Pronunciation assimilation: vowel

assimilation, assimilation in between solids, consonant harmony b.
Articulation assimilation: n>m change, n,m>ŋ change, n>ŋ change,
l>n change, r>l change, b>m change (nasalisation), s>ş change (full,
remote equating).
Interdisciplinary Studies-New Ideas New Perspectives 203

Karaağaç p. Assimilation, harmony

65-67
1. Sonic assimilation: juxtapositional assimilation, distant
assimilation, regressive assimilation, progressive assimilation, semi-
assimilation, full assimilation, reciprocal assimilation

2. Assimilation / Analogy in Morphology and Syntax

Develi p. 27- Assimilation
168
A. Vowel assimilation

1. Tongue assimilation and harmony: Tongue assimilation at word

roots, tongue harmony at affixes,

2. Labial assimilation and harmony a. Labial harmony at word

roots: unrounding, rounding b. Labial harmony at affixes

B. Vowel-Consonant Assimilation

1. Vowels Assimilated by Consonants: Rounding due to labial

consonants, unrounding due to teeth consonants

2. Consonants Assimilated by Vowels: a. Sonoriousness: Sonoriousness

at small voice, sonoriıousness at the suffix and affix of word roots b.
Labialism

C. Consonant Assimilation

1. Sonoriousness-voicelessness assimilation: after sonorant

consonants, after non-sonorant consonants

2. Labialism

3. Palatalisation

4. Nasalisation

Ç. Syllabic Modifications and Process

1. Transitional Sounds
In case of an affix that starts with a vowel after a base that ends with
another vowel, then the affixed vowel can be combined with the base
vowel. To avoid this, one could either employ (?) consonant or another
consonant or consonant-functioning sound. This is called protective
sound as it prevents changes in form of an affix (Demircan, 2009: 87).
Grammarians Transitional sounds/Protective sounds
Karaağaç Auxiliary sound p. 102
204 Eyup Saritas

Korkmaz Junctive/ auxiliary sound p.35

Banguoğlu Protective consonant p. 122

2. Vocal Epenthesis
As a result of format changes or in case of borrowed words, if sequence
of vocals remains within a syllable or in a sequence contrary to spelling in
case of syllabic transition, such contrariness can be eliminated by adding
a vowel or consonant sound as needed by spelling (Demircan, 2009: 88).
a. Epenthesis of Vowels
This is observed with words borrowed from foreign languages.
b. Epenthesis of Consonants
This is addition of a consonant(s) to the beginning or inside the words
due to pronunciation or for other reasons (Demircan, 2009: 88).
Grammarians Epenthesis a. Epenthesis of vowels b. Epenthesis
of consonants
Karaağaç Epenthesis a. Frontal vocal epenthesis b. Small voice
epenthesis c. Rear sound epenthesis p. 95-96
Eker Vocal epenthesis a. Epenthesis of vowels b.
Epenthesis of consonants p. 266, 269
Banguoğlu Vocal epenthesis a. Vocal epenthesis b. Consonant
epenthesis: degemination, dimerisation p. 117-118
Demir, Yılmaz Vocal epenthesis a. Epenthesis of vowels b.
Epenthesis of consonants p. 168, 170
Duman Vocal epenthesis a. Epenthesis of consonants: frontal
epenthesis, internal epenthesis b. Epenthesis of
vowels: frontal epenthesis, epenthesis at augmentative
and diminutive adjectives, epenthesis for dual peak
syllable in case of foreign words p. 61-84
3. Elision/ Haplology
a. Consonant Disappearance
When some roots combine with the root /base, the last consonant
of the base disappears if the resultants sequence of consonants is against
spelling (Demircan, 2009: 91).
b. Haplology
Abbreviations and amendments that would not affect semantic
meaning can be resorted to when inserting additions onto dictionaries
Interdisciplinary Studies-New Ideas New Perspectives 205

or transition from dictionary to dictionary. Consonant disappearance,

haplology is the name given to abbreviations in which a consonant
changes syllabic structure and thus disappears (Demircan, 2009: 93).
Grammarians Elision/ Haplology a. Haplology/Vowel
Disappearance b. Consonant Disappearance
Karaağaç Elision/ Haplology/ Ellipsis a. Frontal vocal
disappearance b. Small voice disappearance c. Final
voice disappearance p. 74
Eker Vowel disappearance

Consonant disappearance

Haplology p. 265, 270, 273

Banguoğlu Elision a. Consonant disappearance: palatal sound
disappearance, vowel disappearance (y,l,r), other
vocals’ disappearance b. Vocal disappearance:
syncopate, other omissions, disappearance due to
addition p. 103-114
Demir, Yılmaz Vowel disappearance

Consonant disappearance

Haplology p. 169, 170, 177

Duman Elision a. Consonant disappearance: palatal
consonants disappearance, oesophagi and throat
consonants disappearance, disappearance of
consonants with no untoned correspondence,
disappearance, disappearance of other consonants,
disappearance of either one of geminate consonants
at coda, degemination b. Vowel disappearance:
syncopation: permanent disappearance, temporary
disappearance; other vowel disappearance: frontal
disappearance, syllabic cacology p. 18-60

c. Contraction
Contraction is more than one word combined to form a single word
form. (Demircan, 2009: 95).
Grammarians Contraction
Banguoğlu Contraction: elision p 115
Duman Contraction p. 215
206 Eyup Saritas

Karaağaç Contraction / divergence p. 83

Eker Syllabic Contraction / constriction (eczane)

Vowel fusion (cumartesi) p. 267

Demir, Yılmaz Syllabic Contraction (eczane)

Contraction (cumartesi) p. 176

Korkmaz Contraction p. 143

ç. Permutation
Adjacent or neighbour sounds may be subject to permutation for the
convenience of pronunciation. This is mostly observed in local dialects
and baby talk due to consonant clusters and spelling effect (Demircan,
2009: 95).
Grammarians Permutation
Contagious sounds, distant sounds
Banguoğlu Metathesis: metathesis next to sound, remote
metathesis p. 73
Duman Metathesis p. 211
Karaağaç Metathesis /metathesis: close metathesis, distant
metathesis p. 106
Eker Metathesis /permutation p. 272
Demir, Yılmaz Metathesis p. 173
Korkmaz Metathesis: close metathesis, distant metathesis p.
106

CONCLUSION
This study has been prepared by relying on the work named Phonology in
Turkish. This study provides more details than other phonetic books that
we scrutinised, thus attains a relatively more complex structure by nature.
As is seen, there are a number of points in which classifications in the
aforecited book fail to overlap with those of the others. Nomenclature is
also very different. Good efforts have been made to ensure that uniterm
information and data collected from the works are provided in this study
as much as possible. Special attention has been paid to avoid or otherwise
give limited place to subjects that are discussed in this source only, and is
not referred to in others. As in the case of other fields of Turkish grammar
Interdisciplinary Studies-New Ideas New Perspectives 207

use, there is no unity in use of terms in phonology, which prevents coming

to clearly-set conclusions in comprehension, exemplification and accurate
classification. A number of troubles are encountered due to this at the
time of teaching and learning processes. We have encountered similar
troubles in this particular study, too. A firm step must be taken for unity
of common terms. a given term should correspond to a given concept
or a given concept should have a single denotation. A grammar lexicon
for official Turkish can be prepared based on the existing dictionaries. It
is crucial factor for resolution of the problem that scientists accept and
recognise the terms referred to in the prospective dictionary as uniterms.
It is evident that creating a uniform grammar is utterly needed for the
sake of Turkish grammar.

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DEMİR, Nurettin-YILMAZ, Emine: Turkish Language Manual, Ankara,
Grafiker Publications, 2012.
DEMİRCAN, Ömer: Turkish Phonology, Istanbul, DER Publications,
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DEVELİ, Hayati: Vocal Assimilation and Harmony in Ottoman Turkish
of the 17th Century as per The Book of Travels by Evliya Çelebi,
Ankara, Turkish Linguistic Society Publications, 1995.
DUMAN, Musa: Phonetic Changes in the 17th Century as per The Book
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EKER, Süer: Modern Turkish Language, Ankara, Grafiker Publications,
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ERGİN, Muharrem: Turkish Grammar, Istanbul, Bayrak Publication and
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KARAAĞAÇ, Günay: Turkish Phonetics, Istanbul, Kesit Publications,
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KORKMAZ, Zeynep: Glossary of Grammar, Ankara Turkish Linguistic
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TURKISH DICTIONARY: Turkish Linguistic Society Publications,
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ÖZKAN, Mustafa: Turkish Language Throughout the History, Filiz
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