The Superior University Lahore, Pakistan

Faculty of Computer Science & IT

Data Communication & Networking -Spring 2019
Assignment # 2

Name:-
Aqib Hameed
Roll No:-
BCSM-F16-204
Section:-
BSCS-6B
Subject:-
Data Communication & Networking
Submitted To:-
Mam Maryam
Dated
11-04-2019
Qustion#1:
Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz. We need to
multiplex.

10 voice channels with guard bands of 500 Hz using FDM. Calculate the required
bandwidth.

Answer:
Qustion#2:
We need to transmit 100 digitized voice channels using a pass-band channel of
20 KHz. What should be the ratio of bits/Hz if we use no guard band?

Answer:
Qustion#3:
We need to use synchronous TDM and combine 20 digital sources, each of

100 Kbps.

Each output slot carries 1 bit from each digital source, but one extra bit is
added to each frame for synchronization. Answer the following questions:

A. What is the size of an output frame in bits?

B. What is the output frame rate?
C. What is the duration of an output frame?
D. What is the output data rate?
E. What is the efficiency of the system (ratio of useful bits to the total bits).

Answer:
Qustion#4:
Assume a data stream is ‘1101000000000010’s.. Encode this stream, using the
following code schemes. How many changes (vertical line) can you find for each scheme?
Draw in sequence otherwise marks will be detected.

a. Unipolar: b. NRZ-L:

c. NRZ-I: d. RZ:

e. Manchester: f. Diff. Manchester:

g. AMI:

Answer:
Qustion#5:
Surfing through Internet and mention Real Time detail of the following:

FDM, TDM and WDM.

Frequency-Division Multiplexing
In telecommunications, frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is a technique by which the
total bandwidth available in a communication medium is divided into a series of non-overlapping frequency
bands, each of which is used to carry a separate signal. This allows a single transmission medium such as a
cable or optical fiber to be shared by multiple independent signals. Another use is to carry separate serial bits
or segments of a higher rate signal in parallel.
An analogous technique called wavelength division multiplexing is used in fiber-optic communication, in
which multiple channels of data are transmitted over a single optical fiber using
different wavelengths (frequencies) of light.

How To Work
The multiple separate information (modulation) signals that are sent over an FDM system, such as the video
signals of the television channels that are sent over a cable TV system, are called baseband signals. At the
source end, for each frequency channel, an electronic oscillator generates a carrier signal, a steady oscillating
waveform at a single frequency that serves to "carry" information. The modulator alters some aspect of the
carrier signal, such as its amplitude, frequency, or phase, with the baseband signal, "piggybacking" the data
onto the carrier.
For example, the coaxial cable used by cable television systems has a bandwidth of about 1000 MHz, but the
passband of each television channel is only 6 MHz wide, so there is room for many channels on the cable (in
modern digital cable systems each channel in turn is subdivided into subchannels and can carry up to 10
digital television channels).

Group and supergroup

A once commonplace FDM system, used for example in L-carrier, uses crystal filters which operate at the
8 MHz range to form a Channel Group of 12 channels, 48 kHz bandwidth in the range 8140 to 8188 kHz by
selecting carriers in the range 8140 to 8184 kHz selecting upper sideband this group can then be translated to
the standard range 60 to 108 kHz by a carrier of 8248 kHz. Such systems are used in DTL (Direct To Line) and
DFSG (Directly formed super group).
132 voice channels (2SG + 1G) can be formed using DTL plane the modulation and frequency plan are given in
FIG1 and FIG2 use of DTL technique allows the formation of a maximum of 132 voice channels that can be
placed direct to line. DTL eliminates group and super group equipment.

 Reduction in cost 7% to 13%

 Less equipment to install and maintain
 Increased reliability due to less equipment
Both DTL and DFSG can fit the requirement of low density system (using DTL) and higher density system
(using DFSG). The DFSG terminal is similar to DTL terminal except instead of two super groups many super
groups are combined. A Master group of 600 channels (10 super-groups) is an example based on DFSG.
Other Example:
FDM can also be used to combine signals before final modulation onto a carrier wave. In this case the carrier
signals are referred to as subcarriers: an example is stereo FM transmission, where a 38 kHz subcarrier is
used to separate the left-right difference signal from the central left-right sum channel, prior to the
frequency modulation of the composite signal. An analog NTSC television channel is divided into subcarrier
frequencies for video, color, and audio.
FDMA is the traditional way of separating radio signals from different transmitters.
In the 1860s and 70s, several inventors attempted FDM under the names of acoustic telegraphy and
harmonic telegraphy. Practical FDM was only achieved in the electronic age.

Time-division multiplexing

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting and receiving independent signals over a common
signal path by means of synchronized switches at each end of the transmission line so that each signal appears on
the line only a fraction of time in an alternating pattern. It is used when the bit rate of the transmission medium
exceeds that of the signal to be transmitted. This form of signal multiplexing was developed
in telecommunications for telegraphy systems in the late 19th century, but found its most common application
in digital telephony in the second half of the 20th century.

History
In 1944, the British Army used the Wireless Set No. 10 to multiplex 10 telephone conversations over a microwave
relay as far as 50 miles. This allowed commanders in the field to keep in contact with the staff in England across
the English Channel.
In 1953 a 24-channel TDM was placed in commercial operation by RCA Communications to send audio information
between RCA's facility on Broad Street, New York, their transmitting station at Rocky Point and the receiving
station at Riverhead, Long Island, New York. The communication was by a microwave system throughout Long
Island. The experimental TDM system was developed by RCA Laboratories between 1950 and 1953
In 1962, engineers from Bell Labs developed the first D1 channel banks, which combined 24 digitized voice calls
over a four-wire copper trunk between Bell central office analogue switches. A channel bank sliced a 1.544 Mbit/s
digital signal into 8,000 separate frames, each composed of 24 contiguous bytes.

Technology
Time-division multiplexing is used primarily for digital signals, but may be applied in analog multiplexing in which
two or more signals or bit streams are transferred appearing simultaneously as sub-channels in one
communication channel, but are physically taking turns on the channel. The time domain is divided into several
recurrent time slots of fixed length, one for each sub-channel. A sample byte or data block of sub-channel 1 is
transmitted during time slot 1, sub-channel 2 during time slot 2, etc. One .After the last sub-channel, error
correction, and synchronization, the cycle starts all over again with a new frame, starting with the second sample,
byte or data block from sub-channel 1, etc.
Example
 The synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH)/synchronous optical networking (SONET) network transmission
standards that have replaced PDH.
 The Basic Rate Interface and Primary Rate Interface for the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN).
 The RIFF (WAV) audio standard interleaves left and right stereo signals on a per-sample basis
TDM can be further extended into the time-division multiple access (TDMA) scheme, where several stations
connected to the same physical medium, for example sharing the same frequency channel, can communicate.
Application examples include:

 The GSM telephone system

 The Tactical Data Links Link 16 and Link 22

Multiplexed Digital transmission

In circuit-switched networks, such as the public switched telephone network (PSTN), it is desirable to transmit
multiple subscriber calls over the same transmission medium to effectively utilize the bandwidth of the medium.
TDM allows transmitting and receiving telephone switches to create channels (tributaries) within a transmission
stream. A standard DS0 voice signal has a data bit rate of 64 kbit/s.
Each voice time slot in the TDM frame is called a channel. In European systems, standard TDM frames contain 30
digital voice channels (E1), and in American systems (T1), they contain 24 channels.
Multiplexing more than 24 or 30 digital voice channels is called higher order multiplexing. Higher order
multiplexing is accomplished by multiplexing the standard TDM frames. For example, a European 120 channel TDM
frame is formed by multiplexing four standard 30 channel TDM frames. At each higher order multiplex, four TDM
frames from the immediate lower order are combined, creating multiplexes with a bandwidth of n*64 kbit/s,
where n = 120, 480, 1920, etc.

Telecommunication System
There are three types of synchronous TDM: T1, SONET/SDH, and ISDN.
Plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) was developed as a standard for multiplexing higher order frames. PDH
created larger numbers of channels by multiplexing the standard Europeans 30 channel TDM frames. This solution
worked for a while; however PDH suffered from several inherent drawbacks which ultimately resulted in the
development of the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH). The requirements which drove the development of SDH
were these:

 Be synchronous – All clocks in the system must align with a reference clock.
 Allow frames of any size to be removed or inserted into an SDH frame of any size.
 Easily manageable with the capability of transferring management data across links.
 Provide high levels of recovery from faults.
 Provide high data rates by multiplexing any size frame, limited only by technology.
 Give reduced bit rate errors.
 wavelength-division multiplexing
In fiber-optic communications, wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is a technology which multiplexes a
number of optical carrier signals onto a single optical fiber by using different wavelengths (i.e., colors)
of laser light. This technique enables bidirectional communications over one strand of fiber, as well as
multiplication of capacity.
The term wavelength-division multiplexing is commonly applied to an optical carrier, which is typically
described by its wavelength, whereas frequency-division multiplexing typically applies to a radio carrier
which is more often described by frequency. This is purely conventional because wavelength and frequency
communicate the same information.

WDM Systems
A WDM system uses a multiplexer at the transmitter to join the several signals together and
a demultiplexer at the receiver to split them apart. The optical filtering devices used have conventionally
been etalons (stable solid-state single-frequency Fabry–Pérot interferometers in the form of thin-film-coated
optical glass). As there are three different WDM types, whereof one is called "WDM", the notation "xWDM"
is normally used when discussing the technology as such.
The concept was first published in 1978, and by 1980 WDM systems were being realized in the laboratory.
The first WDM systems combined only two signals. Modern systems can handle 160 signals and can thus
expand a basic 100 Gbit/s system over a single fiber pair to over 16 Tbit/s. A system of 320 channels is also
present (12.5 GHz channel spacing, see below.)
Most WDM systems operate on single-mode fiber optical cables which have a core diameter of 9 µm. Certain
forms of WDM can also be used in multi-mode fiber cables (also known as premises cables) which have core
diameters of 50 or 62.5 µm.
WDM systems are divided into three different wavelength patterns: normal (WDM), coarse (CWDM)
and dense (DWDM). Normal WDM (sometimes called BWDM) uses the two normal wavelengths 1310 and
1550 on one fiber.

Coarse WDM
In 2002, the ITU standardized a channel spacing grid for CWDM (ITU-T G.694.2) using the wavelengths from
1270 nm through 1610 nm with a channel spacing of 20 nm. ITU G.694.2 was revised in 2003 to shift the
channel centers by 1 nm so, strictly speaking, the center wavelengths are 1271 to 1611 nm. Many CWDM
wavelengths below 1470 nm are considered unusable on older G.652 specification fibers, due to the
increased attenuation in the 1270–1470 nm bands. Newer fibers which conform to the G.652.C and G.652.D
standards, such as Corning SMF-28e and Samsung Widepass, nearly eliminate the "water peak" attenuation
peak and allow for full operation of all 18 ITU CWDM channels in metropolitan networks.
The main characteristic of the recent ITU CWDM standard is that the signals are not spaced appropriately for
amplification by EDFAs. This limits the total CWDM optical span to somewhere near 60 km for a 2.5 Gbit/s
signal, which is suitable for use in metropolitan applications.

CWDM Application
CWDM is being used in cable television networks, where different wavelengths are used for
the downstream and upstream signals. In these systems, the wavelengths used are often widely separated.
For example, the downstream signal might be at 1310 nm while the upstream signal is at 1550 nm.
The 10GBASE-LX4 10 Gbit/s physical layer standard is an example of a CWDM system in which four
wavelengths near 1310 nm, each carrying a 3.125 gigabit-per-second (Gbit/s) data stream, are used to carry
10 Gbit/s of aggregate data.
Passive CWDM is an implementation of CWDM that uses no electrical power. It separates the wavelengths
using passive optical components such as bandpass filters and prisms.

Wavelength-converting transponders
1R
Retransmission. Basically, early transponders were "garbage in garbage out" in that their output was
nearly an analogue "copy" of the received optical signal, with little signal cleanup occurring. This
limited the reach of early DWDM systems because the signal had to be handed off to a client-layer
receiver (likely from a different vendor) before the signal deteriorated too far. Signal monitoring was
basically confined to optical domain parameters such as received power.
2R
Re-time and re-transmit. Transponders of this type were not very common and utilized a quasi-
digital Schmitt-triggering method for signal clean-up. Some rudimentary signal-quality monitoring
was done by such transmitters that basically looked at analogue parameters.
3R
Re-time, re-transmit, re-shape. 3R Transponders were fully digital and normally able to
view SONET/SDH section layer overhead bytes such as A1 and A2 to determine signal quality health.
Many systems will offer 2.5 Gbit/s transponders, which will normally mean the transponder is able to
perform 3R regeneration on OC-3/12/48 signals, and possibly gigabit Ethernet, and reporting on
signal health by monitoring SONET/SDH section layer overhead bytes.
Muxponder
The muxponder (from multiplexed transponder) has different names depending on vendor. It
essentially performs some relatively simple time-division multiplexing of lower-rate signals into a
higher-rate carrier within the system (a common example is the ability to accept 4 OC-48s and then
output a single OC-192 in the 1,550 nm band).
ShortWave WDM
Shortwave WDM uses vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) transceivers with four wavelengths in the
846 to 953 nm range over single OM5 fiber, or 2-fiber connectivity for OM3/OM4 fiber.

Enhanced WDM
Cisco's Enhanced WDM system combines 1 Gb Coarse Wave Division Multiplexing (CWDM) connections using
SFPs and GBICs with 10 Gb Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM) connections using XENPAK,X2
or XFP DWDM modules. These DWDM connections can either be passive or boosted to allow a longer range
for the connection. In addition to this, CFP modules deliver 100 Gbit/s Ethernet suitable for high speed
Internet backbone connections.