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Writing Extended Definitions

1.
Term Perspectives
Learning
 The perspective about learning is based on ontogenetic

adaptation.

De Houwer, J., Barnes-Holmes, D., & Moors, A. (2013). What

is learning? On the nature and merits of a functional definition

of learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 20(4), 631-642.

 The perspective taken into account is that learning has a

relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by

practice or experience.

Lachman, S. J. (1997). Learning is a process: Toward an

improved definition of learning. The Journal of

psychology, 131(5), 477-480.

 In this article is considered learning as a means to relate new

experience to existing meaning, and may accommodate and

assimilate new ideas.

Watkins, C., Carnell, E., & Lodge, C. (2007). Effective

learning in classrooms. Paul Chapman Educational Publishing.

 This perspective is based on the behavioral modification as an

effect of improvement in learning as a reflective activity.

Bingham, T., & Conner, M. (2010). The new social learning: A

guide to transforming organizations through social media.

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Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

 It has the perspective about learning as a means to relate new

experience to existing meaning, and may internalized and

assimilate new ideas.

Bingham, T., & Conner, M. (2010). The new social learning: A

guide to transforming organizations through social media.

Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

Culture  The perspective about culture includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
law and custom.

Tyler (British anthropologist) 2001: 1; cited by Avruch 1998: 6

 It can distinguish the members of one group or category of people from

another.

Hofstede 1994: 5

 Derivation of experience, more or less organized, learned or created by

the individuals of a population.

T.Schwartz 1992; cited by Avruch 1998: 17

Languag  The perspective about language as a method of communicating ideas,
e emotions and desires.

(Edward Sapir, Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech.

Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1966)

 This perspective includes the system in which a social group cooperates.

(B. Bloch and G. Trager, Outline of Linguistic Analysis. Waverly Press,

1942)
Identity  Based on personal characteristics or attributes.

 It can be distinguished in people’s social relations. (Jenkins 1996, 4).

 It takes into account people’s definition based on social factors.

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Term Learning

Perspective It has the perspective about learning as a means to relate new

experience to existing meaning, and may internalized and

assimilate new ideas.

Focus of the The focus of this perspective is the permanent change in a

perspective person’s knowledge as an effect of learning building as a

reflective activity.

Author Tony Bingham and Marcia Conner

Extended definition “We define learning as the transformative process of taking in

information that—when internalized and mixed with what we

have experienced—changes what we know and builds on what

we do. It’s based on input, process, and reflection. It is what

changes us.”

Learning Definition

Learning is a process by which occurs a relatively change in a person’s knowledge or

behavior due to several factors. It is vital to keep in mind that learning depends not only on

teaching approach but also on experience and on people’s own efforts. For instance, a person can

learn English by listening to music without needing some help from someone else. According to

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Bingham, T., & Conner, M. (2010): “We define learning as the transformative process of taking

in information that—when internalized and mixed with what we have experienced—changes

what we know and builds on what we do. It’s based on input, process, and reflection. It is what

changes us.”

References

Bingham, T., & Conner, M. (2010). The new social learning: A guide to transforming

organizations through social media. Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

Term Culture

Perspective The perspective kept in mind is a plenty of acquired factors that

build a cultural aspect.

Focus of the This perspective focus on aspects which are acquired as a whole

perspective within a society.

Author Tyler

Extended definition “Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge,

belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and

habits acquired by man as a member of society.”

Culture Definition

Culture is a collective and influential system. It distinguishes the members of one group

from another. It is adaptive in that it can and does change in response to various influences and

conditions. It is really essential to keep in mind that culture is not genetically inherited, and

cannot exist on its own, but is always shared by members of a society. (Hall 1976, p. 16).

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According to this author, culture is “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art,

morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of

society.” (Tylor, 2001, p. 17).

References

Hall, E.T., 1976. Beyond Culture. New York: Anchor Books/Doubleday.

Taylor, R. (2001). Definitions of Culture: Losing Sight of the Forest for the Splinters?. (Journal

of Liberal Arts), 1(2), 16-34.

Spencer-Oatey, H., & Frankiln, P. (2012). What is culture. A compilation of quotations.

Global.Core Concepts.

Term Language

Perspective It has the perspective about learning as a system of

communication using sounds or symbols that enables us to

express our feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences.

Focus of the The focus of this perspective is being able to get across the

perspective ideas, emotions and desires.

Author Edward Sapir

Extended definition "Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of

communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of

voluntarily produced symbols."

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Language Definiton

Language is a system of communication. It uses arbitrary signals, such as voice sounds,

gestures, and written symbols. It is not an interchange of message or information from one

person to another but a communication method to impart a message by changing every day. For

instance, many new words are constantly added to the dictionary. “Language is a purely human

and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of

voluntarily produced symbols." (Sapir, 1966, p. 14).

References

Edward Sapir, Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. Harcourt, Brace and Company,

Term Identity

Perspective It has the perspective about identity related to people’s

definition and relationship among themselves.

Focus of the The focus of this perspective takes into account people’s

perspective definition based on social factors.

Author Deng

Extended definition “Identity is a term used to describe the way individuals and

groups define themselves and are defined by others on the basis

of race, ethnicity, religion, language, and culture.”

1966)

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Identity Definition

Identity is a social nature. It is the traits and characteristics, social relations, roles, and

social group memberships that define who one is. Identity is not an individual self considered as

a whole as it must include people’s integration regarding their meaning to themselves related to

the others. “Identity is a term used to describe the way individuals and groups define themselves

and are defined by others on the basis of race, ethnicity, religion, language, and culture” (Deng

1995, 1).

References

Deng J. D. (1995). What is identity (as we now use the word). Unpublished manuscript, Stanford

University, Stanford, Calif.

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