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This updated and expanded seventh edition of The treatment of weather and climate in temperate
Atmosphere, weather and climate will prove invalu- latitudes begins with studies of Europe and America,
able to all those studying the earth's atmosphere extending to the conditions of their subtropical and
and world climate, whether from environmental and high-latitude margins and includes the Mediter-
earth sciences, geography, ecology, agriculture, ranean, Australasia, North Africa, the southern
hydrology or related disciplinary perspectives. westerlies, and the sub-arctic and polar regions.
Atmosphere, weather and climate provides a com- Tropical weather and climate are also described
prehensive introduction to weather processes and through an analysis of the climatic mechanisms of
climatic conditions. Since the last edition, the recog- monsoon Asia, Africa, Australia and Amazonia,
nition of the reality and possible effects of human together with the tropical margins of Africa and
activities on the environment has revolutionized Australia and the effects of ocean movement and
attitudes to the study of the atmosphere and of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation and teleconnec-
world climate. tions. Small-scale climates - including urban climates
Beginning with an extended treatment of atmos- –
pheric composition and energy, stressing the heat budgets.
budget of the earth and the causes of the green- The final chapter has been completely updated and
house effect, the authors turn to the manifestations rewritten to stress the structure and operation of
and circulation of atmospheric moisture, including the atmosphere–earth–ocean system and the causes
atmospheric stability and precipitation patterns in of its climate changes. A discussion of the various
space and time. A consideration of atmospheric and modelling strategies adopted for the prediction of
oceanic motion on small to large scales and model- climate change is undertaken, in particular relating
ling of general circulation leads to a discussion of to the IPCC 1990–95 models. A consideration of
the structure of air masses, frontal cyclones and certain other environmental impacts of climate
weather forecasting on different time scales. change is also included.
Atmosphere, weather and
climate
SEVENTH EDITION
Notes 376
Bibliography 378
Indexes 399
Preface to the seventh edition
When the first edition of this book appeared in nature and causes of climatic change. This fourth
1968, it was greeted as being 'remarkably up to edition contained over 100 new or revised figures
date' (Meteorological Magazine). Since that time, and many new plates, compared with the first
several new editions have extended and sharpened edition.
its description and analysis of atmospheric processes The fifth edition of 1987 included new sections
and global climates. Indeed, succeeding prefaces on modelling the atmospheric circulation, fore-
provide a virtual commentary on recent advances casting, the African monsoon and ENSO events,
in meteorology and climatology of relevance to together with a new appendix on data sources.
students in these fields and to scholars in related Additional material was provided on greenhouse
disciplines. gases and volcanic dust, sunspot activity, albedo,
In 1971, major additions were made regarding satellite measurements of the planetary energy
the energy budget of the earth, the spatial pattern budget, atmospheric stability, condensation nuclei
of the heat budget components, atmospheric and cloud processes, mechanisms of orographic
stability, orographic precipitation, oceanic circula- precipitation, convergence and divergence, sub-
tion and associated climatic effects, vorticity, tropical high-pressure behaviour, hemispheric circu-
mesoscale systems in middle latitudes, rainfall vari- lation patterns, southern hemisphere air masses,
ability, and aspects of the climate of the sub-Arctic, frontal structures, mesoscale convective systems,
the Mediterranean and Eastern Asia. super-cell thunderstorms, European blocking condi-
The third edition of 1976 involved the substantial tions, regional winds of Iberia, rainstorms of the
recasting of Chapters 2, 4 and 7 and the addition south-west USA, the Intertropical Convergence
of a new appendix on synoptic weather maps. New Zone, tropical weather systems, cloud clusters, the
material was introduced on atmospheric composi- Asian monsoon circulation, climate of the Sahara,
tion and its variations with time, the radiation climatic change in the Sahel Zone and Europe, the
budget, adiabatic temperature changes, the effects climatic effect of global vegetation changes, and
of topographic barriers on winds, land and sea the use of mathematical models for climatic fore-
breezes, the southern hemisphere circulation and air casting. Some seventy new or revised figures and
masses, depression structure and the spatial distri- plates were introduced.
bution of precipitation, long-range forecasting, the The sixth edition of 1992 responded to the recog-
climate of the Mediterranean, the intertropical nition of the reality and possible effects of human
confluence, tropical disturbances and subsynoptic activities on the environment, as well as to other
systems, and urban climates. current scientific advances, by the most extensive
In 1982, Chapters 7 and 8 were substantially re- revision to date. New sections were added on acid
written and the units were standardized throughout. precipitation, the Walker circulation, modelling the
Major additions and revisions involved the material atmosphere-earth-ocean system, the climates of
on solar radiation, thunderstorm mechanisms, Amazonia and southern Africa, tropical urban
drought, mesoscale rainfall systems, tornado struc- climates, recent climatic changes, forcing and feed-
ture, disturbances within subtropical high-pressure back mechanisms of the atmosphere-earth-ocean
belts, the energy balance of vegetated surfaces, system, anthropogenic changes in atmospheric
urban climatology, atmospheric pollution, and the composition and in the greenhouse effect, as well
PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION xiii
as on model predictions of climate and associated westerlies, the sub-arctic and polar regions, and the
environmental changes which might be expected former USSR. Additional material is included on
during the twenty-first century. Additional material Lamb's airflow types, European thunderstorms, and
was provided on the greenhouse effect, aerosols, the location of heavy rainstorms in North America.
ozone, the carbon cycle, global cloud cover, the Chapter 9 introduces a new section on teleconnec-
thermal role of the oceans, the exosphere and tions, as well as an enlarged treatment of ENSO
the magnetosphere, orographic precipitation, aero- events. The structure and movement of the ITCZ,
dynamic roughness and airflow over topographic hurricane forecasting, depression and typhoon paths
obstructions, medium- and long-range forecasting, and frontal locations over Eastern Asia, the north
wind activity over Western Europe, hurricanes, Australian monsoon, and forecasting tropical
Asian monsoon mechanisms, monsoon depressions, weather are also highlighted. Chapter 10 sees
the timing intensity and phases of the Asian summer emphasis placed on the boundary layer dominance
monsoon, the West African monsoon, tropical forest of local climates. New material is included on the
climatology, urban pollution, urban climatology, energy balances of oceanic, water-covered and
and Pleistocene climatic changes. SI units of energy frozen surfaces and on the climates of boreal forests;
flux density were used throughout and some ninety urban climates in tropical environments are further
new or redrawn figures and tables were included. emphasized. Chapter 11 has been completely
Since the previous edition appeared in 1992, rewritten and extended to stress the structure and
interest in the world's climate at a wide range operation of the atmosphere–earth–ocean system
of scales, accompanied by the increasing tempo of and the causes of its climate changes. A discussion
scientific research, has necessitated that the new of the various modelling strategies adopted for the
(1998) edition should undergo equally rigorous prediction of climate change is undertaken, in
modification and updating. While the existing well- particular relating to the IPCC 1990–95 models. A
tried format has been broadly retained, the original consideration of other environmental impacts of
three basic chapters have each been subdivided into climate change is also included. Appendix 1 has
two so that this seventh edition is comprised of been modified to reflect new applications of climate
eleven main chapters, replacing the pre-existing classifications and recent studies of wind chill and
eight. Chapters 1 and 2 contain additional material heat stress. A selection of WWW addresses for
on methane production, volcanic aerosols and climatic data are included in Appendix 4.
sunspots. Chapters 3 and 4 contain a new section Throughout the book, more than 100 new or re-
on the global hydrological cycle, together with drawn figures, revised tables and new plates are pre-
further treatment of evaporation, forms of precipi- sented.
tation, rainfall intensity, duration and frequency, Wherever possible, the criticisms and suggestions
desertification, cloud forcing, and severe thunder- of colleagues and reviewers have been taken into
storms. Chapter 5 gives added emphasis to the plan- account in preparing this latest edition.
etary boundary layer and Chapter 6 devotes
considerable new space to modern views of atmos-
R. G. BARRY
phere-ocean interaction, the climatic role of the
oceans, oceanic structure and circulation, and to Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental
the significance of the deep ocean circulation. Sciences and the Department of Geography,
Chapter 7 updates the treatment of mid-latitude University of Colorado, Boulder
synoptic systems, and Chapter 8 has been radically R. J. C H O R L E Y
extended by additional regional treatments of the Department of Geography and Sidney Sussex
climates of Australia, New Zealand, the southern College, University of Cambridge
Acknowledgements
The authors are very much indebted to Mr A. J. Shelley and Miss J. Wyatt and, especially, Mr M.
Dunn for his considerable contribution to the first Young); at Southampton University (Mr A. C.
edition; also to Dr F. Kenneth Hare of Birkbeck Clarke, Miss B. Manning and Mr R. Smith); and
College, London, now at the University of Toronto, at the University of Colorado, Boulder (Mr T.
Ontario, for his thorough and authoritative criticism Wiselogel). Every edition of this book, including the
of the preliminary text and his valuable suggestions present seventh, has been graced by the illustrative
for its improvement; also to Mr Alan Johnson of imagination and cartographic expertise of Mr M.
Barton Peveril School, Eastleigh, Hampshire, for Young of the Department of Geography, Cambridge
helpful comments on Chapters 1–3; and to Dr C. University, to whom the authors owe a consider-
Desmond Walshaw, formerly of the Cavendish able debt of gratitude.
Laboratory, Cambridge, and Mr R. H. A. Stewart of Thanks are also due to Carol Pedigo, NSIDC, for
the Nautical College, Pangbourne, for offering valu- word processing support for the seventh edition.
able criticisms and suggestions at an early stage in Our grateful thanks go to out families for their
the preparation of the original manuscript. Gratitude constant encouragement and forbearance.
is also expressed to the following persons for their The authors would like to thank the following
helpful comments with respect to the fourth edition: learned societies, editors, publishers, organizations
Dr Brian Knapp of Leighton Park School, Reading; and individuals for permission to reproduce figures,
Dr L. F. Musk of the University of Manchester; tables and plates.
Dr A. H. Perry of University College, Swansea; Dr
R. Reynolds of the University of Reading; and
Dr P. Smithson of the University of Sheffield. Dr C. Learned societies
Ramage, of the University of Hawaii, made numer- American Association for the Advancement of
ous helpful suggestions on the revision of Chapter 6 Science for Figure 6.35 from Science.
for the fifth edition. Dr Z. Toth and Dr D. Gilman American Geographical Society for Figure 1.16 from
of the National Meteorological Center, Washington, the Geographical Review.
DC, kindly helped in the updating of Chapter 4, 1 American Geophysical Union for Figures 2.13, 7.14,
and Dr M. Tolbert of the University of Colorado 7.15 and 11.3 from the Review of Geophysics
assisted with the environmental chemistry in the sev- and Space Physics; for Figures 1.3, 1.9, 2.13,
enth edition. Thanks are also due to Dr N. Cox of 2.23 and 2.27 from the Journal of Geophysical
Durham University for his many textual suggestions Research; for Figure 10.6 from the Transactions
which contributed significantly to the improvement and for Figure 8.43 from Arctic Meteorology and
of the seventh edition. The authors accept complete Climatology by D. H. Bromwich and C. R.
responsibility for any remaining textual errors. Stearns (eds).
The figures were prepared by the cartographic American Meteorological Society for Figures 1.2,
and photographic staffs in the Geography Depart- 2.23A, 2.27C, 4.11 and 8.38 from the Bulletin; for
ments at Cambridge University (Mr I. Agnew, Figures 6.16, 7.8, 8.42, 10.1 and 11.11 from the
Mr R. Blackmore, Mr R. Coe, Mr I. Gulley, Mrs Journal of Applied Meteorology; for Figures 7.2
S. Gutteridge, Miss L. Judge, Miss R. King, Mr C. and 7.4 from the Meteorological Monographs; for
Lewis, Mrs P. Lucas, Miss G. Seymour, Mr A. Figures 4.28, 6.39 and 9.56 from the Journal of
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS XV
for Figure 6.7 from World Weather and Climate Climatology of West Africa by D. F. Hayward
by D. Riley and L. Spalton; for Figure 8.31 from and J. S. Oguntoyinbo.
The Warm Desert Environment by A. Goudie Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Holland for
and J. Wilkinson; for Figure 10.24 from The Figure 1.1 from Air–Sea Exchange of Gases and
Tropical Rain Forest by P. W. Richards; for Particles by P. S. Liss and W. G. N. Slinn (eds);
Figure 10.28 from Air: Composition and and for Figure 11.21 from Climate Change (Vol.
Chemistry by P. Brimblecombe (ed.); for Figures 16) by G. A. Meehl and W. M. Washington.
7.24 and 9.9 from Weather Systems by L. F. Longman, London, for Figure 6.18 from Contem-
Musk; for Figures 1.4, 1.8, 11.19 and 11.18 porary Climatology by A. Henderson-Sellers and
from Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific P. J. Robinson; and for Figures 3.5, 3.6A
Assessment 1992; for Figure 6.40 from Climate and 3.18 from Variations in the Global Water
System Modelling by K. E. Trenberth; and for Budget by A. Street-Perrott et al. (eds).
Figure 9.54 from Teleconnections Linking McGraw-Hill Book Company. New York, for
Worldwide Climate Anomalies by M. H. Glantz Figure 6.25 from Dynamical and Physical
et al. (eds). Meteorology by G. J. Haltiner and F. L. Martin;
Chapman and Hall, New York, for Figure 6.33 for Figures 10.17 and 10.18 from Forest
from Elements of Dynamic Oceanography by Influences by J. Kittredge; for Figures 3.10, 4.18
D. Tolmazin; and for Figure 8.44 from and 6.9 from Introduction to Meteorology by S.
Encyclopedia of Climatology by J. Oliver and R. Petterssen; for Figures 9.5 and 9.6 from Tropical
W. Fairbridge (eds). Meteorology by H. Riehl; and for Figure 9.21
Cleaver-Hulme Press, London, for Figure 5.15 from from The Earth's Problem Climates by G. T.
Realms of Water by Ph. H. Kuenen. Trewartha.
The Controller, Her Majesty's Stationery Office Methuen, London, for Figures 2.19, 3.20 and 9.44
(Crown Copyright Reserved) for Figure 3.3 from from Mountain Weather and Climate by R. G.
Geophysical Memoir 102 by J. K. Bannon and Barry; for Figures 3.1, 6.19 and 6.22 from
L. P. Steele; for Figure 9.31 from Geophysical Models in Geography by R. J. Chorley and P.
Memoir 115 by J. Findlater; for Figures 6.23, Haggett (eds); and for Figures 10.6, 10.20,
7.10 and 8.6, and for Plates 21 D and E from 10.25, 10.29, 10.30, 10.33 and 10.37 from
the Meteorological Magazine; for Figures 7.12 Boundary Layer Climates by T. R. Oke.
and 7.17 from A Course in Elementary National Academy Press, Washington, DC, for
Meteorology by D. E. Pedgley; for Figures 8.27 Figure 11.5.
and 8.28 from Weather in the Mediterranean 1, North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam,
2nd edn (1962); for the tephigram base of Figure for Figure 3.19 from the Journal of Hydrology.
4.1 from RAF Form 2810; and for Figure 6.36 Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, for Figure 10.15 from
from Global Ocean Surface Temperature Atlas Fundamentals of Forest Biogeocoenology by V.
by M. Bottomley et al. Sukachev and N. Dylis.
Elsevier, Amsterdam, for Figure 9.38 from Palaeo- Oxford University Press, Cape Town, for Figures
geography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology; 6.24, 9.45, 9.46 and 9.47 from Climatic Change
and for Figures 9.48 and 9.49 from Climates of and Variability in Southern Africa by P. D. Tyson.
Central and South America by W. Schwerdtfeger Plenum Publishing Corp., New York, for Figure
(ed.); for Figures 6.13 and 8.30 from Climates 8.39 from The Geophysics of Sea Ice by N.
of the World by D. Martyn; and for Figure 8.41 Untersteiner (ed.).
from Climates of the Soviet Union by P. E. Princeton University Press for Figure A1.5 from
Lydolph. Design with Climate by V. Olgyay.
Generalstabens Litografiska Anstalt, Stockholm, for D. Reidel, Dordrecht, for Figures 6.12 and 11.9
Figure 7.19 from Klimatologi by G. H. Liljequist. from The Climate of Europe: Past, Present and
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., for Future by H. Flohn and R. Fantechi (eds); for
Figures 2.20, 10.16, 10.17 and 10.18 from The Figure 8.32 from Climatic Change; for Figure
Climate near the Ground (2nd edn) by R. Geiger. 10.34 from Interactions of Energy and Climate
Hutchinson, London, for Figures 10.27 and 10.35 by W. Bach, J. Pankrath and J. Williams (eds).
from the Climate of London by T. J. Chandler; Routledge, London, for Figures 9.41 and 9.42 from
and for Figures 9.41 and 9.42 from The The Climatology of West Africa by D. F.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xvii
Hayward and J. S. Oguntoyinbo; for Figure 9.53 Applied by E. W. Hewson and R. W. Longley;
from Climate Since AD 1500 by R. S. Bradley for Figure 4.20 from Weather and Climate
and P. D. Jones (eds); and for Figures 10.8, 10.10 Modification by W. N. Hess (ed.); for Figure
and 10.14 from Boundary Layer Climates (2nd 7.29 from Paleoclimate Analysis and Modeling
edn) by T. R. Oke. by A. D. Hecht; for Figures 9.16, 9.29, 9.32 and
Scientific American Inc., New York, for Figure 2.26 9.34 from Monsoons by J. S. Fein and P. L.
by R. E. Newell; for Figure 1.12B by M. R. Stephens (eds); for Figure 6.32 from Modern
Rapino and S. Self; for Figure 4.26 by J. Snow; Physical Geography (4th edn) by A. N. Strahler
and for Figure 2.2 by P. V. Foukal. and A. H. Strahler; and for Figure 6.34 from
Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, for Figures 9.22, 9.24, Ocean Science by K. Stowe.
9.34 and 9.37.
Springer-Verlag, Vienna and New York, for Figure
Organizations
2.21 from the Meteorologische Rundschau; and
for Figures 4.15 and 5.10 from Archiv für Center for Climatic Research, University of
Meteorologie, Geophysik und Bioklimatologie. Delaware, Newark, Delaware, for Figure 8.25.
Time-Life Inc., Amsterdam, for Plate 4 from The Department of Electronics (NERC Satellite Station),
Grand Canyon by R. Wallace. University of Dundee, for Plates 21 and 24.
University of California Press, Berkeley, for Figure Deutscher Wetterdienst, Zentralamt, Offenbach am
9.7 and Plate 27 from Cloud Structure and Main, for Figure 9.27.
Distributions over the Tropical Pacific Ocean by Directorate-General Science, Research and Develop-
J. S. Malkus and H. Riehl. ment, European Commission, Brussels, for Figure
University of Chicago Press for Figures 2.1, 2.5, 8.26.
2.20, 10.7, 10.11 and 10.13 from Physical Environmental Science Service Administration
Climatology by W. D. Sellers. (ESSA) for Plates 8 and 18.
University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, for Figure Geographical Branch, Department of Energy, Mines
9.36 from The Earth's Problem Climates by G. and Resources, Ottawa, for Figure 8.15 from
T. Trewartha. Geographical Bulletin.
Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, for IGU Study Group on Recent Climate Change.
Figure 9.58 from The Encyclopedia of Atmos- Intellicast Corp. and WSI Corp. for Plate 26.
pheric Sciences and Astrogeology by R. W. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change for
Fairbridge (ed.). Figures 11.8, 11.10, 11.15, 11.17, 11.20 (B and
Walter De Gruyter, Berlin, for Figure 8.2 from C), 11.22, 11.23 and 11.26 from Climate
Allgemeine Klimageographie by J. Bluthgen. Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change by
Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, for Figure 7.23 J. T. Houghton et al. (eds).
from Climate and Weather by H. Flohn. Laboratory of Climatology, Centerton, New Jersey,
Westview Press, Boulder, for Figure 1.5 from for Figure 8.24.
Climate Change and Society by W. W. Kellogg National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, for
and R. Schware. Figure 11.2.
John Wiley, Chichester, for Figures 8.9, 9.43 and National Aeronautics and Space Administration
11.13 from the Journal of Climatology; for (NASA) for Figures 1.15 and 6.28 and for Plates
Figures 1.7 and 1.10 from The Greenhouse 5, 14, 16, 25, 30 and C.
Effect, Climatic Change, and Ecosystems by G. National Geophysical Data Center, Boulder, for
Bolin et al.; and for Figure 10.38 from Human Figure 2.2.
Activity and Environmental Processes by K. J. National Hurricane Center, Miami, for Plate 34.
Gregory and D. E. Walling (eds). National Meteorological Center, Washington, DC,
John Wiley, New York, for Figure 2.17 from for Figure 7.28.
Physical Geography (2nd edn) by A. N. Strahler; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
for Figures A1.3, A1.4 and Table A1.1 from (NOAA), United States Department of
Physical Geography (3rd edn) by A. N. Strahler; Commerce, Washington, DC, for Figures 7.30,
for Figures 2.3C, 2.4 and 4.10 from Introduction 7.31 and 7.33, and for Plates 2 and 3 from
to Physical Geography by A. N. Strahler; for Technical Memo. NESS 95; and for Plates 22
Figure 2.6 from Meteorology, Theoretical and and 35.
xviii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
National Snow and Ice Data Center, Boulder, for University of Tokyo for Figure 9.35 from Bulletin
Plates 9, 23, 27 and A. of the Department of Geography.
National Space Development Agency of Japan for World Meteorological Organization for Plates 15
Plate 33. and 29 from Technical Note 124; for Figure 9.52
Natural Environmental Research Council for Figure from The Global Climate System 1982–84; for
1.6 from Our Future World and for Figure 3.4A Figure 2.25 from GARP Publications Series,
from NERC News, July 1993 by K. A. Rept No. 16; and for Figure 11.1 from WMO
Browning. Publication No. 537 by F. K. Hare.
Naval Weather Service Command, Washington,
DC, for Figures 6.3 and 6.11.
Individuals
New Zealand Alpine Club for Figure 4.16.
New Zealand Meteorological Service, Wellington, Arizona State Climatologist, Phoenix, Arizona, for
New Zealand, for Figures 9.26 and 9.59 from Figure 8.34.
the Proceedings of the Symposium on Tropical Dr C. F. Armstrong and Dr C. K. Stidd, of the
Meteorology by J. W. Hutchings (ed.). Desert Research Institute, University of Nevada,
Nigerian Meteorological Service for Figure 9.39 for Figure 3.19.
from Technical Note 5. Dr B. W. Atkinson, of Queen Mary College,
Press Association–Reuters Ltd, London, for Plate 6. London, for Figure 10.38.
Quartermaster Research and Engineering Com- Dr August H. Auer, Jr., of the New Zealand
mand, Natick, Mass., for Figure 8.18 by J. N. Meteorological Service, for Plate 36.
Rayner. Mr P. E. Baylis, of the University of Dundee, and
Risø National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark, for Dr R. Reynolds, of the University of Reading,
Table 5.1 and Figures 5.12 and 8.1 from for Plate 19.
European Wind Atlas by I. Troen and E. L. Dr R. P. Beckinsale, of Oxford University, for
Petersen. suggested modification to Figure 7.7.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, for Dr H. N. Bhalme, of Pune, India, for Figure 9.33.
Figure 1.12 A. Dr B. Bolin, of the University of Stockholm, for
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Figures 1.7 and 1.10.
Rome, for Figure 10.23 from Forest Influences. Dr P. Brimblecombe, of the University of East
United States Department of Agriculture, Anglia, for Figure 10.28.
Washington, DC, for Figures 10.21 and 10.22 Dr Otis B. Brown, of the University of Miami, for
from Climate and Man. Plate B.
United States Department of Commerce for Figure Mr R. Bumpas, of the National Center for
8.13. Atmospheric Research, Boulder, for Plate 7.
United States Department of Energy, Washington, Dr T. J. Chinn of the Institute of Geological
DC, for Figure 2.12. Sciences, Dunedin, for Figure 4.16.
United States Environmental Data Service for Figure Dr G. C. Evans, of the University of Cambridge,
3.11. for Figure 10.24.
United States Geological Survey, Washington, DC, Dr H. Flohn, of the University of Bonn, for Figures
for Figure 8.33 from Professional Paper 1052 and 6.15 and 9.14.
for Figure 8.23 mostly from Circular 1120-A. Dr S. Gregory, of the University of Sheffield, for
United States National Air Pollution Admini- Figures 9.13 and 9.55.
stration, Washington, DC, for Figures 10.25 and Mr Ernst Haas for Plate 4.
10.29 from Public Health Service Publication Dr S. L. Hastenrath, of the University of Wisconsin,
No. AP-63. for Figures 2.21 and 3.19.
United States Naval Oceanographic Office for Dr L. H. Horn and Dr R. A. Bryson, of the
Figure 6.31. University of Wisconsin, for Figure 8.16.
United States Weather Bureau for Figures 3.12, Dr J. Houghton, of the Meteorological Office,
3.14, 5.11, 6.10, 6.26, 6.27, 6.37, 7.6, 7.26, 9.2, Bracknell, for Figures 1.8 and 11.18 from Climate
9.11 and 9.59 from the Monthly Weather Change 1992; and 11.8, 11.15, 11.17, 11.20,
Review; and for Figure 7.22 from Research 11.22, 11.23 and 11.26 from Climate Change
Paper 40. 1995: The Science of Climate Change, IPCC.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xix
climates are discussed. The final chapter examines and its atmosphere receive from the sun. In order
the mechanisms and characteristics of changes in to study the receipt of this energy we need to begin
the earth's climate system and projections of condi- by considering the nature of the atmosphere– its
tions in the twenty-first century. The key to atmos- composition and basic properties.
pheric processes is the radiant energy that the earth
1
Atmospheric composition, mass and
structure
A COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE 1 Carbon dioxide (CO2) is involved in a complex
global cycle (see A.4, this chapter). It is released
1 Total atmosphere from the interior of the earth and produced by
respiration of biota, soil processes, combustion
Air is a mechanical mixture of gases, not a chemical
and oceanic evaporation. Conversely, it is
compound. Table 1.1, illustrating the average com-
dissolved in the oceans and consumed by the
position of dry air, shows that three gases– nitro-
process of plant photosynthesis.
gen, oxygen and argon– account for 99.9 per cent
of the air by volume. Moreover, rocket observations 2 Methane (CH4) is produced primarily through
show that these gases are mixed in remarkably con- anaerobic (i.e. oxygen-deficient) processes by
stant proportions up to about 80 km (50 miles). natural wetlands and rice paddies (together
Of especial significance, despite their relative about 40 per cent of the total), as well as by
scarcity, are the so-called greenhouse gases, which enteric fermentation in animals, by termites,
play an important role in the thermodynamics of through coal and oil extraction, biomass
the atmosphere by trapping long-wave terrestrial burning, and from landfills.
reradiation, producing the greenhouse effect (see CH 4 + 2H 2 O
CO 2 + 4H 2
Chapter 2C). The concentrations of these gases are
particularly susceptible to human (i.e. anthro- Almost two-thirds of the total is related to
pogenic) activities: anthropogenic activity.
Methane is oxidized to CO 2 and H2O by a N O x refers to these and other odd nitrogen species
complex photochemical reaction system. with oxygen. Fossil fuel combustion (approximately
two-thirds for heating, one-third for cars and other
CH 4 + O2 + 2x C 0 2 + 2x H 2
transport) is the primary source of N O x (mainly
where x denotes any specific methane destroying NO) accounting for 15–25× 109 kg N/year.
species (such as H, OH, NO, Cl or Br). Biomass burning and lightning activity are other
3 Nitrous oxide (N 2 O) is produced by biological important sources. NO x emissions increased by
mechanisms in the oceans and soils, by indus- some 200 per cent between 1940 and 1980. The
trial combustion, automobiles, aircraft, biomass total source of N O x is about 40× 109 kg N/year.
burning, and as a result of the use of chemical About 25 per cent of this goes into the stratosphere,
fertilizers. It is destroyed by photochemical reac- where it undergoes photochemical dissociation. It is
tions in the stratosphere involving the production also removed as nitric acid (HNO 3 ) in snowfall.
of nitrogen oxides (NO x ). Odd nitrogen is also released as NH X by ammonia
4 Ozone (O3) is produced by the high-level breakup oxidation in fertilizers and by domestic animals
of oxygen molecules by solar ultraviolet radiation (6–10 × 109 kg N/year).
and destroyed by reactions involving nitrogen Sulphur species. Reactive species are sulphur
oxides and chlorine (Cl) (the latter generated by dioxide (SO2) and reduced sulphur (H2S, DMS).
CFCs, volcanic eruptions and vegetation burning) Atmospheric sulphur is almost entirely anthro-
in the middle and upper stratosphere. pogenic in origin: 90 per cent from coal and oil
5 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs: chiefly CFC13(F-11) combustion, and much of the remainder from
and CF2Cl2(F-12)) are entirely anthropogenically copper smelting. The major sources are sulphur
produced by aerosol propellants, refrigerator dioxide (80–100 × 109 kg S/year), hydrogen sulphide
coolants (e.g. 'freon'), cleansers and air condi- (H2S) (20–40 × 109 g S/year) and dimethyl sulphide
tioners, and were not present in the atmosphere (DMS) (35 55 × 109 kg S/year). DMS is primarily
until the 1930s. CFC molecules rise slowly into produced by biological productivity near the ocean
the stratosphere and then move poleward, being surface. SO2 emissions increased by about 50 per
decomposed by photochemical processes into cent between 1940 and 1980. Volcanic activity
chlorine after an estimated average lifetime of releases approximately 10 9 kg S/year as sulphur
some 65–130 years. dioxide. Because the lifetime of SO2 and H2S in the
atmosphere is only about one day, atmospheric
6 Hydrogenated halocarbons (HFCs and HCFCs)
sulphur occurs largely as carbonyl sulphur (COS),
are also entirely anthropogenic gases. They have
which has a lifetime of about one year. The conver-
increased sharply in the atmosphere over the last
sion of H2S gas to sulphur particles is an important
few decades, following their use as substitutes for
source of atmospheric aerosols.
CFCs. Trichloroethane (C 2 H 3 Cl 3 ), for example,
which is used in dry-cleaning and degreasing Despite its short lifetime, sulphur dioxide is
readily transported over long distances. It is re-
agents, increased fourfold in the 1980s and has a
moved from the atmosphere when condensation
seven-year residence time in the atmosphere. They
nuclei of SO2 are precipitated as acid rain containing
generally have lifetimes of a few years, but still
sulphuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ). The acidity of fog deposi-
have substantial greenhouse effects.
tion can be more serious because up to 90 per cent
Water vapour (H 2 O), the primary greenhouse gas, of the fog droplets may be deposited. In Californian
is a vital atmospheric constituent. It averages about coastal fogs, pH values of only 2.0 2.5 are not
1 per cent by volume but is very variable both in uncommon. Peak pH readings in the eastern United
space and time, being involved in a complex global States and Europe are ≤4.3 (pH = 7 is neutral, see
hydrological cycle (see Chapter 3). Chapter 3F). In these areas and central southern
In addition to the greenhouse gases, important China, rainfall deposits > 1 g m -2 of SO2 annually.
reactive gas species are produced by the cycles of The role of halogens of carbon (CFCs and
sulphur, nitrogen and chlorine. These play key roles HCFCs) in the destruction of ozone in the strato-
in acid precipitation and in ozone destruction. sphere is described in the next section.
Sources of these species are as follows: There are also significant quantities of aerosols in
Nitrogen species. The reactive species of nitrogen the atmosphere. These are suspended particles of
are nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ). sea salt, mineral dust (particularly silicates), organic
ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION, MASS AND STRUCTURE 3
Concentration
Production Remote Urban
Natural
Primary production:
Sea salt 1300 5–10
Mineral particles 1500 0.5–5*
Volcanic 33
Forest fires and biological debris 50
Secondary production (gas particle):
Sulphates from H2S 100 1–2
Nitrates from NOx 22
Converted plant hydrocarbons 75
Total Natural 3060
Anthropogenic
Primary production:
Industrial dust 100
Combustion (soot) 8 . 100–500*
Biomass burning (soot) 5
Secondary production (gas particle):
Sulphate from SO2 140 0.5–1.5 10–20
Nitrates from NOx 30 0.2 0.5
Biomass combustion
(organics) 80
Total Anthropogenic 370
matter and smoke. Aerosols enter the atmosphere downwind over the Atlantic. Large particles origi-
from a variety of natural and anthropogenic sources nate from mineral dust, sea salt spray, fires and
(Table 1.2). Some originate as particles– soil grains plant spores (Figure 1.1 A); these sink rapidly back
and mineral dust from dry surfaces, carbon soot to the surface or are washed out (scavenged) by rain
from coal fires and biomass burning, and volcanic after a few days. Small (Aitken) particles form by
dust. Others are converted into particles from inor- the condensation of gas-phase reaction products
ganic gases (sulphur from anthropogenic SO2 and and from organic molecules and polymers, including
natural H 2 S; ammonium salts from NH 3 ; nitrogen natural and synthetic fibres, plastics, rubber, and
from N O x . Sulphate aerosols, two-thirds of which vinyl. Fine particles from volcanic eruptions may
come from coal-fired power station emissions, are reside in the stratosphere above the level of weather
now playing an important role in countering global processes for 1–3 years. Intermediate-sized particles
warming effects by reflecting incoming solar radia- originate from natural sources, such as soil sur-
tion (see Chapter 11). Other aerosol sources are sea faces, from combustion, or they accumulate by
salts and organic matter (plant hydrocarbons and random coagulation and by repeated cycles of
anthropogenically derived) (Figure 1.1). Natural condensation and evaporation (Figure 1.1). Particles
sources are about eight times larger than anthro- with diameters of 0.1–1.0 μm are highly effective
pogenic ones on a global scale, but the estimates in scattering solar radiation (Chapter 2B.2), and
are wide-ranging. Moreover, there is considerable those of about 0.1 μm diameter are important in
spatial variability. For example, some 1,500 Tg cloud condensation.
(10 12 g) of crustal material is picked up by the Having made these generalizations about the
air annually, about one-half from the Sahara and atmosphere, we now examine the variations that
the Arabian Peninsula. Most of this is deposited occur in composition with height, latitude and time.
4 ATMOSPHERE, WEATHER AND CLIMATE
SLOW THERMAL
tion, the heat budget and vertical temperature struc-
CONDENSATION NUCLEI
ture of the atmosphere are considerably affected by
MECHANICAL GRINDING REGION
the distribution of these two gases.
MASS DISTRIBUTION
Polymerized Aggregates
Vapour
Condensation Wind-Lotted Dust
Water vapour comprises up to 4 per cent of the
Organic Molecules etc
Evaponte from
Sea Spray
atmosphere by volume (about 3 per cent by weight)
Combustion
Condensates near the surface, but only 3–6 ppmv (parts per
Plant Debriis million by volume) above 10 to 12 km. It is supplied
GAS Spores etc
CONVERSION.
mass
GIANT
PARTICLE
to the atmosphere by evaporation from surface
MODE
0 01 to 0
mass MODE
mass
water or by transpiration from plants and is trans-
0 1 tol0µgm
ferred upwards by atmospheric turbulence. Tur-
MASS TRANSFER
bulence is most effective below about 10 km and
by Coagulation and Evaporating Cloud Cycles
10 5 as the maximum possible water vapour density of
B
VOLCANIC cold air is anyway very low (see B.2, this chapter),
PLUMES
there is little water vapour in the upper layers of
FOREST
104 the atmosphere.
[SURFACE AREA (urn2) PER UNIT VOLUME (cm3)]
FIRES
SAND
STORMS Ozone (O3) is concentrated mainly between 15
and 35 km. The upper layers of the atmosphere are
103- irradiated by ultraviolet radiation from the sun (see
AREA DISTRIBUTION
r
DUST C.1, this chapter), which causes the break-up of
STORMS
URBAN
PARTICLES
oxygen molecules at altitudes above 30 km (i.e. O2
102- O + O). These separated atoms (O + O) may
then combine individually with other oxygen mole-
CONTINENTAL cules to create ozone, as illustrated by the simple
101 BACKGROUND SEA
SALT
photochemical scheme:
O2 + O + M O3 +M
OCEANIC
1 BACKGROUND
where M represents the energy and momentum bal-
ance provided by collision with a third atom or mol-
ecule; this Chapman cycle is shown schematically in
101-
10-2 10-1 1 101 10 2 10 3 Figure 1.2A. Such three-body collisions are rare at
PARTICLE D I A M E T E R (pm)
80 to 100 km because of the very low density of the
atmosphere, while below about 35 km most of the
Figure 1.1 Atmospheric particles. A: Mass distribution,
together with a depiction of the surface–atmosphere incoming ultraviolet radiation has already been
processes that create and modify atmospheric absorbed at higher levels. Therefore ozone is mainly
aerosols, illustrating the three size modes. Aitken formed between 30 and 60 km, where collisions
nuclei are solid and liquid particles that act as between O and O2 are more likely. Ozone itself is
condensation nuclei and capture ions, thus playing a
unstable; its abundance is determined by three dis-
role in cloud electrification. B: Distribution of surface
area per unit volume. tinctly different photochemical interactions. Above
Sources: A: After Glenn E. Shaw, University of Alaska, 40 km odd oxygen is destroyed primarily by a cycle
Geophysics Institute. B: After Slinn (1983). involving molecular oxygen; between 20 and 40 km
N O x cycles are dominant; while below 20 km a
hydrogen–oxygen radical (HO 2 ) is responsible.
2 Variations with height
Additional important cycles involve chlorine (ClO)
The light gases (hydrogen and helium especially) and bromine (BrO) chains at various altitudes.
might be expected to become more abundant in the Collisions with monatomic oxygen may recreate
upper atmosphere, but large-scale turbulent mixing oxygen (see Figure 1.2B), but ozone is mainly
of the atmosphere prevents such diffusive separation destroyed through cycles involving catalytic reac-
even at heights of many tens of kilometres above tions, some of which are photochemical associated
the surface. The height variations that do occur are with longer wavelength ultraviolet radiation
ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION, MASS AND STRUCTURE 5
A Ozone formation
(The Chapman cycle)
uv
MOLECULAR RADIATION ATOMIC O2 OZONE
OXYGEN OXYGEN O3
O2 M O
UV RADIATION
B Ozone destruction
O3 + X o2 XO
o
Figure 1.2 Schematic illustrations of (A) the Chapman cycle of ozone formation and (B) ozone destruction. X is
any ozone-destroying species (e.g. H, OH, NO, CR, Br).
Source: After Hales 1996. From Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, by permission of the American Meteorological
Society.
(2.3 2.9 μm). The destruction of ozone involves a carbons (CFCs), manufactured for 'freon', give rise
recombination with atomic oxygen, causing a net to the chlorines. These source gases are transported
loss of the odd oxygen. This takes place through the into the stratosphere from the surface and are con-
catalytic effect of a radical such as OH (hydroxyl): verted by oxidation into NO x , and by UV photode-
composition into chlorine radicals, respectively.
H + O2 HO2
The chlorine chain involves:
H02 + O OH + O2
net: 2 0 O2
OH + O H + O2 2 (Cl + O3 ClO + O2)
ClO + ClO C12O2
The odd hydrogen atoms and OH result from the
dissociation of water vapour, molecular hydrogen and
and methane (CH 4 ).
Cl + O3 ClO + O2
Stratospheric ozone is similarly destroyed in the
presence of nitrogen oxides (NO x , i.e. NO 2 and NO) OH + O3 HO 3 + 2O 2
and chlorine radicals (Cl, ClO). The source gas of Both reactions result in a conversion of 0 3 to 0 2
the N O x is nitrous oxide (N 2 O), which is produced and the removal of all odd oxygens. Another cycle
by combustion and fertilizer use, while chlorofluoro- may involve an interaction of the oxides of chlorine
6 ATMOSPHERE, WEATHER AND CLIMATE
LATITUDE
decrease to 185 195 K, permitting the formation of
0°
particles of nitric acid (HNO 3 ) ice and water ice. It
is apparent, however, that anthropogenic sources of
the trace gases are a primary factor in the ozone 30°
decline. Conditions in the Arctic are somewhat dif-
ferent as the stratosphere is warmer and there is 60<
more mixing of air from lower latitudes.
The constant metamorphosis of oxygen to ozone
90°S
and from ozone back to oxygen involves a very J F M A M J J A S O N D
complex set of photochemical processes, which tend 1984–1993
90°N'
to maintain an approximate equilibrium above
about 40 km. However, the ozone mixing ratio is
at its maximum at about 35 km, whereas maximum 60°
ozone concentration (see Note 1) occurs lower
down, between 20 and 25 km in low latitudes and 30°
between 10 and 20 km in high latitudes. This is the
LATITUDE
decay of the biosphere. At 50 °N, the concentration on land and in the world's oceans. The atmosphere
ranges from 351 ppm in late summer to 363 ppm contains about 750× 10 12 kg of carbon (C), corres-
in spring. The low summer values are related to the ponding to a CO 2 concentration of 358 ppm (Figure
assimilation of CO 2 by the cold polar seas. Over 1.4). The major fluxes of atmospheric carbon
the year, a small net transfer of CO 2 from low to dioxide are a result of solution/dissolution in the
high altitudes takes place to maintain an equilibrium ocean and photosynthesis/respiration and decom-
content in the air. position by biota. The average time for a CO 2
molecule to be dissolved in the ocean or taken up
by plants is about four years. Photosynthetic activity
4 Variations with time
leading to primary production on land involves
The quantities of carbon dioxide, other greenhouse 50× 10 12 kg of carbon annually, representing 7 per
gases and particles in the atmosphere may be subject cent of atmospheric carbon; this accounts for the
to long-term variations and these are of special 14 ppm annual oscillation in CO 2 observed in
significance because of their possible effect on the the northern hemisphere due to its extensive land
radiation budget. biosphere.
Measurements of atmospheric trace gases show The oceans play a key role in the global carbon
increases in nearly all of them since the Industrial cycle. Photosynthesis by phytoplankton generates
Revolution began (Table 1.3). The burning of fossil organic compounds of aqueous carbon dioxide.
fuels is the primary source of these increasing trace Eventually, some of the biogenic matter sinks into
gas concentrations. Heating, transportation and deeper water, where it undergoes decomposition
industrial activities generate almost 5× 10 20 J/year and oxidation back into carbon dioxide. This
of energy. Oil and natural gas consumption account process transfers carbon dioxide from the surface
for 60 per cent of global energy and coal about 25 water and sequesters it in the ocean deep water. As
per cent. Natural gas is almost 90 per cent methane a consequence, atmospheric concentrations of CO 2
(CH 4 ), whereas the burning of coal and oil releases can be maintained at a lower level than otherwise.
not only CO 2 but also odd nitrogen ( N O x , sulphur This mechanism is known as a 'biologic pump';
and carbon monoxide (CO). Other factors relating long-term changes in its operation may have caused
to agricultural practices (land clearance, farming the rise in atmospheric CO 2 at the end of the last
and cattle raising) also contribute to modifying the glaciation. Ocean biomass productivity is limited by
atmospheric composition. The concentrations and the availability of nutrients and by light. Hence,
sources of the most important greenhouse gases are unlike the land biosphere, increasing CO 2 levels will
considered in turn. not necessarily affect ocean productivity; inputs of
Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). The major reservoirs of fertilizers in river runoff may be a more significant
carbon are in limestone sediments and fossil fuels factor. In the oceans, the carbon dioxide ultimately
> 50
FOSSIL RIVERS SURFACE OCEAN 1000 + 1/year
SOIL A N D
FUEL DETRITUS 36
0 8 BIOTA 3
1500 40
4 5 37
RECOVERABLE
FOSSIL FUEL
10000
I N T E R M E D I A T E A N D D E E P WATERS
38000 +2/year
goes to produce carbonate of lime, partly in the raise the mean air temperature near the surface by
form of shells and the skeletons of marine creatures. 0.5 °C compared with the 1960s (in the absence of
On land, the dead matter becomes humus, which other factors).
may subsequently form a fossil fuel. These transfers Research on deep ice cores taken from Antarctica
within the oceans and lithosphere involve very long has enabled changes in past atmospheric composi-
time scales compared with exchanges involving the tion to be studied by extracting air bubbles trapped
atmosphere. As Figure 1.4 shows, the exchanges in the old ice. This shows large natural variations
between the atmosphere and the other reservoirs are in CO 2 concentration over the last ice age cycle
more or less balanced. (Figure 1.6). These variations of up to 100 ppm
Yet this balance is not an absolute one; between were contemporaneous with temperature changes
AD 1750 and 1995 the concentration of atmospheric estimated to be up to 10 °C. These long-term vari-
CO 2 is estimated to have increased by 28 per cent, ations in carbon dioxide and climate are discussed
from 280 to 358 ppm (Figure 1.5). Half of this further in Chapter 11.
increase has taken place since the mid-1960s; Methane (CH4) concentrations (1,750 ppbv) are
currently, atmospheric CO 2 levels are increasing by more than double the pre-industrial level (800 ppbv)
1.5 ppmv per year. The primary net source is fossil and are increasing by about 10 ppbv annually
fuel combustion, accounting for 5× 10 12 kg C/year. (Figure 1.7). Methane has an atmospheric lifetime
Tropical deforestation and fires may contribute a of 12 years and is responsible for some 15 per cent
further 2× 10 12 kg C/year; the figure is still uncer- of the greenhouse effect. Cattle populations have
tain. Fires destroy only above-ground biomass, and increased by 5 per cent/year over 30 years and
a large fraction of the carbon is stored as charcoal paddy rice area by 7 per cent/year, although it is
in the soil. The consumption of fossil fuels should uncertain whether these account quantitatively for
actually have produced an increase almost twice as the annual increase of 120 ppbv in methane over
great as is observed. The difference is primarily the last decade. Table 1.4, showing the mean annual
accounted for by uptake and dissolution in the release and consumption, indicates the uncertainties
oceans and the terrestrial biosphere. in our knowledge of its sources and sinks.
Carbon dioxide has a significant impact on global Nitrous oxide (N 2 O), which is relatively inert,
temperature by its absorption and re-emission of originates primarily from microbial activity (nitrifi-
radiation from the earth and atmosphere (see Figure cation) in soils and in the oceans (4 to 8× 109 kg
2.21 and Chapter 2C). Calculations suggest that the N/year), with a further 0.2× 10 9 kg N/year from
increase to 370 ppm (expected by AD 2002) could fuel combustion. Other anthropogenic sources are
ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION, MASS AND STRUCTURE 9
50C
48C
(a)
46C Projected trends:
(b)
44C
CO 2 Concentration (pprn)
420
400
380
360 Machta
340 Broecker
320 Estimates of
Callendar Mauna Loa
300 Siple Ice Core
Observations
280
260
1800 20 40 60 80 1900 20 40 60 80 2000 20 40
Figure 1.5 Observations of atmospheric CO2 increase at Mauna Loa, Hawaii (1957 75), estimates from
1860 1960 based on early measurements, and projected trends into the twenty-first century.
Source: After Keeling, Callendar, Machta, Broecker and others.
Note: (a) and (b) indicate different scenarios of global fossil fuel use (from Kellogg and Schware 1981). The thick line gives
readings from air bubbles in the Siple Station ice core since 1800.
oxidized into NO x .
240
Temperature deviation from present ( ° C )
2 5
220 Table 1.4 Mean annual release and consumption of
CH4 (Tg).
200
°c 0
Mean Range
180 -2.5
A Release
-5 0
Natural wetlands 115 100–200
Rice paddies 110 25–170
-7.5
Enteric fermentation 80 65–110
(mammals)
-10 0
Gas drilling 45 25–50
Biomass burning 40 20–80
160 120 80 40 0 Termites 40 10–100
T h o u s a n d s of years (BP) Landfills 40 20–70
TOTAL c. 530
Figure 1.6 Changes in atmospheric CO2 (ppmv: parts
per million by volume) and estimates of the resulting B Consumption
global temperature deviations from the present value Soils 30 15–30
obtained from air trapped in ice bubbles in cores at Reaction with O H 500 400–600
Vostok, Antarctica. TOTAL c. 530
Source: Our Future World, Natural Environment Research
Council (NERC) 1989. Source: Tetlow–Smith 1995.
10 ATMOSPHERE, WEATHER AND CLIMATE
1.75
MIXING RATIO (ppmv)
1 50
1.25
1.00
CH 4
0.75
0.50
10000 5000 3000 2000 1000 700 500 300 200 100 50 30 20
TIME (years BP)
Figure 1.7 Methane concentration (parts per million by volume) in air bubbles trapped in ice dating back to
10,000 years BP obtained from ice cores in Greenland and Antarctica.
Source: Data from Rasmussen and Khalil, Craig and Chou, and Robbins; from Bolin et al. (eds) The Greenhouse Effect, Climatic
Change, and Ecosystems (SCOPE 29). Copyright ©1986. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
300
or slowly declining as a result of the Montreal
295 Protocol agreements to curtail production and use
substitutes (see Figure 1.8B). Although their concen-
290 tration is <1 ppbv, they are a significant contrib-
utor to the greenhouse effect. They have a residence
285
time of 55 116 years in the atmosphere. However,
280 while the replacement of CFCs by hydrohalocarbons
0.3 (HCFCs) can significantly reduce the depletion of
CFC-11 CONCENTRATION
SEPTEMBER OCTOBER trends (see Chapter 11). The global mean column
350 total decreased from 306 Dobson units for 1964 80
to 297 for 1984 93 (see Figure 1.3). The decline
over the last 25 years has exceeded 7 per cent in
middle and high latitudes.
The effects of reduced stratospheric ozone are
particularly important for their potential biological
damage to living cells and human skin. It is esti-
COLUMN OZONE (DOBSON UNITS)
presence of an 'ozone hole' over the south polar As shown in Figure 1.12, despite the fact that a
region. Similar reductions are also evident in the strong westerly wind circulation carried the El
Arctic and at lower latitudes (Figure 1.10). Between Chichón dust cloud at an average velocity of 20 m
1979 and 1986, there was a 30 per cent decrease s_1 (45 mph) so that it encircled the globe in less
in ozone at 30-40 km altitude between latitudes 20 than three weeks, the spread of the Krakatoa dust
and 50 °N and S; along with this there has been in 1883 was more rapid and extensive due to the
an increase in ozone in the lowest 10 km as a result greater amounts of fine dust that were blasted into
of anthropogenic activities. These changes in the high levels of the atmosphere. Only about twelve
vertical distribution of ozone concentration are eruptions have produced measurable dust veils in
likely to lead to changes in atmospheric heating the last 120 years. They occurred mainly between
(Chapter 2C), with implications for future climate 1882 and 1912, and 1982 and 1992. In contrast,
12 ATMOSPHERE, WEATHER AND CLIMATE
10
HEIGHT (km)
TROPOPAUSE
300
8
500
4
700
Source: Data from Logan; from
2 Bolin et al. (eds) The Greenhouse
Effect, Climatic Change, and
Ecosystems (SCOPE 29). Copyright
1000 0
© 1986. Reprinted by permission of
-2 0 2 - 2 0 2 4 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
C H A N G E IN ATMOSPHERIC O Z O N E (%YR-1)
TAMBORA 1815
INTEGRATED ANNUAL DUST VEIL INDEX
fELDEYJARJOKULL 1783
MAYON 1814
800
L KATLA 1660 TEON 1660
050
KOMOGATAKE 1640
(VESUVIUSKSANTORINI)
700 045
KRAKATOA 1883
VESUVIUS 1785
LITTLE SUNDA IS. 1752
ROUNG 1636
600 0.40
IGALUNGGUNG 1822
EL CHICHON 1982
035
500
fVESUVIUS 1822
KATLA 1755
0.30
RINGGIT 1593
TAAL 1754
KALUD 1586
JAVA 1500
300 0 20
KATMAI 1912
0 15
200
0 10
100
0 05
0 0
1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
YEAR
Figure 1.11 Integrated annual dust veil index for the northern hemisphere (AD 1500-1982) (after Lamb), together
with approximate optical depths, indicating names and dates of major volcanic eruptions.
Source: LaMarche and Hirschboeck 1984; Crowley and North 1991; Rampino and Self 1984. Reprinted by permission from
Nature 307, Fig. 3, p. 123. Copyright ©1984 Macmillan Magazines Ltd.
the contribution of man-made particles (particularly high-albedo desert or snow surface but increase
of sulphates and soil) has been progressively it over an ocean surface. Thus, the global role
increasing, at present accounting for about 30 per of tropospheric aerosols is difficult to evaluate,
cent of the total; this figure could double by although many authorities now consider it to be
AD 2000. one of cooling. Volcanic eruptions, which inject dust
The overall effect of aerosols on the lower atmos- and sulphur dioxide high into the stratosphere, are
phere is uncertain; urban pollutants generally warm known to cause a small deficit in surface heating
the atmosphere through absorption and reduce solar with a global effect of 0.1 ° to 0.2 °C, but
radiation reaching the surface (see Chapter 2C). the effect is short-lived, lasting only a year or so
Aerosols may lower the planetary albedo above a after the event. Also, unless the eruption is in low
ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION, MASS AND STRUCTURE 13
A 1883(AUG-NOV)
60°N
30 NOV
40°N
31 OCT •10 OCT
D
20 N -22 SEPT-
0°
20°S
22 SEPT
40°S
10 OCT
B 1982 (APRIL)
40°N
20°N
5 25-
25
0°
20°S
0° 60°E 120°E 180° 120°W 60°W 0°
Figure 1.12 The spread of volcanic material in the atmosphere following major eruptions. (A) Approximate
distributions of observed optical sky phenomena associated with the spread of Krakatoa volcanic dust between
the eruption of 26 August and 30 November 1883. (B) The spread of the volcanic dust cloud following the main
eruption of the El Chichón volcano in Mexico on 3 April 1982. Distributions on 5, 15 and 25 April are shown.
Sources: Russell and Archibald 1888, Simkin and Fiske 1983, Rampino and Self 1984, Robock and Matson 1983. (A: by
permission Smithsonian Institution.)
P = RpT 80 50
Thus, at any given pressure, an increase in temper- 70
ature causes a decrease in density, and vice versa. 40
60
HEIGHT (miles)
1 Total pressure
HEIGHT (km)
50 30
Air is highly compressible, such that its lower layers
40
are much more dense than those above. Fifty per
cent of the total mass of air is found below 5 km 30
20
(see Figure 1.13), and the average density decreases
from about 1.2 kg m -3 at the surface to 0.7 kg m -3 20
at 5,000 m (approximately 16,000 ft), close to the 10
extreme limit of human habitation. 10
Pressure is measured as a force per unit area. The n
0
units used by meteorologists are called millibars 100 80 60 40 20 0
(mb), 1 mb being equal to a force of 100 newtons
% TOTAL MASS OF AIR BELOW
acting on 1 m 2 (see Appendix 2). Pressure readings
are made with a mercury barometer, which in effect Figure 1.13 The percentage of the total mass of the
measures the height of the column of mercury that atmosphere lying below elevations up to 80 km (50
the atmosphere is able to support in a vertical glass miles). This illustrates the shallow character of the
tube. The closed upper end of the tube has a vacuum earth's atmosphere.
space and its open lower end is immersed in a
cistern of mercury. By exerting pressure downwards this expression: M = 5.14× 10 18 kg, g0 = 9.8 ms"2,
on the surface of mercury in the cistern, the atmos- RE = 6.36× 106 m, we find p0 10 5 kg ms"2 =
5 2 5
phere is able to support a mercury column in the 10 Nnr , or 10 pascals (Pa is the SI unit of pres-
tube of about 760 mm (29.9 in or approximately sure). Meteorologists still use the millibar (mb) unit;
1,013 mb). The weight of air on a surface at sea 1 millibar = 102 Pa (or hPa; h = hecto).
level is about 10,000 kg per square metre. Hence the mean sea level pressure is approxi-
Pressures are standardized in three ways. The mately 10 5 Pa or 1,000 mb. The global mean value
readings from a mercury barometer are adjusted is 1,013.25 mb. On average, nitrogen contributes
to correspond to those for a standard temperature about 760 mb, oxygen 240 mb and water vapour
of 0 °C (to allow for the thermal expansion of 10 mb. In other words, each gas exerts a partial
mercury); they are referred to a standard gravity pressure independent of the others.
value of 9.81 ms -2 at 45° latitude (to allow for the Atmospheric pressure, depending as it does on
slight latitudinal variation in g from 9.78 ms -2 at the weight of the overlying atmosphere, decreases
the equator to 9.83 ms -2 at the poles); and they are logarithmically with height. This relationship is
calculated for mean sea level to eliminate the effect expressed by the hydrostatic equation:
of station elevation. This third correction is the most
significant, because near sea level pressure decreases
with height by about 1 mb per 8 m. A fictitious
temperature between the station and sea level has i.e. the rate of change of pressure (p) with height
to be assumed and in mountain areas this commonly (z) is dependent on gravity (g) multiplied by the air
causes bias in the calculated mean sea-level pressure. density (p). With increasing height, the drop in air
(The method is summarized in Note 4.) density causes a decrease in this rate of pressure
The mean sea level pressure (p0) can be estimated decrease. The temperature of the air also affects this
by taking account of the total mass of the atmos- rate, which is greater for cold dense air (see Chapter
phere (M), the mean acceleration due to gravity (g0) 6A.1), although the relationship between pressure
and the mean earth radius (R): and height is so significant that meteorologists often
express elevations in millibars: 1,000 mb represents
p0 = g0 (M/4 Π RE2) sea level, 500 mb about 5,500 m and 300 mb about
where the denominator is the surface area of a 9,000 m. A conversion nomogram for an idealized
spherical earth. Substituting appropriate values into (standard) atmosphere is given in Appendix 2.
ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION, MASS AND STRUCTURE 15
0.001 90
70
PRESSURE (mb)
HEIGHT (km)
0.1 •
MESOSPHERE*
60
50
1 •
STRATOPAUSE
OZONE 40
REGION
10- 30
STRATOSPHERE
OZONE MAXIMUM
20
100 CUMULONIMBUS^ CIRRUS
TROPOPAUSE Mt Everest
10
TROPOSPHERE
1.000 0
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 CO
a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one) equator, where there is great heating and vertical
and in others by a zone that is isothermal with convective turbulence, to only 8 km at the poles.
height. The troposphere thus remains to a large The meridional temperature gradients in the
extent self-contained, because the inversion acts as troposphere in summer and winter are roughly
a 'lid' that effectively limits convection (see Chapter parallel, as are the tropopauses (see Figure 1.16),
3E). This inversion level or weather ceiling is called and the strong lower mid-latitude temperature
the tropopause (see Note 5). Its height is not gradient in the troposphere is reflected in the
constant in either space or time. It seems that the tropopause breaks (see also Figure 6.8). In these
height of the tropopause at any point is correlated zones, important interchanges can occur between
with sea level temperature and pressure, which are the troposphere and stratosphere, and vice versa.
in turn related to the factors of latitude, season and Traces of water vapour probably penetrate into the
daily changes in surface pressure. There are marked stratosphere by this means, while dry, ozone-rich
variations in the altitude of the tropopause with stratospheric air may be brought down into the mid-
latitude (Figure 1.16), from about 16 km at the latitude troposphere. For example, above-average
ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION, MASS AND STRUCTURE 17
Km Km
MES0SPHERE
50
E w 50 the east) and temperatures (in
°C, dashed isolines), showing
o
the broken tropopause near the
mean Ferrel jet stream.
20
STRATOSPHERE
40 40
POLAR
EASTERLIES
30 40 40 30
60
20 FERREL 20
o
w
TROPOSPHERE
60
10 40 10
20
0
20
TRADES E
0 10 2O 30 40 50 60 70 80
LATITUDE
Km Km
WINTER
MES0SPHERE
60 60
20
50 STRATOPAUSE 50
0
40 20 40
STRATOSPHERE
40
30 0 POLAR 30
E
60 Source: After Boville (from Hare
2C 40 20 1962).
80
Notes: The term 'Ferrel Westerlies'
TROPOSPHERE
concentrations of ozone are observed in the rear of at the stratopause, where temperature may exceed
mid-latitude low-pressure systems, where the tropo- 0 °C (see Figure 1.16). The air density is much less
pause elevation tends to be low. Both facts are here, so even limited absorption produces a large
probably the result of stratospheric subsidence, temperature increase. Temperatures increase fairly
which warms the lower stratosphere and causes generally with height in summer, with the coldest
downward transfer of the ozone. air at the equatorial tropopause. In winter, the struc-
ture is more complex with very low temperatures,
averaging -80 °C, at the equatorial tropopause,
2 Stratosphere
which is highest at this season. Similar low temper-
The second major atmospheric layer is the strato- atures are found in the middle stratosphere at high
sphere, which extends upwards from the tropopause latitudes, whereas over 50–60 °N there is a marked
to about 50 km. Although the stratosphere contains warm region with nearly isothermal conditions at
much of the total atmospheric ozone (it reaches about –45 to –50 °C. Marked seasonal changes of
a peak density at approximately 22 km), the temperature affect the stratosphere. The cold 'polar
maximum temperatures associated with the absorp- night' winter stratosphere often undergoes dramatic
tion of the sun's ultraviolet radiation by ozone occur sudden warmings associated with subsidence due to
18 ATMOSPHERE, WEATHER AND CLIMATE
circulation changes in late winter or early spring, mainly of nitrogen (N2) and oxygen in molecular (O2)
when temperatures at about 25 km may jump from and atomic (O) forms, whereas above 200 km atomic
80 to 40 °C over a two-day period. The autumn oxygen predominates over nitrogen (N2 and N).
cooling is a more gradual process. In the tropical Temperatures rise with height, owing to the absorp-
stratosphere, there is a quasi-biennial (26-month) tion of extreme ultraviolet radiation (0.125 0.205
wind regime, with easterlies in the layer 18 to u,m) by molecular and atomic oxygen, probably
30 km for 12 to 13 months, followed by westerlies approaching 800 1,200 K at 350 km, but these
for a similar period. The reversal begins first at high temperatures are essentially theoretical. For example,
levels and takes approximately 12 months to artificial satellites do not acquire such temperatures
descend from 30 to 18 km (10 to 60 mb). because of the rarefied air. 'Temperatures' in the
How far these events in the stratosphere are upper thermosphere and exosphere undergo wide
linked with temperature and circulation changes in diurnal and seasonal variations. They are higher by
the troposphere remains a topic of meteorological day and are also higher during a sunspot maximum,
research. Any interactions that do exist, however, although the changes are only represented in varying
are likely to be complex, otherwise they would velocities of the sparse air molecules.
already have become evident. Above 100 km, the atmosphere is increasingly
affected by cosmic radiation, solar X-rays and ultra-
violet radiation, which cause ionization, or electrical
3 Mesosphere
charging, by separating negatively charged electrons
Above the stratopause, average temperatures decrease from neutral oxygen atoms and nitrogen molecules,
to a minimum of about 133 °C (140 K) or around leaving the atom or molecule with a net positive
90 km. This layer is commonly termed the mesos- charge (an ion). The Aurora Borealis and Aurora
phere, although it must be noted that as yet there is Australis are produced by the penetration of ioniz-
no universal acceptance of terminology for the upper ing particles through the atmosphere from about
atmospheric layers. The layers between the tropo- 300 km to 80 km, particularly in zones about 10 20 °
pause and the lower thermosphere are now com- latitude from the earth's magnetic poles. On occa-
monly referred to as the middle atmosphere, with the sion, however, the aurorae may appear at heights up
upper atmosphere designating the regions above to 1,000 km, demonstrating the immense extension
about 100 km altitude. Above 80 km, temperatures of a rarefied atmosphere. The term ionosphere is
again begin rising with height and this inversion is commonly applied to the layers above 80 km.
referred to as the 'mesopause'. Molecular oxygen and
ozone absorption bands contribute to heating around
5 Exosphere and magnetosphere
85 km altitude. It is in this region that 'noctilucent
clouds' are observed over high latitudes in summer. The base of the exosphere is between about 500 km
Their presence appears to be due to meteoric dust and 750 km. Here atoms of oxygen, hydrogen and
particles, which act as ice crystal nuclei when traces helium (about 1 per cent of which are ionized) form
of water vapour are carried upwards by high-level the tenuous atmosphere, and the gas laws (see B,
convection caused by the vertical decrease of tem- this chapter) cease to be valid. Neutral helium and
perature in the mesosphere. However, their formation hydrogen atoms, which have low atomic weights,
is also thought to be related to the production of can escape into space since the chance of molecular
water vapour through the oxidation of atmospheric collisions deflecting them downwards becomes less
methane, since apparently they were not observed with increasing height. Hydrogen is replaced by the
prior to the Industrial Revolution. breakdown of water vapour and methane (CH4)
Pressure is very low in the mesosphere, decreasing near the mesopause, while helium is produced by the
from about 1 mb at 50 km to 0.01 mb at 90 km. action of cosmic radiation on nitrogen and from
the slow but steady breakdown of radioactive ele-
ments in the earth's crust.
4 Thermosphere
Ionized particles increase in frequency through the
Above the mesopause, atmospheric densities are exosphere and, beyond about 200 km, in the mag-
extremely low, although the tenuous atmosphere netosphere there are only electrons (negative) and
still effects drag on space vehicles above 250 km. The protons (positive) derived from the solar wind– a
lower portion of the thermosphere is composed plasma of electrically conducting gas.
ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION, MASS AND STRUCTURE 19
Energy
(1370Wm - 2 )
pheric windows' where radiation
Outgoing Terrestrial
1000 escapes to space. The black-
body radiation at 6,000 K is
that proportion of the flux which
500 0 would be incident on the top of
5 10 15 20 25
urn the atmosphere. The inset
Energy Flux Density (Wm" 2 ^im" 1 )
50 Estimated Infrared
10µm Emission t o Space
f r o m the Earth's
S u r f a c e (70Wm"2)
I2µm
20
10
5
Black B o d y
Radiation
263-K
(270Wm - 2 )
2
01 02 05 10 20 50 10 20 50 100
Wavelength (urn)
Ultraviolet •Visible Infrared Source: Mostly after Sellers 1965.
emission to be much less than that from an equiva- number and positions change in a regular manner,
lent black body. The wavelength of maximum emis- known as the sunspot cycles. These cycles have
sion (λmax) varies inversely with the absolute wavelengths averaging 11 years (varying in length
temperature of the radiating body: between 8 and 13 years), the 22-year (Hale)
magnetic cycle, much less importantly 37.2 years
× 10 -6 m (Wien's Law) (18.6 years– the luni solar oscillation) and possibly
80-90 years. Figure 2.2 shows the variation of
Thus solar radiation is very intense and is mainly sunspot activity since 1610. Between the thirteenth
short-wave between about 0.2 and 4.0 μm, with a and eighteenth centuries, sunspot activity was gener-
maximum (per unit wavelength) at 0.5 μm, whereas ally low, except for the periods AD 1350 1400, and
the much weaker terrestrial radiation has a peak 1600 1645. Output within the ultraviolet part of
intensity at about 10 μm and a range of about 4 the spectrum shows considerable variability, with
to 100 μm (1 μm = 1 micrometre = 10 -6 m). up to twenty times more ultraviolet radiation
Satellite data show that the solar constant under- emitted at certain wavelengths during a sunspot
goes small periodic variations of about 0.1 per cent, maximum than during a sunspot minimum. The
related to sunspot activity. Sunspots are dark (i.e. relation between sunspot activity and terrestrial
cooler) areas visible on the sun's surface. Their temperatures is a matter of some dispute. However,
22 ATMOSPHERE, WEATHER AND CLIMATE
40
0
1600 1610 1620 1630 1640 1650 1660 1670 1680 1690 170C
200
160
120
80
Sunspot Number
40
0
1700 1710 1720 1730 1740 1750 1760 1770 1780 1790 1800
200-
160
120
80
40
0
1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900
200
160
120
some authorities believe that prolonged time- about 1.5 Wm -2 from sunspot maximum to mini-
spans of sunspot minima (e.g. AD 1645 1705, the mum. In the long term, assuming that the earth
Maunder Minimum) and maxima (e.g. 1895 1940 behaves as a black body, a long-continued differ-
and post 1970) can produce significant global ence of 2 per cent in the solar constant could change
cooling and warming, respectively. the effective mean temperature of the earth's surface
Shorter-term relationships are more difficult to by as much as 1.2 °C; however, the observed fluc-
support, but mean annual temperatures have been tuations of about 0.1 per cent would change the
correlated with the combined 10 11 and 18.6 year mean global temperature by ≤0.06 °C, based on
solar cycles. Satellite measurements during the calculations of radiative equilibrium.
1980s, the latest solar cycle, show a small decrease
in solar output as sunspot number approaches its
2 Distance from the sun
minimum, and a subsequent recovery. Although
sunspot areas are cool spots, they are surrounded The annually changing distance of the earth from
by bright areas of activity known as faculae, which the sun produces seasonal variations in our receipt
have higher temperatures; the net effect is for solar of solar energy. Owing to the eccentricity of the
output to vary in parallel with the number of earth's orbit around the sun, the receipt of solar
sunspots. Thus, the solar 'irradiance' decreases by energy on a surface normal to the beam is 7 per
SOLAR RADIATION 23
A EQUINOX B
20 MARCH SEPT
PERIHELION
APHELION
4 JULY
5 JAN
152.1 mkm 147.3 m k m
DEC •JUNE
EQUINOX MARCH
22 SEPT
PRESENT 11,000 BP
SUMMER WINTER
S/
r
AUTUMN
Figure 2.3 Perihelion shifts. (A) The present timing of perihelion; (B) The direction of its shift and the situation at
11,000 years BP; (C) The geometry of the present seasons (northern hemisphere).
Source: Partly after Strahler 1965.
cent more on 3 January at the perihelion than on northern summer half-year (21 March 22 Septem-
4 July at the aphelion (Figure 2.3). In theory (that ber) is five days longer than the southern hemisphere
is, discounting the interposition of the atmosphere summer (22 September 21 March). This difference
and the difference in degree of conductivity between slowly changes; about 10,000 years ago the aphe-
large land and sea masses), this difference should lion occurred in the northern hemisphere winter,
produce an increase in the effective January world and northern summers received 3 4 per cent more
surface temperatures of about 4 °C, over those of radiation than today (Figure 2.3B). This same
July. It should also make northern winters warmer pattern will return about 10,000 years from now.
than those in the southern hemisphere, and southern Figure 2.4 graphically illustrates the seasonal vari-
summers warmer than those in the northern hemi- ations of energy receipt with latitude. Actual
sphere. In practice, atmospheric heat circulation and amounts of radiation received on a horizontal
the effects of continentality substantially mask this surface outside the atmosphere are given in Table
global tendency, and the actual seasonal contrast 2.1. The intensity on a horizontal surface (Ih) is
between the hemispheres is reversed. Moreover, the determined from:
24 ATMOSPHERE, WEATHER AND CLIMATE
90°S. day and the season (see Figure 2.3). At the June
solstice, the sun's altitude is a constant 23½ °
60°S.
30'S. throughout the day at the North Pole and the sun
is directly overhead at noon at the Tropic of Cancer
0° (23½ °N).
30°N
Table 2.1 Daily solar radiation on a horizontal surface outside the atmosphere: Wm -2 .
Date 90 °N 70 50 30 0 30 50 70 90 °S