Interception Process

• In precipitation reaching the surface of a catchment, the major abstraction is from the
infiltration process.

• However, two other processes – Interception and Depression storage operate to reduce
water volume available for runoff.
INFILTRATION
Introduction

• Zone 1 – Saturated zone

• Top thin layer is completely saturated

• Zone 2 – Transition zone

• Zone 3 – Transmission zone

• Moisture content is above field capacity but
below saturation

• Zone 4 – Wetting zone

• Soil moisture in this zone will be at or near field
capacity and the moisture content decreases
with the depth.
Introduction

• The maximum rate at which the ground

can absorb water, the infiltration
capacity.

• The volume of water that the ground can

hold , the field capacity.
Infiltration Capacity

• The maximum rate at which a given soil at a given time can absorb water is defined as
Infiltration Capacity.

• It is designated as fp and is expressed in units of cm/h.

• The actual rate of infiltration f can be expressed as

f = fp when i ≥ fp

and f = i when i < fp

Where, i = intensity of rainfall

Infiltration Capacity

• The infiltration capacity of a soil is high at

the beginning of a storm and has an
exponential decay as the time elapses.

• The infiltration capacity of an area is

dependent on a large number of factors,
• Characteristics of soil (texture, porosity and
hydraulic conductivity)

• Conditions of Soil Surface

• Current moisture content

• Vegetative cover

• Soil temperature
Factors affecting Infiltration Capacity

• Characteristics of Soil

• Type of Soil (sand, silt, clay), its structure, texture, permeability and underdrainage

• Loose sandy soil vs tight clayey soil

• Good underdrainage ˃ Greater infiltration

• Layered soil ˃ overall infiltration rate depends on transmission capacity of individual

layers.

• Dry soil can absorb more water

• Forest soil rich in organic matter will have a much higher value of fp under identical
conditions than the same soil in an urban area where it is subjected to compaction.
Factors affecting Infiltration Capacity

• Surface of Entry

• At the soil surface, impact of raindrops causes the fines in the soil to be displaced
and these in turn can clog the pore spaces in the upper layers of the soil.

• A surface covered with grass and other vegetation which can reduce this process has
pronounced influence on value of fp

• Fluid Characteristics

• Turbidity can clog pores

• Temperature of water alters viscosity.

Measurement of Infiltration

• Flooding – type infiltrometers

• Measurement of subsidence of free water in a large basin or pond.

• Rainfall simulator

• Hydrograph analysis.
Flooding-Type Infiltrometer

• Experimental devices used to obtain data relating to variation of infiltration capacity with
time.

• Tube-type (Simple) Infiltrometer

• Double ring Infiltrometer

Simple (Tube-Type) Infiltrometer

• Metal cylinder – 30 cm diameter, 60 cm

long, open at both ends.
• Cylinder is driven into the ground to a
depth of 50 cm.
• Water is poured into the top part to a
depth of 5 cm and a pointer is set to mark
the water level.
• As infiltration proceeds, volume is made
up by adding water from a burette to keep
the water level. (Contd. For 2-3 hours)
• Major objection is that water spreads at
the outlet of the tube. Hence tube area is
not the representative area.
Double-ring Infiltrometer
• Most commonly used infiltrometer designed to
overcome the limitations of the tube
infiltrometer. i.e., the tube area us not
representative of the infiltrating area.

• Two sets of concentric rings. With diameters 30

cm and 60 cm and a minimum length of 25
cm.

• Two rings are inserted into the ground and

water is applied in both to maintain a constant
depth of 5 cm.

• Water is maintained at same level in both the

rings. Outer ring acts as a jacket.
Rainfall Simulator
• A small plot of land, of about 2 m x
4 m size, is provided with a series of
nozzles on the longer side with
arrangements to collect and
measure the surface runoff rate.

• Measurements are taken for various

intensities and duration by applying
water budget equation.

• Rainfall-simulator type infiltrometer

gives lower values than flooding-
type infiltrometers due to effect of
the rainfall impact and turbidity.
Modelling Infiltration Capacity
Horton’s Equation (1933)
Philip’s Equation (1957)
Kostiakov Equation
Green-Ampt Equation (1911)
The infiltration capacity in a basin is represented by Horton’s equation as
𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 = 3.0 + 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑡𝑡
Where fp is in cm/h and t is in hours. Assuming the infiltration to take place at
capacity rates in a storm of 60 minutes duration, estimate the depth of infiltration in
(i) the first 30 minutes and (ii) the second 30 minutes of the storm.

The infiltration capacity of soil in a small watershed was found to be 6 cm/h before a
rainfall event. It was found to be 1.2 cm/h at the end of 8 hours of storm. If the total
infiltration during the 8 hours period of storm was 15 cm, estimate the value of the
decay coefficient Kh in Horton’s infiltration capacity equation.
Classification of Infiltration Capacities

Infiltration Class Infiltration Capacity Remarks

(mm/h)
Very Low <2.5 Highly clayey soils
Low 2.5 to 25.0 Shallow soils, Clay soils,
soils low in organic
matter
Medium 12.5 to 25.0 Sandy loam, Silt
High > 25.0 Deep sands, well
drained aggregated
soils.
Infiltration Indices

• In hydrological calculations involving floods, it is found convenient to use a

constant value of infiltration rate for the duration of the storm.

• The defined average infiltration rate is called infiltration index and two types of
indices are in common use:

• ϕ-index

• W-index
ϕ - Index
• The ϕ-index is the average rainfall above which the rainfall volume is equal to the runoff
volume.

• The ϕ-index is derived from the rainfall hyetograph with the knowledge of the resulting
runoff volume.

• The ϕ value is found by treating it as constant infiltration capacity. If the rainfall

intensity is less than ϕ then the infiltration rate is equal to the rainfall intensity; however
if the rainfall intensity is larger than ϕ, the difference between the rainfall and infiltration
in an interval of time represents the runoff volume.

• The amount of rainfall in excess of the index is called rainfall excess or effective
rainfall.
ϕ - Index

𝑃𝑃−𝑅𝑅
• ϕ-index =
𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒

Where, P = Precipitation

R = Runoff

te = duration of rainfall excess

Problem 1: A Storm with 10 cm of precipitation produced a direct runoff of 5.8
cm.. The duration of the rainfall was 16 hours and its time distribution is given
below.
Time 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
from
start (h)
Cumulati 0 0.4 1.3 2.8 5.1 6.9 8.5 9.5 10.0
ve
rainfall
(cm)

Problem 2: The rainfall in three successive 8h period is 1.6, 5.4 and 4.1 cm. If the
initial loss is 0.6 cm and the surface runoff resulting from the storm is 4.7 cm,
then ϕ – index is?
RUNOFF
Runoff Process

• Runoff means the draining or flowing off of precipitation from a catchment area through a
surface channel.

• It represents the output from the catchment in a given unit time.

Runoff Process, contd.,

• Overland flow

• After satisfying initial abstractions from precipitation, excess precipitation moves over
the land surfaces to reach smaller channels. This portion of the runoff is called
overland flow.

• Usually, the lengths and depths of overland flow are small and the flow is in the
laminar regime.

• Surface runoff

• Flows from several small channels join bigger channels and ultimately reach the
catchment outlet. The flow in this mode where it travels all the time over the surface
as overland flow and reaches the catchment outlet is called as Surface runoff.
Runoff Process, contd.,

• Interflow

• A part of precipitation that infilters moves laterally through the upper crusts of the
soil and returns to the surface at some location away from the point of entry into the
soil. This component of runoff is known variously as interflow, through flow, storm
seepage, subsurface storm flow or quick return flow.

• A fairly pervious soil overlying a hard impermeable surface is conducive to large

interflows.

• Depending on the time delay between the infiltration and the outflow , the interflow is
sometimes classified into prompt interflow or delayed interflow.
Runoff Process, contd.,

• Groundwater flow

• Another route for infiltered water is to undergo deep percolation and reach the ground
water storage in the soil.

• It follows a long and complicated path of travel and ultimately reaches the surface.
The time lag could be of the order of months and years.

• This part of runoff is called groundwater runoff or groundwater flow.

• Groundwater flow provides dry weather flow in perennial streams.

• Direct Runoff

• Surface runoff

• Prompt interflow

• Rainfall on the surface of the stream

• Base flow

• The delayed flow that reaches a

stream essentially as groundwater
flow is called base flow.
Natural Flow

• Runoff >> Response of a catchment to the precipitation >> integrated effects of catchment,
climate and rainfall characteristics.

• True runoff is stream flow in its natural condition, i.e., without human intervention.

• Stream flow unaffected by works of man, such as reservoirs and diversion structures on a
stream, is called natural flow or virgin flow.

• The natural flow (virgin flow) volume in Δt at the terminal point of a catchment is
expressed by water balance equation as

P.T.O
Natural Flow
𝑹𝑹𝑵𝑵 = 𝑹𝑹𝒐𝒐 − 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽 + 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽 + 𝑬𝑬 + 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 + 𝜟𝜟𝑺𝑺

Where, RN = natural flow volume in time Δt

Ro = Observed flow volume in time Δt at the terminal site

Vr = Volume of return flow from irrigation, domestic water supply and industrial
use.

Vd = Volume diverted out of stream for irrigation, domestic water supply and
industrial use.

E = net evaporation losses from reservoir on the stream.

EX = net export of water from the basin.

ΔS = change in storage volumes of water bodies.

Hydrograph

• A plot of the discharge in a stream plotted

against time chronologically is called a
hydrograph.

• Depending on unit of time involved, we

have

• Annual Hydrograph

• Monthly Hydrograph

• Seasonal Hydrograph

• Flood Hydrograph

• Applications
Runoff Characteristics of Streams

• A study of the annual hydrographs of stream enables one to classify the streams into
three classes:

• A perennial stream

• An intermittent stream

• An ephemeral stream
Perennial stream

• Is one that always carries some flow in it.

• There is considerable amount of

groundwater flow throughout the year.
Intermittent stream

• It has limited contribution form

groundwater.

• During the wet season, water table will be

above the bed of the stream, whereas in
dry season it drops below the bed of the
stream and hence dries up.

• Except for occasional storm that can

produce a short duration flow the stream
remains dry for most part of the dry
months.
Ephemeral stream

• It does not have any base flow

contribution.

• The annual hydrograph of such a stream

shows a series of short-duration spikes
marking flash flows in response to storms.

• The stream becomes dray soon after the

end of storm flow.

• It does not have a well-defined channel.

Most of the rivers in arid zones of the
ephemeral kind.
Factors Affecting Runoff
Physiographic factors Climatic factors
1. Basin characteristics: 1. Storm characteristics:
• Shape • Precipitation
• Size • Intensity
• Slope • Duration
• Nature of the valley • Magnitude
• Elevation • Movement of storm
• Drainage density 2. Initial loss
2. Infiltration characteristics 3. Evapotranspiration
• Land use and land cover
• Soil type and geological conditions
• Lakes, swamps and other storage
3. Channel characteristics:
• Cross section
• Roughness and storage capacity
Shape of the Basin

• The shape of the basin influences:

• The time taken for water from the

remote parts of the catchment to
arrive at the outlet.

• Also, occurrence of the peak discharge

and its quantity.
Size

• Small basins behave different from large ones in terms of its relative importance of
various phases of the runoff phenomenon.

• In small catchments, the overland flow is predominant over the channel flow. Hence land
use and intensity of rainfall have important role on the peak flood.

• Peak discharge is proportional to An , where A is catchment are and n < 1 (around 0.5)

• Time of occurrence of peak is proportional to Am, where m ~ 0.2

Slope

• The slope of the main stream controls the velocity of flow in channel

• As the recession limb of the hydrograph represents the depletion of storage, the stream
channel slope will have pronounced effect on this part of the hydrograph.

• Steeper slopes – quicker depletion – smaller time base.

Drainage Density

• The drainage density is defined as the

ratio of the total channel length to the
total area.

• A large drainage density creates situation

conducive for quick disposal of 0down the
channels. This fast response is reflected in
a pronounced peak discharge.

• In basins with smaller DD, the overland

flow is predominant resulting in
hydrograph with squat recession limb.
Land Use

• Vegetation and forests increases the infiltration and storage capacities of the soils.

• Thus they reduce the peak flow.

• Of the various factors that control the peak discharge, probably the only factor that can
be manipulated is land use and thus it represents the only practical means of exercising
long-term natural control over the flood hydrograph of a catchment.
Urbanisation
• Urbanisation of a rural watershed results in
the following significant changes:

• Urbanisation increases the amount of

impervious areas such as roofing on
built up areas, concrete and asphalt
road surfaces, parking lots etc.

• Due to urbanisation the natural

drainage of the rural catchment will be
removed or improved. Also, there will be
superposition of man-made artificial
surface drainage system comprising of
impervious conduits. The relatively slow
process of interflow to small streamlets
which feed the large drainage will not
exist anymore.
Climatic Factors

• Among climatic factors the intensity, duration and direction of storm movement are the
three important ones affecting runoff.

• Intensity >> Peak of hydrograph

• Duration >> Volume of hydrograph

• Direction >> downstream > Quicker concentration > peaked hydrograph > shorter time
base.
Empirical Equations and Tables

• The importance of estimating the water availability from the available hydrologic data for
purposes of planning water-resource projects was recognised by engineers even in the
nineteenth century.

• With a keen sense of observation in the region of their activity, many engineers have
developed empirical runoff estimation formulae.

• These formulae are local in nature.

Binnie’s Percentages

• Sir Alexander Binnie measured runoff from a small catchment near Nagpur (area ~16km2)
during 1869 and 1872 and developed curves of cumulative rainfall and cumulative runoff.

• These two curves were found similar.

• From these he developed percentages of runoff from rainfall.

• These percentages have been used in Madhya Pradesh and Vidarbha region of
Maharashtra.
Barlow’s Tables

• Barlow, the first Chief Engineer of the

Hydro-Electric Survey of India (1915) on
the basis of his study on a small
catchment (area ~ 130 km2) in UP
expressed runoff as,
𝑹𝑹 = 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲 𝑷𝑷

Where, Kb = runoff coefficient which

depends upon the type of catchment and
nature of monsoon rainfall
Strange’s Tables

• Strange (1892) studied the available

rainfall and runoff in the border areas of
present-day Maharashtra and Karnataka
and has obtained yield ratios as functions
of indicators representing catchment
characteristics.

• Catchments are classified as good,

average and bad according to the relative
magnitudes of yield.
Inglis and DeSouza Formula

• As a result of careful stream gauging in 53 sites in Western India, Inglis and DeSouza
(1929) evolved two regional formulae between annual runoff R in cm and annual rainfall P
in cm as:

• For Ghat regions of western India

𝑹𝑹 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 − 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟓𝟓

• For Deccan Plateau

𝟏𝟏
𝑹𝑹 = 𝑷𝑷 𝑷𝑷 − 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
Khosla’s Formula

• Khosla (1960) analysed the rainfall, runoff and temperature data for various catchments
in India and USA to arrive at an empirical relationship between runoff and rainfall. The
time period is taken as a month.

𝑹𝑹𝒎𝒎 = 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 − 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳

And 𝑳𝑳𝒎𝒎 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 for Tm > 4.50C

Where, Rm = monthly runoff in cm and Rm ≥ 0

Pm = monthly rainfall in cm

Lm = monthly losses in cm

Tm = mean monthly temperature of the catchment in 0C

Khosla’s Formula, contd.,

• For Tm ≤ 4.50C, the loss Lm may provisionally be assumed as

T0C 4.5 -1 -6.5

Lm (cm) 2.17 1.78 1.52

• Annual runoff = ∑Rm

• This formulae has been tested on a number of catchments in India and is found to give
fairly good results for the annual yield for use in preliminary studies.
For a catchment in UP, India, the mean monthly temperatures are given. Estimate the annual
runoff and annual runoff coefficient by Khosla’s method.

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Temp °C 12 16 21 27 31 34 31 29 28 29 19 14
Rainfall 4 4 2 0 2 12 32 29 16 2 1 2
(Pm) (cm)