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MEE1003 ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

L T P J C
2 1 0 0 3

Dr. BIBHUTI B. SAHOO

Associate Professor,
School of Mechanical Engineering,
VIT Vellore, TN, India – 632 014.

MEE1003 ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Basic Concepts in Thermodynamics: Basic concepts of Thermodynamics – Thermodynamics

Module – 1 and Energy – Closed and open systems – Properties of a system – State and equilibrium –
Processes and cycles – Forms of energy – Work and heat transfer – temperature and Zeroth
law of thermodynamics.

Module – 2 First law of thermodynamics - Energy balance for closed systems – First law applied to steady
– flow engineering devices

Second Law of Thermodynamics: Limitations of the first law of Thermodynamics -

Module – 3 Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statements and its equivalence- Refrigerators, Heat Pump–
COP - Perpetual Motion Machines – Reversible and irreversible process – Carnot theorem –
Entropy – The Clausius inequality

Module – 4 Concept of Exergy- Availability and irreversibility - Second law efficiency - Quality of Energy

Contd. …..

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MEE1003 ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Properties of pure substance- Property diagram for water-phase change processes-

Module – 5 refrigerants-real gases-Compressibility factor

Module – 6 Thermodynamic Relations – Gibbs and Hemholtz function – Maxwell’s relations – Clapeyron
equations – general relations of properties

Gas Power Cycles – Air standard assumptions – Otto cycle – Diesel and Dual cycles – Brayton
Module – 7 cycle

Vapor and Refrigeration Cycles- Rankine cycle-reheat-regeneration – Vapor compression

Module – 8 refrigeration cycle

Module – 9 Ideal Gas Mixtures: Composition of gas mixtures – mass and mole fractions – Dalton’s law of
additive pressures – Amagat’s law of additive volumes – Evaluating properties of gas mixtures

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BOOKS

TEXT BOOKS

1. Yunus A. Cengel (2011), Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach,

Tata McGraw- Hill Publishing Company Ltd.

REFERENCE BOOKS

1. P. K. Nag, (2009), Basic and Applied Thermodynamics, Tata McGraw-

Hill Publishing Company Ltd.

2. Michael Moran and Howard Shapiro (2010), Fundamentals of

Engineering Thermodynamics, John Wiley and Sons.

RECOMMENDED TABLES

1. Steam Table
2. Refrigeration Table

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Acknowledgement

This reference material has been prepared by referring to various

resources including different books (which are mentioned as the
‘Recommended books’ for the course MEE1003 Engineering
Thermodynamics) and online sources (including NPTEL).

The author would like to acknowledge all the resources and would
categorically mention that the material used is purely for academic
purpose and not whatsoever for commercial use.

These presentation slides are only for the reference and are not self-
sufficient. Please refer to the lecture notes and the recommended
textbooks along with these slides.

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Module – 1

BASIC CONCEPTS IN THERMODYNAMICS

 Basic concepts of Thermodynamics – Thermodynamics and Energy

 – Closed and open systems

 – Properties of a system – State and equilibrium – Processes and cycles

 – Forms of energy – Work and heat transfer

 – Temperature and Zeroth law of thermodynamics.

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THERMODYNAMICS – WHY ???

AIM

• At the end of the course the students will be able to analyze and evaluate various
thermodynamic cycles used for energy production - work and heat, within the
natural limits of conversion.

Application

• Make calculations of heat requirements of thermal power plants and IC Engines.

• Calculate the efficiencies and relate them to what occurs in an actual power plant.
• Calculate properties of various working substances at various states.
• Determine what changes of state will result in improving the performance.
• Determine how much useful energy can be produced from a given thermal source.

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BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

• It is the science of the relations between Heat, Work and Properties of the systems.
• It is the Science of energy which converts Heat into Power.
• How to adopt these interactions to our benefit?
Thermodynamics enables us to answer this question.
• Thermodynamics is applied to every wake of life. There is hardly any stream in
science and technology which does not follow the laws of thermodynamics.

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Classical vs Statistical

• Classical thermodynamics concerns the relationships between

bulk properties of matter. Nothing is examined at the atomic or
molecular level.

• Statistical thermodynamics seeks to explain those bulk properties

in terms of constituent atoms. The statistical part treats the
aggregation of atoms, not the behavior of any individual atom.

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Classical Thermodynamics
Examples
If we like to
 Rise the temperature of water in kettle.
 Burn fuel in the combustion chamber of an aero engine to propel an aircraft.
 Cool our room on a hot humid day.
 Heat up our room on a cold winter night.
 Have our beer cool.
What is the smallest amount of electricity/fuel we can get away with?
On the other hand we burn,

 Some coal/gas in a power plant to generate electricity.

 Petrol in a car engine.
What is the largest energy we can get out of these efforts?

 Thermodynamics allows us to answer some of these questions.

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DEFINITIONS – Thermodynamic System

• In our study of thermodynamics, we will choose a small part of the universe (or)
identifiable collection of matter to which we will apply the laws of
thermodynamics.
We call this subset a SYSTEM.
• Minimum quantity of matter required to analyze a thermodynamic system is the
order of Avogadro’s number.

 The rest of the universe outside the system close enough to the system to have
some perceptible effect on the system is called the surroundings.
 The surfaces which separate the system from the surroundings are called the
boundaries (eg: walls of the kettle, the housing of the engine.

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TYPE OF SYSTEMS

 Closed system - in which no mass is permitted to cross the system boundary

i.e. we would always consider a system of constant mass. We do permit heat
and work to enter or leave but not mass.

 It is also known as Control Mass system.

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some more …

 Open system - in which we permit mass to cross the system boundary in

either direction (from the system to surroundings or vice versa). In analysing
open systems, we typically look at a specified region of space, and observe
what happens at the boundaries of that region.

 It is also known as Control Volume system.

 Most of the engineering devices are open system.

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 Isolated System - in which there is no interaction between system and the

surroundings. It is of fixed mass and energy, and hence there is no mass and
energy transfer across the system boundary.

 Test: In a closed system, mass is constant. It’s converse is true/ false ?

 Ans: False. it can be a closed system or open system.

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Choice of the System and Boundaries

• We must choose the system for each and every problem we work on, so as to
obtain best possible information on how it behaves.
• In some cases the choice of the system will be obvious and in some cases not so
obvious.
• Important: you must be clear in defining what constitutes your system and make
that choice explicit to anyone else who may be reviewing your work. (eg: In the
exam paper or to your supervisor in the work place later)
 The boundaries may be real physical surfaces or they may be imaginary for
the convenience of analysis.
eg: If the air in this room is the system, the floor, ceiling and walls constitutes real
boundaries. the plane at the open doorway constitutes an imaginary boundary.
 The boundaries may be at rest or in motion.

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Macroscopic and Microscopic Approaches

Behavior of matter can be studied by these two approaches.

 In macroscopic approach, certain quantity of matter is considered, without a

concern on the events occurring at the molecular level. These effects can be
perceived by human senses or measured by instruments.

eg: pressure, temperature

 In microscopic approach, the effect of molecular motion is considered.

eg: At microscopic level the pressure of a gas is not constant, the temperature of a
gas is a function of the velocity of molecules.

Most microscopic properties cannot be measured with common instruments nor can
be perceived by human senses.

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PROPERTY

• Every system has certain characteristics by which its physical conditions may be
described. Such behavior/characteristics of a system are called the properties of
the system.
• Properties are the coordinates to describe the state of a system.
• These are macroscopic in nature.
• Invariably the properties must enable us to identify the system.
• There are 8 (eight) properties describing the behavior of a system.
Physical Properties Derived Properties

Pressure Entropy
Temperature Internal energy
Volume Enthalpy
Gibbs function
Pressure is always expressed in terms of absolute
pressure and temperature is expressed in Kelvin. Helmholtz functions

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Categories of Properties

Extensive Property

• whose value depends on the size or extent of the system (upper case letters as
the symbols).
eg: Volume (V), Mass (m).
• If mass is increased, the value of extensive property also increases.
• Extensive properties are symbolized by upper case (capital) letter such as V
(volume), KE (kinetic energy), PE (potential energy), etc.

Intensive Property

• whose value is independent of the size or extent of the system.

eg: pressure, temperature (p, T).
• Intensive properties are symbolized by lower case letters such as v (specific
volume), ke (specific kinetic energy), u (specific internal energy), h (specific
enthalpy), etc.
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Symbols for Exceptional Properties

Parameter Property Traditional symbol

Temperature Intensive property T
Mass Extensive property m
Number of moles Extensive property n

Specific Property
• It is the value of an extensive property per unit mass of system.
eg: specific volume, density, specific energy.
• It is a special case of an intensive property.

Q. The following are examples of some intensive & extensive properties:

1. Pressure, 2. Temperature, 3. Volume, 4. Velocity, 5. Electric charge,
6. Magnetisation, 7. Viscosity, 8. Potential energy.
Which one of the following sets gives the correct combination of intensive &
extensive properties ?
Intensive Extensive
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4 5, 6, 7, 8
(b) 1, 3, 5, 7 2, 4, 6, 8
(c) 1, 2, 4, 7 3, 5, 6, 8
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(d) 2, 3, 6, 8 1, 4, 57, 8
Ans. (c)
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State of System

• It is the condition of a system as defined by the

values of all its properties.
• It gives a complete description of the system.
• Any operation in which one or more properties of
a system change is called a change of state.

Phase

• It is a quantity of mass that is homogeneous throughout in chemical composition

and physical structure.
e.g. solid, liquid, vapour, gas.
• Phase consisting of more than one phase is known as heterogeneous system .

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PATH, PROCESS AND CYCLE

• The path of thermodynamic states that a system

passes through as it goes from an initial state to a
final state is known as the thermodynamic process.

• The succession of states passed through during a

change of state is called the path of the change of
state.

• Cycle refers to a typical sequence of processes in

such a fashion that the initial and final states are
identical.

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TYPES OF PROCESSES

• As a matter of rule we allow one of the properties to remain a constant during a

process.

Parameter Held Equation of state for

Sl. No Name of the process
Constant simple system
1 Constant pressure (Isobaric) p = constant v = (mR/P)T

2 Constant volume (Isochoric) V = constant p = (mR/V)T

3 Constant temperature (Isothermal) T = constant pV = constant

4 Polytropic process n pVn = constant

no heat flow across the

5 Adiabatic process pvγ = constant
system boundary

6 Isoenthapic process h = constant h=c

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QUASISTATIC PROCESSES

• When a process proceeds in such a slow manner that the system remains
infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times, it is called a quasi-static
process.

• A quasi-static process is a succession of equilibrium states.

• Infinite slowness is the characteristic feature of quasi-static process.

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Equilibrium State

• A system is said to be in an equilibrium state if its properties will not change

without some perceivable effect in the surroundings.
• Equilibrium generally requires all properties to be uniform throughout the system.
• There are mechanical, thermal, phase, and chemical equilibria.

 Between the system and surroundings, if there is no difference in

• Thermodynamic equilibrium implies all those together.

• A system in thermodynamic equilibrium does not deliver anything.

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PRESSURE

Overview

• Pressure (P ) expresses the magnitude of normal force (F-N) exerted by a

fluid (gas/ liquid) per unit area (A-m 2) applied on a surface.

F  F
P  or P 
A  A

Units: Pa (= N/m2), psi (=lbf/in2), bar (=105 Pa=100 kPa), mbar (=100 Pa=1 hPa),
atm (=101.3 kPa), mmHg (or Torr), inHg, etc.

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Pressure Terminology

Atmospheric Pressure (Patm )

• It is the pressure exerted by the weight of air above the earth’s surface.
• Standard is: 101.3 kPa =14.696 psi =760 mmHg =29.92 inHg
• The instrument used for measuring this pressure is called barometer.

Gage Pressure (Pgage)

• Measuring devices usually indicate differential pressure i.e. in relation with

atmospheric pressure. This is called gauge pressure.
• The measured pressure may be positive or negative with reference to the
atmospheric pressure. A negative gauge pressure is referred to as vacuum.

Absolute Pressure (Pabs)

• Absolute pressure is determined as algebraic sum of the readings of a

barometer and of a manometer showing the gauge pressure.
• Manometers which measure absolute pressure are also available. They
measure the pressure with reference to absolute zero pressure.

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Pressure Measuring Devices

Strain Gage

Quartz Gage
Bourdon Gage

Piezo-resistive Gage

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Pressure Bar Chart

P abs  P atm  P gage

P vac  P atm  P abs

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U-Tube Manometer

• It is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences.

• A manometer mainly consists of a glass or plastic U tube containing one or more
fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol or oil.

Principles: Hydrostatic Law

U-tube measuring U-tube measuring

Gauge pressure Vacuum pressure
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Pressure Measurement by U-Tube Manometer

pA pB
R L

• Pressure at point A is same as at point B, PA = PB

• Fluid column is open to atmosphere and it is in static equilibrium.
p = Po + ρ ˣ g ˣ h
∆P = ρ g h
• Cross sectional area of the tube has no effect
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Problems on Manometer

Question – 1: A manometer is used to measure the pressure in tank. The fluid used
has a specific gravity of 0.85 and the manometer column height is 55 cm. If the local
atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa, determine absolute in the tank.

Solution – 1:

P = Patm + ρ ˣ g ˣ h

= (96 ˣ103) + (0.85 ˣ 1000) ˣ 9.81 ˣ0.55

= 100586 Pa = 100.586 kPa

(Answer)

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some more …

Question – 2: Referring to the Figure find the pressure of fluid on the tank at point 1.

Solution – 2:

P1 = Patm + ρ1 ˣ g ˣ h1+ ρ2 ˣ g ˣ h2+ ρ3 ˣ g ˣ h3

(Answer)

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some more …

Question – 3: The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure is

measured by a multi-fluid manometer. The tank is located on a mountain at an
altitude of 1400 m where the atmospheric pressure is 85.6 kPa. Determine the air
pressure in the tank if h1= 0.1m, h2= 0.2 m and h3= 0.35m. Take the densities of
water, oil and mercury to be 1000 kg/m 3, 850 kg/m 3 and 13600 kg/m 3.

Solution – 3:

Pair + (ρwater g ˣ h1)= (– ρoil g ˣ h2) + (ρmercury g ˣ h3)+ Patm

i.e.,

Pair = Patm – (ρwater g ˣ h1) – (ρoil g ˣ h2) + (ρmercury g ˣ h3)

(Answer)
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Temperature

 It enables us to distinguish ‘hot’ from ‘cold’.

 Systems interaction with the surroundings

is controlled by two different walls.

 Diathermic wall – Good thermal conductor,

allows temperature interaction.

 Adiabatic wall – Better thermal insulator,

isolates system from its surroundings.

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Laws of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamic Laws Scientists/Researchers Year

Zeroth Law Fowler and Guggenheim 1939

First Law Joule, Mayer, Thompson and Colding 1845

Second Law Carnot 1824

Third Law Nernst 1907

Fourth Law Onsagar 1968

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The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

# Thermal equilibrium: The temperature is constant in time.

 Two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third

system are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
TA = TB = TC
• It is the basis of temperature measurement.
• Reference body which is used in the determination
of temperature is called the thermometer.

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Temperature Scales

TC  T  273.15o
T(K)=T(°C)+273.15 T(R) = T(oF) + 459.67

• In thermodynamics, it is very desirable to have a

temperature scale that is independent of the
properties of any substance. Such a
temperature is called a thermodynamic
temperature scale.
• The thermodynamic temperature scale in the SI
is Kelvin scale.

 When do you use which scale ?

• Never use Fahrenheit, except for the weather.
• You can always use Kelvin and you must use Kelvin when doing absolute
temperature measurements.
• You can use either Kelvin or Celsius when measuring differences in temperature.

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Practical Temperature Measurement

Resistance thermometers

Liquid-expansion
thermometers

Thermocouples

Radiation thermometers or pyrometers

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The Constant Volume Gas Thermometer

• The temperature of a body can be defined as

T  Cp
where p is the pressure in the bulb.
• Assuming at the triple point, we also have
with the same constant C.

Therefore,

• But only when the gas is of a very small

amount, this measurement gives consistent
results among different materials used.

This is called the ‘ideal gas temperature’.

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Problem on Temperature

Question – 1: During a heating process, the temperature of a system raises by

10°C. express the raise in temperature in K, °F and R.

Solution – 1:

Analysis: This problem deals with temperature changes, which are identical in Kelvin
and Celsius scales.

10°C = 10K = 18oF = 18R

(Answer)

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WORK and HEAT

• Work and Heat are energy in transfer from one system to another and thus plays
a crucial role in most thermodynamic systems.

• All our efforts are oriented towards how to convert heat to work or vice versa.

W=Fx
W 1,2 = F h = - G h

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Work Transfer

 Thermodynamic definition of work:

 Work is performed by a system on its surroundings during a given process if the
only effect external to the system could be raised of a weight.
 Work is performed on a system by its surroundings during a given process if the
only effect external to the surroundings could be raised of a weight.

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Heat Transfer

 Thermodynamic definition of heat:

 It is the energy in transition between the system and the surroundings by virtue of
the difference in temperature.

Sign Conventions

 Work done BY the system is POSITIVE

 Obviously work done ON the system is –ve
 Heat given TO the system is POSITIVE
 Obviously Heat rejected by the system is –ve

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Displacement Work (pdV Work)

• It is applicable to non-flow process only and the

work interaction shall be non-flow work.
Pext
• Elemental work done in compressing along the P
length dL shall be
dW = F · dL = Pext · A ·dL
• For a reversible process, Pext Å P
hence, dW = P · A · dL
• If the piston displacement is quasistatic from 1 to 2, then total work will be,
2 2

 d W   P  A  d L
1 1
2 2

 d W   P  d V
1 1
2

W 1  2  
1
P  d V

Total work during a process is equal to area under p–V process curve.

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Point Function & Path Function

pdV Work Calculation

Constant Pressure Process Constant Volume Process

(Isobaric) (Isochoric)

2
2
W1 2   pdV  pV2  V1 
W1 2   pdV  0
1
1

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Process with pV = Constant

• For an ideal gas, pV = constant, is a constant temperature or Isothermal process.

• The total work done by the gas as its volume changes from V1 to V2 :

• For an ideal gas, pV = n R T

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Polytropic Process (pVn = Constant)

• In general, pVn= constant

 n= 0, Constant pressure (V2>V1 - expansion)

 n=1, pV= constant (p2<p1 ;V2>V1 - expansion)
 n= ∞, Constant volume (p2< p1 - cooling)

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Work done for a Cycle (W net)

• Consider the cycle 1-2 along path A and 2-1 along path B.
• Work done during the path A = Area under 1-A-2-3-4.
• Work done during the path B = Area under 1-B-2-3-4.
• Since these two areas are not equal, the net work
interaction is that shown by the shaded area.
• The net area is 1A2B1.
• Therefore, some work is derived by the cycle.

• First law compels that this is possible only when there is also heat interaction
between the system and the surroundings.

• In other words, if you have to get work out, you must give heat in.

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Problems on Work Transfer

Question – 1: An engine cylinder has a piston of area 0.12 m2 and contains gas
at a pressure of 1.5 MPa. The gas expands according to a process which is
represented by a straight line on a pressure-volume diagram. The final
pressure is 0.15 MPa. Calculate the work done by the gas on the piston if the
stroke is 0.30 m.

Solution – 1: Initial pressure (p1 ) = 1.5 MPa

Final volume (V1) = 0.12m 2 × 0.3m = 0.036 m 3
Final pressure (p2 ) = 0.15 MPa
As initial pressure too high so the volume is neglected.
• Work done = Area of pV diagram

(Answer)
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Question – 2: Determine the total work done by a gas system following an

expansion process as shown in Figure.

Solution – 2:

Area under AB = (0.4 – 0.2) × 50 × 105 J

= 106J = 1 MJ

Total work = 2.251 MJ

(Answer)
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Others Forms of Work

• Stretching of a wire:
Let a wire be stretched by dL due to an application of a force F
Work is done on the system. Therefore, dW = - FdL

• Electrical Energy:
Flowing in or out is always deemed to be work
dW = - EI dt

• Work due to stretching of a liquid film due to surface tension:

Let us say a soap film is stretched through an area dA
dW = - σdA
where σ is the surface tension.

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Free Expansion
• The expansion of gas against vacuum i.e. unrestrained expansion of a gas.
• No work exchanged with the surroundings because there is no motion of the
boundaries (Work = 0).

Q. Gas is confined to one side of a thermally insulated container by a thin diaphragm.

The diaphragm is broken and the system is allowed to come to thermodynamic
equilibrium at state 2. which of the following is true ?
(i) T1> T2
(ii) T1=T2
(iii) T1< T2
Ans. (ii)
(iv) I am not sure
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Heat Transfer

• Heat is defined as the from of energy that is transferred between two systems by
virtue of temperature difference.

– Heat addition, transfer of heat into a system

– Heat rejection, transfer of heat out of a system

• Energy is recognized as heat transfer only it crosses the system boundary.

• A process during which there is no heat transfer is called adiabatic process.

• A wall which is impermeable to the flow of heat is an adiabatic wall.

• A wall which permits the flow of heat is a diathermic wall.

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• The amount of heat transferred during the process between two states (state 1
and state 2) is denoted by Q12.
• Heat transfer unit mass of a system is q = Q/m (kJ/kg).

• Temperature difference is the driving force for

heat transfer. The larger the temperature
difference, the higher is the heat transfer.

2 2
Q1 2   dQ   TdS
1 1

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Heat Transfer Mechanism

Conduction
• Fourier's law of heat conduction indicates that the rate of heat
conduction in a direction is proportional to the temperature
gradient in that direction.
• The transfer of heat between two bodies in direct contact.
• Rate of heat conduction, qcond through a layer of constant
thickness dx is proportional to the difference ΔT across the layer
and the area A normal to the direction of heat transfer and is
inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer.

qcond = - K A ΔT/ dx (Watt)

• Thermal conductivity (W/mK) is a measure of the ability of a
material to conduct heat.
• -ve sign indicates, heat is conducted in the direction of
decreasing temp. and the temp. gradient becomes negative.

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Convection

• The transfer of heat between a wall and a fluid system in motion.

• It involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion.
The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat
transfer.
 Forced convection
• The fluid is forced to flow in a tube or over a surface by external
means such as fan, pump or the wind
 Free or natural convection
• The fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces induced by
density differences due to variation of temperature in the fluid.

 The rate of heat by convection qconv is determined from

Newton's law of cooling.
qconv = h A (Ts-Tf) (Watt)
h is the convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K).

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Radiation

• The transfer of heat between two bodies separated by empty space or gases
through electromagnetic waves.
• The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at an absolute
temperature Ts is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law.
qrad = σATs4 (Watt) - for a black body

where, Stefan-Boltzmann constant, σ= 5.67x10-8 (W/m2)

• The idealized surface that emits radiation at maximum rate is called blackbody.
• The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation emitted by a
blackbody at the same temperatures.

qrad = εσATs4 (Watt) - for any body

ε- emissivity of the surface, varies from 0 to 1,

for blackbody it is 1.

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Specific Heat

• It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise a unit mass of the substance
through a unit rise in temperature.

C = Q/ mˣΔt (J/kg-k)
where, Q-amount of heat transfer (J), m-mass of the substance (kg),
Δt – rise in temperature (K)

CP = the process is at constant pressure for gases

CV = the process is at constant volume for gases

• For solids and liquids, specific heat does not depend on the process.
• Specific heat of a substance is a function of temperature.
• CP is always greater than CV because at constant pressure the system is allowed
to expand and the energy for this expansion work must also be supplied to the
system.
• Heat capacity: The product of mass and specific heat is called heat capacity.

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Latent Heat

• It is the amount of heat transfer required to cause a phase change in unit

mass of a substance at a constant pressure and temperature.

• There are three phases in which matter can exist: Solid, liquid and vapour.

 Latent heat of fusion: The amount of heat required to melt unit mass of
solid into liquid or freeze liquid to solid.

 Latent heat of vaporization: The amount of heat required to vaporize unit

mass of liquid into vapour or condense vapour into liquid.

 Latent heat of sublimation: The amount of heat required to convert solid to

vapour or vice versa.

Sensible Heat
• It is the heat exchanged by a system that has its sole effect a change of
temperature. The heat added or removed from a substance to produce a change
in its temperature is called sensible heat.

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Work & Heat in Various Processes

Sl. No. Name of the process Work Transfer (W12) Heat Transfer (Q12)

1 Constant pressure (Isobaric) process p (V2 – V1) mCp (T2 – T1 )

2 Constant volume (Isochoric) process 0 mCv (T2 – T1)

3 pV = constant (Isothermal) process mRT ln(V2/V1) mRT ln(V2/V1 )

4 Polytropic process (pVn = constant) (P1V1 – p2V2)/ (n-1) (γ-n)/ (γ-1) ˣ W12

5 Adiabatic process (pVγ = constant) (P1V1 – p2V2)/ (γ -1) 0

6 Isoenthapic process (h = constant) 0 0

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Problems on Heat Transfer

Question – 1: A milk chilling unit can remove heat from the milk at the rate of
41.87 MJ/h. Heat leaks into the milk from the surroundings at an average rate
of 4.187 MJ/h. Find the time required for cooling a batch of 500 kg of milk from
45°C to 5°C. Take the Cp of milk to be 4.187 kJ/kg K.

Solution – 1:

Heat to be removed (H) = m Cp Δt

= 500 × 4.187 × (45 - 5) kJ = 83.740 MJ

Net rate of heat removal = Hrej – Hleak

= 41.87 – 4.187 MJ / h = 37.683 MJ / h

Hence, time required = 83.70/ 37.683 hr = 2 hr 13 min 20 sec.

(Answer)

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Tutorial Questions

Tutorial – 1: Convert the following readings of pressure to kPa, assuming that

the barometer reads 760 mmHg:

(a) 90 cm Hg gauge (b) 40 cm Hg vacuum

(c) 1.2 m H2O gauge (d) 3.1 bar

Tutorial – 2: The pressure of steam flowing in a pipeline is

measured with a mercury manometer, shown in Figure. Some
steam condenses into water. Estimate the steam pressure in
kPa. Take the density of mercury as13.6 ×103kg/m3 , density
of water as 103 kg/m3, the barometer reading as 76.1 cm Hg,
and g as 9.806 m/s2. (Ans. 167.875 kPa)

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some more …..

Tutorial – 3: A mass of 1.5 kg of air is compressed in a quasi-static process from

0.1 MPa to 0.7 MPa for which pv = constant. The initial density of air is 1.16
kg/m 3. Find the work done by the piston to compress the air. (Ans. 251.62 kJ)

Tutorial – 4: In a cylinder-piston arrangement, initially the gas is at 200 kPa and

occupies a volume of 0.1 m3. The gas is heated until the volume is doubled and
the final pressure is 500 kPa. Calculate the workdone by the gas. (Ans. 35 kJ)

Tutorial – 5: 680 kg of fish at 5°C are to be frozen and stored at – 12°C. The
specific heat of fish above freezing point is 3.182, and below freezing point is
1.717 kJ/kg K. The freezing point is – 2°C, and the latent heat of fusion is 234.5
kJ/kg. How much heat must be removed to cool the fish, and what per cent of
this is latent heat? (Ans. 186.28 MJ, 85.6%)

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Thank You for Your Attention !

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