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Keywords: Advanced Space borne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) has exclusive capability to map
ASTER mapping minerals and ore deposits, and able to discriminate rock types useful for geological applications. Especially, the
Image processing improved spectral and spatial resolutions of spectral bands of the sensor are well utilized by the exploration
Mineral resources geologists working on arid region where the surface deposits are directly exposed to the sensor without dis-
Arid region
turbances of the vegetation. Several, fruitful research studies have been carried out to map mineral resources in
Sultanate of Oman
arid region with inaccessible rugged mountains and deserts area, where it is difficult to do conventional geo-
logical mapping. These were demonstrated and documented in the scientific publications using the ASTER
spectral bands and image processing methods. This study reviews scientific literatures published on mapping of
the economic mineral resources of the Sultanate of Oman using ASTER and simples image processing methods.
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rajendra@squ.edu.om (S. Rajendran).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2018.04.014
Received 29 March 2017; Received in revised form 29 March 2018; Accepted 10 April 2018
0169-1368/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: Sankaran, R., Ore Geology Reviews (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2018.04.014
S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Table 1
Sensor characteristics of ASTER instruments.
Sensors characteristics ASTER
Spectral bands with range (µm) Band 01 0.52–0.60 Band 04 1.6–1.7 Band 10 8.125–8.475
Nadir looking
Band 02 0.63–0.69 Band 05 2.145–2.185 Band 11 8.475–8.825
Nadir looking
Band 03N 0.76–0.86 Band 06 2.185–2.225 Band 12 8.925–9.275
Nadir looking
Band 03B 0.76–0.86 Band 07 2.235–2.285 Band 13 10.25–10.95
Backward looking Band 08 2.295–2.365 Band 14 10.95–11.65
Band 09 2.36–2.43
Spatial Resolution (m) 15 30 90
Swath width (km) 60 60 60
Radiometric Resolution (bits) 8 8 12
Cross Track Pointing ± 318 km ( ± 24 deg) ± 116 km ( ± 8.55 deg) ± 116 km ( ± 8.55 deg)
Table 2
Commonly used ASTER spectral indices (after Gozzard, 2006).
Feature Band or ratio Comments Reference
Iron
Ferric iron, Fe3+ 2/1 – Rowan and Mars (2003)
Ferrous iron, Fe2+ 5/3 + 1/2 – Rowan and Mars (2003)
Gossan 4/2 – Volesky et al. (2003)
Carbonates–mafic minerals
Carbonate–chlorite–epidote (7 + 9)/8 – Rowan and Mars (2003)
Dolomite (6 + 8)/7 – Rowan and Mars (2003)
Calcite and Dolomite 13/14 Heavily affected by atmospheric water Ninomiya and Fu (2001), Ninomiya et al. (2005)
Silicates
Sericite–muscovite–illite–smectite (5 + 7)/6 Phyllic alteration Rowan and Mars (2003)
Alunite–kaolinite–pyrophyllite (4 + 6)/5 – Rowan and Mars (2003)
Alteration 4/5 – Volesky et al. (2003)
Host rock 5/6 – Volesky et al. (2003)
Mafic Minerals 12/13 Inversely correlated with SiO2 content in silicate rocks Ninomiya and Fu (2001)
Mafic Minerals (improved) (12 × 14 × 14)/(13 × 13 × 13) Inversely correlated with SiO2 content in silicate rocks Ninomiya (2002), Ninomiya et al. (2005)
Silica
Quartz-rich rocks 14/12 – Rowan and Mars (2003)
SiO2 13/12 Same as 14/12 –
Quartz rich/feldspar poor rocks (11 × 11)/(10 × 12) Quite low value for gypsum Ninomiya and Fu (2001), Ninomiya et al. (2005)
SiO2 content (improved) (12 × 14 × 14)/(13 × 13 × 13) Lower value for higher SiO2 content Ninomiya (2002), Ninomiya et al. (2005)
Additional
Gypsum (11 × 11)/(10 × 12) As low value Ninomiya and Fu (2003)
Ninomiya et al. (2005)
Others
Vegetation 3/2 – –
NDVI (3–2)/(3 + 2) Normalized difference–vegetation index
2011; Tangestani et al., 2011; Mars and Rowan, 2010; Amer et al., 2. ASTER for mineral exploration
2010; Corrie et al., 2010; Gabr et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2007; Di
Tommaso and Rubinstein, 2007; Azizi et al., 2007; Crosta et al., 2003; As stated above, the VNIR, SWIR and TIR spectral bands of ASTER
Mars and Rowan, 2006; Rowan and Mars, 2003; Abdeen et al., 2001, are useful for mapping of minerals and lithology. In detail, the three
2002, 2009). Such applications of ASTER are under consideration of VNIR bands have important sources of information about absorption of
mining companies, exploration geologists, industrialists and mine transition metals, especially the iron and some rare-earth elements
owners for cost-benefit exploration and characterization of such eco- (REE) (Rowan et al., 1986), and for chlorophyll absorption of vegeta-
nomic important minerals, ore deposits and rock types. This study re- tion (Knipling, 1970). The increase of six bands in the SWIR region (two
views scientific literatures published on the applicability of the ASTER spectral bands for Landsat vs. six spectral bands for ASTER) capable to
data to such economic minerals resources, especially on parts of the display molecular absorption features of many silicate, carbonate, hy-
Sultanate of Oman, in the vision to understand capability of the sensor drate and hydroxide minerals, and enhances surface lithological map-
and to make use the spectral bands further among the scientific com- ping by overtones and combination of tones (Hunt, 1977). As well as,
munities working in the field of mineral exploration and exploitation in the five TIR spectral bands of ASTER are used by scientists to calculate
the arid region. Importantly, this study discusses the unique spectral surface temperature and emissivities especially, to map important rock-
absorption characters of such resources and mapping methods to the forming minerals including quartz and feldspar which do not exhibit
exploration geologists, industrialists and mine owners to avoid their absorption features in the VNIR and SWIR regions, and display funda-
ambiguity for more exploration of similar deposits occurred in the arid mental molecular absorption features in the TIR wavelength region
region. (Hunt and Salisbury, 1976, 1975). In 2006, Gozzard explained the
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Table 3
Commonly used band/band ratios in ASTER False Color Composites.
Features Red Green Blue Reference
many OH-bearing minerals and carbonate minerals have absorption footwall basalts (Rajendran and Nasir, 2017; Hayman et al., 2015;
features can be identified in the ASTER bands 5–9 in the SWIR region in Galley et al., 2007; Close and Gordon, 2003; Galley and Koski, 1999;
interest to geologists include 1) the Alunite–pyrophyllite minerals – Taylor and McLennan, 1985). Also, chromite mineralizations are
significant in mineral exploration because they can define areas of ar- widespread in the ultramafic rocks of the Semail massifs, near the Moho
gillic alteration, 2) Kaolin-group minerals – also significant in mineral transition zone (MTZ) and/or even slightly deeper within the mantle
exploration because they are useful in helping to define argillic al- (Close and Gordon, 2003). The deposits are occurs as individual lenses
teration and mapping regolith, 3) Illite–muscovite–smectite minerals – and varies in texture from podiform to veins. Massive chromite samples
common minerals in the surficial environment useful for mapping re- of this region have Cr2O3 content ranging from 31.5 to 54.61 wt% with
golith (they are also associated with both phyllic and argillic alteration) Cr:Fe ratio from 1.84:1 to 2.96:1 (Annells, 1989). There are economic
and 4) Mg-OH minerals and carbonates – major components of many potential stratiform manganese deposits occurred within the radi-
lithological units. In 2012, Pour and Hasim reviewed the scientific lit- olarian cherts of Wahrah Formation belongs to the Late Jurassic-Cre-
eratures and documented about significance of the ASTER spectral taceous age in the NE margin of Oman (Rajendran and Nasir, 2013a;
bands to map porphyry copper and epithermal gold deposits. The fol- Kickmaier, 1995; Kickmaier and Peters, 1990; Peters, 1988). Also,
lowing Tables 2–4 provide details about similar features and the bands several research studies showed for presence of the base metals namely
and bands ratios developed using the ASTER spectral bands by research barium, copper, lead and zinc in the listwaenites (hydrothermally al-
scientists, which can be used to map such features (Gozzard, 2006). tered rock) occurred in thrust fault zone of parts of the Semail ophiolite
More descriptions can be referred on the relevant published literatures of the Oman (Rajendran et al., 2013a; Partington, 2010; Nasir et al.,
(Hewson et al., 2001, 2002, 2004a,b; Rowan and Mars, 2003; Bierwith, 2007; Searle and Malpas, 1980).
2002; Volesky et al., 2003; Ninomiya, 2002; Abrams et al., 1983). As well as, the occurrence of economically viable industrial rocks
namely limestone, dolomite, chalky dolomite, marble, clay, gypsum
3. Economic mineral resources of Oman and kaolinite are being mined in parts of Oman and are well docu-
mented by Ministries of Minerals and Mining, Government of Oman.
In the Sultanate of Oman, the mountains host large numbers of Limestones are mostly formed by calcite and dolomite minerals and
economically viable industrial rocks and minerals and ore resources. widely used in construction material, mortar and cement, fertilizer, and
Geologically, the Oman Mountains are distinct from the remainder of flux for smelting of iron ores (Hamilton et al., 1995). The minerals have
the Arabian Peninsula, being part of the Alpine–Himalayan fold belt significance in petroleum geology in increasing the porosity of reservoir
that extends from the Western Mediterranean to the Far East result from rock by 12% during dolomitization, which is more suitable for oil re-
obduction to the southwest of Cretaceous Tethyan oceanic lithosphere servoirs (Racey, 2001; Van der Meer, 1994, 1995; Hughes Clarke,
over both autochthonous and allochthonous carbonate platform se- 1988). The substitution process of the minerals by other minerals in
quences (Partington, 2010; Close and Gordon, 2003; Bucher et al., calc-silicates consisted of garnet and pyroxene produces skarns and
1988; Ghent and Stout, 1981; Searle and Malpas, 1980). The region granitic rocks, which are a source of valuable mineral deposits such as
contain potential economic minerals resources including occurrences of copper, gold, iron, lead, zinc, and or tungsten (Van der Meer, 1994,
the major petroleum and ore deposits such as Cr, Cu, Mn, Au, Ag, Pb, 1995). Marl is a calcium carbonate or lime-rich mud consist mixture of
Zn, and Ba, and the industrial minerals namely limestone, dolomite, clay (35–65%) and calcium carbonate (65–35%) formed under fresh-
clay, gypsum, kaolin, magnesite, marble and silica (Fig. 1; Ministry of water conditions (Pettijohn, 1957). It is used mostly for agricultural
Commerce and Industry, 2012). Mapping of such minerals resources purposes as soil conditioner or acid soil neutralizing agent. The beds of
and associated rock types through conventional geological techniques marlstone have massive and appear to lack an orientated fabric are used
including the study of landforms, extensive fieldwork, structural map- as ashlar and rubble stone, walling for local buildings, church walls,
ping, collection of more samples, petrography and geochemical ana- quoins and buttresses. The occurrence of limestones and marls in parts
lyses here are tedious, expensive and time-consuming for economic of the Sultanate of Oman are described in different studies (Rajendran
exploration in this arid region which have extremely rugged topo- and Nasir, 2014b,c; Rajendran et al., 2011; Beavington Penny et al.,
graphy. 2006; Jones and Desrochers, 1992). The marbles, ‘the exotic limestones’
Occurrences of prospective chrome, nickel and Cyprus-type volca- of Oman are occurred in a large number of places in the country as
nogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposits are well exposed in the Semail “isolated blocks” within the Hawasina formation. These are used ex-
Ophiolite Belt of Oman (Partington, 2010; Close and Gordon, 2003). tensively as ornamental stone as tiles and slabs in the Oman buildings
These occur as clusters with pyritic copper-rich mounds with gold and industries, and exported to nearby countries (Rajendran et al.,
bearing gossans overlying lower grade feeder systems within the 2017; Searle and Graham, 1982; Wilson, 1969). There are small-scale
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S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Fig. 1. Minerals occurrence map of the Sultanate of Oman (Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Oman 2012).
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S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
occurrences of clay, gypsum and kaolinite deposits, which need to map spectral absorption features of vegetation and different minerals and
and explore for economic exploitation in the rugged terrain. Use of rocks in ASTER spectral channels. The important indices are
ASTER spectral bands to map and explore such economic mineral re-
Band3 ⎞ ⎛ Band1 ⎞
sources is significant in the Sultanate of Oman (Rajendran et al., 2012, Stabilized Vegetation Index (StVI) = ⎛
⎝ Band2 ⎠ ⎝ Band2 ⎠ (1)
Rajendran et al., 2013a, 2014; Rajendran and Nasir, 2013a, 2014a,b,c;
Clénet et al., 2010; Kusky et al., 2005; Abrams et al., 1988; Rothery, Band7 ⎞ ⎛ Band4 ⎞
1987a,b; Abrams, 1986). OH bearing altered minerals Index (OHI) = ⎛
⎝ Band6 ⎠ ⎝ Band6 ⎠ (2)
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S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Fig. 4. Shows the spectral absorptions of major minerals of the listwaenite and
Fig. 2. Shows the spectral absorptions of major minerals of the hydrothermal
associated rocks stacked from the USGS Spectral Library for minerals
alteration zones associated to VMS deposit stacked from the USGS Spectral
(Rajendran et al., 2013b).
Library for minerals (Rajendran and Nasir, 2017).
Olivine
Zone of iron
absorption
Hypersthene
Enstatite
Augite
Diopside
Serpentine
Antigorite
Chrysotile
Lizardite
Line of Mg-OH and
Brucite
CO3absorption
Fig. 3. Shows the spectral absorptions of major minerals of the manganese
deposit stacked from the USGS Spectral Library for minerals (Rajendran and
Nasir, 2013a).
Magnesite
Sultanate of Oman. They well studied such absorptions characters with Line of OH and
spectral bands of the ASTER as summarized in Section 6. H2O absorption
Magnetite
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Fig. 7. ASTER principal components image (R:PC5, G:PC4 and B:PC2) shows
the rocks of ophiolite sequence and zone of chromite mineralization in and
around of Wadi Fizh of the Sultanate of Oman (E- Basic extrusives mostly spi-
lites with pillow lava or conglomerate; D- Diabase dyke swarms; G- Gabbro; HG-
Fig. 6. Shows the spectral absorptions of major minerals of the metamorphic Gabbroid hypabyssal rocks; PG- Cumulate layered gabbro; P and CD- Sheared
rocks stacked from the USGS Spectral Library for minerals (Rajendran and serpentinized harzburgite; Rajendran et al., 2012).
Nasir, 2015a).
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S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
massifs of the northern Oman Mountains, particularly in the basal du- EHT2 Qe
nite and harzburgite unit of the mantle section. In 1988, Abrams et al. PKHD
Qe
collected spectra over the samples of non-weathered ophiolite litholo-
gies and studied spectral absorption characters of the rocks (Ref. Qf Mn
EHT3
PKHD
Section 4). Cloutis et al. (2004) stated that the Cr content has depth of PKHD
absorption near 0.55 μm and the best correlations exist between Cr
content and wavelength positions at 0.49, 0.59, 2, 17.5, and 23 μm in
PKHD
the absorption bands. In 2012, Rajendran et al. mapped the chromite
EHT2 Qf
bearing mineralized zones in the Semail ophiolite massifs of the
TRKAR PKHD
northern Oman Mountains using ASTER data. They discussed the
TRKAR
spectral absorption characters and studied the published band ratios PKHD
(Abdeen et al., 2001; Bedell, 2001; Hewson et al., 2001; Rowan and
TRKAR Qe
Mars, 2003; Rowan et al., 2003; Volesky et al., 2003; Amer et al., 2010). PKHD PKHD
They used ASTER band ratios 1) the (4/7, 4/1, 2/3 * 4/3) and (4/7, 3/ PKHD
4, 2/1) (Abdeen et al., 2001), 2) the ((2 + 4)/3, (5 + 7)/6, (7 + 9)/8)
(Amer et al., 2010) and delineated the zone of chromite mineralization TRKAR
and associated rocks of ophiolite sequence of the study area. Further, TRKAR
they used the VNIR-SWIR spectral bands of ASTER, processed by the Qf
PCA methods, and discussed the zone of mineralization by producing Qf Qb
RGB image using principal components PC5, PC4 and PC2 (Fig. 8).ii.
TRKAR
Spectral absorptions of minerals of the alteration zones associated VMS TRKAR
deposits: VMS deposits are formed due to volcanism-related hydro-
thermal activities in submarine environments. These deposits are main
source for the Cu, Zn, Pb, Au and Ag ores occurred in hydrothermally
altered mineralized zones namely oxidized, propylitic, phyllic and ar- Fig. 9. ASTER principal components image (R:PC3, G:PC2 and B:PC1) shows
the occurrence of manganese deposits in Ras Al Hadd region, Oman (Qf –
gillic zones. Thus, mapping of such alteration to zones to explore such
Alluvial; Qb- Sabkhah; Qe-Aeolian; MF2 – Middle Fars Group; MF1 – Lower Fars
economic valuable ores using remotely sensed satellite data is more
Group; EMD – Dhofar Group; EHT3 – Upper Hadhramut Group; EHT2 – Middle
Hadhramut Group; TRKAR – Al Aridh Group; PKHD – Hamrat Duru Group;
Rajendran and Nasir, 2013a).
SE1
SE1 SE1
Cu significant and important. As discussed in the above Sections 2 and 4,
several research studies showed the spectral absorptions of minerals
SE1 Cu
Cu and demonstrated the spectral bands sensitivity of ASTER to map the
Cu minerals and alteration zones. To brief, 1) the hematite and goethite
SE1 Cu major minerals of oxidized zone have broad spectral absorptions be-
Cu
SE2 tween 9.9 and 1.1 μm due to ferrous oxide; 2) the epidote, chlorite, and
SE2
calcite of propylitic zone have absorption features near 2.35 μm due to
Cu Mg-OH and CO3; 3) the kaolin and alunite of argillic zone have nar-
SE1 SE1
Cu rower Al-OH absorptions at 2.17 μm and 4) the illite and sericite of
Cu
phyllic zone have intense Al-OH absorption at 2.20 μm (Fig. 2;
Rajendran and Nasir, 2017; Alimohammadi et al., 2015; Pour and
SE2
Hasim, 2012, 2015; Bedini et al., 2009; Carranza and Hall, 2002; Di
Cu
SE1 Tommaso and Rubinstein, 2007; Gabr et al., 2010). The iron oxides of
SE2 oxidized zone have low reflectance in visible and higher reflectance in
Cu
near infrared wavelength region and the electronic processes produced
SE2
such absorptions due to transition of Fe+2 and Fe+3 (Hunt, 1977; Hunt
SE2 et al., 1974) and to map the zone the ASTER spectral band 3 can be used
SE1Cu
Cu to detect the oxidized minerals and to map the zone of oxidation.
Wadi Jizzi SE2
As well as, the hydroxyl-bearing minerals of propylitic, argillic and
SE2
phyllic zones exhibit diagnostic spectral absorption features due to vi-
SE1 SE2
SE1 brational processes of Mg–OH, Al–OH, Si–OH, and CO3 groups in the
SE1 Cu shortwave length infrared region (Rajendran and Nasir, 2017; Clark
SE2
Ag, Au Cu et al., 1990; Hunt, 1977; Hunt et al., 1974) and thus, the spectral bands
Cu
SE2
4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 of ASTER fall in the specific shortwave length regions
Cu SE2 can be used for the identification of such minerals and zones related the
SE1 SE2
VMS deposit (Rajendran and Nasir, 2017; Kruse et al., 2003; Mars and
SE2
SE1
Rowan, 2006; Moore et al., 2008; Perry, 2004; Pour et al., 2011;
Cu SE1
Tangestani and Moore, 2002; Tangestani et al., 2008; Yujun et al.,
2007; Zhang et al., 2007; Azizi et al., 2007).
Fig. 8. ASTER band ratios image (R:(5/3 + 1/2), G:(4 + 6)/5, B:(5 + 7)/6)
Recently, Rajendran and Nasir (2017) used the nine VNIR-SWIR
shows the copper mineralized zones occurred in the Sohar-Shinas region of the spectral bands of ASTER and image processing methods namely dec-
Sultanate of Oman (SE1 and SE2 – extrusives; Cu – copper; Rajendran and orrelation stretching, band ratios, ASTER indices, linear spectral un-
Nasir, 2017). mixing (LSU) and mixture tuned matched filtering (MTMF), and
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Fig. 10. a. ASTER RGB image (R:8, G:3, B:1) and b. the band ratios image (R:9/8, G:4/3, B:2/1), c. the principal components image (R:PC5, G:PC3, B:PC1) and d. the
SAM classified image show the occurrence of rock types, minerals and mineralized zone in part of the Fanjah Saddle of the Sultanate of Oman (Li-listwaenite; TH-
harzburgite; THS-serpentinized harzburgite; CP-cumulate peridotite; CIG-cumulate layered gabbro; RMS-metasediments; Mua-siltstone and silty carbonates; Kh2b-
massive limestone and conglomerate; Dashed Line – thrust fault zone; Rajendran et al., 2013b).
discriminated host rocks, delineated hydrothermal altered mineralized visible (0.3–0.7 µm) and reflective in the infrared (0.7–3 µm) spectral
zones and detected minerals of the different hydrothermal altered zones regions (Fig. 3; Ibrahim et al., 2010; Clark et al., 2003; Hunt, 1977;
namely the oxidized, propylitic, argillic and phyllic zones of the vol- Hunt and Salisbury, 1971) due to the presence of predominant Mn-O
canogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposits occurred between Sohar- molecules in its contents. The diagnostic characteristics of manganese
Shinas region of Al-Batina coast of the Sultanate of Oman. They used 1) carbonate, namely rhodochrosite (MnCO3) shows strong absorption
the ASTER spectral bands 3, 6, and 8 and decorrelation stretching features in the visible regions (0.3–0.7 µm) due to the Mn-O bonds and
method and discriminated extrusive basalts, and the ASTER band ratios sharp absorption near 2.3 µm in the infrared region due to the C-O
the (5/3 + 1/2) used for iron oxidized zone, the (4 + 6)/5 for the ar- bonds (Rajendran and Nasir, 2013b; Mars and Rowan, 2010; Abrams
gillic zone and the (5 + 7)/6 for the phyllic zone and delineated the et al., 1988) occurred in its contents. The ASTER spectral bands of VNIR
mineralized zone (Fig. 9). To confirm the presence of alterations in the region can be considered to map the manganese ore deposits.
mineralized zone, they utilized ASTER indices viz. OH bearing altered In 2013, Rajendran and Nasir studied the 14 spectral bands of
minerals, kaolin and alunite indices. Moreover, they used the end ASTER and collected the image spectra over the manganese occurrences
members derived based on the spectral angle mapper (SAM) method in (rich in pyrolusite) of arid region in parts of the Sur region of the
the linear spectral unmixing (LSU) method to detect the different al- Sultanate of Oman (Peters, 1988; Kickmaier and Peters, 1990;
teration zones and showed the occurrences of the oxidized, propylitic, Kickmaier, 1995). Their study discussed the diagnostic absorption
argillaceous and phyllic zones. They compared the LSU results with the features of the manganese in the 1 to 9 ASTER spectral bands in VNIR-
results of the mixture tuned matched filtering (MTMF) method.iii. SWIR regions which showed low reflectance value due to the absorp-
Spectral absorptions of minerals of the manganese deposits: Manganese tion of Mn-O bonds in contrast to 10 to 14 ASTER spectral bands in the
deposits have favorable spectral absorptions characters for remote TIR region which showed more reflective due to the emission of energy
identification. The spectra of minerals of manganese deposit namely from Mn-O bonds of the manganese occurrences. They found absorp-
pyrolusite (MnO2), psilomelane (Mn5O10(Ba, H2O)2), manganite (MnO tion in band 12 in the image due to the contents of silica present in
(OH)) and rhodochrosite (MnCO3) minerals shows spectrally feature- chert, which is associated with manganese (Ninomiya et al., 2005;
less, quite low reflectance, strong absorption throughout the entire Ninomiya, 2004; Ninomiya, 2003a,b,c; Ninomiya and Fu, 2002). Based
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S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
on the study of spectral absorptions characters of manganese minerals dolomite, magnesite and ankerite), and/or fuchsite (a Cr–mica) with
and associated rocks, they processed the 9 VNIR-SWIR spectral bands sulfides (pyrite, galena, chalcopyrite and tetrahedrite). The rock is ex-
using the band ratio ((1 + 3)/2, (3 + 5)/4, (5 + 7)/6) and dis- tremely important worldwide, because it has economic mineralization
criminated the presences of manganese and associated lithological including gold, nickel, arsenic, cobalt, wolframite and mercury
formations. To confirm further such occurrences, they used VNIR-SWIR (Borojević Šoštarić et al., 2011; Nasir et al., 2007; Tsikouras et al.,
spectral bands and analyzed by PCA and developed RGB image using 2006; Uçurum and Larson, 1999; Uçurum, 1998; Sherlock and Logan,
principal components, the first three high order principal components 1995; Leblanc and Fischer, 1990). Listwaenite can be mapped by un-
(PC3, PC2, and PC1; Fig. 10), and showed the occurrence and dis- derstating the spectral absorptions character of the major carbonate
tribution of manganese deposits of the region.iv. Spectral absorptions of minerals of the rock namely dolomite (MgCaCO3), calcite (CaCO3) and
minerals of the base-metal rich listwaenites and associated rocks: Listwae- magnesite (CaMg(CO3)2) which have significant absorptions near
nite is hydrothermal alteration products of the mafic and ultramafic 2.35 μm due to C-O bonds using the ASTER band 8 (Fig. 4; Mars and
rocks (Kunov et al., 2007; Buisson and Leblanc, 1987; Leblanc, 1986; Rowan, 2010; Abrams et al., 1988; Hunt, 1977).
Kuleshevich, 1984) composed of quartz, carbonate minerals (calcite, Listwaenite occurrences and their spatial distributions in the Fanjah
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S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Fig. 12. Shows the occurrence of carbonatites near Sal, northeastern margin of the Oman. The images of the ASTER VNIR and SWIR spectral bands (RGB image of
bands 3, 2 and 1; band 1 to band 9) show carbonatites in dark and ASTER TIR bands (band 10 to band 14 and RGB image of bands 10, 11, and 12) show carbonatites
in white (Rajendran and Nasir, 2013b).
Saddle of part of the Oman are discriminated and mapped from the carbonates and ferro-magnesian silicate minerals and analyzed ASTER
associated rocks using ASTER spectral absorption bands 8 VNIR and SWIR spectral bands, using band ratios 9/8, 4/3, and 2/1 and
(2.295–2.365 μm), 3 (0.78–0.86 μm) and 1 (0.52–0.60 μm) by genera- showed clearly the listwaenite occurrence in the region. They chose the
tion of the simple false color composite (FCC) image (Fig. 11a) by ratio 9/8 to increase the response of the carbonate mineral bearing
Rajendran et al. (2013a). They studied the spectral absorptions of rocks, the 4/3 to separate weathered rocks from all the mineralized and
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S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Sb
Qpy-z
Khf
Qtz
Mf
Qcy-z
Khf
Khf Bu
Khufai Dome Qtz
Sb Qtz
Qcy-z
Mf Mf
Qpy-z
Qtz
Khf Qtz Qpy-z
Qes
Bu Qpy-z
Sb Qtz
Qcy-z
Mf Mf
Qpy-z
Qtz
Khf Qtz Qpy-z
Qes
Bu Qpy-z
unaltered rocks and the 2/1 ratio to make an image for mineralized and To confirm the mineralized zones, they used Spectral Angle Mapper
the unaltered rock units of the study region (Fig. 11b). In addition, they (SAM) and identified the minerals and mineralization in the zones
used the six SWIR bands and PCA method and showed which principal (Fig. 11d; Rajendran et al., 2013a).v. Spectral absorptions of minerals of
component (PC) contains the most information on the mineralized the REE rich carbonatite and aillikite rocks: Ultramafic lamprophyre are
zones. They studied RGB image of principal components PC5, PC3 and an economic important rock consist high REE concentrates occurred as
PC1 (Fig. 11c) and showed the zones of major alterations and miner- small intrusive bodies (3–5 km in diameter) within larger alkaline
alization’s along the main thrust and fault zones of the Fanjah Saddle. complexes characteristics of intraplate margins (Nasir et al., 2011,
12
S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
a b
Qty
TRma Ese
Kshs Ers Eab
Jka b Ers
Knu Eab
JSA
Ers Ers Qty
Ers
Knt1
Knt2 Kshs Qtz
Kmucg Ese Ejf Eab
Knu
Oky z Eab
Ers
Emw
Knt1 Ese
Qtz
Qty
Kmucg Ers
Knt2
Jmb2
TRKaqb Oky z ???
TRKaqb TRKaqb
Eab
Oky z
Qty Emw
Eab Qtz
TRKaqb
Qty
TH ???
TH Qtx
Fig. 15. Decorrelated images of ASTER spectral bands 8, 3, 1 of a. the Tanuff Valley (Kmucg – Muti Formation: Carbonate Conglomerate, calcarenite, megabreccia,
silty limestone, sandstone radiolarian chert; Knt2 – Natih Formation: clayey and foetid limestone with planktonic foraminifera; Knt1 – Natih Formation: Thick bedded
shallow-marine limestone; Knu – Nahr Umar Formation: Limestone and clayey Orbitolina limestone; Kshs – Shams Formation: Oolitic limestone, bioclastic thick-
bedded limestone; Jka–b – Kahmah Group: Micritic limestone and beige clayey limestone; JSA – Sahtan Group: Russet quartz sandstone and blue-black limestone;
TRma – Mahil formation: Grey-white bedded dolomite; TRKaqb – Aqil formation: Megabreccia, calcirudite with blocks and boulders, Shallow-marine carbonate; Jmb2
– Matbat formation: Russet turbiditic quartz sandstone, shale; TH – Tectonized harzburgite; Qty – Sub-recent alluvial terraces) and b. near the Sur (Ese – Seeb
Formation: Bioclastic limestone, calcarenite, marl and sandstone; Ers – Rus Formation: Thin bedded dolomitic limestone with marl; Ejf – Jafnayn Formation: Massive
bioclastic limestone, conglomerate; Emw – Musawa formation: greenish bioclastic marl, marly limestone, coal bearing sandstone; Eab – Abat Formation: grey to white
marly or micritic limestone with chert nodules; Qtz – Recent wadi alluvium; Qty – Sub-recent alluvial fans; Qtx – Ancient alluvial terraces; Rajendran and Nasir,
2014b) of parts of the Sultanate of Oman show the limestone formations in pink. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)
13
S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
14
S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Sq2a Sq1L
Sq1L N
Sq1Cs
SqDI
Sq1L Sq2a??
Sq1Cs
Sq2a SqDI Ec
Qgy
Sq1Cs ??
Sq1Cs Qdz
Sq1L
Qmz
SqDI Qdz
Qgy
Sq1Cs ?? Sq1V
Qcy-z
Qgy • As Sifah
Sq1Cs
Sq1L
Sq1V Sq1Cs
Sq1V
Qcy-z
SqDI
Sq1V
Qcy-z Qgy
??
Qmz
LEGEND
Autochthonous Units Quaternary formations
Sq2a - Black, fusilinid –bearing limestone and dolomite Qdz/Qmz - Coastal dunes (green)/ Beach Sand (yellow)
the spectral absorptions of calcite minerals of the marble occurrences explore such economic valuable resources. Also, they compared this
and characterized their absorptions at 1.752, 1.875, 1.992, 2.154, study with the spectral band 7 of the Landsat 7 (ETM+) and showed the
2.341 and 2.491 μm in the SWIR region by measuring spectra at 7 nm differences in energy absorption in the band which has wide width.
spectral resolution and distinguished them from other carbonate mi-
nerals (e.g. dolomite). Based on they processed the ASTER spectral 6.3. Mapping of rock types
bands by simple decorrelation image processing method and showed
that the band 8 is characteristic to calcite (carbonate) absorption. Their Geologically, the Sultanate of Oman consist of a wide range of
results on mapping of marble showed the rock in distinctive tonal lithologies. The major rock types are 1) the carbonate platform includes
variation on the image (e.g. Fig. 18) and the study is useful to the in- mainly the limestones and dolomites, 2) the metamorphic sole rocks
dustrialists, potential investors, exploration and mining geologists to includes granulites and different type of schists, 3) the ophiolite
15
S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
UG a.
LG N
LG Qtz
LG
Hz
P
Hz
Hz Qtz
Hz
CT
CT b.
Hz N
Hz Hz
Hz
Hz MTZ Hz
MTZ
MTZ MTZ
Hz CT Hz
CT CT
CT
Hz
CT
CT CT
4 Km
Fig. 19. ASTER band ratios images (R:(1 + 3)/2, G:(4 + 6)/5, B:(7 + 9)/8) show the thin Moho (dashed line) in between the mantle (harzburgite) and crustal
(gabbro) rocks at a. the Wadi Al Abyad region of the Nakhl massif (Hz – Harzburgite; LG – Lower Gabbro; UG – Upper Gabbro; Qtz – Recent Wadi Alluvium) and the
occurrence of thick Moho Transition Zone at b. the Wadi Nidab and Wadi Abda of the Samail massif, Oman (Hz – harzburgite; MTZ – Moho Transition Zone; CT –
crust; US – Undifferentiated Sediments; Rajendran and Nasir, 2015b).
sequence includes types of the peridotites, gabbros and basalts 4) the spectrum. The laboratory spectra of minerals of the metamorphic rocks
various formations of Tertiary and Quaternary ages. These rock types including actionalite, Muscovite, pyrope, epidote, glaucophane,
are economically important and mapping is significant.i. Mapping of chlorite, pyrophyllite, paragonite, illite, dolomite, pyrite, siderite, and
carbonates and ophiolites lithology: In 2011, Rajendran et al. studied hematite stacked form USGS spectral Library for minerals (Fig. 7) show
ASTER spectral bands to discriminate the carbonate formations and significant useful narrow absorption features near 0.5 µm and in be-
mafic ophiolites. They developed relative band-depth images under- tween 0.9 and 1.1 µm due to iron absorptions (the field dotted in
standing major absorption features of the minerals of the rocks (Figs. 6 Fig. 7), near 1.4 µm due to OH and H2O absorptions (the vertical line in
and 7) and mapped the carbonate formations consist of limestones Fig. 7), near 1.9 µm mainly due to H2O absorptions (the vertical dashed
using [(band 7 + band 9)/band 8] and dolomite using [(band 6 + band line in Fig. 7), and around 2.2–2.3 µm due to OH and CO3 absorptions
8)/band 7] and the mafic ophiolites using (band 2/band 1). Also, they (the field dark dotted in Fig. 7) which are closer to the ASTER sensor
developed RGB color composite image to discriminate the such rocks spectral wavelengths 0.52–0.60 μm (likely to band 1), 0.76–0.86 μm
using band ratios viz. 9/7 for the carbonates (limestone and dolomite), (likely to band 3), 1.6–1.7 μm (band 4), 2.145–2.185 μm (band 5),
6/8 for quartz-rich silicates (shale, schist, sandstone, graywackes) and 2.185–2.225 μm (band 6), and 2.295–2.365 μm (band 8).
the band ratio 1/2 for mafic ophiolite rocks (harzburgite, harzburgite As discussed above, in the plot (Fig. 7), the spectra of hematite,
with dunite). Their study to confirm such discrimination using ASTER siderite, epidote, actinolite, hornblende, augite and diopside minerals
SWIR spectral bands and PCA method (Fig. 19) and TIR spectral bands show absorptions around 0.5 and 1 μm due to the iron (Fe2+, Fe3+)
and ASTER spectral indices such as carbonates (carbonate index, CI), content present in their lattices (Rajendran and Nasir, 2014a; Rajendran
silica rich (quartz index, QI) and mafic rich (mafic index, MI) are de- et al., 2014, Rajendran et al., 2013a, 2011; Abrams et al., 1988). The
lineated well their occurrences and distributions.ii. Spectral absorptions spectra of the carbonate minerals namely dolomite, calcite and siderite
of minerals of the metamorphic sole rocks: Metamorphic minerals have have significant absorptions near 2.3 μm due to CeO bonds in their
unique spectral absorptions in the wavelength of the electromagnetic compositions (Rajendran and Nasir, 2014a, b; Rajendran et al., 2014,
16
S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
the Moho and MTZ of Samail ophiolite are studied by Clénet et al.
(2010) and Combe et al. (2006). In 2015b, Rajendran and Nasir de-
Sala Afan Graben Jabal Samhan scribed the remote sensing spectral characters of minerals and rocks of
the Moho and MTZ and discriminated the Moho of Wadi Al Abyad of
Nakhl massif, and MTZ of the Wadi Nidab and Wadi Abda regions of
N Samail massif using VNIR and SWIR spectral bands of ASTER. They
studied the RGB color composite images of ASTER spectral bands 8, 3
Region of landslide: rock and 1, and 8, 7 and 4, and delineated the Moho and MTZ of the regions.
falls and debris slides Also, they developed RGB images using ASTER band ratios (4/8, 4/1,
Radhuma Escarpment 3/2 * 4/3 and (1 + 3)/2, (4 + 6)/5, (7 + 9)/8) (Fig. 20) and dis-
criminated the mantle material (ultramafic harzburgites) and crustal
rocks (mafic gabbros). The occurrence of such rock types is demon-
strated by detection of their minerals using the SAM method.iv. Mapping
of Tertiary and Quaternary formations and Marine Terraces: The occur-
rence and distribution of different types of limestones, dolomites, marls
Zalawt plain bearing limestones, sandstones, sand and recent wadi alluvial deposits
belong to Tertiary and Quaternary age of different parts of Oman are
studied and well discriminated by Rajendran et al., (2013a, 2011) and
Rajendran and Nasir (2015a, 2014a,b,c, 2013a,b) and Rajendran
(2016) during their work on the above mapping of minerals, ores and
rock types (Figs. 10, 13–20). In 2016, Yuan et al. studied the Tertiary
Fig. 20. ASTER principal components image (R: PC1; G: PC2; B: PC6) shows and Quaternary Marine Terraces and Planation Surfaces of Northern
presence of landslide areas in pink in the Jabal Samhan Mountain – Zalawt Oman. In which, they used the ASTER data and PCA method and dis-
plain region (Rajendran and Nasir, 2018). (For interpretation of the references criminated the terraces and related sedimentary formations of the re-
to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this gion.
article.)
7. Accuracy assessment and validation
Rajendran et al., 2013a, 2012; Mars and Rowan, 2010; Abrams et al.,
1988; Hunt, 1977). The significant spectral absorptions around 1.4, 1.9, Several authors used satellite data and suitable image processing
2.2 and 2.3 μm in clays, micas, and amphiboles minerals are due to methods like spectral angle mapper (SAM), spectral information di-
presence of hydroxyl molecules in their contents. The hydroxyl and vergence (SID), linear spectral unmixing (LSU), linear square-fit (LSF),
H2O-bearing minerals show absorptions at 1.4 and near 1.9 μm matched filtering (MF), mixture tuned matched filtering (MTMF),
(HeOeH bendings and OH stretches; Rajendran et al., 2014, 2012; spectral feature fitting (SFF), constrained energy minimization (CEM)
Abrams et al., 1988; Hunt et al., 1974). Al–OH produces absorption and continuum removal methods by collecting image end members or
centered at about 2.2 μm, whereas Fe-Mg–OH produces feature at about using laboratory sample measured or field measured spectral end
2.3 μm spectral wavelengths (Rajendran and Nasir, 2014a; Rajendran members (Chen and Reed, 1987; Congalton, 1991; Sabol et al., 1992;
et al., 2014, 2012; Rajendran et al., 2014, 2012; Mars and Rowan, Jia and Richards, 1994; Van Der Meer, 1995; Zhang et al., 2007; Bedini,
2010; Abrams et al., 1988; Hunt, 1979, 1977). The light absorptions 2011; Hosseinjani and Tangestani, 2011; El Janati et al., 2014) to cal-
stretched near 1.7 and 2.1 μm in the illite, paragonite, pyrophyllite, culate and show their occurrences and distributions of the minerals and
glaucophane and chlorite may be due to the influence of Fe, Mg, Ca, Na rock types. They are able to compare the results of different methods
and Al contents in the minerals. So, based on the spectral absorption and assessed the accuracy of the methods to use for mapping such re-
characters of such minerals, the minerals bearing metamorphic rocks sources. These results are depends the spatial, radiometric and spectral
can be discriminated using the ASTER spectral bands 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 8 resolutions. Rajendran (2016), Rajendran and Nasir (2017, 2015a) used
in the VNIR–SWIR regions (Rajendran and Nasir, 2015a). the parallelepiped, spectral angle mapper (SAM), spectral information
In 2015, Rajendran and Nasir mapped the metamorphic zone of the divergence (SID), linear spectral unmixing (LSU), linear square-fit (LSF)
As Sifah region, NE of Oman. They used the VNIR–SWIR spectral bands and mixture tuned matched filtering (MTMF) methods to detect mi-
of the ASTER and well-known image processing methods such as image nerals and bearing rocks and showed their accuracy to use the method/
decorrelation, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Spectral Angel s for mapping of such resources distributed in different parts of the
Mapper (SAM), delineated the region of metamorphic zone, and dis- Sultanate of Oman. Further, the results of image analyses, interpreta-
criminated the different metamorphic and carbonate rocks character- tions and discriminations of all studies carried out in the different scale
ized by the hydroxyl (OH) and carbonate bearing minerals of the re- in the several parts of the Sultanate of Oman are verified, checked,
gion. Also, they studied bright reflections and dark absorptions of evaluated and confirmed in the field by collecting data and field sam-
individual principal component of the PCA (Rajendran et al., 2012, ples using available geological maps, and in the laboratory by analyzing
2011) and developed RGB using components of the PC4, PC3 and PC2 field samples. On which, the capability of ASTER sensor and potential
and discriminated the metamorphic rocks of the region (Fig. 20). Apart of the image processing methods to map such minerals resources were
to the delineation of metamorphic zone and the discrimination of me- documented in the vision to use them by the exploration geologists,
tamorphic rocks, the occurrences of metamorphic minerals of the rocks industrialists and mine owners to explore more deposits in parts of the
of the region are studied by them using the spectral angle mapper Oman and recommend to similar deposits occurred in the arid region
(SAM) method.iii. Spectral absorptions of minerals of the rocks of Moho (Rajendran, 2016; Rajendran and Nasir, 2014a,b,c, 2015a,b; Rajendran
and Moho Transition Zone: Mapping of Moho and MTZ, and dis- et al., 2013a,b, 2014).
criminating them in between the mafic and ultramafic rocks in ophio-
lite sequence are significant to the scientific community to understand 8. Conclusion
more the global tectonism. The zone is important to study occurrences
of the chromite deposit, hydrothermal mineralization and serpentini- This study reviews the spectral absorption characters of minerals
zation. The spectral absorption characters of harzburgite and gabbro of and ores, discusses the suitable ASTER spectral bands and the simple
image processing methods to map economically important minerals and
17
S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
ore deposits and industrial rocks occurred in parts of the Sultanate of Filtering. Summaries of the Seventh Annual JPL Airborne Geoscience Workshop,
Oman. The remotely sensed ASTER spectral bands are useful to show Pasadena, CA, pp. 55.
Boardman, J.W., Kruse, F.A., Green, R.O., 1995. Mapping target signatures via partial
the occurrence and spatial distribution of such economic resources. The unmixing of AVIRIS data, summaries. In: Proceedings of the Fifth JPL Airborne Earth
simple image processing methods have potential to detect and dis- Science Workshop. 23–26 January, Pasadena, California. JPL Publication, pp.
criminate the resources. Therefore, it is recommended to use the data 23–26 1.
Borojević Šoštarić, S., Palinkaš, L.A., Topa, D., Spangenberg, J.E., Prochaska, W., 2011.
and methods to explore more minerals and ore deposits in the Sultanate Silver–base metal epithermal vein and listwaenite types of deposit Crnac, Rogozna
of Oman and similar deposits occurred in other arid region of the world. Mts., Kosovo. Part I: Ore mineral geochemistry and sulfur isotope study. Ore Geol.
Rev. 40, 65–80.
Bucher, J., Kurz, D., Peters, T.J., Stoessel, F., Ziegler, U., 1988. The Metamorphics Below
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