Techniques of Turkish Music Composition PDF

ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY « GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND
SOCIAL SCIENCES
TECHNIQUES OF TURKISH MUSIC COMPOSITION

A PRELIMINARY APPROACH TO TRADITIONAL UNDERSTANDINGS AND
CONTEMPORARY DEVELOPMENT IN USUL, MAKAM, AND POLYPHONY
M.A. THESIS
Peter SALVUCCI
Department of Musicology and Music Theory
Music Theory and Composition
JUNE 2016

ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY « GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS

AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

M.A. THESIS
Peter SALVUCCI
409131210
Department of Musicology and Music Theory
Music Theory and Composition
Thesis Advisor: Prof. Ş. Şehvar BEŞİROĞLU
JUNE 2016

İSTANBUL TEKNİK ÜNIVERSİTESİ « SOSYAL BİLİMLER ENSTİTÜSÜ
TÜRK MÜZİĞİ BESTELEME TEKNİKLERİ

USUL, MAKAM VE ÇOKSESLİLİKTE GELENEKSEL ANLAYIŞLAR VE
ÇAĞDAŞ GELİŞME İÇİN ÖNCÜL BİR YAKLAŞIM
YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ
Peter SALVUCCI
409131210
Müzikoloji ve Müzik Teorisi Anabilim Dalı
Müzik Teorisi ve Kompozisyon Programı
Tez Danışmanı: Prof. Ş. Şehvar BEŞİROĞLU
HAZİRAN 2016

vi

Dedicated to my daughter, Trista: never stop learning, dream big, follow your
passion, and create the reality you wish to live in!
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FOREWORD
I would like to express my gratitude to all of those associated with my thesis for their
support and care during my several years of Master’s study. First of all, to my
family: my daughter, Trista, for her understanding and tolerance of my distant
situation; my father, Theodore Salvucci for his faith in my work; my mother Karen
Boyd, for her moral and material support; my stepfather Adlai Boyd, for his
outstanding commitment to his second family; my grandmother Theresa Salvucci,
who encouraged me to “do what you love,” for her unconditional love and
acceptance; my grandmother Jean Mangels, whose determination and wit are an
inspiration; my aunt Barbara Mangels, for her support and love. Additionally in the
United States, to my academic mentors and guides who ultimately helped prepare me
for my Master’s study in Istanbul: my saxophone instructors at the University of
North Carolina at Greensboro, Chad Eby and Dr. Steve Stusek, who both tolerated
and supported my diverse musical interests while pushing me to excel in the fields of
Classical and Jazz saxophone; ethnomusicologists Dr. Gavin Douglas and Dr. Revell
Carr, who instructed me on the principles of ethnomusicology and supported my
research projects in Turkey.
In Turkey, I am indebted to the academic and musical support of many: to my

current thesis advisor, Professor Şehvar Beşiroğlu; my unofficial preliminary
advisor, Ozan Baysal; my current unofficial thesis advisor Dr. Paul Whitehead for
his support in experimental counterpoint, willingness to provide extra help on my
thesis, and editorial skills; Dr. Ozan Yarman, for his editorial help and dedication to
the subject matter of this thesis; Professor Şirin Karadeniz, for her attention as a jury
member; Professor Feridun Öney, for his encouragement, instruction on the tenets of
Turkish music composition and makam theory; Dr. Nail Yavuzoğlu, for his
instruction in polyphony Turkish music and inspiration in experimental music
theory; my first ney instructor, Eymen Gürtan; my second ney instructor, Nurullah
Kanık; my friend and musical counsel Utku Yiğit; my first American liason in
Istanbul, Dr. Eric Ederer; violinist Aydın Varol, for befriending me and introducing
me to the Turkish music community in Istanbul; the Beyoğlu Türk Müziği Derneği
for their acceptance of me in their rehearsals and concerts.
June 2016 Peter SALVUCCI
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD ............................................................................................................. ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... xi
ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................. xiii
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................... xv
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................... xvii
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................ xxi
ÖZET ...................................................................................................................... xxiii
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Purpose of Thesis ............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Methodology .................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Hypothesis ........................................................................................................ 2
2. USUL ...................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Usul Defined .................................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 Categories of usul .................................................................................... 8
2.1.2 Aruz (poetic meter) ............................................................................... 10
2.1.2.1 The relationship between aruz and usul .................................... 11
2.2 Mertebe (Metric Scale) .................................................................................. 12
2.2.1 Darb usul ............................................................................................... 14
2.3 Nested Usul .................................................................................................... 14
2.3.1 Nested Düyek usul ................................................................................ 15
2.3.1.1 Düyek within Muhammes usul ................................................. 15
2.3.1.2 Düyek within Ağır Aksak usul .................................................. 16
2.3.1.3 Nested Düyek within Dede Efendi’s Bayati Beste .................... 16
2.4 Phasing ........................................................................................................... 19
2.4.1 Sûzidilârâ Mevlevi Ayin ........................................................................ 19
2.4.1.1 Semai sections ........................................................................... 19
2.4.1.2 Sûzidilârâ Peşrev ...................................................................... 22
2.5 Usul Modulation............................................................................................. 23
2.5.1 Mevlevi Ayin form ................................................................................ 24
2.5.2 Kevseri’s compound usuls .................................................................... 24
2.5.3 Safiyyüddin’s compound usuls ............................................................. 25
2.5.4 Itri’s Neva Kâr....................................................................................... 26
2.5.5 Usul modulation through usul cells....................................................... 27
2.5.5.1 Nikriz Sirto ................................................................................ 29
2.5.6 Usul modulation through velvele .......................................................... 31
2.6 Modulation Between Usul and Aruz .............................................................. 32
2.6.1 Aruz modulation from common usul (ortak usuldan aruz geçkisi)....... 33
2.6.1.1 Aruz modulation in Pençgah Mevlevi Ayin .............................. 33
2.6.1.2 Usul nesting with aruz modulation: Dede Efend’s Mahur
Beste ...................................................................................................... 34
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2.6.2 Usul modulation through aruz vezin (aruz vezninden usul geçkisi) ..... 36
2.6.2.1 Usul modulation through aruz in Sûzidilârâ Mevlevi Ayin ....... 36
2.6.2.2 Applied use of usul modulation through aruz ........................... 37
2.6.2.3 Usul modulation from shared aruz in Karcığar Şarkı ............... 39
2.6.2.4 Combined usul-aruz modulation techniques in composition:
Pençgah Nakış Ağır Semai .................................................................... 41
3. MAKAM AND TRANSPOSITION ................................................................... 45
3.1 Understanding and Defining Makam ............................................................. 45
3.1.1 Foreign influence and “Westernization” in Turkish makam music ...... 47
3.2 Towards New Understandings and Views of Makam .................................... 54
3.2.1 A re-classification of çeşni .................................................................... 57
3.2.2 Çeşni combination and transposition .................................................... 59
3.2.3 Geçki (modulation) ............................................................................... 66
3.2.3.1 Traditional çeşni transposition .................................................. 68
3.2.4 A new model for çeşni/geçki analysis ................................................... 70
3.2.4.1 Analysis of Dede Efendi’s Hicaz Şarkı ..................................... 72
3.2.4.2 Analysis of Cevdet Çağla’s Kürdilihicazkar Şarkı ................... 74
3.3 A Model for Complete Transposition of Çeşni .............................................. 77
3.3.1 Expanding traditional çeşni relationships ............................................. 78
3.3.2 Safiyyüddin’s conceptual 17-perde system ........................................... 84
3.3.2.1 Practical application of the conceptual 17-perde system .......... 90
3.4 Experimental works using transposable makam .......................................... 101
3.4.1 Analysis of Pençgah Nakış Ağır Semai............................................... 101
3.4.2 Analysis of Rast-Irak Mabeyn Rast Saz Semaisi ................................ 102
3.4.3 Analysis of Zavilli Ferahnak Peşrev ................................................... 105
4. POLYPHONIC MAKAM ................................................................................ 111
4.1 Historical Development of Polyphony in Turkish Music ............................ 111
4.1.1 Polyphony in the nineteenth century ................................................... 112
4.1.2 Polyphony in the early republican period ........................................... 113
4.1.3 Polyphony in the mid and late twentieth century ................................ 114
4.1.4 Polyphony in the modern era .............................................................. 115
4.2 A Contrapuntal Approach to Polyphonic Turkish Makam .......................... 116
4.2.1 Tuning concerns .................................................................................. 117
4.2.2 Tonal structures ................................................................................... 121
4.2.3 Consonance and dissonance ................................................................ 128
4.2.3.1 Dissonance according to metric structure ............................... 131
4.2.3.2 Cadences ................................................................................. 136
4.2.4 Imitation and part spacing ................................................................... 143
4.2.5 Analysis of Yalçın Tura’s Hüseyni Saz Semaisi.................................. 151
4.2.6 Analysis of Hicaz Saz Semaisi ............................................................ 157
5. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................. 163
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 167
APPENDICES ........................................................................................................ 171
APPENDIX A ................................................................................................... 171
APPENDIX B ................................................................................................... 221
CURRICULUM VITAE ........................................................................................ 225
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ABBREVIATIONS
İTÜ : İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi [Istanbul Technical University]

TMDK : Türk Müziği Devlet Konservatuarı [Turkish Music State Conservatory]
AEU : Arel-Ezgi-Uzdilek [theory system]
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xiv

LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 2.1 : Kevseri’s compound usul equivalences .................................................. 25

Table 2.2 : Safiyyüddin’s compound usul equivalences ........................................... 26
Table 2.3 : Usul modulation in Itri’s Neva Kâr......................................................... 27
Table 4.1 : Classification of intervals in polyphonic Turkish makam .................... 129
Table 4.2 : Levels of tonal compatability with Uşşak makam ................................ 151
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 2.1 : Safiyyüddin’s basic rhythmic groupings ................................................. 7

Figure 2.2 : İka rhythm equated to aruz ..................................................................... 8
Figure 2.3 : Remel îka explained with aruz ................................................................ 8
Figure 2.4 : Nim Sofyan usul ...................................................................................... 9
Figure 2.5 : Semai usul ............................................................................................... 9
Figure 2.6 : Sofyan usul .............................................................................................. 9
Figure 2.7 : Türk Aksağı usul ..................................................................................... 9
Figure 2.8 : Aksak usul ............................................................................................. 10
Figure 2.9 : Aruz vezin in Türk Aksak usul .............................................................. 12
Figure 2.10 : Mertebe forms as typically notated in Semail usul ............................. 13
Figure 2.11 : Melodic phrase in medium-mertebe Türk Aksağı ............................... 13
Figure 2.12 : Darb usul ............................................................................................. 14
Figure 2.13 : Düyek usul ........................................................................................... 15
Figure 2.14 : Nested Düyek usul within Muhammes usul ........................................ 15
Figure 2.15 : Nested Düyek within Ağır Aksak usul’s aruz îkası............................. 16
Figure 2.16 : Nested Düyek within Hafif usul .......................................................... 17
Figure 2.17 : Excerpt from first semai section .......................................................... 20
Figure 2.18 : Excerpt from last semai section with anticipated aruz ........................ 20
Figure 2.19 : Polyrthymic scheme of last semai as interpreted on the second beat .. 21
Figure 2.20 : Sûzidilârâ Peşrev, first hane (transcribed as originally notated) ........ 23
Figure 2.21 : Common rhythm in final portion of modulated usul cycles ................ 27
Figure 2.22 : Common çeşni facilitating makam modulation ................................... 28
Figure 2.23 : Usul modulation through extracted usul cells ..................................... 28
Figure 2.24 : Usul modulation through shared usul cell overlap .............................. 29
Figure 2.25 : Nikriz Sirto........................................................................................... 30
Figure 2.26 : Düyek, Aksak, and Aksak Semai usul’s velvele forms compared ...... 32
Figure 2.27 : Aruz modulation in the first Selam of Pençgah Mevlevi Ayin,
condensed for comparison ................................................................... 34
Figure 2.28 : Dede Efendi’s Mahur Beste, zemin section ........................................ 35
Figure 2.29 : Usul modulation through common aruz in Sûzidilârâ Mevlevi Ayin. . 37
Figure 2.30 : Aruz îkası of Devr-i Hindi and Aksak Usuls in <Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilâtün
Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilün> aruz vezin .............................................................. 38
Figure 2.31 : Two combinations of Aksak and Devr-i Hindi usuls with <Fâ’ilâtün
Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilün> aruz vezin ............................................... 38
Figure 2.32 : Usul modulation through aruz vezin in Karcığar Şarkı ...................... 40
Figure 2.33 : Shared usul cell overlap in Pençgah Nakış Ağır Semai ...................... 42
Figure 2.34 : Shared aruz cell modulation in meyan of Pençgah Nakış Ağır Semai 43
Figure 3.1 : In-text notation scheme of perdes within AEU system ......................... 47
Figure 3.2 : Beginning of second Selam in Sûzidilârâ Mevlevi Ayin ....................... 49
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Figure 3.3 : Implied “minor” modulation in Yine Bir Gülnihal ................................ 50

Figure 3.4 : Nigar makam’s basic scale form ........................................................... 51
Figure 3.5 : Reftar Kalfa’s Nigar Saz Semaisi .......................................................... 52
Figure 3.6 : Itri’s Buselik Beste ................................................................................. 52
Figure 3.7 : Aristoxenian octave species................................................................... 56
Figure 3.8 : Ptolemy’s tonoi ...................................................................................... 56
Figure 3.9 : Tonal çeşni genera with modal species ................................................. 58
Figure 3.10 : Nigar makam’s scale form with modal çeşni ...................................... 59
Figure 3.11 : Rast makam in two scale forms with modal çeşni............................... 60
Figure 3.12 : Nikriz makam’s two scale forms with modal çeşni ............................. 61
Figure 3.13 : Basit Suzinak Makam as a modal extension of Nikirz scale ............... 61
Figure 3.14 : Basit Suzinak makam scale on its normal karar, with its modal
family ................................................................................................... 61
Figure 3.15 : Nihavent makam’s scale form with upper Hicaz tetrachord ............... 62
Figure 3.16 : Overlapping Buselik trichords in Nişabur pentachord ........................ 62
Figure 3.17 : Pençgah makam modally derived from g-Rast.................................... 63
Figure 3.18 : Pençgah pentachord modally derived from g-Nigar............................ 63
Figure 3.19 : Pençgah makam in its natural position, with alternate upper Rast and
Buselik tetrachords .............................................................................. 63
Figure 3.20 : Ferahnak çeşni as a modal derivative of Yegah makam ..................... 64
Figure 3.21 : Ferahnak makam as a modal extension of Pençgah makam ............... 64
Figure 3.22 : Müstear trichord .................................................................................. 64
Figure 3.23 : Müstear trichord in Segah makam ....................................................... 65
Figure 3.24 : Geçki fom Acemli Rast makam, using Özkan’s theory ...................... 67
Figure 3.25 : Traditional transpositions of Rast çeşni............................................... 68
Figure 3.26 : Traditional transpositions of Buselik çeşni ......................................... 68
Figure 3.27 : Traditional transpositions of Hicaz çeşni ............................................ 69
Figure 3.28 : f(#)-Hicaz and c’(#)-Hicaz çeşnis in the Evcara makam scale ............ 70
Figure 3.29 : a-Segah çeşni in Dügah makam........................................................... 70
Figure 3.30 : Tonal and modal çeşni analysis of geçki from Rast to Nikriz ............. 72
Figure 3.31 : Analysis of combined tonal/modal geçki from Rast to Hicaz ............. 72
Figure 3.32 : Analysis of Dede Efendi’s Hicaz Şarkı ............................................... 73
Figure 3.33 : Analysis of Cevdet Çağla’s Kürdilihicazkar Şarkı.............................. 75
Figure 3.34 : Tonal equivalences of g-Rast çeşni ..................................................... 78
Figure 3.35 : Transposed tonal equivalences of f-Nigar çeşni .................................. 79
Figure 3.36 : Transposed cycle of f-Nigar to e(b)-Nigar=Rast ................................. 79
Figure 3.37 : Transposition of f-Rast çeşni from g-Kürdi ........................................ 80
Figure 3.38 : b(b)-Rast çeşni derived from g-Buselik çeşni ..................................... 81
Figure 3.39 : Hicaz çeşni as a lower extension of Segah çeşni in Evcara makam .... 82
Figure 3.40 : Tonal equivalencies with f(#)-Hicaz and c’(#)-Hicaz çeşnis .............. 82
Figure 3.41 : b(d)-Rast and b(d)-Buselik çeşnis in f(#)-Hicaz makam ..................... 83
Figure 3.42 : Location of e(d)-Rast and e(d)-Hicaz çeşnis relative to f(#)-Hicaz
çeşni ..................................................................................................... 83
Figure 3.43 : e-Hicaz çeşni as a lower extension of both a-Segah and a-Hicaz
çeşnis .................................................................................................... 84
Figure 3.44 : Comparison of Safiyyüddin’s transposed Hicâzî scale with Karcığar
scale in the AEU system, adjusted for koma discrepancies ................. 89
Figure 3.45 : The 17 conceptual perde system compared with the AEU 24-perde
system .................................................................................................. 92
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Figure 3.46 : Shift of relative perde intervals at the bakiyye level of functional
transposition......................................................................................... 93
Figure 3.47 : Shift of relative perde intervals at the mücennep level of functional
transposition......................................................................................... 93
Figure 3.48 : Mücennep-level functional transposition using the lower limit of the
mücennep region.................................................................................. 94
Figure 3.49 : Re-interpretation of the transposition of the Hicâzî scale using the
lower-limit mücennep perde ................................................................ 94
Figure 3.50 : Transposition of f-Nigar at the level of seven bakiyyes ...................... 96
Figure 3.51 : 7B transposition sample melody ......................................................... 96
Figure 3.52 : Cycle of fourths using seven conceptual bakiyye intervals................. 96
Figure 3.53 : Transposition of f-Nigar at the 6B level .............................................. 97
Figure 3.55 : Cycle of Pythagorean thirds using six conceptual bakiyye intervals .. 97
Figure 3.58 : Cycle of Just (mücennep) thirds using five conceptual bakiyye
intervals ............................................................................................... 98
Figure 3.59 : Transpositions of f-Nigar at the 4B level ............................................ 98
Figure 3.61 : Cycle of minor thirds using four conceptual bakiyye intervals ........... 98
Figure 3.62 : Transposition of f-Nigar using three conceptual bakiyye intervals..... 99
Figure 3.64 : Cycle of major whole tones (taninis) at the 3B level .......................... 99
Figure 3.66 : 2B transposition sample melody ....................................................... 100
Figure 3.67 : Cycle of minor whole tones (mücennep seconds) using two conceptual
bakiyye intervals ................................................................................ 100
Figure 3.68 : Transposition of f-Nigar at the 1B level ............................................ 100
Figure 3.69 : 1B transposition sample melody ....................................................... 100
Figure 3.70 : Cycle of minor seconds using one conceptual bakiyye interval........ 101
Figure 3.71 : Geçki analysis of the meyan section of Pençgah Nakış Ağır Semai . 102
Figure 3.72 : Analysis of Rast-Irak Mabeyn Rast Saz Semaisi ............................... 103
Figure 3.73 : Analysis of Zavilli Ferahnak Peşrevi ................................................ 107
Figure 4.1 : Cent values of pitches in Glarean’s 12-tone tuning............................. 117
Figure 4.2 : Cent values of pitches in Salinas’ Just tuning scheme ........................ 119
Figure 4.3 : Pythagorean and Just tunings in Nigar and Rast makams ................... 119
Figure 4.4 : Five-koma sharp leading tones on g-Rast and d’-Buselik çeşnis ........ 120
Figure 4.5 : Contrapuntal treatment of Pythagorean and Just major thirds ............ 120
Figure 4.6 : Contrapuntal treatment of Just and Pythagorean minor thirds ............ 120
Figure 4.7 : The 12 modes of Western Renaissance music .................................... 122
Figure 4.8 : Bestenigar makam’s complete scale form ........................................... 122
Figure 4.9 : Lower extension in Acemli Rast makam............................................. 123
Figure 4.10 : Opening section of O Magnum Mysterium ....................................... 124
Figure 4.11 : Transposed Renaissance modes compared to makam scales ............ 126
Figure 4.12 : Interval types in contrapuntal Turkish makam .................................. 130
Figure 4.13 : First species sample melody .............................................................. 131
Figure 4.14 : Second species sample melody ......................................................... 132
Figure 4.15 : Third species sample melody ............................................................ 132
Figure 4.16 : Fourth species sample melody........................................................... 132
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Figure 4.17 : Sample contrapuntal makam melody in first species ........................ 133
Figure 4.18 : Sample contrapuntal makam melody in second species .................... 134
Figure 4.19 : Sample contrapuntal makam melody in third species ....................... 134
Figure 4.20 : Sample contrapuntal makam melody in fourth species ..................... 135
Figure 4.21 : [1-7-1] against [1-2-1] cadential figure ............................................. 137
Figure 4.22 : [1-7-1] against [1-2-1] cadence, with dissonant suspension.............. 137
Figure 4.29 : Cadences using dissonant mid-mücennep intervals against a suspended
lower voice ....................................................................................... 141
Figure 4.30 : Cadences using dissonant mid-mücennep intervals in strong-beat
dissonances ....................................................................................... 141
Figure 4.31 : Cadences using mid-mücennep intervals in third species ................. 142
Figure 4.32 : Cadences using mid-mücennep intervals in dissonant note-against-note
counterpoint ...................................................................................... 142
Figure 4.33 : Imitated entries on the intervals of the fifth and octave in Palestrina’s
Exaudi Domine ................................................................................. 143
Figure 4.34 : Canon at the perfect fourth ................................................................ 145
Figure 4.35 : Canon at the major third .................................................................... 146
Figure 4.36 : Canon at the large mücennep third .................................................... 146
Figure 4.37 : Canon at the minor third .................................................................... 147
Figure 4.38 : Canon at the major second................................................................. 147
Figure 4.39 : Canon at the large mücennep second ................................................ 148
Figure 4.40 : Canon at the minor second ................................................................ 148
Figure 4.41 : Analysis of Yalçın Tura’s Hüseyni Saz Semaisi ................................ 155
Figure 4.42 : Hicaz Saz Semaisi, for two instruments ............................................ 159
Figure A.1 : Bayati Beste, Dede Efendi .................................................................. 172
Figure A.2 : Sûzidilârâ Mevlevi Ayin, third Selam ................................................. 174
Figure A.3 : Sûzidilârâ Mevlevi Ayin, third Selam, semai section .......................... 175
Figure A.4 : Sûzidilârâ Peşrev ................................................................................ 177
Figure A.5 : Neva Kâr, Itri ...................................................................................... 179
Figure A.6 : Pençgah Mevlevi Ayin, first Selam ..................................................... 184
Figure A.7 : Mahur Beste, Dede Efendi .................................................................. 187
Figure A.8 : Sûzidilârâ Mevlevi Ayin, second Selam .............................................. 188
Figure A.9 : Rast Şarkı, Dede Efendi ...................................................................... 189
Figure A.10 : Nigar Saz Semaisi, Reftar Kalfa ....................................................... 191
Figure A.11 : Buselik Beste, Itri .............................................................................. 192
Figure A.12 : Hicaz Şarkı, Dede Efendi ................................................................. 193
Figure A.13 : Kürdilihicazkar Şarkı........................................................................ 194
Figure A.14 : O Magnum Mysterium, Victoria ....................................................... 196
Figure A.15 : Exaudi Domine, Palestrina................................................................ 199
Figure A.16 : Hüseyni Saz Semaisi, Tura ................................................................ 205
Figure B.1: Pençgah Nakış Ağır Semai................................................................... 222
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SUMMARY
While scholarship in Turkish musicology and theory has reached a significant level,
little work has been made to catalogue techniques available to the composer of
Turkish music. Furthermore, new proposals for development in the tradition of
monophonic Turkish makam music are nearly nonexistent. This thesis presents
compositional techniques and theoretical models found in the tradition of Turkish
makam music, developing them into new proposals for composition and
performance. This work focuses on three main aspects of Turkish music: usul and
aruz, makam, and polyphony. Usul is defined as rhythmic cycle, while aruz is poetic
meter that is used in tandem with usul. Composers have utilized techniques of usul
modulation, nested usul, and phasing. Furthermore, the identification of constituent
usul cells in usul cycles can be used to derive new modulatory techniques.
Modulation of usul is also possible through common aruz forms, while modulation
of aruz form can be mediated with common usul cycles. Makam is defined as a
modal-tonal complex under a new perspective of its principles in comparison to
ancient Greek theory. This leads to a suggested analysis model for notating makam
modulation in composition. New possibilities in makam modulation are explored
after establishing a method for transposition and modulatory connection.
Safiyyüddin’s thirteenth-century model of a transposable perde system is related to
practical modulation possibilities, resulting in transposition capabilities upon 17
conceptual pitch regions. Polyphony in Turkish music began in the nineteenth
century surrounding political reforms in the Ottoman Empire. A new phase in
harmonizing Turkish folk music occurred following the establishment of the Turkish
Republic in 1923. Since then, various approaches towards harmonizing Turkish
melodies have been used by composers, including tonal harmony, quartal harmony,
and contrapuntal technique. This thesis proposes a polyphonic approach that does not
detract from the microtonal structure or melodic character of makam, but rather
adapts contrapuntal technique of the medieval and Renaissance period to the service
of makam. Each main aspect of composition is capable of being used with one
another, creating new stylistic possibilities related to makam. To exemplify the
compositional techniques discussed, original pieces that highlight innovation in usul
and aruz, makam transposition, and polyphonic makam are presented.
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TÜRK MÜZİĞİ BESTELEME TEKNİKLERİ

USUL, MAKAM, VE ÇOKSESLİLİKTE GELENEKSEL ANLAYIŞLAR VE
ÇAĞDAŞ GELİŞME İÇİN ÖNCÜL BİR YAKLAŞIM
ÖZET
Türk müzikoloji ve teori bilim alanı önemli bir seviyeye ulaştığı halde, Türk müziği
bestecilik tekniklerini sınıflandırmak için az çaba sarf ediliyor. Bundan başka,
teksesli Türk makam müziği geleneğinde gelişmelere doğru yeni teklifler neredeyse
yoktur. Bu tez Türk makam müziği geleneğinde bulunan bestecilik teknikleri ve
kuramsal modelleri sunup bestecilik ve icrada yeni önerilerle birlikte
geliştirmektedir. Bu tez üç ana mevzuya odaklanacak: usul ve aruz, makam, ve
çokseslilik.
Usul “ritmik devri” olarak tanımlanıyor. Aruz ise, usul ile birlikte kullanılan şiirsel
bir ölçüdür. Geleneksel Türk makam müziğinde besteciler usul geçkisi, usul
“nesting”, ve ritmik “phasing” gibi çeşitli usul teknikleri kullanmaktadır. Yirminci
yüzyıl nazariyatçı Arel’in tanıdığı her usul içinde mevcut alt kısımları tanıyıp iki tür
esas usul hücresi tasnif ettikten sonra, bu en küçük ritmik ögeleri çeşitli daha büyük
usul hücreleriyle birlikte usul geçkisi vasıtası olarak kullanılabilir. Nikiz Sirto adlı
özgün eserinde çıkarılmış usul hücrelerinden usul geçkileri sergilemektedir. On
üçüncü yüzyıl nazariyatçı Safiyyüddin’e dayanarak, usuller oransal bir ölçüyle
birbiriyle sığınabileceğini ıspatlanır. Türk müziğinde bulunan usul “iç-içeliği”
tekniği oransal ölçü kavramına bağlı olarak küçük bir usul daha büyük bir usulun
içinde bulunma imkanı sağlar. Bazı eserlerde senkop yapısına sahip olduğu için
sıklıkla rastlanan Düyek usulü Muhammes veya Hafif gibi büyük usuller içinde
bulunabilir. Batı Klasik müziğindeki minimalist akımına bağlı olan “phasing”
kavramı bir ritmik devrinin farklı başlangıç noktalarında üst üste çalınmasından
kaynaklanıyor. Türk müziğinde bir nağmenin ritmik yapısı vurulan usulden farklı bir
zamansal devrine girerse, poliritmik bir “phasing” etkisi yaratmaktadır. Mevlevi
Ayinlerdeki güfte birleştirme tekniklerinden faydalanarak, ortak aruz vezninden usul
geçkisi de bir besteleme tekniği olarak tanınabilir. Örnek olarak, Dede Efendi’nin
Mahur Beste’si hem büyük usul içinde küçük usul iç-içeliğini gerçekleştirip hem de
aynı usul üzerinde aruz geçkisi kullanmaktadır. Usul’den aruz geçkisi tekniğinin
tersi, yani aruz vezni vasıtasıyla usul geçkisi Türk müziği geleneğinde neredeyse hiç
bulunmaz. Ancak, Mevlevi ayinlerde ikinci Selamdan üçüncü Selama geçerken aynı
aruz vezniyle mevcut usulden Aksak Semai usulüne geçki yapılır. Bu besteleme
kavramını farklı eser çalışmalarına aktarılırsa, yeni bir anlam kazanılabilir. Aynı aruz
îkası kalıbı üzerinde bir sürü usul geçkisi imkanının olduğunu tespit ettikten sonra,
özgün eseri olan Karcığar Şarkı’da tek aruz vezni üzerinde birkaç usul geçkisinin
nasıl yapıldığını gösteriliyor. Yazdığım Pençgah Nakış Ağır Semai’de hem ortak
usul hücreden geçki tekniği hem de aruzdan usul geçkisi görülür. Bundan başka, aruz
hücre kavramını tanıtıp usul geçkisi varken ortak aruz hücreleri vasıtasıyla aruz
geçkisinin nasıl yapıldığı açıklanır.
xxiii

Arel makam “dizide veya lahinde seslerin durakla ve güçlü ile münasebetlerinden
doğan hususiyet” olarak tanımlıyor. Özkan gibi çağdaş nazariyatçılar benzer
tanımlara sahiptir. Özktürk, Beşiroğlu, ve Bayraktarkatal makam teorinin tarihini
dört esas döneme ayırıyor. Son dönemde ise, makam terimler Batılı müzik
terimlerine benzetilmiş bir durumda olduğu tespit ediliyor. Bunun dışında, makam
yapılarının Batı müziğindeki dizilere benzetilmesi eleştiri görmektedir. Buna karşın,
Türk müziğinde Nigar gibi makamlar, Batılı majör-minör özelliklere sahip olduğunu
tespit edip ortaya koyuluyor. Dolayısıyla, genelleme ve kutuplaşma çabalarına
rağmen Türk müziği, Batı müziği gibi bazı ortak niteliklere sahip olabileceğini ileri
sürülüyor. Signell, Özkan, ve Yavuzoğlu gibi nazariyatçılar genelde Türk müziği
“modal” bir müzik türü olarak tanımlamaktadır. Fakat, antik Yunan müziğine
benzeterek, Türk makam müziğinde hem modal, hem tonal bir yapıya sahip
olduğunu tespit ediliyor. Bu kavramdan yola çıkarak, çeşni tasnifi yeniden oluşturup,
üç esas tonal cins olarak tanımlanıyor. Her tonal ailesi içinde aynı tonal gam
üzerinde bulunan modal çeşniler her makamsal imkanı açıklamaktadır. Makam
sistemdeki perdeler üzerinde bulunan mevcut çeşni konumlarını inceledikten sonra,
tonal ve modal karşılıklarını kullanarak yeni çeşni konumları nasıl elde edildiğini
açıklanıyor. Bununla birlikte, bu çalışma modal ve tonal ekseni tanıyarak eserler
incelemeleri için daha pratik ve açıklayıcı bir makam analiz yöntemi teklif ediyor.
Türk makam sisteminde yalnız üç tür perde bölgesi üzerinde çeşni oluştuğunu tespit
ederek oktav içinde on yedi çeşni konumu mümkün olduğunu öneriliyor.
Safiyyüddin’e ait olan kavramsal on yedi perde sistemine bağlayarak, Türk makam
sisteminde herhangi bir çeşninin herhangi bir perde konumda oluşması mümkündür.
Onun için, Safiyyüddin’in on yedi transpoze edilmiş daire kavramı bugünkü çağdaş
Türk müziği icrası için nasıl uygulanabileceği açıklanır. Bu tarihe dayanan yeni
transpoze modelinden faydalanarak, yeni çeşni ve makam imkanları sağlanabilir.
Böyle bir yaklaşım ya küçük nuans olarak bestelerde yeni bir renk katabilir, ya da
makam tanımlarına meydana okuyup pek değişik tonal imkanları oluşturabilir. Örnek
olarak özgün eseri olan Rast-Irak Mabeyn Rast Saz Semaisi Rast üzerinde Rast
makamıyla başlayıp geçki vasıtasıyla tonal transpozisyonu gerçekleştikten sonra Irak
perde üzerinde Rast çeşnisiyle karar eder. Bu değişik çeşni bulundurma yöntemi
Türk makam geleneği için yeni tonal imkanları keşfetmeyi amaçlıyor. Benzer bir
şekilde, yeni sunulduğu Zavilli Ferahnak Peşrevi normalde farklı karar perdeye
sahip olan iki makam aynı karar perde üzerinde bulunduruyor. Bu deneysel eserler
içinde de çeşitli geleneksel olmayan transpoze edilmiş çeşni imkanları sunmaktadır.
Türk müziğinde çokseslilik denemeleri on dokuzuncu yüzyıldan beri sürüyor.

Çokseslilik konusu Türk müzisyenler ve müzikologlar arasında çok tartışılırsa, yine
bir çok besteci çeşitli tür çoksesli eserleri yazmaktadır. Çoksesli Türk müziğini dört
ayrı tarihsel döneme ayrılabilir: on dokuzuncu yüzyılda Osmanlı sarayında ilk
dönem, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti kuruluşunda yeni ulusal dönem, yirminci yüzyılın son
yarım kısmı, ve yirminci yüzyılın son yıllarından bugüne kadar uzayan çağdaş
dönem. II. Mahmud’la başlayan kültürel ve siyasi hareketiyle birlikte, Müzîka-i
Hümayun 1826’dan beri Avrupalı müzik eğitimini Osmanlı sarayında veriyor.
Sarayın ilk orkestra şefi ve Batı müziği pedagogu olan Guiseppe Donizetti Türk
müziğiyle ilk çoksesli denemeleri yaptığı için anılıyor. On dokuzuncu yüzyılın son
yarısında Donizetti’nin yerine gelen Guatelli piyano için düzenlenmiş bir çok
geleneksel Türk müziği eserini yazdı. Cumhuriyetin kuruluşuyla birlikte başlayan
xxiv

milliyetçi hareket çoksesli müziğin estetiğini etkiledi. Bu dönemde özellikle

çokseslendirilmiş türküler ideal bir ulusal müzik olarak tercih ediliyordu ve Osmanlı
müziğinin önemi küçümsenmiş durumdaydı. Türk Beşleri adlı besteciler Batı müzik
ortamına Türk halk müziği ezgilerini koydukları için şöhreti kazandılar. Saygun,
makam ögeleri bir ifade vasıtası olarak görüp, tamperaman sistemi içinde makam
müziğinden esinlenmiş eserleri bestelerken, Alnar hem geleneksel Türk müziği hem
de Türk sazları için çoksesli Türk müziği besteledi. Yirminci yüzyılın ikinci
yarısında besteciler ya Batı müziği ortamında Türk müziği ögelerini kullanıp ya da
Türk müziğini çoksesli bir hale getirmeyi amaçladıkları söylenebilir. Yalçın Tura,
bazı eserlerinde tamamen kontrapuan tekniğinden faydalanarak Türk müziğin
mikrotonal yapısını bozmadan çoksesli eserleri bestelemiştir. Kemal İlerici ulusal bir
kimliği arayışında çoksesli Türk müziği için sırf dörtlü armonisinden oluşan bir
sistemi kavradı. Çağdaş döneminde, besteciler ulusal kimliği kazanma çabalarını
bırakıp genelde serbestçe istenen herhangi bir armoni tekniğinden faydalanır. Sadık
Uğraş Durmuş gibi besteciler Klasik Batı müziği tarzında Türk müziği ögeleri
kullanırken, Yavuzoğlu hem caz armonisinden faydalanıp hem kendi mikrotonal
sistemine uygun bir şekilde Türk müziği için modal armoni kavrıyor.
Türk müziği, Batı müziğinin akor sistemine uygun olmadığı iddiasına karşı çıkarak,
Batı müziğinin tarihi boyunca kullanılan Fisagor ve Just akor düzenlerini Türk
müziğiyle karşılaştırıyorum. Sonucunda, Türk müziği Rönesansta bulunan hem
Fisagor hem de Just akor sistemlerinde mevcut perdelere sahip olup esnekliğinden
her iki akor sisteminin özelliklerinden faydalanabilir. Bundan başka, Rönesansta
kullanılan çoksesli modal sistemi Türk makamıyla karşılaştırıp çoksesli çeşni
imkanları açısından Türk makamının yeni çeşitli renk katabileceğini ileri sürülüyor.
Türk müziğindeki mevcut aralık türlerini tanımlandıktan sonra, kontrapuan için
hangi aralıkları uyumlu olduğu ıspatlanır. Kontrapuan türü ve kadans örneklerini
vererek, çoksesli makam eserleri imitasyon tekniklerinden nasıl kullanabileceği
gösteriliyor. Yalçın Tura tarafından bestelenmiş Hüseyni Saz Semaisi’ndeki
kontrapuantal dokusu da ortaya koyulan aralık sınıflandırması sistemine göre
değerlendirilir. Özgün bir örnek olarak, iki saz için Hicaz Saz Semaisi kontrapuantal
makam estetiğiyle her iki parti ayrı ve makamsal bir melodiye sahip olduğunu
gösteriliyor.
Sonuç olarak her üç ana besteleme tekniği birbiriyle uyum sağlayıp yeni bir
geleneksel tarza doğru bir bütün oluşturabilir. Sadece teksesli Türk müziği için değil,
transpoze makam kavramı uluslararası müzik için yeni imkanları ilham edebileceği
önerilir. Çoksesli kontrapuantal yaklaşım ise, Türk müziği için çoksesliliğe doğal bir
geçişi sağladığı düşünülebilir. Dolayısıyla, bu nazari gelişmeler milliyetçi eğilimleri
olmadan mantıksal teklifleri sunup aynı zamanda evrensel bir şekilde dünyanın farklı
müzik türleriyle karşılaştırarak sonunda her tür müziği için yeni imkanlara doğru
katkı sağlar.
xxv

xxvi

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose of Thesis
The main objective of this thesis is to investigate a comprehensive amount of

uncommon and new techniques for composition and performance of Turkish makam
music. Focusing on three areas of composition, I will bring to light compositional
devices related to usul (rhythmic cycles) and aruz (poetic meter), makam and
monophonic transposition, and polyphonic makam and counterpoint. While it is
expected that no amount of research and compositional development could ever
completely represent all the possibilities available in the world of Turkish makam
music, my aim is to collect a substantial body of material from which a new
understanding of the makam tradition may be achieved. Drawing upon
compositional and theoretical techniques of traditional musicians throughout the
history of makam music, I seek to highlight generally overlooked facets of Turkish
music composition. By referencing past compositional and theoretical models, I will
additionally present original ideas for composition of Turkish makam music in a
modern style. It is thus my hope that this work will contribute to a new wave of
theory and compositional style, and it is not in any way my intention that the
techniques and theory discussed should be regarded as absolute or limiting to the
divergent genius of others. Finally, this thesis can be regarded as preliminary work
towards the compilation of a treatise on new theory and compositional techniques
for Turkish makam music, a subject, which as the author understands, currently
lacks attention.
1.2 Methodology
The first substantive section of this thesis begins by addressing and debating the
concept of usul and aruz. Using the thirteenth-century theorist Safiyyüddin as a
theoretical foundation, I consider early concepts of rhythm and how they relate to
the current system of Turkish makam theory today. By citing several extant
traditional compositions, I identify key concepts in usul and suggest the means by
which they may be applied as compositional techniques. In relationship to these
examples, I develop and present original proposals for new compositional
techniques with usul and aruz. The second substantive section deals with views of
makam, how the system can be reconceived, and how to derive new tonal
transposition possibilities within the monophonic texture of Turkish makam. The
third and final substantive section of this thesis deals with a historical overview of
polyphonic in Turkish music, evaluating compositional methods of composers. I then
propose a contrapuntal approach to Turkish polyphony based on comparison to
Western modal music of the medieval and Renassiance periods. In each main
section, I include analyses of traditional and original compositions in order to explain
both extant and newly proposed techniques.
1.3 Hypothesis
Modern scholarship in Turkish musicology and theory has developed to the point
where a significant body of treatise translations, theoretical analyses, and
ethnomusicological views has amassed. While many theory books can be found in
contemporary literature, the large majority are concerned with transmitting and
repeating the tenets of the twentieth-century Arel-Ezgi-Uzdilek system. Only a few
works address alternative proposals to this standard system, however the academic
conversation still seems to be limited to the debate of pitch notation. The topic of
composition in Turkish music, by the same token, is nearly absent from scholarship.
Furthermore, when it is found, it typically revolves around analyses of famous
historical composers. While examples of recent and contemporary compositional
experiments exist, fewer still have bothered to explain or analyze the process by
which new techniques are developed. It appears that for the most part, a standstill
has occurred in the development and continuation of tradition beyond the repetition
of recognized masters. Feeding this inertia, the oppositional stance to “piyasa
müziği” [commercial music] in traditionalist circles can be said to have ultimately
hindered and discouraged the development of Turkish makam music along
traditional lines. Pessimistic attitudes towards Westernization prove to be
unconstructive in the long run, viewing Western influence as diametrically opposed
to the “East” to an exaggerated and overly simplified degree, and as the only
alternative to repetition of tradition. In summary, while we are currently presented
with a respectable amount of valuable scholarship in Turkish music, there is very
little mention of building on tradition. Furthermore, while the subject of polyphony in

Turkish music has gained popularity, very few scholars have systematically
explained how to approach polyphony. While debates center around whether
polyphony in Turkish music is legitimate to modernity, the study and debate of non-
polyphonic techniques in Turkish music composition has been sadly derailed. I
therefore argue that the development of new compositional and performance
techniques in Turkish makam music is not only possible, but also relevant to the
continuation of tradition. Furthermore, just as new techniques in usul, aruz, and
makam theory can be seen as extensions of tradition, polyphonic makam can be
organically conceived through analogue to the development of early Western
counterpoint.
2. USUL
Throughout the eras of Ottoman makam music, various non-standard compositional

techniques employing usul have appeared. The religious composition known as the
Mevlevi Ayin, due to its extensive form with many varied sections, shall be
referenced heavily. In addition, I seek to introduce new ideas and applications for
traditionally derived rhythmic features in Turkish makam music. The following
sections have been organized as logically as possible, however it will be noted that
there is considerable overlap regarding terminology of the techniques examined.
This should naturally be expected, as oftentimes a compositional technique may
posses multiple interpretations according to its definition.
2.1 Usul Defined
If viewed as a rhythmic cycle possessing a characteristic pattern of strong and weak

beats, the definition of usul is simple enough to comprehend. Yet, a network of
similar terminology used throughout history can obfuscate an easy understanding of
the term. Co-founder of the currently used Arel-Ezgi-Uzdilek (AEU) Turkish music
theory system Hüseyin Sadettin Arel begins discussion of usul by defining rhythm
(düzüm). To Arel, rhythm is “order and harmony within time or space.”1 Rhythm is
additionally manifest through a combination of weak and strong beats (Arel, 1968, p.
25). Arel then equates the term düzüm to îka, quoting thirteenth-century Safiyyüddin
El-Urmevi’s Şerefiyye manuscript to support this correlation: “a group of beats
divided into equal cycles, separated in time for certain durations, and organized
according to particular [rhythmic] proportions and positions [of rhythmic groupings].”2
To further complicate the matter, Arel refers to the term devir (cycle, revolution) as
an older term for measure (ölçü), when the devir as presented in older theory

1
“Zaman veya mekan içinde intizam ve tenasüp” (Arel, 1968, p. 25).
2
“Muayyen uzunlukta zamanlara ayrılmış ve hususi nisbetler ve vaziyetlerle sıralanarak müsavi
devirlerle bölünmüş vuruşlar takımı” (Arel, 1968, p. 26).
treatises appears to be the very same structure as an usul. This is clarified in a

certain manner, however, through Arel’s equation of measure with usul (Arel 1968,
p. 26). Following Arel’s school of thought, Hurşit Ungay’s encyclopedic text on usuls
defines düzüm as the same as îka, and attributes measure to usul (Ungay, 1981, p.
1-2).
The definition of usul as a separate item from îka is a spurious notion, one perhaps
best explained as change in terminology throughout the ages. The typically
recognized point of origin of Turkish music theory begins with Safiyyüddin
Abdülmümin El Urmevi (Arabic: Al-Urmawi) (d. 1294), representing the beginning of
the Systematist school of music theory in the Middle East ranging from the thirteenth
to fifteenth centuries (Özer, 1992, p. 1). Safiyyüddin, in his Kitabü’l-Edvar
manuscript, refers to îka as “a collection of beats with patterned sections of time;”3
furthermore, that îka possesses an “equal count of ordered cycles (devirler) with
particular forms” (Uygun, 1999, p. 112). From this definition, îka should be
synonymous with rhythmic cycles that Arel mentions, and therefore synonymous
with measure and the term usul itself. However, the translator of Kitabü’l-Edvar, Nuri
Uygun, also appears to rely upon a distinction similar to Arel’s in effort to separate
îka from the devir, by comparing the rhythmic pattern of Sofyan usul in 4/4 time to a
rhythmically neutral “îka” of four quarter beats in the same time (Uygun, 1999, p.
226). In his translation as well, Uygun seems to carefully replace occurrences of the
word “îka” with “usul” during explanation of the rhythmic cycles (Uygun, 1999, pp.
114-126).4
Safiyyüddin’s Şerefiyye manuscript additionally references îka in a similar manner to

that of Kitab’ül-Edvar, where we can see that îka at once references rhythmic cycles
as well as fundamental units of rhythm. Safiyyüddin classifies two types of basic
groups of beats: muvassal, where the lengths of beats are equal to one another;
and mufassal, where beat lengths are unequal to one another (Figure 2.1). This
binary division of beat types establishes the foundations of short-long rhythmic units.
Safiyyüddin chooses the syllables “te” and “ne” to indicate short lengths, and “ten
and “nen” to distinguish lengths twice as long. Thus, a duple-meter rhythm would be
represented as “te-ne,” whereas a triple-meter rhythm would be represented as “te-
nen” Safiyyüddin compares this classification of duple and triple rhythm as basic
units for meter to his Arabic predecessor Farabi, demonstrating the primacy of such

3
“Îka, aralarında kalıplaşmış çeşitli zaman dilimleri bulunan vuruşların toplamıdır.” (Uygun, 1999,
p.112).
4
To exemplify, where Uygun translates “…meşhur usullerin daireleri” [the cycles of the popular usuls]
from Arabic (Uygun 1999: 126), the original Arabic manuscript reads: “dawr al-îka’at al-meşhure” [the
cycles of the popular îkas] (Uygun, 1999, plate 45b in appendix).
concepts (Arslan, 2007, pp. 373-374). Arel seems to glean a similar concept from
this traditional conceptualization when he establishes Nim Sofyan and Semai usul
as constituent, fundamental usuls (explained in section 2.1.2).
Figure 2.1: Safiyyüddin’s basic rhythmic groupings
If Safiyyüddin had only intended to label these basic rhythmic as “îka,” then Arel’s
account for the term and differentiation from usul would be justified. However, as
previously mentioned, Safiyyüddin makes reference to îka in several contexts: as
basic rhythmic elements, in conjunction with the term devir to indicate a rhythmic
cycle or in some cases plainly in place of where modern musicians would use the
term “usul,” without the accompanying qualifier “devir.” In his Şerefiyye, Safiyyüddin
makes introduction of the îka cycles as such: “Now we will discuss some particular
îkas”5 (Arslan, 2007, p. 376). It is thus apparent that the term îka has, at least from
the earliest points of makam music theory, denoted both what Arel and subsequent
contemporary theorists refer to as düzüm (rhythm) and usul (rhythmic cycle) without
much distinction.
Among contemporary musicologists, it is Özer who recognizes the direct connection

made between the Systematist definition of îka as a cycle (devir) comparable to
poetic meter (aruz). Özer references Abdülkadir Meragi’s fifteenth-century work
directly comparing the syllables of poetic feet to syllables of rhythmic cycles in the
same graphic devir (Özer 1992, pp. 1-2). Prior to Meragi, Safiyyüddin had made the
same comparison in the thirteenth century, stating: “there is a kind of harmony
between poetry and îka.” 6 In Safiyyüddin’s Şerefiyye manuscript, the same
comparison that Meragi had made between aruz and îka is also found. In
accordance with the aforementioned binary short-long îka syllables, Safiyyüddin,
just as Meragi later copies, lists both rhythmic types and îka cycles in terms of aruz
syllables. For the sake of clarity, I have transcribed the following rhythmic and îka
examples (Figure 2.2, Figure 2.3) using modern notation instead of circular
diagrams originally given by Safiyyüddin (Arslan, 2007, pp. 373, 380).

5
“Şimdi bazı özel îkalardan bahsedeceğiz.”
6
Şiir ile îka arasında bir çeşit uyum vardır” (Arslan, 2007, p. 373).
Figure 2.2: İka rhythm equated to aruz
Figure 2.3: Remel îka explained with aruz
Özer additionally clarifies that the term usul was used in the Systematist
manuscripts, however, to connotate the “fundamentals of melodic mode” (Özer
1992, p. 1). After all, the term usul, from Arabic, in a non-musical context simply
means “method, methodology” (Öztuna 2000, p. 538). In contemporary Turkish, usul
commonly refers to “manner, style.” Perhaps the most obvious evidence for îka
originally having the same connotation as usul is the use of îka in Arabic music to
describe a nearly identical system of rhythmic cycles as the Turkish usuls (Racy,
2004, p. 227). It is thus evident that at a certain time, while Turkish musicians and
theorists knew the term îka, it began to take on a new meaning from the original
understanding of the term in Arabic. Özer finds that the term usul replaces îka
beginning with the first of the Ottoman theorists at the end of the fifteenth century.
Yusuf ibn Nizameddin Kirşehri and later Seyyidi both use usul instead of îka, no
longer applying the same terminology as Safiyyüddin and Meragi (Özer, 1992, pp.
1-2). Özer references twentieth-century theoretician Suphi Ezgi’s explanation that
usul was an abbreviation of usul-i îka, roughly translating to the “fundamentals of
rhythm” (Özer, 1992, p. 2).
2.1.1 Categories of usul
Arel stratifies usul into two different categories: small and large; basic (basit) and
compound (mürekkep). Small usuls range from 2 to 15 beats per cycle, while larger
usuls are more than 15 beats per cycle. Arel’s recognition of the binary constituents
of meter based on divisions of two or three is significant in that he appears to be the
first to define usul in this manner. Thus, Arel claims that only the two-beat Nim
Sofyan (Figure 2.4) and the three-beat Semai usul (Figure 2.5) are simple usuls,
while all other usuls are compounds that can be attributed to combinations of these
two usuls (Arel, 1968, p. 32).
Figure 2.4: Nim Sofyan usul
Figure 2.5: Semai usul
Arel continues to describe each subsequent usul in terms of constituent smaller

usuls, either a combination of simple usuls, compound, or both. To exemplify, Arel
defines Sofyan usul (a four-beat usul) as two Nim Sofyan usuls combined (Figure
2.6). The five-beat Türk Aksağı is a combination of Nim Sofyan and Semai (Figure
2.7).
Figure 2.6: Sofyan usul
Figure 2.7: Türk Aksağı usul
In order to describe the nine-beat Aksak, an usul common to Turkish music, Arel
derives a combination of Sofyan and Türk Aksağı usuls to create a second-level
compound usul of sorts (Arel, 1968, p. 38) (Figure 2.8).
Figure 2.8: Aksak usul
Certain usuls contain a variety of interpretations in explanation of their constituent

smaller usuls. Despite the scientific approach of using rhythmic subdivisions to
describe larger rhythmic cycles, Arel’s theory is not without criticism.
Karaosmanoğlu (2010) refutes the validity of the Arel school’s classification of basic
usuls based on two and three-beat units, citing the unique patterns of weak and
strong beats that occur in usuls. While the division of Aksak usul in Figure 2.8 could
be said be accurately represented by the “Düm” and “Tek” syllables of the smaller
constituent Sofyan and Türk Aksağı usuls, the partitioning of “Düm” and “Tek” beats
in Türk Aksağı as shown in Figure 2.7 does not perfectly match the triple-beat
grouping of Semai usul. Nonetheless, while variations of rhythmic beat types and
strong-weak beat stress divisions often define an usul as a unique entity, the
subdivision of rhythm into duple and triple groupings is inherent to all rhythmic
forms. The understanding of usul through constituent rhythmic cells that represent
smaller usuls is a valuable compositional concept to be discussed in section 2.5.5.
2.1.2 Aruz (poetic meter)
Aruz, a poetry system that originally began with Arabic poetry, was later adopted
into the Persian language, and eventually through affiliation with Persian culture,
into Turkish (İlhan, 2003, p. 2-3). The Arabic scholar El-Halil (Arabic: Al-Khalil) wrote
the first treatise on aruz, named Kitâbü’l Aruz (Book of Aruz), categorizing forms of
poetic feet into five broad categories called dâire. Within the five dâire were fifteen
bahir, and within bahir existed forms of poetic feet known as vezin. Vezin are
composed of combinations of words in Arabic, with each word representing a
combination of short and long syllables. As seen in the previous section 2.1.1 on
usul, early Middle Eastern music theorists percieved the fundamentals of rhythm in
a manner similar to the binary categorization of syllables in aruz. These words,
representing poetic feet, were grammatical derivatives of the same word in Arabic
10

and referred to as tef’ile. As such, El-Halil gives eight fundamental tef’ile from which
60 tef’ile are additionally derived (İlhan, 2003, p. 8).
Başak İlhan’s 2003 Master’s thesis provides an excellent resource to the use aruz
forms (vezin) within smaller usuls, from which I have benefitted greatly in my
research of usul-aruz forms. İlhan lists a total of 20 tef’ile from which aruz vezins are
derived (İlhan, 2003, pp. 10-11). An example of a common aruz vezin is the form:
Mef’ûlü Mefâîlü Mefâîlü Feûlün. This vezin, when broken into long-short syllable
combinations, is represented by the following binary codification: <__..
_ _ . . _ _ . . _ _ >. It is important to note how Turkish nomenclature utilizes the (^)
carrot symbol above vowels in order to signify a long vowel sound, typically a loan
word from Arabic or Farsi. Without utilization of these symbols in the Latin-scripted
Turkish alphabet, the value of words in the aruz system can be easily lost and
confused.
2.1.2.1 The relationship between aruz and usul
Once poetry in a particular aruz vezin has been chosen, the task of setting poetry to
music is accomplished by matching the poetic meter to the beats of a particular
usul. The result of a measured aruz vezin against a given usul creates a polyphonic
texture by which one line of an aruz vezin guides a melody over several measures
of an usul. The structure of several usul cycles within one aruz vezni establishes
natural phrase structure to Turkish vocal compositions. The resultant polyrhythmic
interaction between usul and aruz vezin is what İlhan mistakenly refers to as îka’.
İlhan defines îka as a “the most refined and characteristic rhythmic structure formed
by both usul and vezin” (İlhan, 2003, p. 4). 7 It is my hope that my extensive
explanation of usul and îka in the previous section 2.1 has satisfied any doubt as to
the meaning of îka. İlhan’s definition of îka not only defies the explanation I have
given, but also that of Arel and his school. I am aware of one other thesis
mentioning îka in the same manner as İlhan8, and considering this terminology is
additionally espoused by professors at Istanbul Technical University Turkish Music
State Conservatory (referred to from now on by its Turkish abbreviation: İTÜ
TMDK), I conclude it is of no coincidence that both theses were produced at the
same school. Due to this modern adoption of the term îka in reference to the
polyrhythmic complex between usul and aruz vezin, I have conceded to refer to this
concept as aruz îkası (meaning “îka of aruz” in Turkish), thereby maintaining

7
“...hem usul hem de veznin ritmik yapılarının kombinasyonundan oluşan, en rafine ve karakteristik
ritmik yapıdır.”
8
Murat Semih Nevşehirli’s Master’s thesis (Nevşehirli, 2011, pp. 36-37).
11

accuracy with the general meaning of îka’ while associating it with aruz. Returning to
the explanation of aruz îkası, I cite İlhan’s analysis of the vezin Mef’ûlü Mefâîlü
Mefâîlü Feûlün applied to Türk Aksağı usul in order to illustrate the rhythmic form
created between usul and aruz (İlhan, 2003, p. 34) (Figure 2.9).
Figure 2.9: Aruz vezin in Türk Aksağı usul
With the above aruz vezin, it is seen that an aruz îkası of eight cycles of Türk Aksağı
is formed. In a similar manner, many combinations of aruz vezin and usul have
appeared over generations of composition, while certain vezins are found more
frequently with particular usuls.
2.2 Mertebe (Metric Scale)
The concept of usul mertebe is an integral part of measuring usul both prior to and
after notation of Turkish music. Arel lists three basic mertebe forms for usul, defining
relative scale of rhythmic units (Figure 2.10). While the smallest mertebe may
indicate a relatively faster speed from the middle and large mertebe rhythms, Arel
points out that smaller mertebes are often used for the opposite purpose (Arel,
1968, p. 31). Kantemiroğlu’s9 famous seventeenth-century treatise additionally lists
three levels of mertebe, and comments similarly that mertebe is not indicative of
speed. Kantemiroğlu furthermore comments upon the large mertebe’s lack of utility
in describing the complete intentions of a composer. This is, in part, due to the need

9
Kantemiroğlu is a well-known figure in Ottoman music history. Also known as Prince Dimitrie
Cantemir, Kantemiroğlu was a Moldavian prince who lived in Istanbul between 1688-1710, contributing
to Ottoman music theory and introducing a system of alphabetical notation to record music (Popescu-
Judetz, 1999, p. 13).
12

for definition through counting a smaller mertebe as twice as fast, as well as the
division of odd numbers of beats in Kantemiroğlu’s alphabetical notation system
(Kantemiroğlu, 2001, pp. 16-18, 24-26).

Figure 2.10: Mertebe forms as typically notated in Semai usul (Arel, 1968, p. 33).
For the purposes of composition, mertebe can conceptually alter the rhythmic flow
and larger structural design of a work. It is easy to see how the same usul in the
large mertebe can earn the status of a 1:2 ratio with the same usul in the medium
mertebe. To exemplify, we can derive a compositional scheme where a melody
implies a smaller or larger mertebe. For the sake of simplicity, I will use the same
usul in a medium and large mertebe as an example. Of course, any combination of
usul and mertebe is possible, and can lead to possibilities in structural marking of
melody and meta-rhythm. As the following example in Figure 2.11 relates, from the
perspective of a composition in the medium-mertebe Türk Aksağı usul, an overlay of
a large-mertebe Türk Aksağı could provide a melodic framework to indicate a
phrase structure.
Figure 2.11: Melodic phrase in medium-mertebe Türk Aksağı
The example above was conceived in Hicaz makam, where the melody rests on the
güçlü (dominant) pitch d at the end of the first measure in medium mertebe Türk
Aksağı. While the phrase is segmented here, coinciding with the third beat of Türk
Aksağı in the large mertebe, a formal cadence on the makam’s karar (final) pitch of
A occurs in the second measure. This corresponds with the larger mertebe’s usul
13

cycle, and thus a mertebe ratio of 1:2. It is also possible to interpret this phrase as
one measure of a large-mertebe Türk Aksağı, whereby the medium-mertebe Türk
Aksağı adds a structural small-scale frame to the phrase. While typically only three
mertebe are recognized, this structural mertebe concept could possess implications
of mertebe of degrees beyond the third, providing larger structural symmetry
throughout a composition. The combination of mertebes can also be inter-related
with usul nesting, which is the topic of the subsequent section 2.3. Shift in mertebe
may also be interpreted as a type of usul modulation, the topic of section 2.4.
2.2.1 Darb usul
In his manual on usul, rhythmic pedagogue Hurşit Ungay makes mention of a

variation of Yürük Semai usul, to be considered as a relatively large mertebe
modulation to Semai usul over the course of a composition in Yürük Semai usul.
According to Ungay, this transformation was dubbed “Darb usul” by Hamammizade
İsmail Dede Efendi, and used in Dede Efendi’s compositions. The generated effect
of Darb usul creates a melodic polyrhythm against the ongoing rhythm of Yürük
Semai usul in a composition (Figure 2.12).
Figure 2.12: Darb usul
2.3 Nested Usul
Nested usul (usul iç-içeliği10) is the presence of one usul within the framework of
another.

10
This terminology is original, proposed by Dr. Ozan Yarman, and not found in Turkish music literature.
14

2.3.1 Nested Düyek usul
Perhaps the most commonly nested usul is Düyek, a syncopated rhythmic cycle
found in both larger and smaller usuls (Figure 2.13). While it may not be easy to
define with confidence, the metric nesting of Düyek can be interpreted in many
instances where the usul’s characteristic syncopation is at least partially implied.
This type of syncopation adds variety to the flow of a composition, aside from its
function as a complete substitution for larger, heavier usuls.
Figure 2.13: Düyek Usul
2.3.1.1 Düyek within Muhammes usul
In the case of larger usuls, such as Muhammes, the small mertebe form of Düyek
can provide a clean subdivision of an otherwise elongated usul form. This practice
of usul substitution, or nesting of a certain order, is known to be common to
contemporary performances (Figure 2.14).
Figure 2.14: Nested Düyek usul within Muhammes usul
15

The nested Düyek usul relates to Safiyyüddin’s definition of multiple usul overlap
through numerical proportion. In the case of a small mertebe Düyek inside of
medium mertebe Muhammes, a 8:32 (simplified as 1:4) proportion is achieved,
providing eight revolutions of a double-speed eight-beat Düyek cycle within one
revolution of a 32-beat Muhammes cycle.
2.3.1.2 Düyek within Ağır Aksak usul
An implied form of Düyek commonly occurs within Ağır Aksak usul, as well. As the
term ağır (heavy) implies, this form of Aksak usul connotates the larger mertebe
used. Düyek appears as a syncopation in a smaller mertebe when Ağır Aksak
combines polyrhythmically with a commonly paired aruz form in a larger mertebe.
The resultant aruz îkası creates the sonic appearance of Düyek, as shown in Figure
2.15.
Figure 2.15: Nested Düyek within Ağır Aksak usul’s aruz îkası
2.3.1.3 Nested Düyek within Dede Efendi’s Bayati Beste
When the underlying framework of a small mertebe Düyek usul is applied to Dede
Efendi’s beste “Bir Gonca Fem’in Yaresi Vardı Ciğerimde” (Appendix, Figure A.1) in
16

the greater medium mertebe structure of Hafif usul (32/4 time), the possible
interpretation of a nested Düyek becomes especially apparent in the terennüm
section of the composition (Figure 2.16).
Figure 2.16: Nested Düyek within Hafif usul
17

Figure 2.16 (continued): Nested Düyek within Hafif usul
18

2.4 Phasing
Metric or rhythmic phasing can be defined as the process by which a rhythmic

pattern is shifted from that of its original position in meter. Phasing was especially
adopted as a compositional technique in the Western Miminalist music of the 1960s
(Kostka, 1999, p. 296). Terry Riley used random phasing of melodic segments in his
famous In C, whereas Steve Reich implemented phasing techniques for many of his
compositions, such as Piano Phase and Clapping Music (Kostka, 1999, pp. 296-
302). Phasing can also be compared to the rhythmic displacement of imitated voices
in Renassiance music, to a certain extent.
2.4.1 Sûzidilârâ Mevlevi Ayin
Perhaps the most glaring example of phasing is found in the Sûzidilârâ Mevlevi
Ayin-i Şerif composed by Sultan Selim III. This compositional form, belonging to the
religious Mevlevi sect, is among the most extensive varieties of composition found in
Turkish music literature. Not surprisingly, much opportunity for musical nuance and
experimentation with makam is available throughout the course of the ayin.
Musicologist Dr. Nilgün Doğrusöz Dişiaçık together with Dr. Recep Uslu (2009) have
provided a complete published transcription of the Sûzidilârâ Mevlevi Ayin along
with a reprint of the original manuscript written in Ottoman and notated with Arabic-
Persian letters.
2.4.1.1 Semai sections
Semai sections of the Mevlevi Ayin are lighter, faster compositions designed to
facilitate a climactic finale at the end of the religious ceremony. In the Sûzidilârâ
Mevlevi Ayin, the semai section (Appendix, Figure A.3) is comprised of several
semai melodies, compiled together, and transcribed in 6/8 time by Doğrusöz. An
interesting contrast between the first (Figure 2.17) and last semai sections (Figure
2.18) is noticed in this ayin, which serves as an example of a common occurrence of
aruz phasing within semai sections. The aruz form differs between both semai
sections, where the last semai contains a phased aruz form, beginning on the
second half of the usul meter. Where the aruz form which would normally begin at
the beginning or sometimes in the middle of the usul, it is instead initiated on the
anticrucial final two beats of the usul. The result is an early anticipation of the next
semai section with a new poetic passage, suggesting a syncopated overlay of aruz
îkası with the continuing Yürük Semai passage (Uslu and Doğrusöz, 2009, pp. 54,
84; 57, 87). Selahattin İçli, during his years of professorship at the TMDK, has
19

dubbed such shifting of aruz as eklem kayması (literally “segment sliding”) to denote
the shift in aruz against usul that occurs in compositions with poetry.11
Figure 2.17: Excerpt from first semai section
Figure 2.18: Excerpt from last semai section with anticipated aruz

11
Such classification is lacking in literature, however imparted through instruction. Assisant professor
and TMDK graduate Dr. Şirin Karadeniz has recalled this terminology being used by Selahattin İçli in
the previous generation of TMDK instruction.
20

It is worth mentioning that Sultan Selim III employs the use of a hemiola rhythm in
the third full bar of each phrase in the final semai. This usage of hemiola is
synonymous with Dede Efendi’s utilization of “Darb usul” in Yürük Semai (mentioned
in section 2.2.1), thus creating a temporary mertebe/usul modulation.
As a final consideration, while the anticipated aruz îkası provides a polyrhythmic

nuance to the flow of the final semai, we could choose to interpret the aruz form as
beginning on the second beat of the Yürük Semai (or on any beat, for that matter).
By exploring such a compositional effect, we can create an implied phasing of the
Yürük Semai usul by counting the aruz and melodic rhythm as separate from the
unphased usul pattern (Figure 2.19).
Figure 2.19: Polyrhythmic scheme of last semai as interpreted on the second beat
21

Understanding the aforementioned principles of rhythmic phasing as applied to usul

or aruz, new methods of rhythmic variation can be derived in composition.
2.4.1.2 Sûzidilârâ Peşrev
Of the two Sûzidilârâ peşrevs found in Abdülbaki Dede’s Tahririye, the peşrev
written in Düyek usul was composed by Sultan Selim III 12 and contains what
Doğrusöz has identified as copyist’s mistake of the manuscript (Appendix, Figure
A.4). In order to match the rhythmic flow of düyek usul, Doğrusöz adds two beats in
the first measure of the first hane (melodic section) of the peşrev. Interestingly,
however, the total sum of beats that the scribe has calculated adds up to 80 at the
end of the first hane. This figure fits neatly into the framework of 10 measures of
düyek. Doğrusöz chooses to compensate for the addition of two beats early on by
subtracting two beats from the six-beat long final pitch in the end of the first hane.
The result cleanly matches the expectations for Düyek’s syncopated rhythm,
however the question of the composer’s original intentions remains unanswered.
Considering the accepted and very clear metric phasing implemented by Sultan
Selim III in the ayin’s final semai section, evidence begs the question of whether the
Sultan intended another similar rhythmic experiment when composing his peşrev. In
fact, every hane section of the peşrev contains a similar metric displacement to what
is found in the first hane.
It may be argued that Esad Efendi, the scribe of the earliest known version of
Abdülbaki Dede’s manuscript in 1794-5 (Uslu and Doğrusöz, 2009, p. 25),
consistently miscalculated each hane based on the repeating teslim motif with the
same six-beat final. Since the teslim motif was the same, the scribe may have
maintained the error throughout each hane, and truncated other parts of the piece in
order to maintain the same number of beats in each hane. Since the composer’s
intentions are impossible to know with all certainty, we can only speculate that this
recorded notation (Figure 2.20) was either an error or a conscious displacement of
rhythm, true to the composer’s intentions.

12
Abdülbaki Dede describes this peşrev as: “Sûzidilârâ makamını icat edenin peşrevi…” [translation:
“the peşrev of the inventor of Sûzidilârâ makam…”]; considering Sulltan Selim III is attributed as the
inventor of Sûzidilârâ, here he is understood as the peşrev’s composer as well (Uslu and Doğrusöz,
2009, p. 58).
22

Figure 2.20: Sûzidilârâ Peşrev, first hane (transcribed as originally notated)
When compared with the accepted semai section, doubt as to the need for usul
adjustment may arise. The instrumental peşrev follows the final semai section, and if
transcribed as the original manuscript indicates, suggests usul phasing. Without the
richness of aruz îkası in this instrumental peşrev, is it possible that the composer
sought another manner of polyrhythmic involvement in his peşrev? Could it be, that
Sultan Selim, who was known as an open-minded political and cultural reformist13,
was interested in experimenting with usul? Without being able to confirm any
further, this divergence has at the least allowed the inspiration for usul phasing as a
composition technique. In the context of instrumental piece, usul phasing allows the
opportunity for new polyrhythmic textures in composition.
2.5 Usul Modulation
Usul modulation (usul geçkisi) occurs as a direct transition to a new usul within a
composition. Arel defines usul modulation as “passing from one usul to another,”14
without a particular explanation of techniques involved. Arel does, however, cite
several exceptional compositions using usul modulation, as well as the instrumental
saz semai form. Set in a 10-beat Aksak Semai usul, the saz semai has its fourth
hane (literally “home,” a melodic section in instrumental forms) typically set in Yürük
Semai, a six-beat usul (Arel, 1968, p. 47). The common metric element of both
Aksak Semai and Yüruk Semai usuls is the three-beat semai usul cell. While

13
Çıpan and Karaman Explain Selim III’s reign as a period of cultural reform known as Nizam-ı Cedid,
instituted by the sultan himself. During this period, new makams, theory, and formal experiments were
being made; composers from this period are considered to belong to the “Selim III School” (Selim III
Ekolü) Çıpan, Karaman, 2010, p. 500).
14
“Bir usulden diğer bir usule geçmek” (Arel, 1968, p. 47).
23

modulation between usuls is not a common phenomenon, there are some well-
known examples available in the traditional repertoire of Turkish makam music.
2.5.1 Mevlevi Ayin form
While not typically recognized as a case of metric modulation, it is worth mentioning

that every section (selam) of the ayin possesses structural norms whereby the same
usul is often customarily associated with the change in section. According to
Çevikoğlu, the most common usul for the first selam of an ayin is Devri Revan (a 14-
beat usul) (2011, p. 21). The second and fourth selam both use Ağır Evfer usul (a
nine-beat usul), while the third selam contains three different usuls. Typically
beginning with the large Devr-i Kebir usul (28 beats), the third selam then transitions
to Aksak Semai (10 beats), which in turn transitions to Yürük Semai (six beats)
(Çevikoğlu, 2011, pp. 28, 36, 43). Finally, the son peşrev (final peşrev) follows the
fourth selam as a closing instrumental piece. While peşrevs are often composed in
extended usuls such as Devr-i Kebir, Çevikoğlu notes that Mevlevi musicians often
opt to substitute the peşrev’s usul for the lighter Düyek, similar to the nested usul
substitution found in section 2.3.1.1 (2011, p. 30).
2.5.2 Kevseri’s compound usuls
Turkish musicologist Eugenia Popescu-Judetz, in her redaction of eighteenth-

century theorist Kevseri’s manuscript, supplies insight into Kevseri’s view of
compound and nested usul. Kevseri, like Safiyyüddin, proposes various
equivalences of the larger usuls in numerical proportion to one another. Popescu-
Judetz, perhaps not having benefitted from the more recent translations of
Safiyyüddin’s works, 15 claims that Kevseri was the first writer in Turkish music
literature to develop and propose the polyrhythmic rendering of multiple usuls inside
larger usuls as a theoretic idea (Popescu-Judetz, 1998, pp. 15-17). Popescu-Judetz
was correct inasmuch as Kevseri was part of the Ottoman Turkish music culture,
whereas Safiyyüddin lived prior to the rise of the Ottoman Empire, therefore
qualifying as a forefather of Turkish music, as many recognize him. On all other
accounts, Popescu-Judetz seems mistaken about the origin of compound nested
usuls. Kevseri’s usul equivalences, as given by Popescu-Judetz, are shown in Table
2.1 as follows:

15
I refer specifically to Arslan’s translation of Şerefiyye, published nine years after Popescu-Judetz’s
Kevseri redaction, where usul is explained in terms of numeric proportion. Both volumes are translated
from Arabic into Turkish.
24

Table 2.1: Kevseri’s compound usul equivalences
Darb-ı Fetih= 4X Hezec 11X Fer’

Havi= 8X Fer’ 2X Hafif 4X Berefşan
Sakil= 4X Frenkçin 2X Nim Sakil 2X Nim Hafif 4X Çenber
Zencir= 2X Darbeyn 6X Fahte
Hafif= 2X Berefşan 2X Muhammes
Remel= 2X Devr-i Kebir 2X Frengifer
It can be seen that the concept of usul nesting also applies to the type of usul
modulation described by Kevseri, and therefore it should be noted that overlapping
terminology such as nesting and modulation are not mutually exclusive, yet may
exist independent of one another.
2.5.3 Safiyyüddin’s compound usuls
As mentioned in the previous section, Safiyyüddin’s Şerefiyye contains

equivalences for nesting and overlapping several îka of his age. Unlike Kevseri,
Safiyyüddin presents different usul combinations as numerical proportion. Thus,
rather than equating multiple smaller usuls to one large usul as Kevseri does,
Safiyyüddin expands the concept by calculating the proportion of multiple usuls to
one another. Safiyyüddin suggests that the origins for this usul concept did not
begin with himself; rather, that the practice was heard in performances of
compositions written by “old Arab artists.” Safiyyüddin remarks, however, that the
compound usuls as performed often did not match form properly (Arslan, 2007, p.
383). It can thus be inferred that Safiyyüddin sought to both transmit and refine an
old art by explaining its theoretical parameters. In the following Table 2.2, I have
listed the relative proportions for all îka cycles mentioned by Safiyyüddin. It should
be noted that Safiyyüddin acknowledges the possibilities for many proportioned
combinations of usul, and that his examples are “sufficient for those who wish to
know and develop this science” (Arslan, 2007, p. 383).16 Each column features a
main usul by which others are proportioned. The beats per usul cycle are listed in
parentheses, whereas relative usul proportions are given according to the new usul
listed in the underlying rows.

16
“Îka ilmi konusunda, bu ilmi bilip geliştirmek isteyenler için bu kadarı yeterlidir.”
25

Table 2.2: Safiyyüddin’s compound usul equivalences
Birinci Sakil (32) Çift Remel (24) Zaid Fahte (28)

Çift Remel (24)=4/3 İkinci Sakil (16)=3/2 Çift Remel (24)=7/6
İkinci Sakil (16)=2/1 Hafifu’s-Sakil (8)=3/1 Fahte (20)=7/5
Hafifu’s-Sakil (8)=4/1 Fahte (20)=6/5 İkinci Sakil (16)=7/4
Remel (12)=8/3 Hafifu’s-Sakil (8)=14/4
Hafifu’r-Remel (6)=16/3
Fahte (20)=8/5
Zaid Fahte (28)=8/7
It can be easy to see how new usul modulation schemes can be derived by applying
proportions of any usul used in current practice to one another. Through implied
rhythmic groupings, melodic phrasing, mertebe shifts, or directly through usul
modulation, the concept of proportionately balanced usul cycles can be applied to
composition.
2.5.4 Itri’s Neva Kâr
A well-known example of usul modulation can be found in the famed seventeenth-

century composer Itri’s Neva Kâr (Appendix, Figure A.5). Itri takes advantage of the
kâr form’s status as the most comprehensive vocal form, and combines various
usuls in different structural segments. Beginning and ending with two revolutions of
Nim Sakil usul (notated as 24/4 time) as a framework for the composition, Itri moves
to a free-rhythm terennüm section after a second verse encompassing two
revolutions of Nim Sakil. By utilizing Sakil usul, which is twice the value of Nim Sakil
(48/4 time), Itri makes a connection between the new usul and its predecessor as a
proportionally matched augmentation, 2:1. Following the next verse in Nim Sakil, Itri
modulates to Devr-i Revan usul for the next terennüm section. Devr-i Revan then
transitions to Remel usul for the next verse preceding a chain of modulations in five
different terennüm sections before returning to the final verse with its refrain in Nim
Sakil. Beginning the new terennüm is the brisk Yürük Semai usul (6/4 time), which
transitions into Devr-i Kebir (28/4 time) for the next terennüm. This transition could
be explained as a common usul modulation through mertebe, similar to Darb usul
mentioned in section 2.2.1 with Yürük Semai: The first three beats of Devr-i Kebir
can be viewed as a large-mertebe form of Semai usul (3/2 time), thus corresponding
to an equivalency with one revolution of medium-mertebe Yürük Semai (6/4 time). In
this manner, Itri may have perceived a smooth transition from Yürük Semai to Devr-i
Kebir through a common usul-mertebe relationship (the idea of common usul and
usul cells will be expounded upon in section 2.5.5). Maintaining the theme of smooth
26

usul modulations, the following three modulations could additionally be explained by

the unifying common rhythmic motif found in the final portion of the usul cycles of
Devr-i Kebir, Berefşan, and Muhammes (Figure 2.21).
Figure 2.21: Common rhythm in final portion of modulated usul cycles.
Fer usul (also called Fer-i Muhammes), similar to Nim Sakil, is half of the value of
Muhammes (16/4 time), and as Itri does with Nim Sakil, Fer is balanced with the 32-
beat cycle of Muhammes by repeating it’s usul, achieving a ratio of 2 Fer:1
Muhammes. The structural outline of Itri’s Neva Kâr is explained in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Usul modulation in Itri’s Neva Kâr
Formal section Number of usul cycles

Verse (Güfte) 1 Nim Sakil (24 beats) 2X (repeated twice)
Refrain (Nakarat)--terennüm Nim Sakil 4X
Verse 2 Nim Sakil 2X
Terennüm 1 Sakil (48 beats) 1X
Terennüm 2 Devr-i Revan (26 beats) 4X
Verse 4 Remel (28 beats) 2X
Terennüm 3 Yürük Semai (6 beats) 10X
Terennüm 4 Devr-i Kebir (28 beats) 2X
Terennüm 5 Berefşan (32 beats) 1X
Terennüm 6 Muhammes (32 beats) 1X
Terennüm 7 Fer (16 beats) 2X
Refrain—terennüm Nim Sakil 4X
2.5.5 Usul modulation through usul cells
Arel’s binary system of two and three-beat usul cells provides the groundwork for
creative compositional techniques. It is possible to take advantage of the identity of
what I call “usul cells” in order to create connecting usul segments used in usul
modulation. To compare to the melodic structure of makam, melodic segments
called çeşni (literally “flavor”) indicate the identity of a makam modulation. Typically
structured in terms of tetrachords or pentachords, makam çeşni may give only a few
27

notes of a melody sufficient for understanding the new çeşni being implied. If we
apply the same logic to usul cells, just as Arel defines compound usuls as
containing constituent elements of smaller usuls, we may interpret that an usul cell
can be presented as a “flavor” of a particular usul which implies the identity of a
larger rhythmic structure and facilitates modulation. As melodic çeşni are often used
to facilitate makam modulation based on common çeşni shared by the two different
makams, usul cells could also be applied to connect two different usuls in a
modulatory transition (Figure 2.22).
Figure 2.22: Common çeşni facilitating makam modulation
As seen above, Rast makam is firstly identified by the Rast pentachord on g. Upon
the dominant note (güçlü) of d’, either a Rast tetrachord or Buselik tetrachord may
be formed. It is typical of Rast makam to employ Rast on d’ when ascending, and
likewise Buselik when descending through the alteration of only one pitch. Nikriz
makam, with the same final pitch (karar) as Rast, shares the same affiliation with
upper tetrachords Rast and Buselik, making modulation to Nikriz very easy. In the
example, I have suggested a scalar outline of both makams, giving a descending
motion with Buselik çeşni on d’, as is common in both Rast and Nikriz makam. Thus,
as a shared connecting çeşni, Buselik descends not to rast but to a Nikriz
pentachord in order to execute a smooth modulation. By extracting the “çeşni” of an
usul, we can achieve a similar effect in usul modulation.
Figure 2.23: Usul modulation through extracted usul cells
In the example of Figure 2.23, I chose to transition between common small usuls,
Türk Aksağı, and Yürük Semai, using Semai usul as an usul cell shared by the other
two usuls. As Arel mentions, Semai usul is a component of both Türk Aksağı and
Yürük Semai (Arel, 1968, pp. 34-35). In contrast to the extracted usul cell, where the
shared usul cell between two points of modulation is expounded upon in its own
right, we can also devise a shared usul cell scheme. Here, a common usul cell
28

overlaps between two different adjacent usuls in what appears to be a direct

modulation (Figure 2.24).
Figure 2.24: Usul modulation through shared usul cell overlap
Depending upon perspective, this type of modulation detracts from the total number
of beats of either the original usul or the modulated usul. Thus, in the above
example, we could see the Türk Aksağı as shifting to one measure of Nim Sofyan
for two beats before modulating to Yürük Semai. Alternately, we could interpret that
one cell of Semai usul follows two measures of Türk Aksağı before modulating to
Yürük Semai. This ambiguity requires a certain flexibility of perception regarding
shift in usul. To better exemplify this overlapping usul cell technique, I have
composed a Nakış Ağır Semai, which will be discussed in section 2.6.4.2.
2.5.5.1 Nikriz Sirto
As an example of using extracted usul cell modulation in composition, I have written

a Nikriz Sirto. As a light instrumental piece, the Sirto provides the proper form for a
playful interpretation of usul modulation. The Nikriz Sirto contains five main melodic
sections, with four main usul modulations. In order to facilitate modulation, I have
placed transitional melodies to be interpreted as usul cells between main sections.
As can be seen in the Sirto, the first melody in Evfer usul (nine beats) transitions to
Zafer usul (five beats)17 by using a Semai usul as a common cell. From Zafer, I use
Nim Sofyan to transition to Devr-i Turan (seven beats), and using the Semai cell at
the end of Devr-i Turan, I connect to Düyek through the last three beats Yürük
Semai to parallel the first three beats of Düyek (1(Düm)-2(Tek)). Using Sofyan usul
as a cell in Evfer usul, I transition back to the original usul and conclude with the first
melody. Figure 2.25 highlights the main melodic sections in the Nikriz Sirto using
capital letters; transitions are marked using lower-case letters.

17
Zafer is a syncopated five-beat metric cycle (1-2-1-1) derived by Rauf Yekta in his Rast March (Rast
Marşı, or Tekbir) (Ungay, 1981, p. 23).
29

Figure 2.25 Nikriz Sirto
30

Figure 2.25 (continued): Nikriz Sirto
2.5.6 Usul modulation through velvele
The subdivision of usul into ornamenting rhythm is known as velvele. If one uses the
rhythmic patterns of velvele as a common structure in usul modulation, a new
avenue for modulation becomes apparent. If we take, for instance, Düyek usul and
decide to modulate to Aksak usul, superficially we find little rhythmic parallel
between both usuls. While it is true that Düyek’s first half could be explained as
similar to Aksak by sharing a cell of Sofyan usul, the syncopated characteristic of
Düyek’s first four beats significantly differs from Aksak. However, when analyzing
the vevele structure of both usuls, a near match in velvele is found. Thus, the
combination of a shared Sofyan cell in syncopated form and an almost completely
identical velvele structure can establish a smooth transition from two otherwise
dissimilar usuls. As an extension of the velvele patterns found in Düyek and Aksak
usuls, Aksak Semai (10 beats) shares the initial four beat velvele Düm Te-ke Tek
Kâ. In the fifth beat where both Aksak and Düyek usuls use the sixteenth-note
subdivision of Dü-me, Aksak Semai delays the arrival of the larger Düm beat by
adding an extra eighth-note prior, creating a Te-ke velvele. Aksak Semai ends with
the same three-beat Tek-Tek pattern of Aksak usul, however due to its previously
extended beats, these Semai usul cells don’t match up between the two usuls. In
this manner, Aksak Semai may also be seen as an extended-beat variation of
Düyek and Aksak usul, while it’s constituent usul cell structure is more distant from
the smaller usuls than they are to one another. It is through the structure of Aksak
Semai’s velvele rhythm that we can see a greater sense of unity with Düyek and
Aksak usul, and therefore be able to apply a sense of continuity in modulation
between these usuls (Özkan, 2011, pp. 633-634, 639-640, 661) (Figure 2.26).
31

Figure 2.26: Düyek, Aksak, and Aksak Semai usul’s velvele forms compared
Departing from this concept, either in its own right or through coincidence with other
modulation techniques such as common usul cell modulation, common velvele
modulation provides another dimension of rhythmic nuance available to the
composer.
2.6 Modulation Between Usul and Aruz
The concept of using the connection between usul and aruz as a mode of
modulation to and from either rhythmic device in a composition is largely
unexplored. Through examination of traditional examples as well as proposal for
new theoretical models, various avenues for new compositional technique can be
developed without detracting from the core elements of usul and aruz.
32

2.6.1 Aruz modulation from common usul (ortak usuldan aruz geçkisi)
Modulation of aruz through usul provides a unifying base for transition between aruz
meters that share common usuls. By maintaining the aruz îkası of the aruz-usul
complex, a clean modulation is possible following one revolution of aruz îkası. As
examined in section Sûzidilârâ Mevlevi Ayin of Sultan Selim III, the third Selam of
Mevlevi Ayins typically feature transition between several aruz vezin in different
sections of Yürük Semai usul. Likewise, the other Selams also feature a mixture of
poetic lines taken from various sources and bound together under the structure of
one usul.
2.6.1.1 Aruz modulation in Pençgah Mevlevi Ayin
If we examine the aruz structure in the first Selam of the centuries-old anonymous18
Pençgah Mevlevi Ayin (Appendix, Figure A.6), we find three aruz vezins connected
by extended passages of terennüm within the same framework of Devrirevan usul
(Figure 2.27). The first aruz vezin used is from the Rubai bahir, <Mef’ûlü Mefâ’îlün
Mefâ’îlü Feûl> with a three-measure aruz îkası (Çevikoğlu, 2011, p. 86). Between
lines of this vezin, terennüm is interspersed to create six-measure segments, with a
long section of 15 bars of terennüm segmenting this section and the next aruz
modulation. The second aruz vezin is <Fe’ilâtü Fâ’ilâtün Fe’ilâtü Fâ’ilâtün> from the
Remel bahir, with an aruz îkası of five measures (Çevikoğlu, 2011, p. 87). Breaking
from a strict aruz îkası, the standard five bars are extended with terennüm,
presumably in order to balance out the total revolution of Devrirevan usul to eight.
Four measures of terennüm conclude this section before transitioning to the final
aruz vezin of this section, in Rubai bahir: <Mef’ûlü Mefâ’îlü Mefâ’îlün Fâ’>
(Çevikoğlu, 2011, p. 88). The final section contains an aruz îkası of three measures,
with an extended measure of terennüm to create a balanced count of four. Six
measures of terennüm bridge this section to the second Selam.

18
Traditional ayins by unknown composers are typically referred to as “Beste-i Kadim (“ancient
composition”). Çevikoğlu has concluded that these compositions originate from approximately the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries (Çevikoğlu, 2011, p. 8).
33

Figure 2.27: Aruz modulation in first Selam of Pençgah Mevlevi Ayin, condensed for
comparison
2.6.1.1 Usul nesting with aruz modulation: Dede Efendi’s Mahur Beste
Dede Efendi’s Mahur Beste (Appendix, Figure A.7) features a unique nesting of
Yürük Semai usul inside of the large-scale Ağır Hafif usul (32 beats, large mertebe).
Instead of applying a 1:1 beat ratio within the same ratio, or even a 2:1 ratio using
Yürük Semai in a smaller mertebe, Dede Efendi creates a proportionate modulation,
equating two large mertebe beats of Ağır Hafif to a full cycle of Yürük Semai in the
medium mertebe. In this manner, a 2:3 ratio is achieved between beats of the same
mertebe value (two quarter notes in Ağır Hafif equals three quarter notes in Yürük
Semai). Accompanying the usul modulation in the second part of the opening zemin
section, Dede Efendi uses a different aruz form, achieving simultaneous aruz
modulation. The original aruz îkası of <Mef’ûlü Mefâîlü Mefâîlü Feûlün> in Hafif usul
thus modulates on the level of aruz îkası to <Müstefilatün Müstefilatün Müstefilâtün
Müstefilâtün>. However, since this aruz îkası only matches with half of Ağır Hafif
usul, Dede Efendi again chooses to modulate aruz forms to <Müfteilün Müfteilün
Müfteilün Müfteilün>. Instead of completing this aruz form, Dede Efendi throws yet
another twist to the compositional scheme by ending the Yürük Semai and its aruz
34

form at the third usul revolution (after three <Müfteilün>). This is done to set up
transition back to the original usul with its aruz, which completes the larger nesting
framework of Ağır Hafif. The following rhythmic outline in Figure 2.28 maps the first
zemin section (labeled “Zemin A”) against the second section (labeled “Zemin B”)
together with the usul and aruz forms for each, in order to demonstrate the contrast
in usul and aruz.
Figure 2.28: Dede Efendi’s Mahur Beste, zemin section
35

While it is common to see Dede Efendi mentioned as one of the distinctive “genius”
composers of Ottoman music, it is often more difficult to find discourse that explains
exactly why he should be considered exceptional. Taking this small example of
Dede Efendi’s creativity with mertebe, rhythmic proportion, and aruz, the legend of
his mastery becomes more tangible. The techniques found in Dede Efendi’s Mahur
Beste exemplifies a well-structured blend of several compositional elements
contained within one piece, and serves as an inspiration for composers to this day.
2.6.2 Usul modulation through aruz vezin (aruz vezninden usul geçkisi)
In the Turkish makam music tradition, almost no example of modulation of usul

through a common aruz vezin can be found in composition. The closest approach to
this technique is, once again, unsurprisingly found in the Mevlevi Ayin. As a matter
of custom, the final portion of the first section in the third Selam of the ayin
transitions to Aksak Semai usul (10 beats) by finishing the previous usul’s aruz
vezin/îkası in Aksak Semai before continuing either to another complete section in
Aksak Semai (such as in the Beste-i Kadim Pençgah Mevlevi Ayin), or directly to
Yürük Semai (as in the Sultan Selim III Sûzidilârâ Mevlevi Ayin). To my knowledge,
this is the only instance of two usuls sharing one aruz vezin, effectively creating a
non-standard aruz îkası.
2.6.2.1 Usul modulation through aruz in Sûzidilârâ Mevlevi Ayin
Since the transition from a larger usul such as Devr-i Kebir in the opening of the
third Selam to Aksak Semai occurs in almost every Mevlevi Ayin, I will cite the
familiar Sûzidilârâ Mevlevi Ayin to exemplify this technique. In this ayin, Sultan
Selim opens the third Selam (Appendix, Figure A.2) with Frenkçin usul (12 beats),
using the aruz vezin <Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilün>. The fourth and final verse in this
section begins with one <Fâ’ilâtün> in what appears to still be a medium-mertebe
Frenkçin usul, however ends two beats prematurely before finishing the aruz vezin
with <Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilün> in a small-mertebe Aksak Semai usul for four bars
(Çevikoğlu, 2011, pp. 295-296). Doğrusöz interprets the missing two beats of the
last bar of Frenkçin as a copyist’s error, and adds a half note on d to complete the
usul before modulating to Aksak Semai. For an unknown reason, Doğrusöz also
chooses to add three measures of Aksak Semai, and not four as indicated in the
original manuscript, as well (Uslu and Doğrusöz, 2009, pp. 53-54, 82). 19 If
interpreted as 10 beats of Frenkçin, the aruz îkası of the fourth verse coincides with

19
I have compared my personal transcription of the original document with Dr. Doğrusöz-Dişiaçık’s
transcription.
36

only one complete <Fâ’ilâtün>, whereas the aruz îkası form for Frenkçin would
normally require a syllable on the eleventh beat in the cycle. If Sultan Selim had
chosen to add the last two beats of Frenkçin with its aruz syllable, it would have
then created incongruence with the aruz îkası of the following four bars of Aksak
Semai by adding one syllable too many. It appears that Sultan Selim, conscious of
the smooth transition a 10-beat “Frenkçin” cycle would create, had decided to cut
the usul in an unorthodox manner. The medium-mertebe 10-beat form of Frenkçin
bears the utility of appearing as a larger-mertebe form of the following Aksak Semai,
which in compensation for the composer’s infidelity to Frenkçin usul allows for
another level of compositional unity (Figure 2.29).
Figure 2.29: Usul modulation through common aruz in Sûzidilârâ Mevlevi Ayin
2.6.2.2 Applied use of usul modulation through aruz
The application of usul modulation through aruz vezin implies the creation of new
aruz îkası forms that may take a myriad of usul combinations. In this relatively
experimental technique, it must be left to the discernment of the composer as to
what combinations of usuls can complete a shared aruz vezni with a good aesthetic.
The advantage of maintaining a typical aruz vezin amongst which multiple usuls
transition is that original poetry does not need to be written especially for a
composition. As has been tradition, any poetic work utilizing a desired aruz vezni
can be harvested and applied to this technique in the process of composition. Thus,
while the aruz vezin maintains intact, through this technique we are essentially
37

deriving new possibilities for aruz îkası. The composite of one or more usul, with
each usul bearing its signature aruz îkası comprised by a single aruz vezin
ultimately suggests new rhythmic and sound possibilities in Turkish makam music.
To better explore these implications, we can demonstrate the flexibility of several
usul around a common aruz vezin found in many compositions with various usuls:
<Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilün>. To explore the combination of two usuls in
this aruz vezin, we can begin with Devr-i Hindi usul (seven beats) and Aksak usul
(nine beats). The aruz îkası of Devr-i Hindi in this aruz vezin is typically four cycles
long. 20 Coincidentally, Aksak usul also possesses a four-cycle aruz îkası (İlhan,
2003, pp. 63, 100) (Figure 2.30).
Figure 2.30: Aruz îkası of Devr-i Hindi and Aksak Usuls in <Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilâtün
Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilün> aruz vezin
Assuming no aesthetic preference, we can determine that any combination of

measures from each usul totaling four could result in a complete aruz îkası cycle. In
this case, there are eight iterations possible for these two aruz îkası forms in
combination with one another. Two of such possible combinations could resemble
the following:
Figure 2.31: Two combinations of Aksak and Devr-i Hindi usuls with
<Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilün> aruz vezin

20
İlhan has compiled a number of variations of the <Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilün> vezin in Devr-
i Hindi and Aksak usuls as well as other usuls. As such, the variety of aruz îkası forms for one usul-
vezin combination exists as an additional realm of possibility from that of usul-vezin combinations
themselves.
38

In the above example of Figure 2.31, the first combination frames Aksak usul with
Devr-i Hindi. Here, notwithstanding change of usul, syllables of the aruz vezin
appear where they are expected, with no loss. In the second example, however, the
typically aruz îkası for the third <Fâ’ilâtün> in Aksak usul expects a delay of the
arrival of the first “Fâ” until the second beat of Aksak usul. Due to modulation to
Devr-i Hindi usul, however, the “Fâ” sounds on the first beat of the modulated usul in
correspondence with the new aruz îkası of the usul. While this variation is of little
consequence, at certain points of potential usul modulation, composers may need to
determine whether modulation would fit the aruz îkası well or disrupt the desired
flow of a composition. If used, usul modulation through shared aruz may require
extension or shortening of various aruz syllables according to the aruz îkası of the
modulated usul.
2.6.2.3 Usul modulation from shared aruz in Karcığar Şarkı
The poetry I have chosen to guide my composition in şarkı (“song”) form is derived
from Hacı Arif Bey’s şarkı “Aşkınla senin sevdiceğim zar ü zebunum” (Yarar, 2009,
p. 345). Using the aruz vezin of <Mef’ûlü Mefâîlü Mefâîlü Feûlün> as a framework, I
have chosen a mixture of Sofyan (2/4 time), Türk Aksağı (5/8 time), and Aksak (9/8
time) usuls for the beginning zemin (“ground”) and nakarat (“refrain”) sections, with
a focus on Aksak usul as a main usul. In addition to establishing continuity through
the same aruz vezin, Aksak usul transitions from and to its constituent usul cells of
Sofyan and Türk Aksağı, which alone posses a particular affiliation with the main
usul. Due to the nature of the poetry containing a couplet for each section, I have
chosen not to repeat the melody of the şarkı for each couplet line, but rather exploit
the opportunity for an extended melody with more variations of usul modulation. The
contrasting meyan section features two new usul modulations: Aksak Semai (10/8
time) and Müsemmen (8/8 time) with an emphasis on Aksak Semai as the main usul
in this section. The nakarat, beginning with two measures of Türk Aksağı usul,
transitions from Aksak Semai as if it were a repeated second half of the larger usul
due to its identical rhythmic groupings (2 (Düm)+3 (Tek Tek)) (Figure 2.32).
39

Figure 2.32: Usul modulation through aruz vezin in Karcığar Şarkı
40

Figure 2.32 (continued): Usul modulation through aruz vezni in Karcığar Şarkı
2.6.2.4 Combined usul-aruz modulation techniques in composition: Pençgah

Nakış Ağır Semai
In my Pençgah Nakış Ağır Semai (Appendix, Figure B.1), I have employed several
of the more experimental compositional techniques mentioned thus far (Figure
41

2.33). Beginning with the aruz vezin <Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilün>, the first
line follows Aksak Semai usul (10/4 time) for four measures to complete the aruz
îkası. The second line begins with Devr-i Hindi usul (7/4) as a modulation in the
same aruz vezin, with the final <Fâ’ilün> being completed in Aksak Semai usul.
Taking advantage of the lafzi terennüm (free verse with meaningful words) section’s
lack of aruz structure, I use verse in a more syllabic manner to highlight the usul
modulation that occurs by means of shared usul cells.
Figure 2.33: Shared usul cell overlap in Pençgah Nakış Ağır Semai
In the subsequent meyan section, where melodic divergence is expected, I

additionally manipulate usul and aruz through shared usul and aruz cells (Figure
2.34). Just as usul cells may be shared between usul, I have mirrored this concept
in the aruz form by modulating to a different aruz vezin through a shared usul.
Beginning with Aksak Semai and one <Fâ’ilâtün>, I choose to overlap the aruz cell
of “tün,” with “Müs.” As the choice in the most basic aruz cells are, like usul, binary,
shared aruz cells may be thought of as either short or long syllables. The
overlapping “Müs” syllable coincides with a cell of Semai usul, which constitutes the
beginning of a modulation to Düyek usul. The aruz modulation to <Müstef’ilâtün
Müstef’ilâtün> (four measures long in this particular aruz îkası) extends for three
measures in Düyek, and overlaps completely with an implied second <Fâ’ilâtün> cell
in continuation of the first aruz vezin. The duplicity of aruz vezin in this modulation
can be said to add more unity between modulating vezins. The usul then transitions
42

from Düyek to Aksak Semai without overlap this time, and sharing the vezin
<Müstef’ilâtün Müstef’ilâtün> (with a typical aruz îkası of two measures21) for one
measure. The final “tün” of this <Müstef’ilâtün> in Aksak Semai again overlaps in a
shared usul and aruz cell modulation, where the final three beats of Aksak Semai
overlap the new measure of Aksak Semai with the aruz form <Fâ’ilün>. Here, I
justify the usul cell overlap of two of the same Aksak Semai measures with the
understanding that aruz vezin is being modulated through the overlap of long aruz
syllables. The resultant aruz vezin is naturally an experimental makeshift form:
<Fâ’ilâtün (Müs)tef’ilâtün Müstef’ilâtün (Müs)tef’ilâtün (Fâ)’ilün>, bearing the binary
syllable pattern of: <_ . _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ . _ _ . _>. Removing the shared aruz
cells, we could think of this form as <Fâ’ilâtün Fâ’ilâtün Müstef’ilâtün Fâ’ilün
Fâ’ilün>. As with shared usul cells, the conceptual calculation of aruz syllables is
longer than its practical representation due to the application an overlapping
technique. In any case, again like usul cell modulation, overlapping aruz cell
modulation can provide new forms and modulatory concepts for contemporary
composition in Turkish makam music.
Figure 2.34: Shared aruz cell modulation in Meyan of Pençgah Nakış Ağır Semai

21
Both respective aruz îkası are referenced in Başak İlhan’s Masters thesis (İlhan, 2003, pp. 82, 132).
43

44

3. MAKAM AND TRANSPOSITION
The principles that guide the melodic construction of makam will be examined in a
new light, as I propose new methods for analyzing makam in composition and
developing the existent tonal possibilities. Relationship to ancient Greek theory as
well as the foundational makam theorist Safiyyüddin will be established in order to
relate traditional perspectives to new theory.
3.1 Understanding and Defining Makam
Arel defines makam as “the particularity birthed from the dominant-tonic

relationships between pitches in a scale or melody” (Arel, 1968, p. 14).22 Within this
statement alone, we can already find particular leanings towards usage of Western
musical terminology co-opted into its Turkish counterparts. Arel begins his
theoretical introduction to makam not with the definition of makam but of its
constituent elements, the pentachord and tetrachord (Arel, 1968, p. 8-11). Arel then
establishes that a scale (dizi) spans an octave, and is formed by a combination of a
pentachord and a tetrachord (Arel, 1968, p. 13). Özkan, following the AEU school,
repeats Arel’s definition of scale and clarifies that a scale carries the fundamental
qualities of a makam. Özkan then differentiates scale from makam by qualifying that
scale has a static function, whereby each degree possesses a relatively neutral
relationship to the others. Makam, on the other hand, is “active,” with every scale
degree holding a particular significance in relevance to one another (Özkan, 2011,
p. 94).
The emphasis on function of scale degree in makam is reminiscent of early Western

modal music, thus bringing the adoption of the term “modal” into vogue in many
modern Turkish theory texts. Karl Signell, author of the first book written on makam
in English, states that: “the makam system is a set of compositional rules by which

22
“Dizide veya lahinde seslerin durakla ve güçlü ile münasebetlerinden doğan hususiyete ‘makam’
denilir.”
45

the melodic component of a piece of music is realized. The closest counterpart in

Western music would be the medieval mode” (Signell, 1977, p. 16). Related to the
pentachord-tetrachord concept is the idea of çeşni, which should give the identity of
a makam within the span of a pentachord or less. As an often “modal” relationship
with other scale degrees, a çeşni suggests a unique function of the scale degree it
begins on. Makam: Turkish Music Guide, a recent theory companion written in
Turkish by Murat Aydemir and translated into English, suggests that two or three
notes could give the identity of a makam çeşni (Aydemir, 2010, p. 19). Here,
although çeşni is referred to as the direct English translation “flavor,” I shall refer to
this term in its original Turkish. Likewise, the term for a makam’s finalis, karar
(alternatively durak), will be used. It is customary to refer to the pitches in the
makam system as perde (literally “curtain”), which I shall use when needed.
When suitable, for ease of conceptualization, I may simply refer to a perde by note
name, as one would read on a staff (for example, Rast çeşni on g-Rast). The
nomenclature typically applied to works discussing Western modal music is a useful
fit for describing the perdes of Turkish makam within texts. Thus, in the manner of
Dahlhaus (1990) and Lester (1989), I will notate specific perdes according to
ambitus. The lowest octave ranges from the c (in small letters) below the treble clef
staff to the C (in capitals) one octave below it. This range contains a sufficiently low
limit for Turkish music, as most compositions do not venture further than the b or c
below the staff. The octave of the c pitch that is inside the staff is represented by
adding an apostrophe to the pitch [c’]. The octave surpassing this range above the
staff is the highest range required for Turkish music, represented as [c”]. I have
chosen to notate the AEU system accidentals next to the pitch letters in parentheses
for clarity, so that the 4-koma sharp is represented as [#], the 5-koma flat is
represented as [b], the 1-koma flat is represented as [d], and the 1-koma sharp is
represented as [+]. A 5-koma sharp is shown as [#+], whereas a 4-koma flat is
shown as [b+]. Eight-koma sharps and flats are respectively notated as [##] and
[bb]. I have taken liberty to express most note names without regard to capitalization
within musical notation examples, as the ambitus of these pitches are self-evident
(Figure 3.1).
46

Figure 3.1: In-text notation scheme of perdes within AEU system
An important consideration to the structure of makam is the seyir concept, which

indicates the melodic path of a makam. Seyir shows which çeşni to highlight, and in
which ambitus the makam begins and ends. Yavuzoğlu’s Türk Müziğinde Makamlar
ve Seyir Özellikleri (2011) gives concise examples of makam scale forms with seyir,
arranged according to common karar perde. Warning that a makam’s scale form is
but one element of a makam’s structure, Yavuzoğlu explains that melody
additionally requires seyir with direction (2011, p. 35). Arel, Aydemir, Yavuzoğlu,
and Özkan all use a description of çeşni combined with a rough sketch of a
makam’s seyir in their books, which gives a concrete explanation of the typical
melodic paths the define makams. Modern theory evaluates makam types based on
three general categories of seyir: çıkıcı (ascending) seyirs begin around the ambitus
of the karar perde and move upwards before settling on the karar once again; inici
(descending) seyirs typically begin around the ambitus of the karar’s upper octave
or emphasized upper perde (tiz durak) before descending to the karar; inici-çıkıcı
seyirs begin around the güçlü (dominant) perde of the makam, often wandering
around the upper ambitus of the makam before descending to the karar (Özkan,
2011, p. 94).
3.1.1 Foreign influence and “Westernization” in Turkish makam music
Özkan, in a moment of cultural pride, claims that genius composers of Turkish art
music single-handedly reach the high level of tonal music through expressing the
fine qualities of modal music. Here, we see a direct polar comparison of “Western”
tonal music to “Turkish” modal music. Özkan continues to exhalt Turkish makam
music with the statement: “truly, it is very difficult to find amongst the modal musics
of the world a second modal music that possesses the finesse and nobility of
Turkish music” (Özkan, 2011, p. 116). With this statement, Özkan seems to neglect
that what is currently understood as Turkish art music bears direct connection to the
rich multicultural and multiethnic social fabric of the Ottoman period. In Arel’s book
Türk Musikisi Kimindir? [Turkish Music Belongs to Whom?] (1969), a detailed
47

comparison of current Turkish music with the music systems of ancient Greece,
Byzantium, Persia, and Arabia is taken into account. While Arel seems to argue for
the solidarity of “Turkish” identity in this type of makam music, the simple fact that
these musics are being compared overwhelmingly suggests a centuries-long history
of shared culture around a common geography. Without extensive digression into
the much-debated topic of the origin of “Turkish music” and ethnic identity, I wish to
emphasize my opinion that what is understood as Turkish makam music today has
much in common with other geographically and historically related genres, was in its
“Classical” period during the Ottoman Empire heavily influenced by non-Turks, and
is the product of a history extending beyond the first settlement of Turks in Anatolia.
As musicologists and theorists such as Öztürk, Beşiroğlu, and Bayraktarkatal have

noted, the trend towards seeing makam in terms of Western theory began with
cultural changes in the nineteenth century. Espoused by theorists such as Haşim
Bey and the implementation of Western notation and music in the imperial palace,
Westernized terminology such as tonic, scale, dominant, subdominant, modulation,
transposition, and leading tone became adopted in late Ottoman music theory
(Öztürk, Beşiroğlu, and Bayraktarkatal, 2014, pp. 13-15). Influenced by the work of
Foucault and Kuhn amongst others, Öztürk, Beşiroğlu, and Bayraktarkatal frame the
history of makam theory in terms of phases dependent upon particular cultural and
theoretical paradigms. Citing Christensen and Dahlhaus, the scholars additionally
put forth the concept of history as a “mode of thought” based on a particular social,
cultural, or political perspective, as opposed to a collection of events (Öztürk,
Beşiroğlu, and Bayraktarkatal, 2014, p. 2-3). In perspective of the history of makam
theory, these scholars have categorized four stages: a daire- (circle) based
theoretical model, a makam model that symbolizes the cosmos, a melodic seyir-
(path) based approach, and one that relies upon tonality.23
Öztürk, Beşiroğlu, and Bayraktarkatal criticize the Westernized theoretical view of

Turkish makam music, citing that nearly all twentieth-century theorists follow a
system derived from tonal function and “scale-centered” understanding. At the same
time, however, these scholars reference the AEU system’s “patchwork”
understanding of makam, borrowing influence from Safiyyüddin’s tetrachord-
pentachord theory, as well as the division of the mücennep interval into large and
small (to be discussed in-depth later). Additionally, the AEU system’s borrowing of
Kantemiroğlu’s classification of makam into basit (“simple”), bileşik (compound), and

23
Devir/Daire/Şedd Modeli, Batını Sembolizme Bağlı Makam Modeli, Bestesel Seyire Dayalı Makam
Modeli, Tonaliteye Dayalı Makam Modeli.
48

şed (transposed), leads to the conclusion that the AEU system was informed by a
combination of contemporary and historical influences (Öztürk, Beşiroğlu, and
Bayraktarkatal, 2014 pp. 16-17). The coexistence and heavy influence of Western
music in the new nationalist rhetoric of the twentieth century is referred to
pessimistically by Öztürk, Beşiroğlu, and Bayraktarkatal, citing the exclusion of folk
music from makam theory and the essential division of the Turkish Folk Music (Türk
Halk Müziği) and Turkish Art Music (Türk Sanat Müziği) categories. In addition, the
scholars claim that theory had broken off from history and the completeness of this
musical understanding. The article relates several questionable consequences of
Westernization, such as the spread of harmonic accompaniment, makams chosen
for composition based on compatibility with equal-tempered music, the use of
melodic leaps of the third and sixth, chromatic passages, and tonal cadential
relationships. The authors note how composers of the republican period have
written music especially with makams that suggest fundamental tonic-dominant
contrast, whereas contemporary theory using the AEU system claims that the major-
minor scale relationship is inherent to the makam system and comparable to Çargah
and Buselik makams (Öztürk, Beşiroğlu, and Bayraktarkatal, 2014, p. 15-16). Here,
Özkan’s theory book is cited as a misleading comparison of Sûzidilârâ makam to the
Western major scale on c’ and g (Çargah makam in the AEU system), with a relative
minor scale on a (Buselik makam). Examination of Sultan Selim III’s Sûzidilârâ
Mevlevi Ayin (Appendix, Figure A.8) prove that while the major-minor tonality is not
the only melodic material being used, this makam does in fact appear to draw upon
the relationship between the AEU “Çargah” makam on c’ and Buselik makam on a
(Figure 3.2).
Figure 3.2: Beginning of second Selam in Sûzidilârâ Mevlevi Ayin24
Resting pitches (kalış), where a makam flavor can be identified, are evident in the
above excerpt on both c’ and a. The centrality of the melody around these two
pitches does indeed indicate a usage of the major-minor tonal contrast (modulation
through common tonality). As previously discussed in section 2.4.1.2, Sultan Selim
III, the inventor of Sûzidilârâ makam, was a reformist. As the composer’s political
and cultural gestures embraced the West, it would not seem surprising to find his

24
This excerpt is copied from Dogrusöz’s transcription (Uslu and Doğrusöz, 2009, p. 52).
49

creation of a makam that contained a relative major-minor relationship. However,

this is not the only melodic aspect of Selim III’s Sûzidilârâ makam. The makam’s
“tonic,” or karar perde is g, thus indicating a modal relationship between g-Çargah
and a-Buselik. Additionally, Rast makam is found on d’, and Hicaz makam is found
on a. Buselik is used on g in several places, which in a Western sense could be
compared to a parallel minor of the normally “major” melody on g-Çargah (Uslu and
Doğrusöz, 2009, pp. 48-57). Knowing that Selim III was interested in Western
culture, I do not consider it beyond possibility to think that the composer imitated
certain tonal concepts observed and learned from his contact with European
musicians in the late eighteenth century. Dede Efendi, an exemplary composer from
Selim III’s period, exhibits a very obvious imitation of Western major-minor tonality
as well. Dede Efendi’s famous şarkı Yine Bir Gülnihal (Appendix, Figure A.9)
contains a commonly recognized allusion to Western tonality with an uncommon
modulation (geçki) from the Just-tempered “major” Rast makam on g’ to the “minor”
Buselik on e’ at its bridge section (Figure 3.3).
Figure 3.3: Implied “minor” modulation in Yine Bir Gülnihal
With instances of direct major-minor imitation such as these, one could question
whether it is logical to bar such terminology and rationality from the discussion of
makam. If the makam experimentation of the late eighteenth to nineteenth century is
to be considered “corrupted” due to its influence from Western culture, then at what
point should Ottoman music be considered pure? Beşiroğlu categorizes the
eighteenth century of Ottoman music to be a phase of nationalist “Turkish” identity
seeking, where departure from Persian influence and more incorporation of folk
music elements are observed (Beşiroğlu, 1993, p. 41-43). If this is the case, then
with its Persian-affiliation in prior centuries and formal Westernization period in the
nineteenth century, do we count only the eighteenth century as a truly “pure”
example of Ottoman Turkish music? The problematic nature of defining a culture as
self-referent and “original” only when it is not influenced by other cultures is
50

apparent in this type of dialogue. Despite the creation of Sûzidilârâ makam at the
end of the eighteenth century, the makam Nigar, with its similar tonal content, had
already been in use at least since the fifteenth century (Popescu-Judetz, 2007, pp.
107-108)25. Yavuzoğlu describes Nigar makam as beginning on c’, and ending on g,
showing relationship to Buselik makam on a (Yavuzoğlu, 2011, p. 63). The makam
çeşni on both c’ and g are known as Nigar, after the makam, however this is
identical to what the AEU system identifies as Çargah çeşni. Since contemporary
scholars agree that Çargah makam as it is known is an “imaginary” makam with no
historical reference, it has become vogue for many professors at İTÜ TMDK to refer
to this çeşni as Nigar and not Çargah wherever it is found. Furthermore, Çargah
makam is traditionally known as a different makam from what the AEU system
specifies, bearing connection to Saba makam with a Hicaz pentachord on c’ as
karar. For these reasons, I have also deemed it suitable to coin the term “Nigar”
instead of the AEU “Çargah,” and shall refer to this çeşni as Nigar throughout this
thesis.
Figure 3.4: Nigar makam’s basic scale form
Nigar makam, with its lower tetrachord and upper pentachord scale formation
(Figure 3.4), is entirely remniscient of Safiyyüddin’s Uşşak daire (the term makam
did not exist at the time) (Uygun 1999, p. 171). Safiyyüddin considered Uşşak daire
to be the first “makam” in his scheme, attributing 12 main daire in relative position
with Uşşak (Uygun, 1999, p. 96). Although all of Safiyyüddin’s daires possess a
tetrachord-pentachord formation, it is significant to consider that this “makam” of the
thirteenth century was likely in practice at the time and has consistently appeared in
theory manuscripts throughout the history of Ottoman music as Nigar makam, with
its characteristic primary tetrachord. Tanburi Reftar Kalfa’s Nigar Saz Semaisi
(Appendix, Figure A.10) elucidates Nigar makam’s fundamental modal relationship
with Buselik makam on its second degree. In the first hane, the first two measures
lead to a kalış on c’ with Nigar çeşni. The following two measures completing this
hane end with a phrase on a-Buselik, highlighting the “relative major-minor”

25
According to Popescu-Judetz’s research, Nigar makam is found in manuscripts dating from the early
fifteenth century (Ahmedoğlu Şükrullah) to the beginning of the twentieth century (Hagopos Ayvazian,
ca. 1901).
51
.
characteristic sound found in this makam. The mülazime (refrain) section of this
piece concludes the makam, as the melody finds its way to its karar on g-Nigar
(Figure 3.5).26
Figure 3.5: Reftar Kalfa’s Nigar Saz Semaisi
As discussed, Buselik makam possesses affinity to Nigar, with its kalış on c’-Nigar.
Itri’s Buselik Beste “Ahter gördü güzeriye gönül mübtela olur” (Appendix, Figure
A.11) opens on c’-Nigar, descending to g-Nigar, as typical of Nigar makam. It is only
in the second phrase that Itri connects c’-Nigar to a-Buselik, where Itri ends a third
phrase in a-Buselik after briefly touching on c’-Nigar again. 27 The intimate
relationship between Buselik and its third perde create a sound very comparable to
minor and its relative major. Itri’s stress on g-Nigar additionally makes Buselik’s
modal relationship with Nigar makam very clear in this composition (Figure 3.6).
Figure 3.6: Itri’s Buselik Beste
Through the examination of Nigar and Buselik makams, we can establish two
proofs: 1) since early-on in the development of the makam system and Ottoman

26
I have clipped half of the mülazime section in order to show the karar of g-Nigar—the extant notation
misleadingly ends the mülazime not by returning to the karar perde, but rather showing connecting
material to the other hanes.
27
This analysis only covers the first 5 sub-measures of the first cycle of Hafif usul—Itri continues to
emphasize e’ before a melodic descent, eventually completing the opening section with return to a-
Buselik in the end of the second cycle of Hafif.
52

music, makam tunings strongly resembling “Western,” or “tempered” scales did exist
side-by-side with makams more typically understood as “microtonal;” 2) certain
makams conceived early in history imitated melodic relationships similar to what we
refer to as “tonal” and “major-minor” today. Öztürk, Beşiroğlu, and Bayraktarkatal
are justified to criticize any absolute comparisons between makam and Western
tonal music. However, while scholars and musicians point out the unnecessarily
polarized division between Turkish “art” and “folk” music genres, they have adopted
a polarized attitude towards Turkish makam music and Western music that is largely
negligent of history. Assumptions of this nature often categorize Western music as
entirely tonal, dismissing the centuries of development in Europe that lead through
the Renaissance and into the Baroque period. As a matter of fact, the evolution of
tonal music is not clearly delineated in history, and we find growing acceptance and
formal discussion of the dual major-minor mode system only towards the end of the
seventeenth century and the early eighteenth century (Lester, 1989, p. 97). In
Germany, Werckmeister conceived a 24-key system (12 major, 12 minor) in six
major treaties published between 1687 and 1707. Werckmeister possessed
knowledge of the older modal system, as it was not entirely obsolete, but considered
the creation of a two-mode key system a necessary advancement suitable for
contemporary practice (Lester, 1989, pp. 86-89). Lester addresses the particular
trend in German composition and theory throughout the eighteenth century of
advocating knowledge of the modal system while embracing the tonal key system.
He thereby attributes the genius of Bach in the Baroque era, and the later Viennese
school of the Classical period, to the knowledge of the modes in theory and practice
(Lester, 1989, pp. 135-160). To place the development of tonality in perspective of
Turkish makam music, the tonal system was becoming a fixture in European music
during a time when Ottoman music was transitioning from over two centuries of a
Persian-influenced style, into a distinctive “Turkish” manner of expression.
Therefore, it might be said that certain melodic gestures in Ottoman music between
the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries were at least as referential to Western tonal
music as pre-tonal European modal music of the same period, if not more directly
suggestive in cases such as Nigar and Buselik makams.28 Additionally, the use of
equal temperament, an additionally critical aspect of the polarized West-East
perspective, had only become commonplace in European music by the end of the

28
I should at the same time defer to Dahlhaus’s observations suggesting that major-minor tonality was
apparent in the usage of Ionian and Aeolian modes in Renaissance composition since the sixteenth
century (Dahlhaus, 1990, p. 218).
53

eighteenth century. This fact is notwithstanding cases of church organists employing

meantone tuning into the nineteenth century (Rasch, 2008, pp. 218-220).
Divisive rhetoric that characterizes Western music as a singular concept of tonality

and temperament not only demonstrates little understanding of its development and
history, but places an unnecessary label of “other” on a music with ultimately similar
roots and shared melodic concepts. Therefore, an understanding of the similarities
between foreign musics and what is now understood as Turkish makam music must
be appropriately weighed against misdirected and over-generalized attributions of
qualities in Western music to Turkish makam music. While healthy debate as to the
most suitable direction of the Turkish makam music system should be encouraged,
unfortunately what often lacks is an alternative solution to the sometimes
questionable relationship that Turkish music now posseses with Western music.
Although reduction of makam to scale degrees within an octave provides an
incomplete picture of what makam is, it is unnecessary to negate a makam model
simply because it applies a design originating in Western music. Such prejudice
upholds the pretense that Safiyyüddin’s daires were not essentially makam models
based on an octave-limit scale with specific degrees. In other words, the fact that
Safiyyüddin portrayed scale degrees in a circle with letters designating pitch does
not by any means require exclusion of the same pitches represented in a more
linear fashion with Western notation. Admittedly, seyir and çeşni-based models,
being less concrete regarding ambitus, are divergent from the earlier systematist
model. However, the AEU system can at least be credited for comprising seyir and
çeşni definitions combined with earlier mathematical tetrachord-pentachord-octave
types of classifications. In this sense, it is clear that Arel and Ezgi attempted to not
only embrace Western music notation as an efficient, detailed, and universally
understood representational scheme, but at the same time to fuse models of
previous eras of makam theory that had hitherto remained largely independent of
one another.
3.2 Towards New Understandings and Views of Makam
As mentioned above, Signell, Özkan, and Yavuzoğlu amongst many contemporary

theorists and musicians have felt prone to use the term “modal” to characterize the
Turkish makam system. It is perhaps only in Öztuna’s Turkish Music Encyclopedia
definition that we find an attribution of both modal and tonal qualities to makam.
Öztuna states that the term makam contains the concept of both tonality and mode,
while “tonality” is largely used as its equivalent. Öztuna continues to cite 13 basic
54

“modes,” (which he translates as kol, literally “arm”) or makams, in consistency with

Arel’s system (Öztuna, 1974, p. 11).29 While Öztuna seems to largely hold to the
concept of makam as “mode,” he suggests an acceptance of the makam system’s
identity in terms of tonality. On a basic level, makam has always possessed tonal
structures resembling both modality and tonality. By modality, I refer to the
relationship of fixed pitches on a scale. To speak of makam as tonal, I suggest that
the change of pitch content as associated with various transposed çeşni or
tetrachords and pentachords identifies makam as containing tonal aspects. If
makam were purely “modal,” then one would expect to see only change in relative
position of fixed scales. Instead, we find that makam is a dynamic system of modal
çeşni relationships interacting seamlessly with modulating pitch content, creating a
tonally diverse form of monophony.
The division of relative tonal and modal aspects of melody is a classification

scientifically discussed in ancient Greek music, one that unfortunately does not
appear in makam theory texts in the same context. Safiyyüddin provides his daire
classification based on the same relative pitch, thus suggesting the ability to
conceive makam on any pitch. Additionally, Safiyyüddin’s 12 main makam are
represented on transposition tables, such that one can conceive performance of a
makam on any of the 17 conceptual pitches mentioned in his theory (Uygun 1998,
pp. 99-110). In this sense, Safiyyüddin approaches and extends the Greek concept
of tonal transposition, however neglects to explain the main principles behind it.
According to ancient Greek theory, harmonai referred to what is understood as
modal arrangements on a common fixed scale (octave species). Tonoi, on the other
hand, were the dimension of chromatically altered pitches based on the same
fundamental pitch axis (Dahlhaus, 1990, p. 206). While this fundamental division
was recognized, terminology and views of harmonai and tonoi are naturally varied
amongst theorists over centuries of musical development. Mathiesen cites Aristides
Quintilianus’ treatise of an early sketch of harmonai applied to six scales on two
different pitches in his harmonai, thus demonstrating a combination of tonal and
modal elements (Mathiesen, 2008, pp. 127-128). Aristoxenus appears to have
associated tonoi with modal relationships, as he defined tonoi as “positions of the
voice.” The arrangement of octave species was presumably to produce tonoi
possibilities as tonal transposition on the same pitch, as Aristoxenus demonstrates
the tonoi as derived from mode in the contemporary sense (Mathiesen, 2008, pp.
124-125) (Figure 3.7).

29
As an interesting side matter, Öztuna refers to the Western major and minor modes as “makam,” a
unique reversal of “Eastern” terminology attributed to Western music (Öztuna, 1974, p. 8).
55

Figure 3.7: Aristoxenian octave species30
In contrast, Ptolemy derived tonal transpositions based the octave species, using
chromatic alterations to seven scales built upon the same fundamental pitch (Figure
3.8). Mathiesen stipulates that Ptolemy’s model was likely not reflective of practice
during his time, as his contemporaries define a larger number of tonoi types,
containing more varied relative pitch. However, the concise and logical approach
whereby Ptolemy limited the transposition of seven octave species “harmonai”
(modes) onto one pitch center was a model that influenced later Greek theorists
(Mathiesen, 2008, pp. 26-27).
Figure 3.8: Ptolemy’s tonoi
Indeed, it is easy to see how such tonal logic may have even provoked Safiyyüddin
to classify his daire system over a millennium later. Similar to Ptolemy, Safiyyüddin
lists a total of 84 daire, resembling octave species composed of tetrachords and
pentachords. Choosing to base each daire on the same fundamental pitch,

30
Mathiesen suggests that the given tribal mode names was not espoused by Aristoxenus, as he
criticizes theorists of the Harmonicist school for using the names in association with tonoi.
56

Safiyyüddin begins with the unaltered Uşşak daire, making chromatic alterations to
its constituent tetrachord or pentachord in order to produce new daire forms.
Safiyyüddin first cycles through 12 upper pentachord alterations before making an
iteration to the lower tetrachord. The process repeats for seven variants of lower
tetrachord, totaling 84 tetrachord-pentachord combinations (Uygun, 1999, pp. 171-
213).
In conclusion, the foundations of ancient Greek theory have provided an

enlightening degree of relevance to the understanding of Turkish makam music as it
is still practiced today. In analogue to ancient Greek music, we could conceive of
makam as based on two convergent axes: harmonai and tonoi. In modern terms, I
deem it fitting to translate harmonai as mode, and tonoi as tonality. Although the
term tonality can be loaded with connotations of polyphonic, dominant-tonic and
major-minor scale relationships, I simply refer to tonality as an alterable pitch set
identity.
3.2.1 A re-classification of çeşni
Arel defines six species of basic tetrachord and pentachord: Çargah (Nigar, in my
preferred terminology), Buselik, Kürdi, Rast, Uşşak/Hüseyni31 and Hicaz (Arel, 1968,
pp. 8-11). According to this classification, Çargah/Nigar forms a modal relationship
with the following two çeşni of Buselik and Kürdi. Likewise, Rast possesess a modal
second-scale-degree relationship with Uşşak. Hicaz represents a new pitch set,
standing alone. In this perspective, is clear that Arel fundamentally recognizes three
tonal categories of çeşni, adding three additional çeşni that are modal variants of
one of the main categories. Departing from this logic, it is possible to envision a
system of çeşni arranged according to tonal content first, with subcategories of
modally related çeşni. Arel mentions Nikriz pentachord among “other” types of
tetrachords and pentachords (Arel, 1968, p. 12), although it also exists as a lower
modal extension of the Hicaz tetrachord. Upon the perde axis of Rast (g), we find
what is considered the “main” or “parent” (ana) makam Rast’s karar perde. Building
off of this common tonal axis, Rast perde is shared with the karar perde of Nigar and
Nikriz makams. Thus, the Rast perde (g) is the most natural and common place to
find Rast and Nikriz çeşni. Nigar, due to its nearly obsolete presence in
contemporary repertoire, is more commonly found in Acem Aşiran perde (f) one
whole step below. For the sake of categorization, however, its natural location in
Nigar makam (together with its modal implications of Buselik on a) shall be used.

31
Hüseyni is considerd a pentachord extension of the basic pitches of Uşşak; however, in practice, the
second degree is slightly sharper than that of Uşşak.
57

Altogether, three tonal categories exist on a common perde axis (perde ekseni),
from which several modally related çeşni can be derived.
Figure 3.9: Tonal çeşni genera with modal species
In the above Figure 3.9, a whole note represents the karar perde of a çeşni, its
fundamental pitch, whereas a half note represents the güçlü, or the dominant of the
makam. Limiting the span of the three main tonal çeşni categories to a pentachord,
we see a natural modal relationship in regards to makam construction. In
relationship to both Rast and Nikriz pentachords, the second mode of each is
constructed as a tetrachord sharing the güçlü perde of its related modal pentachord.
The Segah trichord is also known to use a güçlü of d’, again corresponding with the
same güçlü as the Rast pentachord and Uşşak tetrachord. As an exception to the
rule, Nigar makam is known to possess a tetrachord-pentachord structure, thus
giving a güçlü perde of c’ on the fourth degree. The typical güçlü of Buselik is
normally e’, the fifth degree of a Buselik pentachord. Thus, Buselik çeşni in its
tetrachord form only relates informally to Nigar’s tetrachord through its utilization of
c’-Nigar çeşni. While Kürdi can arguably be identified through a trichord, it typically
manifests as a tetrachord. Furthermore, Kürdi çeşni’s modal relationship with Nigar
traditionally does not occur on b (Buselik perde), but does exist on e’ (Hüseyni
perde) in relationship to c’-Nigar. Suzidil makam, however, does contain the
possibility of b-Kürdi in modal relationship to a-Buselik.
My categorization of three tonal çeşni groups is remniscient of the Ancient Greek

concept of genus. Aristoxenus recognizes the enharmonic, chromatic, and diatonic
genera to be interval patterns of various sizes within a tetrachord (Mathiesen, 2008,
p. 123). Similar to ancient Greek theory, I have characterized two categories of what
might be considered two grades of the diatonic genus with the Nigar and Rast
58

familes (Mathiesen, 2008, pp. 123-124). Despite the theoretical difference of 1 koma
on the third pitch of these families, this distinction is necessary according to the
function of modal çeşni relationships as they exist in compositions. The chromatic
genus resembles the interval patterns in Hicaz, whereas enharmonic genus
contains two roughly quarter-tone pitches in place of the semitone values of the
chromatic (Herlinger, 2008, pp.184-185). While çeşni such as Uşşak may involve
quarter-tone intervals, two quarter-tones usually do not appear within the span of a
tetrachord in makam.
3.2.2 Çeşni combination and transposition
By expanding the basic çeşni, we arrive at a more complete scale-based model of

makam. This additionally means that new modal and tonal possibilities will arise in
the combination of two çeşni. Expanding a Nigar tetrachord through the addition of a
Nigar pentachord creates an octave limit whereby the familiar modal çeşnis occupy
a position in a new scale degree (Figure 3.10). The c’-Nigar pentachord extends the
scope of the b-Kürdi tetrachord to its fourth-degree location on e’, while doing the
same for a-Buselik with its shared güçlü on e’. Buselik also occurs as a mode of c’-
Nigar on d’, whereas Kürdi assumes a position frequently found in many makams,
on e’.32
Figure 3.10: Nigar makam’s scale form with modal çeşni
Applying similar logic to Rast çeşni, we find the formation of a lower Rast
pentachord and an upper Rast tetrachord in Rast makam (Figure 3.11).
Alternatively, “Acemli Rast” uses an upper Buselik tetrachord (changing
chromatically from Eviç perde (f’(#)) to Acem perde (f’)). Both upper tetrachord
forms are considered part of Rast makam, and the chromatic flattening of f(#)
creates what is called an iniş cazibesi, or “descending attraction,” as Buselik is
typically found in the makam’s melodic descent to the karar pitch. The so-called

32
In Figure 3.10 and later examples, I extend the octave scale by one note to demonstrate the
possibility of Kürdi çeşni in its typical tetrachord form.
59

“symmetric” 33 arrangement of Rast pentachord and tetrachord creates the same

modal relationships as before, but transposed according to d’-Rast. The usage of
f’(#) in the upper tetrachord allows connection with the Hüseyni makam scale on its
typical perde Dügah (a). The substitution of Buselik, however, can represent a full
scale of Uşşak makam with its güçlü on d’ (as opposed to Hüseyni’s güçlü of e’ in a
pentachord-tetrachord formation). Additionally, çeşni shared by the Nigar modal
family manifest, beginning with c’-Nigar.
Figure 3.11: Rast makam in two scale forms with modal çeşni
Nikriz and Hicaz makams, like Rast, feature the same two upper çeşni of Rast and
Buselik, often interchangeable depending upon melodic direction. Nikriz makam’s
scale form contains the modal çeşni expected from the upper Rast or Buselik
tetrachord, with the fundamental modal conection of g-Nikriz and a-Hicaz (Figure
3.12). In the form containing Rast, it is possible to derive a modally connected
Segah tetrachord by beginning on the perde prior to Rast. This lower modal
extension can be compared to Irak makam, with its karar on f(#)-Segah as a modal
extension of g-Rast.

33
In current practical theory (evidenced in makam theory courses in the TMDK), the application of the
same çeşni to another adjacent pentachord or tetrachord in the makam is known as a “simetrik”
(symmetric) structure, despite its technically asymmetric nature. This term may also apply to
extensions (genişleme) beyond the basic structure of a makam.
60

Figure 3.12: Nikriz makam’s two scale forms with modal çeşni
Aside from obvious modal makam relationships such as the aforementioned g-Rast
and a-Hüseyni/Uşşak, g-Nigar and a-Buselik, and g-Nikriz and a-Hicaz, it is possible
to derive further makam forms from these three fundamental tonal makam groups. If
we begin on Nikriz makam’s upper Rast tetrachord form, it is possible to use the
same scale material as a symmetrical octave upper extension with g’-Nikriz. By
perceiving d’-Rast tetrachord as a pentachord instead, we can arrive at the
pentachord-tetrachord structure of Basit Suzinak makam, with its upper Hicaz
tetrachord (Figure 3.13). Normally, Basit Suzinak makam is found on g (Rast perde).
In this position, we can derive a second-level modal family of g-Suzinak, a-Karcığar,
and b(d)-Hüzzam from the same scale structure (Figure 3.14).34
Figure 3.13: Basit Suzinak Makam as a modal extension of Nikriz scale
Figure 3.14: Basit Suzinak makam scale on its normal karar, with its modal family

34
It is important to consider that D-Hicaz in each of the Basit Suzinak family makams is performed with
a second degree (Hisar perde) approximately 1 koma sharper than found in Hicaz makam. I consider it
nonetheless appropriate to refer to this çeşni on a functional level as Hicaz, due to its transition to the
4-koma-flat D-Hicaz in cases of modulation through the same çeşni.
61

Inversion of Hicaz makam’s fundamental çeşni structure reveals what could be

interpreted as a transposition of Nihavent makam on d’. Nihavent, considered a
transposition of Buselik makam on d, contains an upper tetrachord structure of
Kürdi, Uşşak, or Hicaz. For this reason, a Buselik pentachord combined with a Hicaz
tetrachord satisfies the scale form of both Hicaz Hümayun and Nihavent makam
(Figure 3.15).
Figure 3.15: Nihavent makam’s scale form with upper Hicaz tetrachord
Arel lists çeşni with unusual structure as “some other tetrachords and pentachords:”
Saba tetrachord, Segah, Hüzzam, Nikriz, Pençgah, and Ferahnak pentachords. Arel
himself explains the unusual nature of Saba as an Uşşak trichord attached to the
lower part of a Zirguleli Hicaz scale (Hicaz pentachord and Hicaz tetrachord). This
unique structure stands out as its own compound çeşni. Segah, Hüzzam, and Nikriz
have already been explained in terms of their modal families, leaving only Pençgah
and Ferahnak. The Pençgah pentachord, containing a Nişabur trichord on its third
scale degree, contains an example of perde performance conflicting with theory.
The Nişabur trichord is notated with a four-koma C# in its normal position, however
in its ascending motion as a lower extension of çeşni based on d’, the c’(#) perde
(Hicaz perde) is typically played as five komas sharp. In fact, the practical value of
Nişabur resembles a Buselik trichord to the extent that neyzen (“ney artist”) and
TMDK theory professor Nurullah Kanık (2014-2015) conceives the Nişabur
pentachord as two overlapping Buselik trichords (Figure 3.16).
Figure 3.16: Overlapping Buselik trichords in Nişabur pentachord
Kanuni (“kanun artist”) Erol Deran considers that while the ascending motion to a
central perde on Nişabur çeşni’s third degree makes the second degree five komas
sharp, descent to the karar of the çeşni requires a four koma sharp, reflecting the
notated value (Deran, 2016). Divergence of interpretation of pitch is a common
62

phenomenon in Turkish makam performance, and performers and theorists alike

may be expected to disagree on the specifics of finer points such as Nişabur çeşni’s
proper koma value. As such, the Nişabur trichord, especially in its ascending
attraction, could be derived from a notated Buselik trichord, or a notated “Uşşak”
trichord with a four koma sharp second degree. Considering the key çeşni of
Nişabur, Pençgah can be connected to a main modal family in one of two ways:
Through interpreting the fourth degree of Rast makam as a modal karar of Pençgah
(Figure 3.17), or by adding a lower extension to Nigar çeşni (Figure 3.18). Due to
the pitch content of Nigar makam, however, a full Pençgah scale cannot be derived
from Nigar’s natural scale. Nonetheless, the modal pentachord derived from Nigar
provides enough material to establish a new modal center with Pençgah, which
could develop into a full tonal modulation of Pençgah makam if desired. Pençgah
makam exists in its natural position on g (Figure 3.19).
Figure 3.17: Pençgah makam modally derived from G-Rast
Figure 3.18: Pençgah pentachord modally derived from g-Nigar
Figure 3.19: Pençgah makam in its natural position, with alternate upper Rast and
Buselik tetrachords
Yavuzoğlu describes Ferahnak makam as a modal derivative of Yegah makam,

which uses a d-Rast pentachord (2011, pp.144-145) (Figure 3.20). Alternatively,
Ferahnak could be conceived of as lower modal extension of Pençgah çeşni, a
relationship that Yavuzoğlu additionally recognizes (Figure 3.21).
63

Figure 3.20: Ferahnak çeşni as a modal derivative of Yegah makam
Figure 3.21: Ferahnak makam as a modal extension of Pençgah makam
Yavuzoğlu’s polyphonic techniques for makam are referenced in the aforementioned

examples due to his manner of categorizing scale types to accommodate varieties
of fundamental makams according to their modal position in a scale (Yavuzoğlu,
unpublished). While the polyphonic ramifications of this method will be further
discussed in the third section of this thesis, the import of Yavuzoğlu’s logic in
deriving makam connections on the monophonic level is to be appreciated.
The only tonal species yet unaccounted for is the Müstear çeşni. Compositiions
written in Müstear makam are very few, and instances of Müstear çeşni found within
the composition of other makams are also rare.35 Müstear is typically identified as a
trichord, and can be considered a chromatic variant of Segah çeşni. From the modal
perspective, it is also possible to see Müstear çeşni as an extension of Segah çeşni
(b(d)-Müstear relative to c’(#)-Segah çeşni in Figure 3.22).
Figure 3.22: Müstear trichord
Yavuzoğlu mentions the possibility of using Müstear in Segah makam, as what

could be interpreted as an alternate shared-root tonal çeşni on d’-Rast, with Müstear
formally beginning on e’(d) (Dik Hisar perde) (Yavuzoglu, 2011, p. 113).
Alternatively, one could interpret Segah çeşni as a tetrachord (which Yavuzoğlu,

35
To my knowledge, Müstear is found as a characteristic çeşni of Evcara makam, but found very little
elsewhere. Yavuzoğlu cites Nühüft makam as containing Müstear, however this makam is nearly
obsolete in contemporary performance (Yavuzoğlu, 2011, p. 134).
64

unlike the AEU system, does not recognize due to the tonal perde differences found
Segah’s characteristic d’-Buselik and d’-Rast tetrachords), connecting with Müstear
trichord at e’(d) (Figure 3.23).
Figure 3.23: Mustear trichord in Segah makam
In the classification of çeşni, I have proposed a system of three main tonal

categories from which modally related çeşni can be derived. While the fundamental
categories of çeşni can be reduced to such an understanding, makam theorists and
practictioners often find it useful to identify çeşni relative to specific microtonal
variances from their fundamental çeşni category, or position in a makam as a
transposed çeşni. Examples of these types of çeşni include what Dr. Yavuzoğlu
refers to as “Neva” çeşni (Yavuzoğlu, 2011, p. 85). While resembling Uşşak
tetrachord in its theoretical structure under the AEU system, Yavuzoğlu chooses to
distinguish this çeşni due to its microtonal divergence from Uşşak. Uşşak is known
to be performed at least 2 komas flat on its second diatonic degree, despite its
accidental of 1 koma flat. The second degree in Hüseyni çeşni, on the other hand, is
characterized as not bending as flat as Uşşak, and is often described as “a little
sharper” than Uşşak (approximately 1.5 komas). While Hüseyni çeşni is only
complete as a pentachord, Neva makam contains a primary tetrachord with a güçlü
on d’, using the same microtonal inflection as Hüseyni, not Uşşak. Çargah çeşni
identifies the primary c-Hicaz pentachord found in the traditional Çargah makam,
where the second degree is played approximately 1 koma sharper and the third
degree nearly 1 koma sharper than in notated Hicaz (Kanık, 2014-2015). Yavuzoğlu
recognizes Çargah as its own makam, despite its lack of contemporary use
(Yavuzoğlu, 2011, p. 119). Yavuzoğlu additionally describes Suzinak makam as a
mixture of Hicaz or Çargah çeşni on the makam’s upper tetrachord on d’
(Yavuzoğlu, 2011, p. 53). Kürdilihicazkar çeşni is recognized as the execution of g-
Kürdi çeşni with the second degree approximately 1 koma sharper than the
standard Kürdi ceşni. Yavuzoğlu makes note of this çeşni in his new theory book,
(Yavuzoğlu, 2013, p. 26). Aristoxenus is known to have categorized several pitch
variation levels for the three melodic genera types, which his pupil Cleonides lists as
slightly narrower or larger interval patterns that belong to one of the three genera
(Mathiesen, 2008, pp. 123-124). In a similar sense, specific çeşni named out of
65

convention due to microtonal variance are still attributed to fundamental tonal çeşni
categories. The “Arazbar” çeşni logically refers to the makam in which it is found.
Lacking any sort of atypical microtonal variation, however, Arazbar suggests none
other than a Rast çeşni in the unusual location of c’ (Çargah perde).
The use of specific names to characterize divergent çeşni types is a practically

sound approach to understanding makam theory at a more detailed level. However,
without the fundamental categories of çeşni established, the larger structural
relationships between various çeşni types may also be lost. The AEU school,
together with modern theorists, has attempted to resolve the theoretical divide
between the structural clarity of the ancient systematist school and the pragmatic
seyir/çeşni-based theory of the subsequent eras with relative success. The
alterations in structural perspective I have proposed will allow for a means to
understand and analyze compositional structure, one that can be bridged to new
models for çeşni formation and transposition.
3.2.3 Geçki (modulation)
Cleonides describes modulation in Ancient Greek music as based on four

categories: 1) “in-scale,” or modal; 2) genus, similar to a tonal çeşni category 3)
tonos, or the tonal transposition of a modal octave species; 4) “melic composition,”
relating to the seyir of a melody (Mathiesen, 2008, p. 128).36 Melic composition, the
most ambiguous of the four modulation types, appears to be essentially a
combination of other categories into a complete melodic concept. Cleonides
mentions four elements of melic composition: 1) scale choice and ambitus; 2) mixing
of genera and scales; 3) musical gestures such as sequence, succession, and
repetition; 4) prolongation of pitch (Mathiesen, 2008, p. 129). Compared with geçki
in Turkish makam, modulation occurs on all of the aforementioned levels. Özkan
states: “passing from any makam onto another makam that is bound to separate
rules is called geçki” (2011, p. 287). Özkan, following Arel, divides geçki into two
main types: yakın (close) and uzak (distant) (Özkan, 2011, p. 287; Arel, 1968, p.
49). Yakın geçki involve at least four common tones in the modulated scale of the
makam, whereas uzak geçki contain less than four. Cleonides supports similar
criteria for modulation, stating: “it is necessary that for every modulation, a certain
common note or interval or scale be present” (Mathiesen, 2008, p. 128). Using

36
Mathiesen overlooks the direct definition of the root word melos, however its meaning is suggested
to be equivalent to melody, or melodic progression. Aristoxenus scales depend on the “nature of
melos” and not a series of theoretically close intervals (2008, p. 124), implying that scales should
involve a melodic path.
66

shared karar perde, shared çeşni, or shared characteristic perde to execute smooth
geçki is a well-known trait of Turkish makam, as well.
Overlaying the two geçki cateogories, Özkan provides two methods of geçki: görev
değişikliği (change of [modal degree] function), and kimlik değişikliği (change of
[tonal/pitch] identity) (2011, p. 288). An example of achieving yakın geçki using
purely modal relationships is apparent in the modal transition from Acemli Rast to
Uşşak makam. TMDK Turkish music composition professor Feridün Öney
advocates the use of shared çeşni (either found in the basic structure of a makam or
lower and upper extensions) in order to facilitate logical and satisfying geçki
transitions (Öney, 2015). In accordance with this methodology, we can justify the
geçki from Acemli Rast to Uşşak by citing the common d’-Buselik çeşni in both
makams. Again from d’-Buselik in Acemli Rast, we can find a yakın geçki using tonal
modulation to Nikriz makam. According to Öney’s logic (2015), the presence of
Hicaz çeşni (and modally, Nikriz) is justified as a lower extension common to Buselik
makam. Thus the transition from d’-Buselik to g-Nikriz is logical from both the
perspective of Nikriz makam’s lower and upper çeşnis. From Nikriz makam, we can
use the lower Nikriz pentachord to modulate to an upper d’-Hicaz tetrachord in place
of d’-Buselik, yielding Neveser makam. The total common perde between Acemli
Rast makam and Neveser are located on g, a, and d’, thus matching Özkan’s
criteria for an uzak geçki (Figure 3.24).
Figure 3.24: Geçki from Acemli Rast makam, using Özkan’s theory
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3.2.3.1 Traditional çeşni transposition
In order to establish possible makam relationships with geçki techniques, it is

necessary to possess knowledge of the potential transposition levels of each çeşni.
It is considered a virtuosic art to manipulate çeşni relationships in unexpected levels
of geçki and transposition on uncommon perde. However, traditional Turkish makam
music has solidified around a core of particular makam relationships and çeşni
transpositions that are indicative of certain makams. Examining the limited points of
transposition where Rast çeşni is typically found (barring octave equivalences in
certain makams), we discover four perde on which Rast çeşni is formed: g, a, c’, d’;
rarely, in Nişaburek makam, the e’-Rast çeşni is found (Yavuzoğlu, 2011, pp. 111-
112). g-Rast is known as the natural position of Rast makam, whereas a-Rast
corresponds to the Rast çeşni found in Pençgah, Ferahnak, and Nişaburek
makams. As mentioned above, c’-Rast is known as Arazbar çeşni, common in
Arazbar, Hicazkar, or Kürdilihicazkar makams, and d’-Rast occurs in many makams
such as Rast, Nikriz, Hicaz, Neva, and Ferahnak (Figure 3.25).
Figure 3.25: Traditional transpositions of Rast çeşni
Comparing the most common transpositions of Buselik çeşni, we find nearly all of
the same perde centers that exist for Rast çeşni are valid (Figure 3.26). Buselik
makam’s natural position is a-Buselik, however the commonly encountered
Nihavent makam uses g-Buselik. The fourth degree of Buselik and Nihavent
makams use d’-Buselik and c’-Buselik, respectively. Due to Nişabur’s questionable
perde notation, b-Buselik and e’-are possible interpretations of what is normally
considered Nişabur çeşni. I shall avoid categorizing these questionable
transpositions for the current example.
Figure 3.26: Traditional transpositions of Buselik çeşni
68

The Hicaz çeşni, like Rast, can be located on g, c’, d’, and e’ (Figure 3.27). a-Hicaz
is located in its natural position in Hicaz and Şehnaz makams, while g-Hicaz occurs
mainly in Zirgüleli Suzinak, Hicazkar, and Kürdilihicazkar makams. c’-Hicaz is a
characteristic çeşni referred to as Çargah, due to its 2-3 koma sharp second degree
and affinity with Çargah and Saba makams. d’-Hicaz is typical of makams such as
Şedd-Araban, Hicazkar, and both Basit and Zirgüleli Suzinak makams. The family of
makams related to Hisar makam typically demonstrates the use of e’-Hicaz çeşni,
including Hisar, Şehnaz, and Suzidil makams.
Figure 3.27: Traditional transpositions of Hicaz çeşni
Other çeşni transpositions yield similarities to the aforementioned transpositions,

with some variance. Nigar çeşni exists on f in Acem Aşiran makam, while both
f-Nikriz and f-Nigar are shared in Şevk-Efza makam. In Şevk-Efza we additionally
find b(b)-Nikriz. Otherwise, both Nikriz and Nigar typically occur on g, c’, and d’. The
Uşşak çeşni occurs in fewer regions. a-Uşşak characterizes the çeşni’s natural
position in Uşşak and related makams. d’-Uşşak is found in Nihavent makam, as
well as in relationship to Arazbar çeşni in Kürdilihicazkar makam. Hüseyni and Hisar
family makams include the e’-Uşşak çeşni. Segah çeşni is usually found on a scant
amount of perde, as well. The natural position of Segah makam is b(d), while f’(#)-
Segah is typical of Eviç and Evcara makam. Lower-octave f(#)-Segah çeşni is
typical of Eviç and Evcara makams, but also Irak and Bestenigar makams. More
rarely, as a mode of Arazbar çeşni e’(d)-Segah can be found in makam such as
Hicazkar and Kürdilihicazkar. Segah çeşni’s identity as a çeşni based on a 1-koma-
flat mücennep interval accounts for its limited application as a point of modulation.
As seen in the above figures, most çeşni occur on whole tones, (tanini), and
sometimes on semitones (bakiyye). Two exceptional perde locations for Hicaz and
Segah çeşni exist within Evcara and Dügah makams. In Evcara, f(#)-Hicaz and c’(#)
çeşnis are found as the makam’s karar perde pentachord and symmetrical upper
tetrachord (Figure 3.28). As f(#) and c’(#) are considered to be mücennep perdes,
finding Hicaz on this position is an unexpected nuance. In Dügah makam, a-Segah
çeşni is located on a tanini perde (Figure 3.29), while the normal expectation for this
69

çeşni would be on a 1-koma-flat perde in the same modal family as Rast. The
implications of these deviations from the norm of makam çeşni will be discussed
further in section 3.3.
Figure 3.28: f(#)-Hicaz and c’(#)-Hicaz çeşnis in the Evcara makam scale
Figure 3.29: a-Segah çeşni in Dügah makam
3.2.4 A new model for çeşni/geçki analysis
The theoretical approach that associates çeşni according to modal family is

espoused by professors at the TMDK, continuing in the tradition of the
conservatory’s previous generation of theory instruction. Tonal çeşni groups are
each recognized as containing modal çeşni relationships with substitutive quality. To
speak in generalities, whenever theory indicates the presence of one çeşni, its
modal relatives are implied as possibilities in improvisation (taksim), composition, or
from an analytical view. Furthermore, makam çeşni are strengthened through
reliance upon modal relationships. A composition in Rast makam may likewise
demonstrate kalış on the modal çeşni of b(d)-Segah and a-Uşşak, strengthening the
tonal context of g-Rast çeşni before making its final descent to the fundamental
identity of the makam. The previous example of Nigar and Buselik makams
illustrates similar modal relationships between g-Nigar, a-Buselik, and c’-Nigar. This
theoretical perspective is often explained with formulaic logic such as “wherever
Rast exists, Uşşak can be found one perde above, and Segah two perde above.” If
applied to analysis in Turkish makam, modal relationships become one means of
explaining geçki.
In addition to this modal perspective, I propose the implementation of tonal

relationship analysis in makam theory. As previously established, çeşni types in
Turkish makam pivot “horizontally” on a modal axis, as well as “vertically” on a tonal
axis. That is to say, just as modal equivalences can be established on different
degrees of the same çeşni, tonal equivalences may be derived from chromatic çeşni
70

alterations relative to the same karar perde. A tonal equivalence would suggest:
“wherever Rast exists, so does Buselik, Nikriz, Hicaz, Kürdi, and Nigar.” That is,
through principles of geçki, it is possible to find modulation to various tonal ceşni
types occupying a common central perde. As discussed in the previous section,
many çeşni share the same point of transposition, and therefore can easily find
connecting material to create a tonal geçki on a shared perde center. The genius of
geçki in composition and taksim takes advantage of tonal geçki in unexpected
locations, adding a new complex of tonal and modal relations in makam.
The current practice of compositional analysis in makam theory typically identifies

melodic change and motion according to change of çeşni or geçki to another
makam, and the perde upon which this transition occurs. There is an understanding
of çeşni analysis that accepts temporary “geçki” as adding color, contrast, or context
to a makam without diverging into a full-blown modulation. In these cases, the
principles of geçki may apply, however the persistent stress and necessary duration
on new çeşni is what separates merely “showing a çeşni” from executing a formal
geçki. Signell refers to these temporary çeşni as “passing modulations,” which do
not detract from the main makam’s character (1977, p. 77). Such modulations may
be difficult to distinguish from the mere exhibit of çeşni in relationship to a main
makam, however should either provide the sense of a brief establishment around a
modal çeşni separate from the main makam or exhibit a tonality and/or extended
ambitus that distinguishes itself from the main makam. Full geçki is normally
expected at structurally contrasting sections of composition, known as meyan
sections (Signell, 1977, p. 82). In all cases, makam analysis ascertains which çeşni
are in a passing or relatively stable modulation. For example, a passage that begins
with Rast makam would explain g-Rast çeşni as “Rast’ta Rast,” meaning Rast çeşni
on Rast perde. As the melody rises and lingers around d’-Rast çeşni, we would
indicate this transition as “Neva’da Rast,” or Rast çeşni on Neva perde. If the
melody were to tonally transition from d’-Rast to d’-Buselik çeşni, then perform a
geçki to Nikriz makam on g-Nikriz, we would simply say “Neva’da Buselik, Rast’ta
Nikriz” (Buselik on Neva perde, Nikriz on Rast perde).
The current means of analysis demonstrates the resultant çeşni, but not the means
by which it was achieved. To rectify this deficiency and add more clarity to makam
analysis, I propose an alternative means of examining çeşni relationships. Using the
modal and tonal axes, we can create an analytical shorthand that explains çeşni
transitions on a basic level. On the modal level, a change in çeşni can be expressed
with the formula: “x çeşni n (!or")= y çeşni,” meaning a çeşni transitions to a
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certain number of modal scale degrees up or down, creating another çeşni. If a

tonally varied shared-root çeşni occurs, an equation suffices to show that both
çeşnis share the same base perde: “x çeşni= y çeşni.” Thus the hypothetical
modulation of Rast to Nikriz could appear as the following set of formulas: [g-Rast
!4=d’-Rast]; [d’-Rast=d’-Buselik]; [d’-Buselik 4"=Nikriz] (Figure 3.30).
Figure 3.30: Tonal and modal çeşni analysis of geçki from Rast to Nikriz
In some cases, combination tonal/modal geçkis may be found, creating a more

abrupt transition with new tonal material on a different pitch from the original çeşni.
We can imagine a sudden çeşni transition from Rast to Hicaz as such: [g-Rast
(=Nikriz) !1= Hicaz], where the Nikriz çeşni is placed into parenthesis to suggest
the shared tonal axis of g-Rast and g-Nikriz as a conceptual prerequisite to a-Hicaz,
located one modal degree from g-Nikriz (Figure 3.31).
Figure 3.31: Analysis of combined tonal/modal geçki from Rast to Hicaz
The aim of implementing this method of analysis is to provide a concise and logical
representation of çeşni motion and relationship on both the modal and tonal axes.
While this analysis scheme is yet experimental, it shall be used to draw attention to
key features of makam composition presented later.
3.2.4.1 Analysis of Dede Efendi’s Hicaz Şarkı
Upon examining the çeşni relationships used by an established composer, Figure

3.32 shows that Dede Efendi’s Hicaz Şarkı “Seyr-i Gülşen Edelim” (Appendix,
Figure A.12) contains typical modal relationships expected in Hicaz makam. The
piece begins with the upper Buselik pentachord in relationship to the fundamental a-
Hicaz tetrachord. The kalış on e’-Uşşak may be thought of as the second mode of
d’-Rast, which is a natural component of Hicaz makam. Additionally, the “Uzzal”
variation of Hicaz makam typically emphasizes the fifth scale degree of e with Uşşak
çeşni. The piece continues with modal extensions of d’-Rast çeşni, emphasizing
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f’(#)-Segah, a’-Buselik as an upper tetrachord in “Acemli Rast,” and c’(#)-Segah,

which is analgous to the relationship between f(#)-Segah and g-Rast çeşnis. The
extension of b-Nişabur from d’-Rast is an additional characteristic çeşni found in
Rast and Hicaz makams. Dede Efendi’s most unusual tonal geçki in this piece
occurs in measure eight, where the equivalence [a-Hicaz=a-Uşşak] is established in
order to connect to the lower d-Rast çeşni. This combination of a-Uşşak and d-Rast
is typical of Yegah makam, which in this case builds off of the d’-Rast çeşni one
octave higher in order to introduce a combination of octave symmetry and tonal
color with a-Uşşak çeşni. Çeşni progressions similar to the opening phrases
continue until measure 17, where a’-Buselik shifts to a’-Hicaz after a brief
introduction of Eviç perde (f’(#)). The suggestion of a Segah trichord here introduces
a common çeşni to both a’-Buselik çeşni as in Segah makam and a’-Hicaz çeşni as
in Huzzam makam. From a’-Hicaz, the melody descends as far as e’-Uşşak,
suggesting a hint of Karcığar makam on e’.
Figure 3.32: Analysis of Dede Efendi’s Hicaz Şarkı
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Figure 3.32 (continued): Analysis of Dede Efendi’s Hicaz Şarkı
3.2.4.2 Analysis of Cevdet Çağla’s Kürdilihicazkar Şarkı
This example of a “modern” twentieth-century composer’s application of

Kürdilihicazkar makam (Appendix, Figure A.13) demonstrates a variety of tonal
combinations related to the structure of this compound makam (Figure 3.33).
Beginning with the exposition of the modally related c’-Nikriz and d’-Hicaz çeşnis,
Çağla settles on c’-Rast as part of the “Arazbar” çeşni that is characteristic of
Kürdilihicazkar. A descent to the karar çeşni of g-Kürdi is achieved after a brief geçki
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to b(b)-Nikriz, which departs from the usual tonal relationship of c’-Nikriz one tanini
above. The introduction of poetry returns to the “Arazbar” çeşnis, while emphasizing
g’-Hicaz. After touching upon Suzinak makam with a quick descent to c’-Rast, the
instrumental refrain establishes c’-Buselik çeşni following g’-Hicaz. This scale form,
which is remniscient of Nihavent makam, then extends to the karar of g-Kürdi once
again. The second poetic section in the nakarat (refrain) exploits the modal
connection between g’-Kürdi and a’(b)-Nigar, while creating a typical variant of
Kürdi’s karar using a g-Kürdi tetrachord combined with a Kürdi pentachord on c’.
The meyan section of this şarkı creates a geçki to b’(b)-Nigar çeşni, which can be
explained as a mode of g’-Buselik, the upper pentachord of a d’-Kürdi makam.
Figure 3.33: Analysis of Cevdet Çağla’s Kürdilihicazkar Şarkı
75

Figure 3.33 (continued): Analysis of Cevdet Çağla’s Kürdilihicazkar Şarkı
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3.3 A Model for Complete Transposition of Çeşni
When examining the possibilities for çeşni combinations, the question of the makam
system’s transposition limits is a relatively unexamined and open-ended topic. The
research of Popescu-Judetz, who has studied the classification and evolution of
Turkish makam throughout the Ottoman Empire, indicates that the creation of
compound and new makams increasingly grew towards the twentieth century
(Popescu-Judetz, 2007, pp. 128-129). With the creation of new makam comes the
possibility of new çeşni relationships and new relative tonal centers for çeşni.
Compound makams such as Şehnaz-Buselik, Hisar Buselik, Saba Zemzeme, and
Acem Kürdi all suggest a mixture of fundamental çeşni with another çeşni prior to
the final arrival on the karar perde. Various other compound makams are identified
through lower extension to a main çeşni, such as Bestenigar or Şevk-Efza. Certain
composers of the twentieth century, such as Ferit Alnar, have exploited atypical
çeşni relationships in their compositions. In order to conceive of new çeşni and
makam possibilities, the necessary materials have been provided. Nonetheless, on
the whole, there tends to be little variance from tradition when it comes to new
development in makam. I therefore propose a system of completely transposable
çeşni upon every functional perde center found in Turkish makam music. Such a
system can maximize the monophonic potential of Turkish music in a manner
consistent with tradition, yet at the same time challenge the established norm in
Turkish makam. Depending on the degree of abstract transposition of makam
involved, we can create subtle nuance, or distance ourselves considerably far from
traditional understandings of makam. Nevertheless, the resultant music will possess
an unmistakable semblance and relevance to the makam system. This system, in its
fullest capacity, may additionally appeal to composers of a Western background and
apply itself suitably to polyphonic contexts both contrapuntal and tonal. Along with
the institution of a more flexible understanding of makam come questions that have
yet to be answered: how tonal or transposable should Turkish makam music be?
Throughout the makam tradition, the qualities of virtuosity and genius are attributed
to performers and composers who find unusual çeşni transpositions and makam
relationships. However, the question of the boundaries of tradition and the
acceptance of a completely transposable makam system is likely a subjective and
unclarified one.
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3.3.1 Expanding traditional çeşni relationships
Building on the concept of modal and tonal axes, we have established two main
avenues by which geçki occur. Modally, we can state that wherever a particular
çeşni is found, there exists the theoretical possibility of either transitioning to another
çeşni within the same tonal family, or extending the range of a çeşni as an addition
to a larger accepted çeşni combination. On the tonal axis, it is possible to create a
rule that accepts makam geçki based on a common perde center so that if two çeşni
are found to occupy the same base perde, then wherever either perde is
transposed, then the other çeşni can logically be associated. With both methods, the
key to a logical and satisfying geçki is to provide the proper çeşni associations with
supporting melodic context. Returning to the example of Rast çeşni’s limited
transpositions, we can sketch a theoretically possible tonal equivalence between
Rast and all other çeşni that exist on Rast perde. Thus, Nigar, Buselik, Nikriz, Kürdi,
Hicaz, and Pençgah çeşnis all naturally exist on Rast perde.
Figure 3.34: Tonal equivalences of g-Rast çeşni
Figure 3.34 above suggests that through the proper treatment of seyir and çeşni
combinations, a smooth modulation from Rast çeşni to many other makams are
possible upon the same tonal center. Under this perspective, we are still left with
modulation possibilities within the previously established four or five perde centers
of Rast çeşni: g, c’, d’, e’. In order to break out of the confines of traditionally
established çeşni relationships, we can choose many paths of tonal and modal
equivalency. Assuming tonal equivalency from Nigar çeşni, we can find several
perde centers not typically associated with Rast. The most common perde center
unique to Nigar is f, the karar perde of Acem Aşiran makam and characteristic perde
of makams such as Acem, Bayati, and Ferahfeza. To examine çeşni possibilities on
the tonal axis of f, we can conclude that if Nigar çeşni shares a common tonal axis
with Rast, Nikriz, Buselik, Kürdi, Hicaz, and Pençgah çeşnis, then proper treatment
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of seyir and çeşni combinations should also allow the location of these çeşnis or
makams upon the f perde center (Figure 3.35).
Figure 3.35: Transposed tonal equivalences of f-Nigar çeşni
To derive additional levels of transposition, we can assume that the Nigar=Rast

equivalency can simply be cycled in whole step (tanini) intervals by equating Buselik
(assuming the relative position of f-Nihavent makam) to Nigar. From here, a
transposed f-Buselik may be modally related to e(b)-Nigar çeşni one whole step
below. In turn, e(b)-Nigar may assume the shared perde center of e(b)-Rast,
completing another level of transposition. The formula for this transposition would be
represented as: [f-Nigar=f-Buselik]; [f-Buselik 1"=e(b)-Nigar]; [e(b)-Nigar=e(b)-
Rast] (Figure 3.36).
Figure 3.36: Transposed cycle of f-Nigar to e(b)-Nigar=Rast
When performing tonal equivalencies, the problem of how to treat the çeşnis
involved is a potential matter of debate and preference. We could regard f-Nigar
çeşni, for instance, either as Acem Aşiran makam in its natural position, or as a
transposition of g-Nigar makam. If the latter is the case, then the function of Nigar
çeşni as relative to Nigar makam should emphasize the güçlü of its fourth, b(b). The
possible transition from f-Acem Aşiran makam to f-Nigar makam may be a preferred
method of equating Nigar çeşni to Rast, as Rast makam normally occupies the
same karar perde as Nigar makam and not Acem Aşiran. If so, characteristic seyir
progressions and çeşnis particular to Acem Aşiran should firstly be used before
establishing Nigar makam on the same pitch. However, since Nigar makam is
typically located one whole step above Acem Aşiran, it is again a matter of debate
as to whether the transposition to the same karar perde through the use of common
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çeşni is acceptable. Alternately, it is possible to consider Nigar çeşni as a type of

passing modulation that does not qualify as a full geçki to a new makam. Under this
perspective, Nigar could be considered a “bridge” (köprü) çeşni that facilitates the
transition to another more stable makam geçki. As we continue to stretch the
possibilities of makam relationships, it will be seen that what may be considered by
some as violating the rules of makam will in truth require a greater attention to the
modal and tonal çeşni relationships that define each makam. After all, when
transposing makam, reliance upon known fixed-pitch relationships is no longer
possible; instead, relative pitch çeşni relationships must be considered in order to
provide the same flavor that a makam in its original place possesses.
Another means of arriving at f-Rast çeşni can be achieved by establishing

equivalency between Kürdi and Uşşak çeşnis (Figure 3.37). Kürdi makam’s natural
karar perde is a, therefore sharing a common perde center with Uşşak makam. By
establishing g-Kürdi çeşni, as found in Kürdilihicazkar makam, as tonally equivalent
to g-Uşşak, it is possible to then modally relate g-Uşşak to f-Rast. This
transposition’s formula would be represented as: [g-Kürdi=g-Uşşak]; [g-Uşşak
1"=f-Rast]. This transposition of f-Rast additionally implies the modal çeşni Segah
to be located on the a(d) perde. Thus, it is seen that as transposition along the
whole step interval occurs, the possible locations of Segah çeşni becomes
expanded to every mücennep region used in Turkish music.
Figure 3.37: Transposition of f-Rast çeşni from g-Kürdi
To exemplify the variety of modal-tonal relationships possible, we can additionally

locate Nigar and other çeşnis from the same tonal axis on the half-step (bakiyye)
interval. From the g-Buselik çeşni, a modal relationship to Nigar çeşni may be found
on b’(b). This modal çeşni occurs in Nihavent makam, where a third scale degree
modal relationship with Nigar çeşni on b(b) can be compared to Buselik makam’s
characteristic c-Nigar çeşni. From this point, we can equate b(b)-Nigar with b(b)
Rast çeşni in order to provide a previously unfound perde center for Rast (Figure
3.38). The location of Nikriz çeşni on b(b) is typical of Şevk-Efza makam, albeit a
rare position otherwise.
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Figure 3.38: b(b)-Rast çeşni derived from g-Buselik çeşni
Once establishing a means of potentially cyclic whole-step transpositions for the

same çeşni, the inclusion of a transposition upon a half step suggests the possibility
of locating çeşni on at least 12 perdes. That is, using the above examples,
transposition of Buselik çeşni by a whole step can lead to the formation of Nigar or
other shared-root tonal çeşnis on half step intervals, so that a çeşni can now be
transposed to either of two interval types. In Turkish makam music, however, perde
centers can be found not only on the tanini and bakiyye intervals, but also what is
known as the mücennep interval. As mentioned in section 3.2.3.1, the Segah çeşni
is the most common çeşni to be located on a mücennep perde. Mücennep perdes
are characterized as occupying the space between a half step and a whole step,
known as the mücennep region (mücennep bölgesi) (Tura, 1988), which will be
explained in detail in the following section. Regardless of çeşni, however, the only
position on which an actual mücennep çeşni is formed is the 1-koma-flat position.
This means that within the mücennep region, the 2- or 3-koma-flat Uşşak interval is
not a point of kalış where a new çeşni is established. Instead, the same perde is
performed sharper as 1 koma flat when establishing Uşşak çeşni’s modal relative
Segah. The implications of a single mücennep çeşni kalış naturally suggest only five
potential points of transposition within an octave, as two half steps on b-c’ and e’-f’
do not segment a whole tone. However, if Rast çeşni, for instance, is established on
a(b+) or c(#), then the third degree perde, c’ or f’, must be performed as a
mücennep perde, with one flat. This discrepancy can be explained under the
parameters of the conceptual system that will be explained in the following section.
As previously discussed, transposition of Rast or Uşşak çeşnis to either tanini or
bakiyye type perdes implies the modal existence of Segah and related çeşnis. In
this manner, we can form a kalış on every 1-koma mücennep perde in the Turkish
makam system.
In order to complete the system of shared-root tonal çeşni equivalencies, it is

necessary to find a logical connection between tanini or bakiyye-perde çeşni and
mücennep-perde çeşnis. With the inclusion of mücennep çeşnis into the tonal
equivalency scheme, we can present a comprehensive link of every çeşni with one
another on any tonal axis. Clues from the structure of two makams in particular,
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Evcara and Dügah, provide the necessary material to tonally link mücennep çeşni to
all others. As mentioned in section 3.2.3.1, Evcara makam contains an uncommon
use of Hicaz çeşni on mücennep perdes in combination with the typical f’(#)-Segah
çeşni (as a mode of d’-Rast çeşni). Through use of its lower extension, a logical
connection between f’(#)-Segah and c’(#)-Hicaz çeşni is possible. This formation of
Hicaz çeşni can be viewed as Segah çeşni’s typical lower extension of three perde,
which normally ends in the place of modal Rast çeşni; however, in this case, one
lower perde is extended below to form a tetrachord with a 5-koma half step
(mücennep perde), creating a 13-koma Hicaz interval between d’ and f’(#)-Segah
çeşni’s leading tone of e’(#). To create a Zirguleli Hicaz scale on f(#), the c’(#) Hicaz
tetrachord is combined with a lower f(#) Hicaz pentachord, which at the same time
can be considered a lower extension of b(d)-Segah çeşni. As a modal extension of
c’(#)-Hicaz, b(d)-Nikriz çeşni is apparent in this makam, as well (Figure 3.39).
Figure 3.39: Hicaz çeşni as a lower extension of Segah çeşni in Evcara makam
Providing that Hicaz çeşni is used as a tonal axis, it is now possible to establish
tonal equivalencies upon any mücennep interval. Beginning with f(#)-Hicaz and
c’(#)-Hicaz çeşnis, we can establish typical equivalencies with other tanini-perde
çeşnis (Figure 3.40).
Figure 3.40: Tonal equivalencies with f(#)-Hicaz and c’(#)-Hicaz çeşnis
Accepting f(#)-Hicaz as the karar perde for a common-çeşni modulation to Hicaz

makam, it is possible to locate Rast and Buselik çeşnis on b(d), as well (Figure
3.41).
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Figure 3.41: b(d)-Rast and b(d)-Buselik çeşnis in f(#)-Hicaz makam
As seen above, the transposition of b(d)-Rast çeşni on a mücennep perde creates a

relative modal Segah çeşni on a 3-koma-sharp d’. This perde, while still within the
mücennep region, is not notated in the AEU system. Variance of relative second-
order mücennep çeşnis within first-order mücennep çeşnis will be resolved through
application of the conceptual 17-perde system introduced in section 3.3.2.1. The
potential for transposed çeşni along a series of mücennep perdes completes the
realization of achieving transposition of any çeşni upon any of the 17 perdes
capable of kalış in Turkish makam music. The geçki formula [f(#)-Hicaz=f(#)-Uşşak];
[f(#)-Uşşak 1"=e(d)-Rast] illustrates one method of deriving transposition along a
chain of mücennep perde by using tonal equivalency between f(#)-Hicaz and Uşşak
çeşnis followed by a modal equivalency of f(#)-Uşşak with e(d)-Rast one perde
below. The following Figure 3.42 thus demonstrates the tonal modulation of f(#)-
Rast and f(#)-Uşşak and the modal modulation of e(d)-Rast, which could relate to a
tonally transposed e(d)-Hicaz çeşni.
Figure 3.42: location of e(d)-Rast and e(d)-Hicaz çeşnis relative to f(#)-Hicaz çeşni
The opposite approach of equating çeşnis that normally possess a karar perde on a
mücennep perde with those on a tanini or bakiyye perde is exemplified in Dügah
makam. Similar to Evcara, Dügah makam utilizes the lower extension of Segah
çeşni as a signifying transitory element from a-Saba makam to a-Segah or a-Hicaz
çeşni. While Arel defines Dügah makam as using a mixture of Saba and Hicaz
çeşnis on a (1968, p. 101), others prefer to define Dügah makam as a mixture of
Saba and Segah çeşnis on a (Kanık, 2014-2015). In fact, although Arel does not
characterize the use of a-Segah çeşni in Dügah makam, the compositional example
he gives (Yusuf Paşa’s Dügah Peşrev) does not use a-Hicaz çeşni, but rather
a-Segah when approaching its melodic karar. Due to the use of mücennep perdes in
the second degrees of both a- Segah and a-Hicaz çeşnis, it is easy to see how this
makam has been confused over years of transmission. In some cases, Dügah
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makam appears to contain both Segah and Hicaz çeşnis, in addition to Saba. The
unity between a-Segah and a-Hicaz çeşnis leads to the conclusion that both çeşnis
may be characteristic of the makam. As a lower extension of a-Segah çeşni, e-Hicaz
çeşni can be interpreted similarly to the structure of Evcara makam. The lower
extension of e-Hicaz then becomes a common bridge for either an additional Hicaz
çeşni or Segah çeşni on a (Figure 3.43).
Figure 3.43: e-Hicaz çeşni as a lower extension of both a-Segah and a-Hicaz
çeşnis
The equation of Segah çeşni’s karar perde with that of Uşşak (in Saba makam) and
Hicaz is a source of inspiration for creating geçki to tanini or bakiyye perdes with
traditionally mücennep-perde çeşnis. In the case of both Evcara and Dügah
makams, the dual function of Segah çeşni’s lower extension as both part of Segah
and Hicaz çeşni allows a significant bridge çeşni for equating the mücennep region
with tanini and bakiyye perdes.
3.3.2 Safiyyüddin’s conceptual 17-perde system
While the implications of a completely transposable makam system appear modern

from the standpoint of historical development, the origins of a transposable 17-perde
system are attributed to Safiyyüddin in the thirteenth century. While theorists
throughout the centuries have cited Safiyyüddin as the forefather of the traditional
makam system used throughout the Ottoman period, the significance of
Safiyyüddin’s transposed (şed) daire system is often overlooked and left out of
discussion. In the twentieth century, the AEU system provides a mathematically
sound transposition of makams upon some of the 24 perdes in its system (Ezgi,
1933). In this sense, it can be said that the concept of transposition has been
preserved in the theoretical understanding of musicians throughout the history of
Turkish makam music. The AEU system’s use of 24 perdes, however, has been
criticized for using four perdes that do not exist in practice 37 (Can, 2002). This
system was originally predicated on Rauf Yekta’s 22-perde system (Yarman, 2008,
pp. 37-38), which itself was revised into a 24-perde system allegedly following

37
Can lists Dik Buselik (b(+)), Dik Geveşt (f(##)), Dik Acem (f’(+)), and Dik Hicaz (c’#+) as absent from
performance practice.
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unveiling of Mikhail Mishaka’s38 24 quarter-tone system for Arabic makam theory in

Cairo in the year of 1932 (Tura, 1998, p. 19). The AEU system had effectively
divided each mücennep region into small and large mücennep perdes, whereas
Yavuzoğlu’s modern system divides the mücennep region into three perdes for a
total of 48 equal-tempered perdes (Yavuzoğlu, 2013). Furthermore, Yarman’s 79-
tone system allows for additional detail in the mücennep region (Yarman, 2008, pp.
87-117). Regardless of pitch system, however, the practical constraints of the
Turkish makam system as it is traditionally understood are such that çeşni are
formed at one of three types of interval: bakiyye, mücennep, or tanini.
Safiyyüddin’s perde system is predicated on the three perde classes of bakiyye (B),
mücennep (C), and tanini (T). In his Kitabül-Edvar, the theorist describes the
Bakiyye interval as the distance between the first two perdes in his system, “A” and
“B” (in Arabic letters 39 ), which corresponds to approximately 90 cents. 40 The
mücennep interval is listed as an exact doubling of the bakiyye, between the “A” and
“C” perdes, at roughly 180 cents. Finally, the tanini is given as the distance between
“A” and “D” perdes, nearly corresponding to 204 cents (Uygun, 1999, pp. 68-69).
Safiyyüddin then describes means of extracting or combining the three intervals
amongst themselves and within the limits of a tetrachord. Firstly, the smallest
interval is considered the bakiyye. Safiyyüddin goes on to stipulate that all large
intervals are formed by small intervals, indicating that the bakiyye is the smallest
interval cell to be found in all other intervals. As the theorist explains, the mücennep
interval contains two bakiyye; the tanini interval three bakiyye. From these
descriptions, the following equations can be deduced: [2B=1C]; [3B=1T].
Safiyyüddin additionally explains subtraction of intervals: [1C-1B=1B]; [1T-1C=1B].
From the interval of a fourth, the following equations are given: [P4-2T=1B]; [P4-
3C=1B] (Uygun, 1999, p. 71). From these equations, two conclusions may be
drawn: 1) the bakiyye interval does not always represent the same size interval; 2)
despite its flexibility in pitch, the bakiyye serves as a conceptual basic unit. To
equate three bakiyye with one tanini suggests that while two may be of the standard
90-cent value, the remaining bakiyye interval must equal 24 cents in order to fit
within the limits of the tanini. This odd contraction of the bakiyye interval can be

38
Mikhail Mishaka himself was a Lebanese music theorist living in the nineteenth century (Yarman,
2007, p. 4)
39
The system of using alphabetic letter notation in music is known as Ebced in Turkish, after the first
four letters of the Arabic alphabet.
40
The bakiyye interval is exactly 90.22 cents, however for the sake of simplicity, I shall use a very
close approximation of all three intervals. Uygun additionally calculates the mücennep interval as
180.45 cents, and the tanini interval as 203.91 cents (Uygun, 1999, p. 62). When added together using
the approximations of 90, 180, and 204 cents, the combined pitches still equal 1200 cents at the
octave.
85

described as the addition of a Pythagorean comma similar to that used in the AEU
system (Arel, 1968). 41 In Safiyyüddin’s later Şerefiyye manuscript, the koma is
mentioned as an interval “smaller than half a bakiyye” (Arslan, 2007, p. 81). For
practical reasons, this koma value will be treated as a bakiyye in this thesis.
The formation of the mücennep region in Safiyyüddin’s system yields an often-

criticized aspect of this foundational theory. While the 180-cent value of the
mücennep region is suitable for perdes such as Segah, it fails to describe the 2 or 3
koma alterations of Uşşak, Hüzzam, and other çeşnis. Solidarity of this 1-koma-flat
mücennep system exists in the AEU system, which only represents Segah perde as
a 1-koma-flat mücennep perde in both Segah and Uşşak makams. Assuming the
value of Uşşak çeşni’s Segah perde is 2-3 komas, it can be said that this perde is
performed roughly between 46 and 69 cents flat. Özek’s computer analyses of the
perde performances of master musicians confirms that the mücennep region in
Uşşak çeşni is performed with koma values generally found between 2 and 3
42
komas (Özek, 2014). Furthermore, as Tura notes, the distance between
Safiyyüddin’s “B” and “D” perdes is larger than a bakiyye, totaling 114 cents (Uygun,
1999, p. 62; Tura, 1988, p. 187). Meragi later accounts for this value within the
mücennep region as a tetimme interval, in contrast to the large 180-cent mücennep
value of the mütemmim interval (Tura, 1988, p. 188). Drawing from this fundamental
distinction of two extreme ends of the mücennep region, the AEU system
establishes the same small (küçük) and large (büyük) mücennep perdes. Tura, who
is critical of Arel’s neglect of the “quarter-tone” values, finds the Karadeniz system43
more appropriate for the notation of Turkish makam music (Tura, 1988, pp. 196-
199).
The question of Safiyyüddin’s neglect of mücennep values outside the alteration of

1-koma flat to the tanini or 1-koma sharp to the bakiyye is somewhat resolved in his
Şerefiyye manuscript. In this later theoretical treatise, Safiyyüddin systematically
accounts for a large number of pitch ratios throughout the mücennep spectrum.
Establishing three main categories, the theorist begins with a large category
consisting of the perfect intervals found between one and two octaves. The mid-

41
The precise value of Safiyyüddin’s “bakiyye” koma is 23.46 cents, whereas the equal-tempered AEU
koma is 22.64 cents (53 komas within an octave).
42
Specifically, analysis of tanburi Necdet Yaşar, kemençevi İhsan Özgen, and neyzen Niyazi Sayın’s
performance of Uşşak çeşni reveals 2.4-koma-flat Segah perde, whereas vocalist Münir Nürettin
Selçuk sings this perde at 2 komas flat; Tanburi Cemil Bey performs a considerably flatter Segah perde
at 3.3 komas (Özek, 2014, pp. 50, 62, 72, 84, 97).
43
Tura furthermore makes mention of American theorist Harry Partch’s microtonal system,
coincidentally invented around the same time as the Karadeniz system. Tura considers the Partch
system to be very similar to the Karadeniz system, however prefers the Partch system for its larger
number of perdes that enable detail of pitch performance and complete transposability.
86

sized interval category involves the perfect fourth and fifth, whereas the small
category contains three sub-categories itself, beginning with the natural major third
interval of 5/4 (386.31 cents), the natural minor third interval of 6/5 (315.64 cents),
and the 7/6 (266.87 cents) ratio as a “large” sub-category. The middle sub-category
contains the intervals 8/7 (231.17 cents), 9/8 (the 204-cent tanini), and 10/9 (182.4
cents, slightly over the AEU mücennep interval). The small sub-category is then
defined as any proportion equal to or less than the 11/10 (165-cent) interval (Arslan,
2007, pp. 54-55). Describing three main types of intervals used by music practioners
of his time, Safiyyüddin lists the 9/8 ratio as large, corresponding to the 204-cent
tanini. The small interval is represented by the 256/243 ratio of 90 cents, otherwise
known as the bakiyye interval. In this treatise, however, the middle category found in
practice is represented by a 14/13 ratio of 128.3 cents44 (Arslan, 2007, p. 55). This
mücennep value is only 38 cents from the bakiyye interval, creating a somewhat
smaller interval from the quarter tone. Safiyyüddin’s irha interval, on the other hand,
is described as exactly one quarter of a tanini, thus amounting to a proper 51-cent
quarter tone (Arslan, 2007, p. 53). Safiyyüddin especially defines the koma in the
Şerefiyye as “smaller than half a bakiyye” (Arslan, 2007, p. 81). In addition to these
mücennep ratios, the Şerefiyye manuscript contains a dazzling number of ratio
combinations as tetrachord genera (Arslan, 2007, pp. 60-76). To exemplify, within
the leyyin genus (leyyin cins) the rasim-zayıf sub-genus is composed of a 5/4
interval followed by a 32/31 (54.96 cents) and 31/30 (56.77 cents) interval. The
rasim-şed sub-genus is described as a 5/4 interval combined with a 24/23 (73.68
cents) and 46/45 (38.05 cents) interval (Arslan, 2007, 62).
With so many varieties of quarter-tone intervals capable of being located in the

mücennep region, it becomes pertinent to question why Safiyyüddin did not choose
to represent the mid-mücennep region in his system. From a logical standpoint, the
practicality of a perde system laden with many pitch choices may be a hindrance to
the practicing musician. It thus becomes necessary to view the 17-perde system as
a conceptual model that allowed flexibility within the mücennep region and the ability
to transpose any çeşni upon any of the 17 perdes. Tura comments upon the
calculation error of 66.77 cents in the cycle of perfect intervals upon the 17-perde
system, equating this differential with the Pythagorean comma found in the cycle of
perfect intervals in the 12-tone system. Tura concludes that this system nonetheless
intended to be a closed system, where 17 cycles of fourths or fifths should lead back
to the perde of origin. It is therefore understood that while Safiyyüddin possessed

44
Calculations of cent values from numerical ratios were aided with a mathematical conversion tool
found on the website: www.robertinventor.com (maintained by Robert Walker of Scotland).
87

extensive knowledge of pitch combinations within tetrachord structures, he chose to

develop a conceptual system that could form a closed cycle and facilitate
transposition while recognizing three main interval types. Yarman supports the idea
that the 17-perde model was a conceptual framework (2007, pp. 3-4), while Arslan
corroborates that Safiyyüddin likely outlined the two extremes of the mücennep
region without excluding its intermediary values (2007, pp. 81-82).
Safiyyüddin’s transposed daire system is explained in the Kitabül-Edvâr, where all

12 of the main “makams” are shown with Ebced notation on each of the 17 perdes.
Due to the conceptual perde regions outlined by Safiyyüddin’s system, attempts at
designating specific transposed pitches to the 17 transposed scales given prove to
be difficult. However, if we understand that the fundamental mücennep intervals
were designed to fluctuate in size, then it is possible to make sense of this
transposition scheme. Safiyyüddin’s Hicâzî Edvâr contains mixtures of mücennep
intervals that assume the values found in both Uşşak and Hicaz çeşnis, known in
the contemporary Turkish makam system as Karcığar makam. Upon transposition,
these mücennep intervals often occur in the position of perdes that previously
existed as tanini or bakiyye. Therefore, conceptual adjustments of the pitch values
of these perdes according to their relative transposed interval are required in order
to explain the apparently varied perde values within transposed scales. In order to
analyze the proper perde values of the transposed Hicâzî scales, I have compared
Safiyyüddin’s notated perdes with the AEU system’s equivalent, adjusted to hold the
same scale interval patterns at every transposition (Figure 3.44). It can be seen that
the AEU system’s shortcomings in transposition additionally require adjustment,
which is why I have made the concession of using numerical adjustment to sharps
and flats on the necessary perdes. The notation of 2- and 3-koma sharps or flats is
a convention of the Turkish folk music system, which does not otherwise disrupt the
logic of the AEU system 45 . Furthermore, I have notated all of the perdes in
Safiyyüddin’s system as either a 5-koma flat, a 1-koma flat, a 9-koma tanini, or the
enharmonic equivalances of these. In this understanding of the Hicâzî scale, the
AEU system notates the first tetrachord as Uşşak çeşni, with an eight-koma value
on the second perde. This value, while analogous to Safiyyüddin’s system, does not
match the 2-3 koma accidental requirements for the performance of Uşşak.
According to the AEU system, Safiyyüddin’s [C-C-T] interval pattern becomes
transformed into the 8-koma büyük mücennep, the 5-koma küçük mücennep, and
the 9-koma tanini intervals [K-S-T]. The following pentachord, with its [C-T-C-T],

45
Mustafa Kemal Karaosmanoğlu is know to have applied the 2- and 3-koma accidentals to Turkish art
music scores using the MUS2 music notation program (https://www.mus2.com.tr/en/).
88

structure, is represented as a küçük mücennep, a 12-koma artık ikili, a küçük

mücennep, and a tanini interval [S-A12-S-T]. This pentachord alters Safiyyüddin’s
notated tanini interval by shortening the intervals of its surrounding mücennep
perdes, thus creating the Hicaz çeşni.
Figure 3.44: Comparison of Safiyyüddin’s transposed Hicâzî scale (Uygun, 1999, p.

104) with the Karcığar scale in the AEU system, adjusted for koma discrepancies
89

Figure 3.44 (continued): Comparison of Safiyyüddin’s transposed Hicâzî scale

(Uygun, 1999, p. 104) with the Karcığar scale in the AEU system, adjusted for koma
discrepancies
3.3.2.1 Practical application of the conceptual 17-perde model
According to Tura, modern theoretical systems of Turkish makam music essentially

exist as elaborations of the 17-perde model (Tura, 1988, pp. 196-197). The concept
of seeing the mücennep region in greater detail is echoed by Yarman’s (2010)
concept of pitch resolution (çözünürlük46), which has spurred his theoretical models
of 24, 36, and ultimately 79 tones to the octave as alternative approaches to the
Turkish makam theory system. Yarman additionally explains his 79-perde system
against the traditional 17 perde regions, asserting that his system is not a
continuation of the AEU system, but rather an extension of the traditional system of
17 flexible perdes upheld by Abdülbaki Nasır Dede in the late eighteenth century
(Yarman, 2010, pp. 31, 39). The investigation of alternative perde systems has lead
to many useful approaches to the theoretical account of Turkish makam music in the
twentieth and twenty-first centuries. However, at the same time, the search for an
ideal theoretical system has sparked intense debates and factioning as a result.
Arguably, all modern theorists who endeavor to propose a workable theory system

46
Yarman mentions this term in several places throughout his book Ses Dünyamızda Yeni Ufuklar
[New Horizons in our World of Sound] (Yarman, 2010, pp. 12, 65, 100, 161).
90

for Turkish makam music are worthy of praise and respect, as it is not an easy task.
While the Yarman-79 system, for instance, excels in its pitch detail, the 48 equal-
tempered perde system of Yavuzoğlu provides a simpler, practical format
compatible with Western 12-tone music. The 41-perde Karadeniz system, on the
other hand, adds necessary modifications to the basic structure of the AEU system
in order to include the middle mücennep range while maintaining an unequal-
tempered tuning.
The debate over microtonal theory is one stretching as far back as ancient Greece.
The Harmonicist school focused on the smallest unit of musical pitch, which Baysal
compares to Democritos’ materialist view of the universe using the concept of the
atom as the smallest particle (Baysal, 2014, pp. 66-67). Aristoxenos was a known
critic of the Harmonicist school and advocate of a practical, relativistic view of music.
Instead of defining discrete pitches, Aristoxenos divided the whole tone into three
types of interval regions: the quarter-tone enharmonic diesis, the third-tone
chromatic diesis, and the semitone (Baysal, 2014, p. 74). Additionally, Aristoxenos
created the concept of dynameis, where pitches are defined not according to
specific value, but according to potential movement and function in context of the
genus being used (Baysal, 2014, p. 75). It can be said that Safiyyüddin’s makam
system is Aristoxenian in design inasmuch as his perde theory advocates the
recognition of pitch regions rather than specific harmonic ratios. Using the 17-perde
model as a framework for transposition schemes, I will therefore demonstrate a
practical understanding of makam that can interface with many theoretical tuning
systems. As such, the conceptual 17-perde system functions as an overlay
independent of any tone generation system, best suited to systems that
acknowledge at least 17 perdes to the octave. While I am aware of the inherent
flaws of the AEU system, I have chosen to use this system with slight modification of
koma-sharps or flats foreign to the system to simply reflect practice better. Despite
its disadvantages, the fact that the AEU system remains the dominant mode of
notation for Turkish makam music warrants the explanation of my system of çeşni
transposition according to it.
As the 17-perde system is a fundamental rubric for establishing the basic intervals
and kalış centers for all çeşni in the Turkish makam music system, it is possible to
use this model as a conceptual template for çeşni transposition beginning on
bakiyye, mücennep, and tanini intervals. By identifying where one of the three basic
perde types should line-up with the notated perde, we can determine the practical
range of each interval according to the notation system used. In this manner, we
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can construct a template for 17 conceptual perde regions against the 24 perdes in
the AEU system. The range of an octave beginning with Rast perde (g-g’) can be
viewed as Figure 3.45 illustrates. In this perde chart, perdes easily identified as
tanini from the starting point will be represented by whole notes, bakiyye perdes as
quarter notes, and mücennep perdes as half notes. The composite of conceptual
bakiyye interval is enumerated at each perde in the 17-perde system directly
underneath the first staff. The second group of symbols counts levels of perde
intervals from each tanini in the system.
Figure 3.45: The 17 conceptual perde sytem compared with the AEU 24-perde
system
From the above figure it is easy to determine that the AEU system has established
the lower and upper limits of mücennep region with two perdes. The spaces
between a(b+) and a(d), b(b+) and b(d), c’(#+) and d’(d), e’(b+) and e’(d), and f’(+)
and f’(#) all constitute the natural mücennep regions of the diatonic makam system.
Of the 24 perdes, b(+) and f’(##) are the most functionally irrelevant, as arguably
neither perde is used in performance. It is inferred that as the value of the
mücennep regions may fluctuate according the çeşni, the remaining bakiyye value
between it and the next tanini perde should also adjust accordingly.
Should the conceptual axis of transposition shift at the level of a bakiyye, then the
17-perde overlay must accommodate to this change. The tanini interval will be
calculated from one notated bakiyye perde to the next, thus creating a conceptual
bakiyye in the standard mücennep region. Likewise, the new conceptual mücennep
region will be represented by the standard tanini perde. This transposition level
assumes a traditionally tanini-level çeşni would be transposed to a bakiyye perde,
such as in g#-Rast. An alternative interpretation of b, which is normally a bakiyye
perde, as a tanini perde would result in a natural shift of the base starting point of
interval calculation. Thus, there is minor consideration of where to start the interval
calculation that depends upon where the axis of Rast perde is identified. In Figure
3.46, the standard küçük (small) mücennep perdes of the AEU system become
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functionally obsolete as a close 1-koma interval from the new conceptual tanini
perdes. Mücennep perdes are now defined at the low limit only, and require a
flexible interpretation that locates them at the upper limit. As such, all mücennep
perdes should be represented as 3 komas sharper than notated on the AEU system.
Figure 3.46: Shift of relative perde intervals at the bakiyye level of functional
transposition
At the level of two bakiyye intervals, transposition of tanini perdes to the mücennep
region significantly changes the relative position of the perdes. This conceptual shift
of perde regions requires the original tanini perdes to be treated as bakiyye perdes
with a 3-koma shift sharper. Bakiyye perdes are now mücennep perdes, with the 5-
koma-flat perdes representing the low limit of the mücennep region. Küçük
mücennep perdes in the AEU system will require a shift of 2 komas sharp in order to
reach the upper limit of the mücennep region, where kalış on Segah and other
çeşnis are formed (Figure 3.47).
Figure 3.47: Shift of relative perde intervals at the mücennep level of functional
transposition
Until this point, it is possible to imagine a functional transposition from a bakiyye,

mücennep, or tanini perde to one another without a change of pitch in the çeşni’s
karar perde. That is to say that when transitioning from a functional tanini to a
mücennep or bakiyye perde, while some internal perdes may require koma
adjustment, the common perde upon which interval function is changed remains the
same. In the case of the mücennep transposition as a functional tanini perde, the
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lack of adjustment of the high mücennep perde as a kalış requires most of the
relative bakiyye and tanini perdes to be performed sharper. For this reason, it may
be desired to flatten the mücennep perde kalış to its lower limit, that of 4 komas flat,
so that very few of the relative bakiyye and tanini perdes will require change.
According to this understanding, only c’(#) and g’(#) will need to be flattened by 3
komas, creating a 1-koma sharp value that, while not included as perdes in the AEU
system, are possible to notate within the accidental scheme (Figure 3.48).
Figure 3.48: Mücennep-level functional transposition using the lower-limit of the

mücennep region
Returning to the transposed Hicâzî scale, an interpretation of the eleventh and

twelfth tabakas on the low mücennep limit demonstrates more coherency with
Safiyyüddin’s list of perdes (Figure 3.49). The second, third, and sixth perdes of the
eleventh tabaka are now calculated to be the same as Safiyyüddin’s model, while
the twelfth tabaka includes the seventh perde.
Figure 3.49: Re-interpretation of the transposition of the Hicâzî scale using the
lower-limit mücennep perde
By utilizing the above templates for functional transposition of the basic intervals,
the system of 17 conceptual perdes can be used to facilitate any tonal modulation of
çeşni. The matter of pitch resolution thus becomes a relevant issue to those wishing
to expand tonal transposition on more than 17 perdes. Due to the functional unity of
the 17-perde system in terms of makam music, I recommend that 17 perde positions
should be the lowest limit for a completely transposable system. Less than this
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number would discount the mücennep kalış points inherent to Turkish makam.
However, should greater detail eventually be desired, second-order mücennep
perdes are a natural gateway to higher resolution in transposable makam. As
discussed in section 3.3.2, second-order mücennep perdes appear when tanini-
perde çeşni become transposed to mücennep perdes. Figure 3.41 illustrated how
b(d)-Rast çeşni created a 3-koma-sharp Segah perde on d’. If we were to continue
with a chain of tanini-perde çeşnis upon each subsequent relative Segah perde, a
cycle of 53 transposable positions for Rast çeşni could be derived in the AEU
system. This number is relative to the density of komas in relationship to functional
Mücennep perdes within a system. In comparison, with the Yavuzoğlu system of 48
komas, only 48 transpositions of Rast çeşni are possible through second-order
mücennep perdes.
While the natural proclivity of second-order mücennep perdes is to extend the

transposable perde limit, in order to maintain functional unity with the 17-perde
system, a slight pitch alteration may be required to second-level mücennep perdes.
This alteration may be achieved in a manner similar to the sliding of a mücennep
interval. Thus, to prepare a second-order mücennep perde such as a 3-koma d’(#),
a 1-koma sharpening can be applied to close the system of 17 kalış points, creating
the normal value of a 4-koma-sharp d’(#). If, however, the second-order mücennep
kalış is anticipated by a sliding of the first-order mücennep kalış as in Figure 3.46,
then the relative value of the second-order mücennep perde will equate to a
standard bakiyye or tanini perde within the bounds of the 17-perde system. This
method avoids pitch bend at the new mücennep transposition by instituting it at the
first mücennep transposition. As such, either an anticipated alteration of mücennep
perdes or subsequent alteration to return to the realm of 17 conceptual perdes will
require a nuance of pitch that signifies this unusual level of transposition. If adopted
as a convention, the sliding of mücennep perdes to accommodate transposition may
be interpreted as part of a musical aesthetic rather than an undesired pitch anomaly.
It should therefore be left to performers or composers whether to locate the
mücennep kalış on its lower or upper limit. Alternatively, a compromised “quarter-
tone” mücennep kalış may be desired; however, it would result in the surrounding
pitches being unrecognizable in any other tuning. If a pitch bend is required in
mücennep-level transposition, it may be comparable to the naturally occurring
aesthetic of flattening in the mücennep region on certain characteristic çeşnis such
as Uşşak or Hüzzam. Indeed, such çeşnis may in fact be found valuable in creating
a smooth transition from upper to lower mücennep limit.
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Through transposition using the basic interval types, it is possible to create geçki to
any of the 17 conceptual perde intervals. A transposition of every interval within a
perfect fourth is sufficient to explain the possibilities within this system. Within the
perfect fourth, seven bakiyye intervals outline the potential transposition levels of
çeşni. As many variations of geçki to these intervals are conceivable, I have only
represented one means of geçki beginning with Nigar çeşni in a short, opening
gesture related to f-Acem Aşiran makam and making a karar on the desired
transposition level with Nigar çeşni. The transposition of the same çeşni at the level
of the fourth is the most smooth, as makam structures are typically based on
tetrachords and pentachords. Thus with little tonal alteration, f-Nigar can transition
to c-nigar at a transposition that can be labeled “7B” to signify seven conceptual
bakiyye intervals (Figure 3.50, Figure 3.51).
Figure 3.50: Transposition of f-Nigar at the level of seven bakiyyes
Figure 3.51: 7B transposition sample melody
Figure 3.52: Cycle of fourths using seven conceptual bakiyye intervals
As seen in figure 3.52, using sets of seven conceptual bakiyye intervals we can
count perfect fourths according to the 17-perde system. Due to its status as a prime
integer, cycles of any interval along the 17-perde system will always result in a
complete cycle of all pitches in the system. In the 12-tone system, for instance, a
return to the original pitch in any transposition cycle that is not based on a perfect
interval will result in the omission of some pitches. In this respect, Safiyyüddin had
conceived a unique perde system that supports many transposition possibilities. The
cycle of transpositions suggests that if we were to continue with an analogous geçki
scheme upon each subsequent perde, we could theoretically cycle through Nigar
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çeşni on any perde. Alternatively, beginning on any perde in the system, geçki of
any transposition level to any çeşni could result in a complete cycle of 17 perdes.
The six-bakiyye interval of a “major third” relies upon tonal geçki in Figures 3.53,
3.54, and 3.55. By establishing tonal equivalence between f-Nigar and f-Buselik, I
have extended the f-Buselik scale down to suggest a c’-Kürdi çeşni related to f-
Buselik makam in Figure 3.53. Upon establishing c’-Kürdi, a modal geçki to d’(b)-
Nigar is possible.
Figure 3.53: Transposition of f-Nigar at the 6B level
Figure 3.55: Cycle of Pythagorean thirds using six conceptual bakiyye intervals
The transposition to a five-bakiyye “mücennep third,” or what is recognized as a Just

third in Western music due to its harmonic 5/4 value, requires the typically tanini-
perde Nigar çeşni to be located on a mucennep interval. Using tonal connections
from a(d)-Segah, it is possible to create a modal geçki to d(d)-Nikriz, which in turn
can be tonally modulated to d(d)-Nigar (Figure 3.56, Figure 3.57, Figure 3.58).
97

Figure 3.58: Cycle of Just (mücennep) thirds using five conceptual bakiyye intervals
The bakiyye-level transposition of a four-bakiyye “minor third” can be facilitated with

the Nişabur trichord. Using the modal relationship of g-Buselik from f-Nigar, a lower
extension of e-Nişabur then suggests a simple scalar extension into e-Buselik çeşni.
The modal geçki of e-Buselik to d-Nigar thus reveals itself, completing this transition
(Figure 3.59, Figure 3.60, Figure 3.61).
Figure 3.61: Cycle of minor thirds using four conceptual bakiyye intervals
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Once more taking advantage of Nişabur’s multifaceted character as a lower

extension, it is possible to derive a tanini-level “major whole-tone” interval of three
bakiyyes. Assuming that d-Nişabur can be derived from f-Nigar, a tonal transposition
to f-Buselik is realized as an upper extension of d-Nişabur. As in the four-bakiyye
transposition example, the modal relationship between Buselik and Nigar çeşni one
tanini step below establishes the grounds for a geçki to e(b)-Nigar (Figure 3.62,
Figure 3.63, Figure 3.64).
Figure 3.62: Transposition of f-Nigar using three conceptual bakiyye intervals
Figure 3.64: Cycle of major whole tones (taninis) at the 3B level
The “mücennep second” corresponds roughly to the minor whole tone in Western
music, and is transposable through similar means to other mücennep-level
transpositions. As in Figures 3.56, 3.57, and 3.58, a cycle of mücennep seconds
can involve the equation of Segah to Hicaz or Nikriz, which in turn extends and
ultimately tonally transposes to Nigar. In this case, f-Nigar is first tonally transposed
to f-Rast in order to find the e(d)-Segah çeşni. The lower extension of b(d)-Hicaz
then connects to a lower Nikriz pentachord on e(d), as if to form the Neveser
makam scale. The e(d)-Nikriz çeşni is then tonally transposed to e(d)-Nigar (Figure
3.65, Figure 3.66, Figure 3.67).
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Figure 3.67: Cycle of minor whole tones (mücennep seconds) using two conceptual
bakiyye intervals
The transposition of Nigar çeşni at the level of a minor second (one bakiyye) can
utilize its natural modal connection to the Kürdi çeşni found one bakiyye below.
Equating e-Kürdi with e-Buselik is achieved through tonal geçki, which can
ultimately be transposed to f-Nigar from f-Buselik (Figure 3.68, Figure 3.69, Figure
3.70).
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Figure 3.70: Cycle of minor seconds using one conceptual bakiyye interval
While moderating new çeşni possibilities with the sound principles of geçki, we can
develop new tonal combinations in Turkish makam music. Depending on the
extremity of application, the aforementioned methodology can either facilitate the
minor nuance of unusual makam çeşnis in the course of a composition, or radically
change the tonal concepts of the makam system. Ultimately, development of a
completely transposable makam system can provide a natural path for polyphony in
makam music. While polyphony should not be an aesthetic goal that supercedes the
heterephonic texture of traditional makam, experimental makam music and
integration with Western music is more conceivable through a naturally developed
transposable makam system.
3.4 Experimental works using transposable makam
In a preliminary exploration of makam possibilities using the 17-perde system, I

have composed two instrumental pieces. Additionally, the Pençgah Nakış Ağır
Semai, analyzed in section 2.6.2.4 for its unique usul and aruz techniques, contains
an example of unusual geçki in its meyan section.
3.4.1 Analysis of Pençgah Nakış Ağır Semai
The meyan section of my Pençgah Nakış Ağır Semai plays with the transposition of
the Pençgah çeşni on three different locations (Figure 3.71). Firstly, a-Pençgah is
achieved by equating the e’-Nişabur trichord with e’-Buselik and establishing a
second Nişabur trichord underneath this tonal center on c(#). The presence of d(#)
and c(#) allow for a smooth transition to a-Pençgah. The Pençgah çeşni then reverts
to a-Rast, which is a common çeşni in Ferahnak makam. By interpreting e’-Buselik
as an upper pentachord of a-Rast, I quickly pass onto e’-Kürdi on the same tonal
axis. As e’-Kürdi can be thought of a lower extension of f’-Nigar, I create a kalış on f,
establishing the upper limit of a b(b)-Pençgah pentachord. In order to return to
Pençgah makam’s original Pençgah çeşni, I utilize the “double Nişabur” geçki by
first suggesting Buselik çeşni with g-Nişabur. Creating a lower extension onto e-
Nişabur, I then establish a common lower extension to both g-Buselik and g-
Pençgah çeşnis.
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Figure 3.71: Geçki analysis of the meyan section of Pençgah Nakış Ağır Semai
3.4.2 Analysis of Rast-Irak Mabeyn Rast Saz Semaisi
In this instrumental piece, I have considered a means of establishing the same

makam çeşni at two transposition points, Rast perde (g) and Irak perde (f(#)).
Rather than simply provide a geçki from g-Rast to f(#)-Rast, I have incorporated
both tonal centers into the identity of this makam. The given title “Rast-Irak Mabeyn
Rast” (Rast between Rast and Irak) suggests the coexistence of Rast makam in
both locations. Typically, makams do not feature the same çeşni at such a close
level of transposition, which is the reason why I have ventured to develop the
concept of a makam sharing two tonal centers. While a great number of compound
makams feature a change in çeşni near the end of a makam that occupies a
different karar perde from the original çeşni, traditional makams do not often
transpose a makam at two close perde levels. Nonetheless, the structure of many
makams indicates a preference for symmetry, often showing a parallel upper
tetrachord or pentachord of the same type as the lower tetrachord or pentachord.
Şevk-Efza makam is a significant example of a theoretical combination of Nikriz
çeşnis positioned at f’, b(b), and f. The result of these çeşnis not only show different
levels of transposition of Nikriz, but interact with other modal çeşnis, such as g’-
Hicaz and a-Saba. In a similar manner, the identity of Rast-Irak Mabeyn Rast
suggests more than a transposed scale. The resulting çeşnis that bind these two
tonal centers provide additional character and seyir quality that guides the transition
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from g-Rast to f(#)-Rast. After establishing traditional seyir characteristics of g-Rast

in the first hane, I use the refrain melody of the mülazime to transition to f(#)-Rast
makam. In a manner similar to the seyir of Evcara makam, I emphasize the f(#)-
Müstear çeşni before descent to c’(#)-Hicaz. Using c’(#)-Hicaz as a common çeşni,
the melody descends to f(#)-Rast, suggesting the çeşni of Suzinak makam. In order
to naturalize f(#)-Rast makam, I return to the upper tetrachord, reinterpreted as
c’(#)-Rast or c’(#)-Buselik before descending to the new karar. The third meyan
hane of this piece uses the dualistic nature of e’-Nişabur/Buselik to establish a
theoretical mode of f(#+)-Kürdi, which begins as an alternate f’(#+)-Hicaz çeşni in a
f(#+)-Hicaz scale. The gesture of tonal transposition to the f(#+)-Kurdi scale
indicates a brief divergence to Kürdilihicazkar on a karar perde that is the only
bakiyye interval between the standard g-Rast and f(#)-Rast çeşnis. The fourth hane
features a minor variance of geçki to b(d)-Rast, with a small reference to b(d)-Nikriz
before returning to the mülazime (Figure 3.72).
Figure 3.72: Analysis of Rast-Irak Mabeyn Rast Saz Semaisi
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Figure 3.72 (continued): Analysis of Rast-Irak Mabeyn Rast Saz Semaisi
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Figure 3.72 (continued): Analysis of Rast-Irak Mabeyn Rast Saz Semaisi
3.4.3 Analysis of Zavilli Ferahnak Peşrev
A conceptual inversion of a compound makam with the same çeşni sharing two
karar perdes one mücennep second apart can be thought of as two makams that
normally possess karar perdes one mücennep second apart occupying the same
karar perde in a compound form. The Zavilli Ferahnak Peşrev does just that by
using Zavil makam transposed a mücennep second to be located on the same karar
perde as Ferahnak makam, f(#). The result of this makam fusion suggests that f(#)-
Nikriz can be found using the c’(#)-Segah çeşni as a modal çeşni of a-Rast, which is
typical of Ferahnak makam. The descending extension of c’(#)-Segah can then be
interpreted using the same perdes as f(#)-Nikriz. Once f(#)-Nikriz is established,
tonal transposition to f(#)-Nigar 47 as a characteristic of Zavil makam becomes

47
I Have chosen to notate the Nigar çeşni in Zavil makam as theory recognizes it (Yavuzoğlu, 2011, p.
69), however the performance practice of this makam indicates that perdes inherent to Rast makam
are typically performed instead of Nigar.
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justifiable. The opening melody of the first hane establishes the modal connection
between f’(#)-Segah and d’-Rast, highlighting the lower extensions of b-Nişabur and
a-Rast. By emphasizing c’(#)-Segah as a pivot perde, the leading tone (yeden)
extends to f(#)-Nikriz. The mülazime section picks up from this melody, returning to
the original tonality and making a karar on f(#)-Ferahnak. By equating f(#)-Ferahnak
with f(#)-Müstear, I begin to bridge the tonality of Ferahnak makam to Nikriz once
more before resolving on f(#)-Nigar. The second hane uses a melody that begins
first with f(#)-Rast çeşni before establishing the natural position of g-Rast makam.
These modal links between g-Rast and f(#)-Ferahnak then provide a return to the
main melodic content of this makam, ending in f(#)-Nikriz in return to the mülazime.
The third hane represents the most diverse geçki and transposition techniques. In
order to achieve the ultimate goal of bakiyye-interval distance from f’(#) to f’(#+)-
Rast, I suggest a pitch bend on f’(#) that leads to the lower mücennep extreme of
f’(+). From f’(+)-Müstear, the modal c’(+)-Rast tonally modulates to c’(+)-Buselik,
descending finally to f(+)-Buselik. This transposed Buselik makam is then tonally
equated with f(+)-Kürdi makam, which serves as a transition point to the next
bakiyye-level transposition. Enharmonically reinterpreting f’(+)-Kürdi as e’(#+)-Kürdi,
I modally locate d’(#+)-Nişabur and f’(#+)-Rast before settling on e’(#)-Segah as part
of f’(#+)-Rast makam. The identity of e’(#)-Segah becomes enharmonically
represented as f’-Segah, where I use the lower Segah extension to locate c’-Çargah
çeşni (known as Hicaz in the AEU system). This melodic motion establishes the
material for a-Saba makam (in its natural position), which ends in a gesture towards
f(#)-Segah, typical of Bestenigar makam. The third hane thus ends with a prepared
transition to the mülazime section by establishing the tonality of f(#)-Segah in
Bestenigar makam. The fourth hane suggests a f(#)-Rast tonality instead of f(#)-
Nigar, and establishes a unique modal relationship between transposed a(#)-Segah
and b(d)-Müstear çeşni in its natural position. I achieve a geçki to the natural
position of b(d)-Müstear and the tonally related b(d)-Segah by interpreting the first
perde of a(#)-Segah as the leading tone of b(d)-Müstear, requiring no chromatic
alterations. After a brief divergence to g-Nikriz, I return to the familiar b-Nişabur, a-
Rast, and d’-Rast çeşnis found in Ferahnak makam. Once again, after a passing
geçki of a-Nikriz in tonal relationship to a-Rast, I create a kalış on f(#)-Nikriz in
preparation for the final repetition of the mülazime section (Figure 3.73).
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Figure 3.73: Analysis of Zavilli Ferahnak Peşrevi
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Figure 3.73 (continued): Analysis of Zavilli Ferahnak Peşrevi
108

Figure 3.73 (continued): Analysis of Zavilli Ferahnak Peşrevi
109

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4. POLYPHONIC MAKAM
Although Turkish makam is traditionally defined as a heterophonic music,

explorations into polyphony have been made since the nineteenth century. I
categorize the relatively recent developments in polyphonic Turkish makam music
into two categories: music composed as an extension of traditional music, and
music interpreted through the lens of Western Classical music. Throughout history,
it will be seen that composers have either approached polyphonic Turkish music
from a background in heterophonic makam or from a background conditioned and
shaped by Western Classical music. Apart from a brief historical analysis of
polyphonic Turkish music, I will demonstrate a contrapuntal approach to polyphonic
makam that transitions from monody to polyphony in an organic fashion parallel to
the earlier developments in Western polyphony.
4.1 Historical Development of Polyphony in Turkish Music
The history of polyphonic Turkish music can be broken-down into four categories: 1)
the Europeanizing reform period of the nineteenth century, known as the Tanzimat;
2) the beginning era of the new Turkish Republic; 3) the period of development in
the new republic, ranging from the mid to late twentieth century; 4) the “modern”
period, encompassing the last couple of decades of the twentieth century to the first
couple of decades in the twenty-first century. Although composers of one period
overlap with the time span of other periods, this chronological approach will attempt
to sort composers according to the period in which they were the most active and
influential in Turkish polyphony. As the scope of this topic is relatively large, it will
suffice to provide an overview of the main composers, varieties of polyphonic
composition, and academic literature on polyphony as it has existed since the
nineteenth century in Turkey.
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4.1.1 Polyphony in the nineteenth century
Following an unsuccessful attempt at abolishing the yeniçeri (janissary) military

corps, Sultan Selim III was killed. Continuing in Selim III’s legacy of Westernization,
Sultan Mahmud II came to power in 1808, doing away with the yeniçeri system and
introducing a more Westernized military establishment (Ensari, 1999, pp. 1-3).
Along with military reform came the foundation of educational institutions modeled
after European universities. Among these was the Mızıka-i Humayun, offering
training in Western music beginning in 1826 (Ensari, 1999, p. 5). The French
conductor Manguel, who lived in Istanbul, headed the Mızıka-i Humayun in its first
couple of years. Manguel’s relative lack of success at building an orchestra from the
ground up lead to a call for assistance from outside of Istanbul (Ensari, 1999, p. 6).
Giuseppe Donizetti, the elder brother of the composer Gaetano Donizetti, was
thereby invited from Italy to work as the director of the Mızıka-i Humayun. Donizetti
served in the Ottoman court from 1828 until his death in 1856, becoming the first to
compose and introduce polyphonic music in the Ottoman Empire (Ensari, 1999, pp.
6-9). During his period of service, Donizetti wrote nearly 40 harmonized
arrangements of traditional Turkish pieces, including those of Sultan Mahmud II
himself (Aracı, 2006, pp. 78-80). Callisto Guatelli was to replace Donizetti from 1856
until the new director’s death in 1899 (barring a ten-year absence, where Pisani took
over the Mızıka-i Humayun) (Ensari, 1999, p. 9).
Guatelli is known to have written many polyphonic arrangements of Turkish

compositions on piano, which, due to their simplistic structure, were likely intended
to be accessible to amateur pianists (Ensari, 1999, p. 72). Ensari (1999) concludes
that most of Guatelli’s arrangements use “vertical” (dikey) rather than “horizontal”
(yatay), or contrapuntal harmonies (p. 71). Additionally, these arrangements may
contain pitches uncharacteristic of the compositions’ makam, which suggests to
Ensari that the composer did not possess a firm knowledge of makam (1999, pp.
24-25). Ensari makes his preference for contrapuntal harmony clear in his analysis
of the arrangement of Numan Ağa’s Bestenigar Peşrev, where he praises Guatelli’s
nearly complete avoidance of vertical sonorities (1999, p. 38). Aside from Ensari’s
thesis, analysis of the nineteenth century polyphonic renditions of Turkish
compositions appears to be absent from academic literature.
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4.1.2 Polyphony in the early republican period
Leading up to the establishment of the Turkish Republic in 1923, the İttihat ve

Terakki Mektebi of İzmir opened in 1912 and began to offer music education
directed at forming a nationalist conception of Turkish music. Serving as an
instructor at the school, İsmail Zühtü is recognized as the first Turkish composer to
write a variety of compositions such as piano works, sonatas, and symphonies in
the Western Classical style (Türkmen, 2007, p. 181). Upon the same year as the
foundation of the Turkish Republic, Ziya Gökalp’s nationalist book Türkçülüğün
Esasları [The Principles of Turkism] condemned Ottoman Classical music and its
association with historical Byzantine and Arabic culture. Gökalp’s new vision
recommended Turkish folk melodies harmonized with Western Classical techniques
as the appropriate representation of the new republic (Türkmen, 2007, p. 181). From
this nationalist impetus arose a new wave of composers, many of whom were
trained in Europe, who framed Turkish melodies in a Western polyphonic context.
Among the best known composers are those called “The Turkish Five” [Türk Beşler]:
Cemal Reşit Rey, Hasan Ferit Alnar, Ulvi Cemal Erkin, Ahmet Adnan Saygun, and
Necil Kazım Akses (Türkmen, 2007, p. 181).
The compositional approach of Saygun compared Turkish makam to Greek modes,

which provoked Saygun to think contrapuntally. Despite the predominance of modal
counterpoint in Saygun’s famous Yunus Emre Oratorio in 1942, Aracı finds an over-
arching tonal cadence formula in the first several movements of the piece (2001, pp.
145-146). Arel criticizes the lack of microtones in Saygun’s setting of the oratorio
according to Western equal temperament, citing its lack of adherence to the
intonational principles of Turkish makam. Saygun, in response, reveals that his
approach is not to compose makam in a traditional sense, but rather to see makams
as unique colors that are merely a “means of expression” for his compositions
(Aracı, 2001, p. 145).
Alnar’s compositional style differs from the rest of the Turkish Five in that he was the
only composer to learn Turkish makam and write in a traditional monophonic style
aside from his polyphonic works, (Sınır, 2006, pp. 4-5). His Yunus Emre İlahileri
works are an example of composition in 12-tone equal temperament using
homophonic chord progressions. Sınır’s analysis of Alnar’s Hicaz İlahi from this
suite demonstrates a cadential scheme sensitive to the güçlü structure of the fourth
in Hicaz makam, which shows a desire to tailor harmony to fit the qualities of
Turkish makam (2006, pp. 18-19). Sınır mentions that along with the adoption of
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contrapuntal technique in some works, Alnar utilizes extended tertiary chord

structures and quartal harmony in his compositions (2006, pp. 6-15).
Arel, in addition to providing education to composers such as Saygun, Alnar, and

İlerici, has written books on harmony and composed 72 polyphonic works (Yalçın,
2013, pp. 11, 14). While much of his works have unfortunately proved difficult to
trace, Özkoç (2012) has written the only dissertation known on Arel’s polyphonic
style, examining his Prelude for string quartet. Despite Arel’s critique of Saygun’s
rendition of makam, Arel’s Prelude only draws upon 12 pitches used in equal-
tempered Western music as well (Özkoç, 2012, p. 23). Özkoç determines that Arel’s
technique mixes contrapuntal elements and imitation with a generally homophonic
texture (2012, pp. 76-77). Arel’s contribution to polyphonic Turkish music was to
defend the viability of Ottoman music in a polyphonic context at a time when
modernists were opposed to the Ottoman legacy and dependent upon Turkish folk
music as source material (Özkoç, 2012, pp. 142-143). Özkoç concludes, however,
that Arel’s compositions were unsatisfying from the perspective of Western
polyphony as well as difficult to perform and comprehend for those trained in
traditional Turkish makam (2012, pp. 143-144).
4.1.3 Polyphony in the mid and late twentieth century
Türkmen separates composers that approached polyphonic Turkish music from the
perspective of creating Turkish music using Western harmony and composer who
set Turkish elements in a Western setting. The former group contained Sabahattin
Kalender, Nedim Oytam, Necdet Levent, Ferit Tüzün, Muammer Sun, and Yalçın
Tura (Türkmen, 2007, pp. 182-183). Tura’s compositions contain settings for Turkish
instruments, using idiomatic forms in a polyphonic context. Tura’s Hüseyni Saz
Semaisi (1972) is written for ney, tanbur, and kemençe, using an entirely
contrapuntal approach to harmonizing the three voices. In addition, the microtonal
perdes inherent to Turkish makam have been preserved, and each voice separately
explores various makam çeşnis in a contrapuntal context.
The most bold and influential theory of polyphonic Turkish music in the late
twentieth century is decidedly that of Kemal İlerici. While İlerici was known to have
developed his theory of quartal harmony since the 1940s, it is not until 1970 that his
book Bestecilik Bakımından Türk Müziği ve Armonisi [Turkish Music and Harmony
from a Compositional Perspective] was published (Aydın and Ergur, 2004, p. 4).
Although İlerici’s book is filled with a strong nationalist tone and metaphysical
justifications for his theory, its unique approach to establishing a harmonic approach
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to makam based entirely upon harmony in fourths is respected as an alternate

system with a decidedly “Turkish” identity (Aydın and Ergur, 2004, p. 4). Aydın and
Ergur pose İlerici’s theory as based on diametrical opposites that attempt to define
the “self through the other” (2004, p. 10). Acording to İlerici, “Western” music, with
its fundamentally tertian harmonies, should be aesthetically opposed to “Eastern”
Turkish music, which benefits from harmonicization in fourths (Aydın and Ergur,
2004, p. 10). İlerici’s theory, while not strictly upheld by most composers, has
significantly influenced the compositional practice of polyphonic Turkish makam.
4.1.4 Polyphony in the modern era
Ranging from approximately the final decades of the twentieth century to the first
two decades of the twenty-first as of the present, polyphony in modern Turkish
music has largely broken the fetters of nationalistic sentiment and moved towards a
more free and open-ended use of polyphony. Albuz categorizes modern polyphony
in Turkish music into four categories: those that arrange Turkish music using tertian
harmony, those that use quartal harmony, those that maintain traditional microtonal
perdes, and those that attempt to mix many techniques and are not bound to any
one style (2011, pp. 54-55). Onur Türkmen’s (2016) compositions use contemporary
Western Classical music composition and techniques synthesized with elements
and themes of Turkish culture, makam, and instrumentation. The compositional
style of Sadık Uğraş Durmuş demonstrates heavy influence from early twentieth-
century composers such as Stravinsky, using elements of Turkish music in the
contexts of stylized Western Classical music. In 3 Türkü, Durmuş largely uses an
early twentieth-century Classical style to present three traditional folk melodies
(Durmuş, 2013). From these examples of contemporary composers, a singular
approach to the harmonization of Turkish music is impossible to discern.
Erkan Oğur’s seminal “jazz crossover” works on the fretless guitar represent a style
of harmonicization that blends well with the jazz idiom. Mostly harmonizing türkü, or
folk melodies, Oğur’s melancholic style has become adopted as a particular idiom
for Turkish music on the fretless guitar. Contemporary jazz artists, such as Evrim
Demirel (2016), have applied an open harmonic interpretation to melodies
influenced by Turkish makam. Yavuzoğlu’s approach to polyphony, on the other
hand, is more structured. Yavuzoğlu considers the harmonicization techniques of
jazz universally applicable to traditional Turkish melodies. Establishing four main
types of scales, Yavuzoğlu considers makam according to modal relationships with
these main tonalities. Although his scalar arrangement is based on the 12-tone
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Western system, the practical application of his harmonic approach is microtonal

when utilizing his 48-perde system. While Yavuzoğlu considers “modal harmony” to
be the most appropriate means of harmonizing traditional Turkish music, his
techniques assume vertical sonorities and cadential formulas based mostly on the
principles of contrapuntal motion. Thus, cadence types such as the plagal [IV-I], a
“plagal substitute” [bVII-I], or [bII-I] are commonly found in this style (Yavuzoğlu,
unpublished).
Like Yavuzoğlu, Yarman’s approach to polyphony examines harmonic approaches

to traditional compositions. Yarman additionally uses microtonal notation in his
compositions, and often employs vertical harmonies. Yarman’s polyphonic
arrangement of Itri’s Neva Kâr uses contrapuntal voicings, but establishes tonal
cadences on kalış points (2007, pp. 114-115). Furthermore, Yarman’s choice in
vertical sonority does not always match the kalış perde of the melody, but rather
identifies it as a chord member other than tonic. This type of harmony suggests a
tonal center separate from that of the original melody, adding secondary tonal
dimension that is not directly supportive of Itri’s composition. Yarman’s Rast Seyir
for microtonal guitar (date unknown) utilizes vertical harmonies that are based on
the tonal cadece pattern of [V-I], which despite its detraction from “modal” harmony,
can be expected to fit the “major” tonality of Rast makam.
4.2 A Contrapuntal Approach to Polphonic Turkish Makam
In order to justify the plausibility of polyphonic makam, examination into the

polyphonic development of Western music can provide an enlightening comparison
between Middle Eastern and Western systems. I argue that it is entirely possible to
conceive of makam developing into polyphonic textures through similar means to
that of Western counterpoint in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. In fact, the
“modal” structure of Renaissance music indicates a means of combining individual
melodic lines with one another, often with little alteration to the integrity of the mode.
Therefore, the combination of voices representing the same or different makams
through principle of counterpoint is a “natural” means of creating an artificial
evolutionary path that links the traditionally monodic structure of makam to
polyphony. This approach is admittedly post-modern, applying principles of
Renaissance counterpoint to makam. Imagining that makam had undergone stages
of polyphonic development as the modal system had in Europe, this application of
makam suggests that makam can be guided along a similar path to that of
European music in order to create a satisfying approach to polyphony that does not
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detract from the essence of makam. Furthermore, a contrapuntal foundation of

makam music can enrich and inspire various types of tonal polyphonic
interpretations that are more removed from the traditional understanding of makam.
As a source of inspiration, Yalçın Tura’s polyphonic works in contrapuntal makam
are among the closest match to the theoretical framework that I will endeavor to
codify and explain.
4.2.1 Tuning concerns
The standard explanation of Turkish music in contrast to Western music involves the
overly simplified polarization of both music styles, separating Western music into 12-
tone equal temperament, and Turkish music into unequal tempered microtonal
tuning schemes. In reality, however, Western music is known to have implemented
microtonal tunings since the medieval period. Ferreira’s research uncovers the
frequent occurrence of the quarter-tone enharmonic diesis and the 3/8-tone
chromatic diesis in many medieval texts (Ferreira, 1997, pp. 179-185). Herlinger
adds that while the majority of tuning schemes in the medieval period may have
been diatonic, tunings involving enharmonic or chromatic pitches existed at least as
early as the twelfth century (Herlinger, 2008, p. 184).
Using the Pythagorean method of tuning in cycles of fifths, Glarean’s proposal for a
diatonic 12-tone gamut in his 1547 treatise Dodecachordon approaches intervals
found in Turkish music (Figure 4.1). Unlike the equitempered system, certain
semitone intervals in Glarean’s scheme are larger than others, ranging between 90
and 114 cents (Rasch, 2008, p. 197).
Figure 4.1: Cent values of pitches in Glarean’s Pythagorean 12-tone tuning
From this information, it is implied that the practice of diatonic Renaissance tunings
recognized the semitone anywhere between the ranges of what is known as the 90-
cent bakiyye and the 114-cent küçük mücennep interval in Turkish makam.
Deducing that semitones around the 114-cent limit were equivalent to the major
semitone and semitones closer to the 90-cent limit were recognized as minor
semitones, we can associate each type of semitone with a particular function.
Berger notes that the order of the minor semitone beneath the major semitone
within the whole tone interval facilitated the use of accidentals only as flats,
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employed to offset dissonances in melodic tritone intervals. The only applications of

sharps, which indicate the use of the larger major semitone below the minor, are
relate to cadential leading tone degrees (Berger, 1987, pp. 80-81). Dahlhaus notes
the interval of the “poorly tuned” Pythagorean third is well suited as leading tone,
since it provides natural harmonic tension that provokes resolution to the tonic
(1990, p. 187). The use of the major semitone as a sharp in cadences additionally
supports the unstable large half step in its resolution to the tonic. If viewed as a
leading tone, the f’(#) to g’ interval in Figure 4.1 can be described as a Pythagorean
third from the fifth degree of d’, totaling 408 cents.
The first Renaissance theorist to propose a Just intonation system was Ramos de
Pareia (Dahlhaus, 1990, p. 190), where a low-limit harmonic value of major third
(6/5) and minor third (5/4) replaced the Pythagorean thirds. This change provided a
stable leading tone as a Just third relative to the fifth scale degree. Dahlhaus
concludes this contributed to the transition from modal music to tonal music, as the
leading tone now provided harmonic stability in accordance with a dominant chord
as opposed to contrapuntal tension as a Pythagorean leading tone (1990, pp. 186-
188). In his 1577 treatise, the Spanish theorist Francisco Salinas describes a Just
intonation system that uses 24 pitches in the octave (Rasch, 2008, p. 198). This
Just intonation scheme recognizes two types of semitone, the chromatic (70 cents)
and diatonic (112 cents), which together equaled the value of a minor whole tone
(182 cents). A major whole tone was found by adding a syntonic comma to the
minor whole tone (Rasch, 2008, p. 198), which is comparable to the procedure of
deriving a tanini perde from a büyük mücennep interval. The enharmonic pitches in
Salinas’ tuning are derived from the difference between the diatonic and chromatic
semitones, equaling 41 cents (Rasch, 2008, p. 198). Thus, Just tuning systems
recognized the roughly defined quarter-tone region in some cases, highlighting the
“natural” harmonic minor and major thirds. Figure 4.2 lists the system of 24
unequally-tempered pitches Salinas calculates in his Just tuning scheme (Rasch,
2006, p. 199). I have notated pitches with the nearest approximation of their cent
values using modified AEU symbols in order to demonstrate similarities between the
two systems. The three pitch classes that Salinas defined are abbreviated as “Di”
(diatonic), “Ch” (chromatic), and “En” (enharmonic).
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Figure 4.2: Cent values of pitches in Salinas’ Just tuning scheme
The difference between the Pythagorean major third of 408.820 cents and the Just
major third of 386.314 cents is known as a syntonic comma, bearing a 21.506-cent
value. Likewise, the Just-tuned minor third of 294.135 cents is also separated from
the Pythagorean third of 386.314 cents by a syntonic comma (Rasch, 2008, p. 196).
The AEU system considers the tuning of the 1-koma-flat major third with its ratio of
8192/6561 to be a close approximation of the Just 5/4 major third (Ezgi, 1933, p.
15). As the value of the koma in the AEU system is near to the sytonic comma, the
Pythagorean major third is also found in Turkish makam, separated 1 koma from the
large mücennep third. In this manner, Turkish tuning systems recognize the key
aspects of both of the major tuning systems used in the Renaissance. Nigar makam
exemplifies the utility of the Pythagorean third within the monophonic voice-leading
principles of makam. With a güçlü perde of c’, Nigar makam takes advantage of the
melodically “tense” third perde, Buselik, (b-natural) by establishing its function as a
leading-tone to c’. Compared with Rast makam, the 1-koma-flat Segah perde (b(d))
is more melodically stable, and is characterized by a small glissando in descent
towards its karar on g. Thus, the desire for a harmonically stable third in Just
intonation practice of the later Renaissance is reflected in the büyük mücennep third
and its presence in makams such as Rast (Figure 4.3).
Figure 4.3: Pythagorean and Just tunings in Nigar and Rast makams
The function of chromatic leading tones in Turkish music favors performance of

notated 4-koma-sharp perdes as approximately 5 komas sharp (Kanık, 2014-2015).
This distinction resembles the practice of using large semitone accidentals in
cadential melodies in music of the Renaissance. As mentioned in section 3.2.2, the
performance of Nişabur çeşni is generally executed with a 5-koma-sharp second
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degree, despite its 4-koma-sharp notation. This çeşni in and of itself can be said to
function as a set of leading tones, as Nişabur typically appears as a lower extension
of Rast or Buselik çeşnis (Figure 4.4).
Figure 4.4: Five-koma sharp leading tones on g-Rast and d’-Buselik çeşnis
The flexible nature of Turkish makam makes itself available to the aesthetics of
Pythagorean and Just intonation. In the process of composition, the 1-koma
difference between a 5-koma flat or 4-koma flat minor third could be distinguished
depending upon melodic and harmonic direction. Intervals widening and containing
stepwise motion from the flat third to the second scale degree are especially
suitable as 5-koma flat intervals. Likewise, contrapuntal motion that stresses motion
outward to the fourth degree is more suitable as Pythagorean major thirds. While
the seyir character of a makam is the ultimate deciding factor, the aesthetic
differences and functions of Just and Pythagorean thirds may help determine the
suitability of contrapuntal motion in polyphonic makam. Furthermore, the practical
sharpening or flattening of perdes that is unaccounted for in notation should be
considered when calculating contrapuntal intervals. Figures 4.5 and 4.6 suggest a
means of contrapuntal voice leading for both Pythagorean and and Just major and
minor thirds in two voices. I have given the names of makams where each type of
third may potentially be found, with every lower voice beginning on g.
Figure 4.5: Contrapuntal treatment of Pythagorean and Just major thirds
Figure 4.6: Contrapuntal treatment of Just and Pythagorean minor thirds
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4.2.2 Tonal structures
The modal system of the Medieval and Renaissance, despite variances in number
of modes, tuning systems, and pitch schemes, has maintained a structure that
Dahlhaus characterizes as diatonic. In contrast, tonality, with its system of major
and minor keys, is a diatonic-chromatic system (Dahlhaus, 1970, p. 165). Rather
than providing a complete key center as in the tonal system, modes are
interdependent and related to positions on the diatonic scale (Dahlhaus, 1990, pp.
155-156). As evident from the third section, makam relationships are modal as well.
However, they contain a variety of chromatic transpositions. Modal music of the
Renaissance traditionally recognized eight basic modes, consisting of four main
modes and their plagal counterparts that extended a fourth below (Lester, 1989, pp.
xii-xiii). Towards the latter half of the sixteenth century, however, the two “major”
and “minor” modes, Ionian and Aeolian, were added with their plagal counterparts48
(Lester, 1989, p. xiv). Similar to makam, the Western modes were also
characterized by a final pitch, representing the “tonic,” or karar perde. Additionally,
the reciting tone, or repercussio of the mode was a characteristic “dominant” pitch
that was to be emphasized in the melody of a mode. This concept roughly equates
to the güçlü of Turkish makam, however güçlü perdes can be found in a number of
positions along a makam’s scale, including the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and eight
(octave) scale degrees. Modal repercussios, however, were limited to a position of
the fifth scale degree in authentic modes, and the fourth scale degree from the final
in plagal modes (the Phrygian, Hypophrygian, and Hypomixolydian modes had
different repercussios mostly in order to avoid the melodic dissonance of the b-f
interval). Figure 4.7 lists the eight traditional Western modes together with the more
recent Ionian and Aeolian modes (Lester, 1989, pp. xiii-xiv). I have used whole
notes to designate the final pitch of the mode, and half notes to indicate their
repercussios.

48
Lester cites the first instance of the Ionian and Aeolian modes to be found in Glarean’s theory in
1547.
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Figure 4.7: The 12 modes of Western Renaissance music
As seen above, the plagal modes differ from the authentic modes in terms of their
repercussio tones and their melodic ambitus. However, the final tone is the same for
both categories. It was Hermannus Contractus in the eleventh century who first
defined the eight modes within an octave ambitus (Dahlhaus, 1990, p. 193). This
fundamental limitation in the conception of mode is one divergence from the Turkish
makam system, which possesses both inherently wide melodic ambituses
exceeding an octave and the potential for çeşni extensions on the upper and lower
limits of many makams. Figure 4.8 exemplifies the natural ambitus of Bestenigar
makam, while Figure 4.9 displays the typical lower extension of e-Nişabur in Acemli
Rast makam.
Figure 4.8: Bestenigar makam’s complete scale form
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Figure 4.9: Lower extension in Acemli Rast makam
The makam system is less tonally streamlined than the succinct arrangements of
Western modes, with more natural tonal transpositions. While tonal transposition is
generally more limited in Renaissance music, certain outstanding examples of
music explore transposition possibilities. Berger suggests that key signatures were
primarily used in Renaissance polyphony to avoid imperfect fifths in counterpoint,
however, they could additionally indicate a transposition of the same mode (1987, p.
69). Hoppin was the first scholar to to acknowledge the relationship between voices
based a fifth apart and the usage of a one-flat key signature in one voice. This
convention indicates that multiple parts were conceived as either containing more
than one mode at the same time, or as representing the same mode transposed
(Berger, 1987, p. 65).
The tonal plan of Victoria’s O Magnum Mysterium (Appendix, Figure A.14)

demonstrates the practice of using both in-staff accidentals and accidentals within
the music. Victoria begins with imitation between the soprano and alto voices. The
soprano’s initial entry appears to rest on a, suggesting a temporary tonality of a-
Phrygian under the one-flat key signature. The alto’s contrapuntal imitation a fifth
below the soprano’s entry places an initial d’-Phrygian melody below. The need for a
“Phrygian” melodic line is explained by the addition of the accidental e’(b) directly
beneath the soprano’s b(b) pitch in measure five. Without this alteration, the
dissonant interval of a diminished fifth would emerge. The soprano’s initial entry
around the a pitch is soon revealed as not the finalis region of a-Phrygian, but rather
the region surrounding the fifth of d-Aeolian. The cadence with the alto in measure
nine confirms the resolution on to d and d’, this time with the use of e-natural in the
soprano. Strictly speaking, this chromatic alteration suggests a transition from the d-
Phrygian tonality to d-Aeolian. Beginning with measure ten, the conversion of f-
natural as part of d-Aeolian to f-sharp as a leading tone establishes the transition to
the tonal center of g-Dorian. Measure 12 introduces the e-flat in the bass line once
more as a contrapuntal necessity against b-flat. However, upon utilizing the f-sharp
in the soprano as a resolution of a suspension, the possibility of a d-Phrygian
cadence is thwarted and a passing minor cadence on g-Dorian is achieved in
measure 13. The reuse of e-flat in measure 18 is not warranted by counterpoint in
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this case, suggesting the composer’s desire for unity with the previous phrase.
Additionally, the illusion of a d-Phrygian cadence on measure 19 may have been
desired, as the delayed appearance of f-sharp leads once more to a more stable
cadence on g-Dorian in the second half of the measure. From examining Victoria’s
piece thus far, it is evident that Renaissance music is capable of exploiting modal
transposition opportunities through the use of as little as one flat in the key
signature, and the addition of one flat as an accidental. The transposition of d-
Dorian to g has enabled the composer to contrast the main mode of the piece with
the relative Aeolian mode found a fourth below. The potentially low range of a-
Aeolian in the bass voice may have been the cause for Victoria’s use of
transposition to the same mode in a higher position. If examined as a purely melodic
phenomenon according to individual parts, the variety of modal and tonal “çeşnis”
used by Victoria within passing and stable cadential areas of the opening section of
O Magnum Mysterium include: a-Phrygian, d-Phrygian, d-Aeolian, d-Ionian (implied
with the use of f-sharp in cadences, and with a double leading tone figure of b-c(#)
in measure nine), g-Dorian, f-Ionian (in the soprano line in measure 14 (Figure
4.10).
Figure 4.10: Opening section of O Magnum Mysterium (Schubert, 1999, p. 299)
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Figure 4.10 (continued): Opening section of O Magnum Mysterium
Considering a composition in the a-Aeolian mode, a part transposed at the fifth

below would normally be in the d-Dorian mode, with a natural sixth degree. The
addition of b-flat would rectify this difference in order to establish a tonally
transposed d-Aeolian scale. It is possible to draw parallels to transposition of
Turkish makam with a comparison between Buselik and Sultaniyegah makams
(Figure 4.11). Buselik naturally occurs on the karar of a (Dügah perde), while
Sultaniyegah’s karar perde is d (Yegah). While the characteristic descending seyir
and required usage of the a-Hicaz çeşni are among distinguishing features of
Sultaniyegah makam, the final scale form of this makam can be said to represent a
transposition of Buselik makam. As such, tonal transposition of makam, while not as
clearly defined under the parameters of the diatonic scale as is the case with
Renaissance modes, is found in traditional Turkish music. Nonetheless, the wealth
of çeşni modulation possibilities inherent to Turkish makam would negate the
necessity for complete transposition of a makam simply to avoid dissonant intervals
within a contrapuntal setting.
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Figure 4.11: Transposed Renaissance modes compared to makam scales
The concept of makam as a “modal” system (despite its tonal/chromatic attributes)

is significant to the understanding of makams such as a-Buselik, g-Nihavent,
d-Sultaniyegah, or d-Ferahfeza as unique entities that exist in context of an over-
arching web of tonal and modal çeşni relationships. It is due to the confusion caused
by Arel’s transposed (şed) makam scale concept that relationships between
makams in terms of tonal transposition are stongly cautioned and criticized. If one
were to judge the aforementioned makams based on fundamental scale structure
alone, then each could be considered a transposition of Buselik makam. It is only
when the multitude of çeşni combinations and seyir varieties along various diatonic
axes is considered that the concept of makam takes form, transcending mere tonal
transposition. Thus, the adoption of a completely transposable çeşni scheme (as
detailed in section 3) can accommodate the arbitrary tonal transposition of any
makam. However, through correlations of çeşnis in atypical locations, new
tonal/modal combinations can interface with the established relationships within
traditional makam. This organic web of makam çeşni relations is what maintains the
integrity of the makam system despite any advances in transposability.
In a parallel to the functional relevance of characteristic çeşni relationships in

Turkish makam, Dahlhaus states that the Western modes are characterized by their
interrelated nature upon the diatonic scale. Unlike key centers of the tonal system,
modes do not possess a separate existence in and of themselves (Dahlhaus, 1990,
pp. 155-156). Dahlhaus further defines modal polyphony in antithetical terms to
tonal harmony: where modal polyphony emphasizes structural harmonic
relationships through counterpoint, tonal harmony focuses on the functional nature
of individual harmonies; where modal polyphony considers each voice as an
individual identity within a melodic complex, tonal harmony views voices as
components of a unified system (1990, pp. 210-211). Nonetheless, Dahlhaus
asserts that especially as modality evolved towards tonality, polyphonic modes
departed from a strictly independent character that was moderated by counterpoint
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(1990, pp. 198-199). Rather, countrapuntal design required chromatic alteration of

voices, which was not intended to distract from the main mode it served (Dahlhaus,
1990, p. 197). This theory suggests the foundations of tonal harmony, where
auxiliary voices support the tonality of the melodic line. In regards to the flexibility of
tonality in order to accommodate counterpoint, the inherent tonal diversity within
Turkish makam ironically facilitates a more strict interpretation of separate melodic
lines that conform to the guidelines of makam without introducing foreign pitches for
the sake of counterpoint. In this sense, contrapuntal makam lends itself to
polyphony devoid of tonally unifying harmony. At the same time, implementation of
tonal transposition of makam using the approach described in section 3 is an
optional technique that may be applied to a contrapuntal texture.
Transposition of mode through the addition of accidentals was a theorized aspect of

Renaissance harmony that resulted in a variety of theoretical pitch systems. The
most commonly accepted practice through the sixteenth century was to recognize
both a key signature of no accidentals and a key signature of one flat. The auxiliary
“feigned” scale of up to three flats represented the standard limit for key signature
accidentals within most compositions (Berger, 1987, pp. 62-63). Theoretically, 12
pitches within the octave became the standard accepted gamut from the fifteenth
through the early sixteenth century (Berger, 1987, pp. 48-52). Nonetheless, up to 17
pitches were conceived in the early fifteenth-century writings of Prosdocimus de
Beldemandis, in the mid fifteenth century with John Hothby’s theory, and with Pietro
de Aaron’s theory in the early sixteenth century (Berger, 1987, pp. 32-38). Due to
the unequal tunings of sharp and flat semitones, two different semitone pitches
existed within every whole tone under the 17-tone system. Every whole step in the
octave was thus sharpened and flattened, a gesture remniscient of Safiyyüddin’s
inclusion of the bakiyye and mücennep interval within every tanini perde in his 17-
tone system. In conclusion, due to the shared-root tonal çeşni variety within the
same makam, polyphonic makam may often demonstrate more chromaticism than
is found in the Renaissance. Suggesting that every voice in a contrapuntal setting
represents the same makam, a composer would establish a more uniform tonality
closer to music of the Renaissance. However, if multiple makams were used in
various voices of a single composition, a much more diverse tonal palette could
emerge. By applying the conceptual 17-perde scheme to transpose makam, we
could take polyphonic makam composition one step further: through the use of
completely transposed makam positions in contrapuntal relation to the inherent
position of traditional makams, it is possible to envision a tonally diverse system of
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“modal” polyphony that reflects a similar degree of theoretical transposition to that

which had been proposed by fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Renaissance scholars.
4.2.3 Consonance and dissonance
The concept of imperfect consonance is treated as a lesser degree of dissonance in

the Renaissance, opposed to the perfect intervals of the unison, octave, or fifth.
Imperfect intervals of the major or minor third and sixth were thus applied as less
harmonically stable contrast to more stable perfect intervals in the course of melodic
counterpoint. Beginning with the fourteenth century, theoretical treatises discuss the
treatment of counterpoint through the moderation of perfect consonances with
imperfect consonances. The conception of the third and sixth as more dissonant
than perfect intervals develops into a formula for mild tension that pushes towards
release on perfect harmonies, which Fuller refers to as a “directed progression”
(1992, pp. 229-232). Fuller (1992) thereby identifies structural tension and
dissonance throughout non-cadential segments of early Renaissance music.
True dissonances in music of the Renaissance involve the harmonic intervals of the
second and seventh, or the fourth and diminished fifth between the lowest voice and
an upper voice. Since the quality of intervals (major, minor, perfect, augmented, or
diminished) is only relevant to the occurrence of the tritone in otherwise perfect
intervals, contrapuntal analyses typically understand harmonic relations in terms of
integer value. The specific microtonal nature of Turkish music warrants explanation
of interval qualities in addition to size. As discussed in section 4.2.1, the Just and
Pythagorean thirds inherent to Turkish makam are both acceptable in counterpoint.
In practice, however, the limited expression of the 1-koma flat in the AEU system
neglects the “mid-mücennep” region that the Karadeniz, Yavuzoğlu, or Yarman
system would recognize (discussed in section 3.3.2). Despite any affiliations with
çeşni types that use one-koma alterations, the practical usage of a 2-3 koma flat in
çeşnis such as Uşşak and related makams, Saba and related makams, or Hüzzam,
Karcığar, and Basit Suzinak makams demands attention to the mid- mücennep
region in contrapuntal harmony. Since the mid-mücennep third interval does not
correspond closely to the simple harmonic ratios of the low-mücennep Just minor
third or the high-mücennep Just major third, I propose that this interval be
considered a dissonance, to be used in passing dissonances or dissonance within
suspensions. It should be noted, however, that ascending melodic gestures using
mid-mücennep çeşnis such as Uşşak often sharpen the pitch to a value closer to
one-koma flat. In these cases, it may be deemed safe to consider such ascending
perdes in context of a Just major third. The usage of mid-mücennep perdes in
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Hicaz-class çeşnis such as Saba, Hüzzam, Karcığar, or Basit Suzinak, however, do

not sharpen to this degree in ascending melodies. The seyirs of Hüzzam and
Karcığar often include a sharpening to 1-koma flat only in a final gesture towards the
karar perde. The interval of the sixth, being the inverse of the third, may be
calculated according to the same tendencies as thirds at an inverse level. Thus, a 4-
koma flat sixth interval would correspond to a Just third, providing greater harmonic
stability than the Pythagorean 5-koma-flat sixth, with its tendency to resolve to the
perfect fifth. As is standard in Western counterpoint, seconds and sevenths of all
types may be considered dissonant. Likewise, perfect intervals, due to their very
close approximation to natural harmonics in both Western and Turkish tunings, are
consonances whose slight koma alterations appear to be dissonant. Thus, I
recommend that only the perfect qualities of the fourth, fifth, and octave may be
considered as consonances. In order to notate mücennep intervals, I propose the
adoption of the lower-case “c” for the low-limit küçük mücennep, the capital “C” for
the high-limit büyük mücennep, and for lack of a more sufficient nomenclature, “c+”
to indicate the mid-mücennep interval (Table 4.1, Figure 4.12).
Table 4.1: Classification of intervals in polyphonic Turkish makam
Interval Symbol Consonant?
Perfect Unison P1 Yes
Minor Second m2 No
Small Mücennep Second c2 No
Mid-mücennep Second c+2 No
Large Mücennep Second C2 No
Minor Third m3 Yes
Small Mücennep Third c3 Yes
Mid-mücennep Third c+3 No
Large Mücennep Third C3 Yes
Major Third M3 Yes
Perfect Fourth P4 Yes/No
Small Mücennep Augmented Ac4 No
Mid-MücennepFourth
Augmented Fourth Ac+4 No
Large Mücennep Augmented AC4/D5 No

Fourth/Diminished Fifth
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Interval Symbol Consonant?
Augmented Fourth/Small A4/Dc5 No

Mücennep Diminished Fifth
Mid-mücennep Diminished Fifth Dc+5 No
Large Mücennep Diminished Fifth DC5 No
Perfect Fifth P5 Yes
Minor Sixth m6 Yes
Small Mücennep Sixth c6 Yes
Mid-mücennep Sixth c+6 No
Large Mücennep Sixth C6 Yes
Major Sixth M6 Yes
Minor Seventh m7 No
Small Mücennep Seventh c7 No
Mid-mücennep Seventh c+7 No
Large Mücennep Seventh C7 No
Major Seventh M7 No
Perfect Octave P8 Yes
Figure 4.12: Interval types in contrapuntal Turkish makam
While the perfect fourth is considered dissonant if found between the lowest voice
and an upper voice in Renaissance polyphony, the aesthetics of Turkish music may
allow the composer to consider the perfect fourth as a consonance in any case.
İlerici’s theory of quartal harmony (1981) suggests the characteristic sonority of the
fourth as inherent to traditional Turkish music performance, while the polyphonic
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arrangements of many twentieth-century Turkish composers treat the fourth as a

consonant interval. Yalçın Tura consciously utilizes the perfect fourth in his
contrapuntal Hüseyni Saz Semaisi (analyzed in section 4.2.5). For the purposes of
establishing an initial approach to contrapuntal Turkish makam, I have mostly
avoided usage of the consonant perfect fourth, however this interval is the most
likely non-standard candidate for consonance in polyphonic makam.
4.2.3.1 Dissonance according to metric structure
Contrapuntal dissonances in Renaissance music are typically acceptable within

rhythmically weak beats as passing tones, or on strong beats in suspensions as
prepared and resolved dissonances. Metric structures are most commonly oriented
in a form of simple (duple) meter, whereby the rules of contrapuntal species take
effect. Note-against-note harmony defines the first species of counterpoint. The
largest rhythmic value relevant to contrapuntal species in Renaissance musical
notation, the semibreve (semibrevis in Latin), is typically transcribed as a whole note
in modern Western notation (Jeppesen, 1956, p. 55). If the whole note is conceived
as a fundamental unit, then half note motion against the whole note defines the
second species, whereby the second half note on the weak beat may be used as a
passing dissonance. Third species sub-divides the whole note into quarter note
values, only necessitating consonance on the initial first strong beat. Fourth species
counterpoint involves the resolution of strong-beat dissonance through prepared
suspensions on weak beats, and finally, fifth species combines the aforementioned
techniques with the addition of infrequent, ornamenting eight note values.
Throughout contrapuntal composition, avoidance of parallel perfect intervals, and
stepwise motion to and from dissonant pitches are among the most common
conventions (Salzer and Schachter, 1989).
Figure 4.13: First species sample melody
Figure 4.13 begins with the interval of a perfect octave, a typical starting place for
two contrapuntal lines. The theoretical mode for this small example and the
following Western contrapuntal species examples is e-Phrygian. It should be noted
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that both perfect intervals at the end of the melody are approached by contrary
motion in order to avoid parallel or similar motion.
Figure 4.14: Second species sample melody
The half note motion shown in Figure 4.14 contains a dissonant seventh and fourth
on the third beat of the first two measures. The stepwise motion creates a tolerable
dissonance characteristic of the second species.
Figure 4.15: Third species sample melody
Since only the first beat of each breve in third species needs to be consonant, the
amount of dissonant tones used is technically insignificant. However, rules of
dissonant pitch treatment requires stepwise motion both approaching and leaving
the dissonant minor seventh interval in the first measure of figure 4.15. The leap
from a to c’ in the second measure is warranted due to the consonant quality of both
pitches in relationship to the lower voice.
Figure 4.16: Fourth species sample melody
The dissonances in fourth species (Figure 4.16) are prepared on the weak half of
the previous measure and engaged by the lower voice on the downbeat of each
subsequent measure. The top voice then adjusts to resolve the dissonance, while
optionally establishing the next suspension in a chain of fourth-species dissonances.
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The dissonant-consonant intervals used in Figure 4.16 are [7-6] and [4-3], however
[9-8] (compound [2-1]) is also possible in upper voice suspensions. Dissonant
suspensions in a descending lower voice entail the possibility of [2-3], [4-5] and [7-8]
motion.
In contrast to the frequent use of simple meter and occasional use of compound
meter in Renaissance music, Turkish usul is found to use some form of duple or
compound meter in addition to frequent composition in mixed meter. Although many
scholars avoid discussion of dissonant treatment in Renaissance composition using
triple meter, Stewart suggests that dissonant suspensions may occur on any of the
three beats in a triple meter. (1994, pp. 71-72). In the case of Turkish usul, I would
recommend considering the accent of beats within a particular triple-meter grouping
of a given usul. By default, I will treat the first beat of any duple or triple meter
division as strong. Thereafter, it is possible to locate strong beats on the beginning
of any constituent basic usul cell (duple Nim Sofyan, or triple Semai usul). Despite
the durational difference between duple and triple beat groupings, the organization
of strong beats on the first beat of any usul cell justifies its identification as a
conceptual “brevic unit,” in my own terminology. As an alternate grouping, larger
usul cells may be deemed suitable as a collective brevic unit when dealing with
species treatment. In the following examples, I have chosen the most basic mixed-
meter usul, Türk Aksağı, to represent species counterpoint within polyphonic
makam. I have additionally adopted a large mertebe notation in order to clearly
demonstrate the treatment of species. In this case, the first duple grouping of Türk
Aksağı is counted as a whole note brevic unit, and the subsequent triple grouping as
a dotted-whole-note brevic unit. In the smallest mertebe, especially, composers may
find it appropriate to count one cycle of Türk Aksağı as a single brevic unit.
Figure 4.17: Sample contrapuntal makam melody in first species
In Figure 4.17 above, I have created a short first species melody using the structure
of Nihavent makam. The upper voice begins on the perfect fifth of Nihavent
makam’s karar perde, coinciding with its güçlü perde on d’. The following interval of
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a major sixth inverts to the equivalent of a Pythagorean minor third, which

possesses half-step voice leading tendencies. The melody moves in parallel major
sixths onto the next bar, effectively capitalizing on the half-step intervals that exist
on the second and seventh degrees of Nihavent makam. The second breve of the
second measure effectively creates a mücennep major sixth between f(#+) and
e’(b), inversely equivalent to the mücennep minor third. The position of these five-
koma sharp and flat perdes resolve by half step in the third bar, as well. The
notation of the d’-Hicaz çeşni in this melody reflects the practice of this çeşni within
Nihavent makam, with f’(#) and e’(b) being played as five komas sharp and flat,
respectively. The need for a practically accurate representation for the pitches
performed within makam becomes overwhelmingly apparent with the treatment of
makam-based counterpoint. Despite the limited notational scheme used for this
work, it is recommended that polyphonic renderings of makam are represented by a
coherent microtonal notation system in order to avoid contradictions between
notated and performed intervals.
Figure 4.18: Sample contrapuntal makam melody in second species
The second species dissonances in Figure 4.18 can potentially occur on the
second, fourth, and fifth half notes in large-mertebe Türk Aksağı. The last half note
beat of the first measure is a mid-mücennep f’(#) as part of e’-Uşşak çeşni. The
resultant interval with the b(d) in the lower voice is a büyük-mücennep fifth, which
has been classified as a dissonant interval. The second and fourth half notes of the
second measure are also dissonant, with the melody closing on an octave
approached by contrary motion.
Figure 4.19: Sample contrapuntal makam melody in third species
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The melodic leaps in the upper third species part of Figure 4.19 are consonant by
necessity, occurring first between a’ and f’(#) against d’ in the first whole note, then
with a’, e’, and c’(#) against c(#) in the lower voice. After the g-‘d perfect fifth is
achieved in the second measure through contrary motion with the lower voice, a
melodic leap to a küçük mücennep third occurs. Aside from the initial quarter-note
beat of every brevic unit in the usul, any other pitch is allowed to be dissonant.
Figure 4.20: Sample contrapuntal makam melody in fourth species
In order to demonstrate the dissonant suspensions of fourth species, I have chosen

Saba, a particularly dissonant makam. The initial weak beat of the first measure in
Figure 4.20 is consonant, tieing to a strong-beat consonance on the second brevic
unit. The subsequent whole note creates a consonant minor third against the lower
voice, preparing the suspended dissonance of a mid-mücennep second on the
downbeat of the second measure. I have taken the liberty of writing the mid-
mücennep d’ as 2 komas flat, still falling in the range of practice. This is done in
order to avoid creating an interval smaller than a minor third with the lower voice’s
b(2b), as occurs in the end of measures one and two. As the mid-mücennep perde
is variable on both b(2b) and d’(3d), the option of sharpening d’(3d) by 1 koma may
additionally be considered within the realm of possibility. The suspended
dissonance types used include the [2-3] in measures one and two, however the
second half of measure two shifts to a [4-3] suspension, preparing an additional [4-
3] suspension in the beginning of measure three. While the [2-3] suspension is
traditionally found in suspensions within the lower voice in Renaissance music, I
have found it appropriate to use in the upper voice, according to the constraints of
Saba makam’s seyir and melodic dissonances. The third measure establishes a
cadence to the karar on a by breaking the traditional rules of fourth species in order
to accommodate to the required descent using b(2b). Instead of the c’-g interval
resolving in the upper voice, the lower voice resolves onto a, establishing a base for
the upper voice’s cadential b(2b) as a passing dissonance. While contrapuntal voice
leading within the small confines of the first four or five notes of Saba makam is
challenging, Figure 4.20 demonstrates that it is possible to manipulate the
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contrapuntal seyirs of voices according to the characteristics of melodically

dissonant makams.
4.2.3.2 Cadences
The concept of the cadence in Renaissance music existed as characteristic

contrapuntal motions marking the ends of phrases in a particular mode. Zarlino
stipulate that cadences should occur only at the end of a line of text or melodic
phrase (Berger, 1987, p. 130). While suspended dissonances are a characteristic of
cadential harmonies, Berger finds that the majority of Renaissance theorists concur
that cadence is foremostly defined by motion from imperfect to perfect consonances
(1987, p. 130). Renaissance theorists seem to agree that cadential formulas exist as
three groups of harmonies, with the necessary contrapuntal functions being carried
out by two essential voices (Berger, 1987, p. 131). Furthermore, discernment is
made between cadences arrived through simple note-against-note counterpoint,
and cadences using florid counterpoint. The term “florid” here denotes mixed
countrapuntal species, and requires a suspended dissonance that resolves onto the
penultimate imperfect consonance of a cadence (Berger, 1987, p. 132). Berger cites
Zarlino as stating the practice of musicians to end compositions on either the perfect
octave or unison (1987, p. 131). Schubert, however, notes that cadences in other
points in a composition may occur on the fifth of a mode, and additionally cites
Zarlino with the possibility of intermediate cadences on the third of a mode
(Schubert, 1999, p. 295). Depending on the use of makam in composition, cadences
marking the end of a composition could reflect the karar of a single makam in every
voice. However, as a nuance particular to compositions using two makams or more,
makams with karar perdes of relative consonance between one another could
cadence simultaneously in harmonies of perfect or imperfect consonances.
The consensus of Renaissance theorists list the [8-7-8] or [1-7-1] progression as the
foremost cadential figure to be used in one of two cadence-defining voices. Further
cadential figures may be used in any combination with one another, provided that
proper contrapuntal consonance is maintained: [1-2-1], [3-2-1], [6-7-8], [4-2-1], [2-2-
1], [6-5-1], [4-5-1], [1-5-1] (Berger, 1987, pp. 131-134). The following examples
feature two-voice cadential formulas, each compared with a possible equivalent in
contrapuntal makam. As incomplete or evaded cadences, intermittent emphasis and
rest on particular makam çeşnis provide the grounds for structural contrapuntal
cadences throughout a composition. While the integer values of intervals in
Renaissance harmony are sufficient to describe consonance and dissonance, I have
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resorted to listing the specific qualities of intervals in the contrapuntal makam

cadences.
Figure 4.21: [1-7-1] against [1-2-1] cadential figure
The most fundamental cadential figure [1-7-1] is demonstrated in the upper voice in
Figure 4.21, assuming d-Dorian is the mode used. Compared with cadential motion
in Rast, Nigar, or Nihavent makams on the karar perde of g, similar motion is
possible. Rather than the standard four-koma-sharp f’, I have notated f’(#+) to reflect
the Pythagorean tuning of leading tones used in music of both the Renaissance and
Turkish music. The lower voice’s cadential [1-2-1] motion is a typical motion to be
found in makam-based melodies, as well.
Figure 4.22: [1-7-1] against [1-2-1] cadence, with dissonant suspension
Supposing the same cadential motion in Figure 4.21 was applied to mixed-species
contrapuntal cadences, we could derive a fourth-species dissonant suspension to
prepare the antepenultimate cadential pitches (Figure 4.22). The asterisk in the [1*-
7-1] figure represents a tied dissonance that is resolved with the upper voice’s
descent to the leading tone against the lower voice’s second scale degree, creating
a major sixth consonance. Various cadential figures can use this suspension model
for a similar effect.
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The pairing of a lower [1-2-1] with a stepwise acending [6-7-1] in the upper voice
(Figure 4.23) is one possible combination that suits both Renaissance and Turkish
polyphony well. As a makam çeşni, the Nişabur trichord is often used as a lower
leading-tone extension in makams such as Rast or Nigar.
Figure 4.24 reverses the position of the stepwise [6-7-1] figure, placing a melody
comparable to B-Nişabur çeşni in d-Dorian. In contrast to the a-Hicaz melody, the
same figure is not f(#)-Nişabur, but rather a leading tone sequence more common to
Hicaz and makams such as Uşşak or Hüseyni. This lower extension resembles a
f(#)-Segah trichord, instead. While the upper [4-2-1] figure is not preferable to a
strict stepwise descent to Hicaz makam’s karar, this example supposes the
possibility of such a leap in the course of a melody.
While the [2-2-1] cadence in Figure 4.25 is listed by Renaissance theorists, the
practical application of this figure is not suitable for combination with many other
cadential figures. One compatible figure, however, is [6-7-1]. In polyphonic makam,
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the mid-mücennep second degree of some makams could especially prove difficult
for such a cadential figure. However, the minor second scale degree of Kürdi
makam provides a suitable contrapuntal base for this cadential combination.
Leaping bass cadential figures such as in Figure 4.26 are most commonly found in
the lowest voice in Renaissance compositions. In contrapuntal textures featuring
more than two voices, such figures in offer a suitable alternative to the previously
mentioned cadential figures already used in other voices. The contrapuntal makam
example suggests an upper d’-Hicaz tetrachord, occurring in Nihavent, Neveser,
Hicazkar, or other makams. Since the upper voice supplies a more stepwise motion
in its cadence, the lower voice directly leaps from the fifth scale degree to the karar.
Again, while such leaping motions to a makam’s karar are not often found in Turkish
makam music, larger leaps to a karar perde can be tolerated with the provision that
at least one other voice outlines the makam’s seyir properly. Nevertheless, leaps
from the fifth scale degree are found especially in lively compositions using makams
such as Nikriz, Nihavent, Acem Aşiran, or sometimes Rast.
As in the previous example, Hüseyni makam is suggested to possess a leaping

melody from its fifth scale degree (Figure 4.27). Assuming that the melody had
previously established a mostly stepwise descent to the makam’s karar prior to the
final cadential gesture, such a figure is not entirely unimaginable for Hüseyni
makam.
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The leap from the fifth scale degree of Acem Aşiran makam to its karar perde
(Figure 4.28) are among this makam’s characteristic melodic gestures. While similar
motion between the upper voice’s [7-1] figure and the lower voice’s [5-1] cadence
create direct fourths, Renaissance polyphony often forgives such motion, especially
under the condition of a leaping cadential figure.
One characteristic feature of melodic cadences in Turkish makam is that of a

descending mid-mücennep second degree to the karar. Hüseyni, Uşşak, Saba, and
related makams usually require such melodies upon a final approach to the
makam’s karar, which in a contrapuntal context necessitates a different
interpretation of cadence. While Figure 4.27 demonstrates the possibility of
approaching a final melody from the lower extension in one voice combined with the
leap of a perfect fifth in Hüseyni makam, more options for melodic cadences of
similar makams should be explored. Although a number of variances, including the
usage of a makam’s leading tone, are technically possible, the following examples
assume the standard [3-2-1] cadential figure as a constant to build contrapuntal
voices around. One of the simplest solutions for avoiding note-against-note
dissonance with the mid-mücennep second degree is to prolong the suspension of
the karar perde. This figure assumes a static lower voice that already has
approached the karar by the first cadential pitch. Despite the lack of motion in the
lower voice, the first cadence in Figure 4.29 possesses a characteristic tension and
release pattern from the mid-mücennep second dissonance to the perfect unison.
This dissonance, however, is more drastic than the typical Renaissance
understanding of imperfect consonances preceding perfect consonances in
cadential figures. The mid-mücennep scale degree inevitably creates a dissonance
against any of the diatonic pitches of most makams, and in a monophonic setting is
observable as a natural melodic dissonance. Therefore, the change of expectation
in the penultimate harmony’s imperfect consonant character to a complete
dissonance is justifiable in polyphonic Turkish makam. Assuming the likely
acceptability of the perfect fourth as a consonance, the second cadence of Figure
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4.29 establishes a suspension that resolves onto the perfect unison of the karar
perde at the same time as the mid-mücennep perde.
Figure 4.29: Cadences using dissonant mid-mücennep intervals against a

suspended lower voice
By taking advantage of dissonance patterns modeled in fourth species counterpoint,

we can combine second species half-note motion in the upper voice with a
suspended lower voice. However, in fourth species, the suspended note normally
resolves itself upon the introduction of another voice’s dissonant pitch on the strong
beat. Due to the dissonant nature of the upper voice’s mid-mücennep perde, it is
more suitable to expect resolution by the same agent that created dissonance.
While not entirely conformant to the dictates of traditional fourth species
counterpoint, the cadential figures of Figure 4.30 establish a dissonance on the
beginning of the second measure, which results in a consonant resolution on the
second half of the measure. Cadences of this type may not feel as conclusory as
others with the final perfect unison on the beginning of a measure, however many
compositions in Turkish makam music end on the karar in the middle of an usul
cycle rather than the beginning.
Figure 4.30: Cadences using dissonant mid-mücennep intervals in strong-beat

dissonances
The option of using a mixture of third and first species counterpoint is exemplified in
the first cadence of Figure 4.31. The upper voice’s descending stepwise pattern in
quarter notes places the dissonance mid-mücennep second degree on a weak
passing tone, conforming to the expectations of third species. However, the quickly
passing motion of the more crucial cadential pitches leading to the karar may
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provide a less-conclusive sound. The second cadence of Figure 4.31 increases the
harmonic motion in the lower voice, assuming the consonance of the perfect fourth.
The closer proximity of the lower cadential pitches to that of the upper voice’s mixed
second and third species figure may be perceived as a more unified cadential
progression.
Figure 4.31: Cadences using mid-mücennep intervals in third species
While the standard treatment of species counterpoint avoids note-against-note

dissonant motions, Jeppesen has observed Palestrina’s usage of third-species
dissonances on strong beats, and in conjunction with other third species melodies
(1946, pp. 95-178). Renaissance composers other than Palestrina have ventured to
use note-against-note second species dissonances in some instances (Jeppesen,
1946). The longer durations of second species dissonances create prolonged
contrapuntal tension that is even more cautiously and sparingly used than that of
similar third species counterpoint. As the mid-mücennep second degree is dissonant
in any case, the application of note-against-note dissonance with this pitch against
other cadential figures may prove more tolerable than such dissonant counterparts
in Renaissance music. Nonetheless, such unprepared dissonances are likely to be
regarded as the most “unstable” types of cadential figure in contrapuntal makam
(Figure 4.32).
Figure 4.32: Cadences using mid-mücennep intervals in dissonant note-against-

note counterpoint
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4.2.4 Imitation and voice spacing
Imitation is a key technique of Renaissance counterpoint. Using the most strict

application of imitation results in the canon style, which maintains the same melodic
interval patterns of the original melody at a later temporal spacing and possibly at
new level of transposition in another voice. While most compositions are not formed
around strict canon principles, imitation is often used as a binding thematic element
in a composition. Thus, while two different melodies may represent different modes
and ambituses at the same time, the tonal transposition of imitated melodies is
based on adherence to the same numerical interval patterns. This provides a
familiar melodic contour that links various modal melodies to one another. The most
common levels of transposition in either imitated or non-imitated part entries are
perfect intervals, with adjacent voices spaced a fourth or fifth apart, and alternating
voices at the octave. In the arrangement of two-part counterpoint, Zarlino suggests
an ambitus scheme that layers an authentic mode with its plagal counterpart a
fourth below, whereas in four voices the same modes are repeated an octave below
in the lower voices (Dahlhaus, 1990, p. 202). Palestrina’s Exaudi Domine
(Appendix, Figure A.15) exhibits this typical plagal-authentic transposition scheme
(Figure 4.33). The soprano begins in e-Hypoaeolian, with the alto entering two
measures later in a-Aeolian. The alto proceeds with exact imitation for four
measures before digressing, following the soprano’s cadence on measure six. The
tenor enters an octave below the soprano, in E-Hypoaeolian, followed by the bass
one octave below the alto, in A-Aeolian.
Figure 4.33: Imitated entries on the intervals of the fifth and octave in Palestrina’s
Exaudi Domine (Stewart, 1994, pp.124-129)
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Figure 4.33 (continued): Imitated entries on the intervals of the fifth and octave in
Palestrina’s Exaudi Domine (Stewart, 1994, pp.124-129)
The nature of Turkish makam distinguishes makams with the same basic tonal class
from one another according to güçlü and origin of seyir. This differentiation allows
for a natural alignment between makams that share the same fundamental tonality.
Similar to the modal examples in Exaudi Domine, Hüseyni makam begins around e’
(Hüseyni perde), which pairs well with Muhayyer makam, beginning on a’ (Muhayyer
perde) a fourth above. Likewise, Uşşak makam, despite its divergent güçlü of d’ (as
opposed to e’ in Hüseyni and Muhayyer makams), can be said to share the same
final scale form as the above makams. Alternatively, as Turkish makam possesses
pitch relationships based on a fixed relative ambitus, it may be found necessary to
replicate this fixed ambitus at a theoretical octave above or below a given voice. The
transference of a makam’s ambitus one octave higher or lower can accommodate to
the requirements of multiple part writing. In monophonic practice, octave doubling
and even continuation of a makam scale into is a known technique in instrumental
or vocal performance, thus the replication of a makam seyir displaced an octave
should not be considered entirely alien to the aesthetics of Turkish makam.
Additionally, the defining characteristics of a makam’s seyir are flexible enough so
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that specific starting perdes are not required of makam composition. This means
that it is not difficult for two voices sharing the same makam to begin at different
perdes, providing that the centrality of the makam’s seyir is focused on the
characteristic perde region.
As an analogue to Palestrina’s usage of imitation at the fourth, I have composed a

short canonic imitation in order to demonstrate the possibility of such voice spacing
(Figure 4.34). Using Mühayyer makam’s descending seyir form around the tiz durak
of a’, an imitation is acheived at the fourth from Hüseyni makam’s descending-
ascending seyir and güçlü perde of e’. The final cadence concludes with a dissonant
suspension in the second half of the penultimate measure, resolving on b(d) before
passing onto c’, which can either be counted as a weak-beat dissonance or a
consonant perfect fourth.
Figure 4.34: Canon at the perfect fourth
Continuing with imitation exercises recognizing tanini, mücennep, and bakiyye-level

interval sizes, we can derive canons in other interval classes, as well. Although it is
typical of Renaissance music to only transpose at a numerical interval level
regardless of interval quality, it is beneficial to demonstrate how polyphonic makam
may be imitated at microtonal intervals particular to Turkish makam music. Although
only large mücennep-level imitation examples are given in addition to bakiyye and
tanini-level imitations below, it is conceivable to imitate certain melodies at small
mücennep interval types, as well. Thus, the conceptual 17-perde model would not
need to apply to specific imitation levels in polyphonic makam as it does in
monophonic makam transposition. Nonetheless, both systems are not mutually
exclusive, but rather capable of coexistence if each system is identified according to
its functional value.
The imitation level of the Pythagorean major third can be derived from any single
makam bearing such an interval within its fundamental scale form. However, I have
chosen two different makams that differ more in terms of seyir than pitch content.
Acem Kürdi’s güçlü perde of f’ gives a lower major third from the imitation point of a’
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in Muhayyer Kürdi makam, with its descending seyir and güçlü of a’. As no mid-
mücennep second scale degree is found in either makam, the cadential figures used
are imperfect consonances, resolving to a perfect unison (Figure 4.35).
Figure 4.35: Canon at the major third
Demonstrating the variety of tonal çeşni forms that can simulatenously in polyphonic
makam, I have elected to match Rast makam with Hüzzam makam in Figure 4.36,
with both makams bearing karar perdes a large mücennep third apart. One could
easily choose to compose a similar imitation using Segah makam with Rast instead.
Such a diatonic imitation would not provide the same challenge and demonstration
of tonally diverse makams in combination with one another.
Figure 4.36: Canon at the large mücennep third
Capitalizing on the emphasis on divergent güçlü in diatonically similar makams,

Acem’s güçlü of f’ creates a minor third interval with Beyati’s güçlü of d’. In Figure
4.37, I have taken advantage of the ascending motion of the mid-mücennep second
degree in the cadential figure to create a large mücennep third with the lower voice’s
sustained g. The second and third beats are therefore tolerable weak-beat
dissonances in Müsemmen usul’s [3-2-3] beat structure
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Figure 4.37: Canon at the minor third
Figure 4.38 uses two tonally diverse makams with no common çeşnis in their natural
forms. Both makams, however, possess a common karar perde of a. I have taken
advantage of the b-natural major second scale degree in Buselik makam to act as a
descending cadential pitch against the upper voice’s leading tone g, thus avoiding
placing Karcığar’s mid-mücennep second degree against g as a dissonant third. The
third beat in the penultimate measure establishes an untied suspension in the lower
voice’s a, which when repeated in the beginning of the next brevic unit’s four-beat
grouping creates a mid-mücennep second dissonance against the upper voice. This
resolves on the sixth beath of the measure, prior to the final cadential figure.
Figure 4.38: Canon at the major second
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Imitation at the large mücennep second is conceivable with Eviç and Neva makams.
Despite Neva’s güçlü of d’, I have manipulated the melodic in such a way that
stresses d’ sufficiently in the lower part while emphasizing the tiz durak of Eviç
makam, f’(#), in imitation of the lower part’s e’. While such a pairing in strict imitation
is not perfect, Figure 4.39 exhibits the possibility of such imitation, with the
knowledge that most composition does not need to adhere to strict canonic rules.
The final cadential figure in this example matches a strong beat dissonance
between b(d) in Eviç makam’s final gesture and b(2b) in Neva makam’s approach to
its karar. Resolution occurs on the unison g of the fourth beat.
Figure 4.39: Canon at the large mücennep second
While it is also possible to imagine a pairing of Ferahfeza’s emphasized f’ with

makams similar to Hüseyni with a güçlü of e’, I have paired Ferahfeza characteristic
seyir with Ferahnak makam’s emphasized tiz durak of f’(#) (Figure 4.40). While
Ferahfeza’s tonal structure is largely different from that of Ferahnak, consonant
intervals between the seyirs of both makams is not difficult to find. The cadence
onto both makams’ relative karar perdes results in a consonant large mücennep
third interval.
Figure 4.40: Canon at the minor second
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Figure 4.40 (continued): Canon at the minor second
The above examples represent some of the various combinations of tonalities

possible in polyphonic Turkish makam. Beginning with the most tonally similar
makams, we can categorize the tonal content of various makams according to
shared features. Firstly, a polyphonic composition could exist with all voices in the
same makam. Renaissance music largely uses voices beginning and ending
compatible as the same mode in authentic or plagal form, with little chromatic
alteration throughout. Likewise, all voices in a polyphonic Turkish makam piece can
be conceived in the same makam. Also within the same tonality, makams that differ
based on seyir, with the same karar and same essential tonal structure, can be
classified together. Uşşak makam paired with Acem, Beyati, or Hüseyni can be said
to share the same essential tonal structure with each other, despite various çeşni
that are used prior to the final descent to a makam’s karar. As such, Hüseyni’s e’-
Uşşak çeşni and Beyati’s occasional use of d’-Hicaz çeşni place these makams
outside of the tonality of Uşşak makam, although their descending scale form to the
karar on a-Uşşak (or a-Hüseyni) allow them to conform to the base tonal structure of
Uşşak.
One level removed from makams with a shared tonality and karar are makams with
a shared tonality and different karars, from which modal relationships may be
established. Makams such as Segah, Uşşak, Rast, and Irak can all be said to exist
on the same tonal axis. However, due to the near proximity of karar perdes, only
makams spaced a third or more can be paired together in this fashion. Segah and
Rast makams pair nicely due to their relative staring perdes: Segah typically begins
around is karar b(d) (Segah perde), which Rast begins around g (Rast perde), a
third below. From Irak makam’s initial emphasis on a-Uşşak çeşni, a theoretical
starting seyir for Segah makam at d’ a fourth above is additionally feasible.
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The next major category of makams can be classified as those with a divergent
fundamental tonal structure, but within it shared çeşni and karar perde. Uşşak
makam can be paired with Karciğar or Hisar makam, in this case. Likewise, the
upper tetrachord of Rast makam could be considered compatible with Nikriz, due to
the common d’-Rast çeşni in both makams’ ascending form and d’-Buselik in their
descending forms. However, the divergent lower çeşnis at the locale of the karar
perdes create a larger contrast in comparison to a pairing of Uşşak and Karcığar.
Further removed from one another’s identity are makams that share common çeşni
but possess different karar perdes. Ferahfeza shares d’-Buselik and a-Uşşak çeşnis
with Uşşak makam, however the final descent to its karar requires a tonal transition
to a-Buselik together with a karar on d-Buselik. Eviç makam, despite beginning on
f’(#)-Segah çeşni and ending on f(#)-Segah çeşni in the lower octave, additionally
contains the tonality of d’-Buselik and a-Uşşak in its seyir, as well.
Makams that share the same tonal axis, that is the same common karar perde, but
without any common çeşni, are more rarely found. Rast and Neveser makams
possess fundamentally divergent tonal structures, however due to the common tonal
çeşni axes on d’ and g, it becomes more manageable to execute geçki between
both makams. In respect to Uşşak, Nişaburek makam’s fundamental tonal identity
as a transposed a-Rast makam allows a common tonal axis with a-Uşşak makam,
but sharing none of the characteristic çeşnis that define it.
The final general category of Turkish makams could be described as makams that
share no common tonal axes, çeşnis, or karar perdes. Despite the diversity of
makam types available in the realm of Turkish makam music, it is perhaps the least
common to encounter the use of two or more makams that possess no common
traits whatsoever. Saba makam paired with Nihavent or Mahur makam represent
such a diversity of tonal structure. To compare with Uşşak makam, once again,
Neveser makam may be said to possess no common traits with Uşşak without a
geçki to another makam. Table 4.2 below details the various levels of tonal
compatibility of example makams with Uşşak makam. Additionally, makams
transposed from their original locations could possess any of the aforementioned
shared traits.
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Table 4.2: Levels of tonal compatibility with Uşşak makam
Makam Paired Identical Shared Same Common Shared

with Uşşak Seyir Tonality/Base Karar Base Çeşni Other Çeşni
Scale Form
Uşşak X X X X X
Beyati X X X X
Hüseyni X X X X
Irak X X
Karcığar X X
Saba X X
Buselik X X
Ferahfeza X
Nişaburek X
Neveser
4.2.5 Analysis of Yalçın Tura’s Hüseyni Saz Semaisi
Among Yalçın Tura’s experimental polyphonic makam works, his Hüseyni Saz
Semaisi (Appendix, Figure A.16) represents a purely contrapuntal realization of
Turkish makam, written for three instruments. The first hane section of this piece,
together with the mülazime, constitute an exposition of the fundamental makam,
Hüseyni. Both the first hane and the müzalime sections are eight measures long,
however the following hanes feature extended forms that depart from the
traditionally symmetrical structure of saz semais. For the sake of explaining the
contrapuntal treatment of the fundamental makam, I have limited my analysis to only
the first hane with the mülazime. Using my analysis scheme for contrapuntal Turkish
makam intervals, I have listed the intervals of each note-against-note occurrence as
it appears in each upper voice fagainst the bass (Figure 4.41).
Tura opens the first hane with the tanbur, which is repeated a measure later in the
ney line. The ney part does not directly imitate the tanbur, however suggests an
151

imitated rhythmic motif for the first half of the second measure. The opening interval
of a perfect eleventh (compound fourth) immediately indicates Tura’s treatment of
the fourth as a consonant interval in counterpoint. The downbeat of measure four
contains an e-d’ dissonance between the tanbur and kemençe, which can be
justified through the tanbur’s preparation of e in the last three beats of the previous
measure. The consecutive succession of perfect fourths between the tanbur and
ney in the fourth measure, however, is difficult to explain even as a consonant
perfect interval. Consonant perfect intervals are typically mediated by imperfect
consonances and approached by contrary motion in order to avoid “blocky” parallel
motion. The seventh beat of the fourth measure, similar to the seventh beat of the
first measure, approaches a perfect fourth between the tanbur and kemençe
through contrary motion. However, the ney also creates an octave with the tanbur,
indicating parallel fourths between the ney and kemençe on beats six and seven.
The first three beats of measure four additionally show not parallel, but direct
octaves between the kemençe and tanbur. Tura avoids the direct motion of octaves
between the ney and tanbur in measure five by anticipating the descent to e’ on
beat seven. The downbeat of measure six features a problematic augmented fourth
between the ney and tanbur. The third and seventh beats of the ney line
demonstrate Tura’s avoidance of dissonance through an anticipation. Measure eight
appears to justify the dissonant seventh between ney and kemençe on fourth beat
by creating a passing quartal harmony with the d-g-c’ sonority. It is possible that
Tura was influenced by İlerician aesthetics, electing to consider any quartal sonority
as appropriate to Turkish polyphony. The final cadence on the e-a fourth in measure
eight suggests a preference for İlerician chord construction once more, as the güçlü
of Hüseyni, e, is present, but in an inverted position below the karar perde of a. The
main three sonorities of the cadence can be interpreted as a fundamental chordal
progression of [III-VII-i]. In addition, Tura’s use of the mid-mücennep third (b(2b) on
the seventh beat of the ney line creates a dissonance against the leading tone of g
in the kemençe part. This dissonance type lasts the value of an eighth note, and can
be considered an exceptional cadential figure, such as mentioned in Figure 4.32.
The first phrase of the mülazime section contains many cases of note-against-note
dissonance between the ney and kemençe. The sixth beat of the mülazime’s first
measure begins with a dissonant minor seventh, followed by a dissonant
augmented small mücennep fourth. While the ninth beat uses a quarter note in the
ney part to prepare the passing eight note dissonance of a diminished mid-
mücennep fourth in the moving kemençe line, the second measure’s treatment of
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the same interval allows the same dissonant interval between simultaneously
moving parts. The seventh beat of the second measure establishes a dissonant
mid-mücennep second between the ney and kemençe, adding to the frequency of
weak-beat note-against-note dissonances in a texture defined by only two voices.
The final beat of the second measure almost immediately begins the entry of the
tanbur with a quartal d-g-c’ chord, albeit a weak-beat dissonance. The entry of the
tanbur on the ninth beat seems to mitigate the parallel fourth motion between the
ney and kemençe on beats eight and ten, however provides little practical relief from
such parallel sonorities. Likewise, the direct octave approached by a perfect fourth
between the ney and tanbur parts in measure three’s first and third beats is only
mildly tempered by the inclusion of a passing tone in the tanbur’s second beat. The
seventh, eight, and ninth beats of the ney and tanbur parts move in successive
parallel elevenths, similar to the parallel fourths of the first hane’s fourth measure.
The downbeat of the mülazime’s fourth measure possesses a clear direct fifth
between the kemençe and tanbur, while the counterpoint between the ney and
tanbur in beats six and seven contains consecutive, dissonant sevenths. The eight
beat moves to another quartal sonority, a-d’-g’, which is followed by an augmented
small mücennep fourth between the tanbur-kemençe unison on b(d) and the ney on
e’. As discussed in section 4.2.3, despite the minor difference of 1 koma, the fourth
can be considered dissonant when altered from its perfect interval form. Thus,
accepting the consonant quality of the perfect fourth, or even the feasibility of
consecutive fourths, the non-perfect variations of the fourth need to be distinguished
from those sonorities which are perfect. Such a lack of discernment is once again
remniscient of İlerici’s theory, establishing quartal harmony based on scale degree
intervals rather than calculated interval quality.
On a melodic level, the kemençe part in the fourth measure executes a c’-Nikriz
geçki when the ninth beat b(d) lines up with the tanbur on an alleged unison.
However, the performance practice of c’-Nikriz may require the sharpened leading
tone of b-natural despite the conventional notation, thus creating a temporary
dissonance with the b(d) of the tanbur. As the melodic motion of the tanbur part at
this time indicates an a’-Uşşak çeşni, the practical difference between these two
pitches would be at least difference of 1 koma. Such a performance would create a
noticeable dissonance at an otherwise unison pitch. Assuming this unison were
consonant, however, the repetition of b(d) by the tanbur on the downbeat of
measure five effectively creates a tied [2-3] suspension with the kemençe. To
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conclude the mülazime, the final three measures use the exact same material as the
final measures of the first hane.
It is evident from the analysis of the opening sections of Tura’s Hüseyni Saz
Semaisi that the composer did not entirely avoid unprepared, note-against-note
dissonances. While in some cases it appears that anticipatory weak-beat tones are
used to prepare strong-beat dissonances, Tura often uses contrapuntal dissonance
on potentially strong or weak beats. Likewise, the occasional effort to soften direct
or parallel perfect intervals in succession is perhaps noted equally as much as their
unmitigated usage. The scrutiny of interval qualities, especially with regard to the
mid-mücennep intervals, is a topic that requires further attention from theorists and
composers alike. Thus, a greater examination of polyphonic works can be verified
through performance, and correspondingly formalized with theoretical discussion. In
this sense, Tura’s Hüseyni Saz Semaisi demonstrates both the possibilities of
contrapuntal makam and the theoretical gray area surrounding its treatment. Further
examination, theory, and experimental performance of polyphonic makam can help
realize the aesthetic potential of microtonal polyphony in both Turkish music and
other musical genres.
154

Figure 4.41: Analysis of Yalçın Tura’s Hüseyni Saz Semaisi (1972)
155

Figure 4.41 (continued): Analysis of Yalçın Tura’s Hüseyni Saz Semaisi (1972)
156

4.2.6 Analysis of Hicaz Saz Semaisi
As an experiment in contrapuntal Turkish makam, I have composed a saz semai for

two voices (Figure 4.42). As the traditional structure of saz semais are in Aksak
Semai usul (10 beats), I have arranged strong beats according to the first beat in
each grouping of [3+2+2+3] beats. Thus, dissonances typically occur on the weak
part of each of the four groupings. Cadential dissonance, in an analogue to
Renaissance counterpoint, is established in the final measure of the mülazime
section by holding the lower voice’s g in the last beat of the previous measure in
order to create a dissonant second against the upper voice’s a. This resolves on the
fourth beat when the upper voice moves to b(b+), setting up the final motion towards
the karar of both voices on a. The first hane features both voices in the same
makam of Hicaz, relying upon the lower a-Hicaz tetrachord and a combination of
either the upper d’-Rast or d’-Buselik pentachords for the most part. The tonally
transposed imitation begins at a rhythmic displacement of one measure and a level
of a fourth above. Thus, the original descent to b-Nişabur in the first upper voice
becomes a descent to e’-Uşşak çeşni in the second voice one measure later. Both
çeşnis are characteristic of Hicaz makam, thus providing a level of tonal nuance
unseen in Renaissance composition. The melody leading from the last three beats
of the first repetition of the mülazime into the second hane is imitated once again at
the tonal fourth above in the second voice. However, this time, the rhythmic
displacement is two beats earlier than before, creating a strong-beat consonance on
the third beat of the new imitation when it enters. In addition, the d’-Hicaz çeşni in
the lower voice sets up a geçki to Şedd-i Araban makam in this hane, which is a
type of transposed Hicaz on the low karar perde of d (Yegah perde). While this
geçki is being realized in the lower voice, the upper voice maintains characteristic
features of a-Hicaz makam. The common a-Hicaz çeşni in both voices and the
dominance of transposed Hicaz çeşnis on other perdes in the lower voice create a
small tonal variation from the first hane. The third hane is imitated in the lower voice
exactly one measure later than the upper voice, however the transpositions in this
meyan hane are particularly distant from before. Using the a-Hicaz çeşni as a bridge
to d’-Segah (as if it were a lower extension), I establish Huzzam makam on the
unlikely location of a tanini perde. In contrast, the lower voice enters with b(d)-
Huzzam, the original location for this makam. This hane thus demonstrates the
ability to contrapuntally match the same makam at the transposition level of a küçük
mücennep third (a Just minor third). The fourth hane ventures into a slightly more
familiar territory with g-Nikriz çeşni in the lower voice as a modal relative to a-Hicaz.
157

The upper voice, however, begins with a seyir related to g’-Nigar, suggesting a
structure similar to Mahur makam. The simultaneous presence of g-Nikriz, however,
relates to the compound makam Zavil. Therefore, where Zavil makam would
normally begin with a descending seyir around g’, eventually mixing g-Nikriz and g-
Nigar çeşnis, I have divided the main characteristic elements of this makam and
represented them in each voice. Before the conclusion of the fourth hane, both
voices switch roles, with the upper voice settling on g-Nikriz, and the lower on g-
Nigar. The return to the final performance of the mülazime establishes the return to
Hicaz makam.
158

Figure 4.42: Hicaz Saz Semaisi, for two instruments
159

Figure 4.42 (continued): Hicaz Saz Semaisi, for two instruments
160

Figure 4.42 (continued): Hicaz Saz Semaisi, for two instruments
161

162

5. CONCLUSION
It is seen that it is possible to use theoretical concepts of usul present in tradition in

order to develop new compositional techniques. For example, while Arel’s division of
usul into constituent usul cells itself may be contested ground, development in
music theory often revolves around the simple change of perspective. Drawing upon
an interpretation of the usul cells, I have suggested its utility in Turkish makam
music composition. The use of aruz as a binding structure to support usul
modulation is likewise an admitted modification to the traditional understanding of
aruz-usul relationships. The examination of traditional composers’ treatment of usul
and aruz gives us material for understanding Turkish music composition. It is from
the examples of established composers that technical devices can be gleaned, and
consequently, reinterpreted into personal nuance in composition. It is my hope that
the explorations within this thesis are but the beginning of understanding and
adapting principles of composition in Turkish makam music. I acknowledge two
aspects of composition that I did not yet explore: the significance of formal structure,
and the possibility of adapting aruz to foreign languages (that is, languages other
than Turkish, Arabic, or Persian, where aruz is a cultural given). Further research at
another time may provide new compositional possibilities along these lines.
On the subject of makam, I propose a reexamination of the term that identifies tonal
aspects together with modal function. Drawing from Safiyyüddin’s 17-perde theory
combined with practical modulation theory, we can establish a variety of
transpositions and create new çeşni relationships. With the techniques described, it
is therefore possible to envision new sonic possibilities in Turkish makam that range
from minor explorations in tonal color to radical non-traditional views of makam. I
therefore expect the present approach to be relevant to a variety of audiences. The
formal discussion of geçki and how to perform çeşni and makam modulation is a
topic that is sorely missed in Turkish music literature. I am aware of a book currently
being prepared by master kanuni Erol Deran regarding possibilities in makam geçki.
While more research and development on this subject is undoubtedly necessary, I
163

have attempted to provide the basis for understanding principles of makam geçki
based on self-made parameters. The means of analysis based on motion from one
çeşni to another upon the horizontal modal and vertical tonal axes describes geçki
and makam relationships to a greater extent than the standard form of analysis. This
analysis method was designed to work as a logical tool to formulate geçki
possibilities that I have detailed in the third section. In a larger perspective, it is my
wish to see the principles of makam geçki and modal-tonal interaction found
relevant to culturally less-specific composition styles. Western, Eastern, or
composers of any definition could find theoretical material in the principles of
makam geçki and transposition that could encourage new compositional styles or
influence any given style.
Polyphony, being a hotly contested area of Turkish music composition, has borne
the burden of nationalist connotations and cultural polarization. Composers have
transcended genres and written both harmonized Turkish music and Western
polyphonic music influenced by Turkish music. Just as Western polyphony had
developed out of contrapuntal procedure, I propose an examination of counterpoint
using Turkish makam in an unadulterated form, preserving the melodic integrity of
the makam represented in each contrapuntal voice. By doing so, polyphony in
Turkish makam can be established in a natural manner that is independent of tonal
harmony, but at the same time be foundationally solid prior to experiments in tonal
interpretations of polyphonic makam. Finally, by combining new techniques of
composition in usul, aruz, makam geçki, or polyphony, a style related to traditional
practice, yet possessing a unique language of its own, can emerge. It can be seen
how development of tonal transposition in monophonic makam can establish more
opportunities for polyphonic composition. Rhythmic techniques applied to usul in a
polyphonic setting additionally supply a new dimension to compositional practice.
The hallmark of every living artistic tradition is its ability to balance changes in
contemporary aesthetic with a relevant continuity with the past. Experimental
developments require examination, scholarly discussion, and time before becoming
accepted. Similarly, early composition using new techniques may require revision
and work before representing its parent theory well. Together with this, the
classification and understanding of compositional techniques through the analysis of
extant works can prove to be inspiring and valuable to the preservation and
continuation of tradition. With that in mind, I expect this thesis to accomplish two
things: firstly, to encourage the formation of a vocabulary of compositional
techniques in Turkish makam music, and secondly to consciously use these
164

concepts as tools to creatively spawn new techniques and stylistic vocabularies. It is

an afterthought to consider the consequences of experimental techniques, where to
stylistically fit new developments, or what category they should belong to. If it is
decided that a particular experimental technique or nuance is not acceptable in the
practice of tradition, still little is said about its quality or viability in the practice of
music. Therefore, the ultimate goal of practical theory is to create new music styles,
not to fruitlessly debate about semantic definitions. The development of a
comprehensive and comparative understanding of the musics of the many cultures
in the world can help us consciously discern the unique qualities of each musical
tradition while enabling us to intelligently create new styles of music. As such, this
work provides a preliminary gesture towards analyzing and understanding the
nature of Turkish makam composition without the limiting view of an exclusivist,
nationalistic or cultural bias. With this knowledge, a natural development of tradition
unhindered by forced ideology is possible. If desired, then, new experiments in
cross-cultural compositional style become more feasible and aesthetically satisfying.
165

166

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Yarman, O. (2008). 79-tone tuning & theory for Turkish makam music: As a solution
to the non-conformance between current model and practice (unpublished
Ph.D. thesis). Istanbul Technical University, Institute of Social Sciences.
Found on website: http://www.ozanyarman.com/files/doctorate_thesis.pdf
Yarman, O. (2010). Ses dünyamızda yeni ufuklar. İstanbul: Artes Yayınları.
Yarman, O. (2014). Rast Seyir. Music notation found on composer’s website.
http://www.ozanyarman.com/files/music/RastSeyir_forTolgahan_Yarman24c
c_score.pdf
Yavuzoğlu N. (unpublished). Türk müziğinde modern armoni. Unpublished book
notes. Istanbul.
Yavuzoğlu, N. (2011). Türk müziğinde makamlar ve seyir özellikleri. İstanbul: Pan
Yayıncılık.
Yavuzoğlu, N. (2013). Türk makam müziği ve yeni notasyon. İstanbul: İnkilap
Kitabevi Yayın Sanayi ve Ticaret AŞ.
170

APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: REFERENCED COMPOSITIONS
171

Figure A.1: Bayati Beste, Dede Efendi (source: www.devletkorosu.com)
172

Figure A.1 (continued): Bayati Beste, Dede Efendi (source:

www.devletkorosu.com)
173

Figure A.2: Sûzidilârâ Mevlevi Ayin, third Selam (source: Uslu and Doğrusöz, 2009,
pp. 53-54)
174

Figure A.3: Sûzidilârâ Mevlevi Ayin, third Selam, semai section (source: Uslu and
Doğrusöz, 2009, pp. 54-57)
175

Figure A.3 (continued): Sûzidilârâ Mevlevi Ayin, third Selam, semai section
(source: Uslu and Doğrusöz, 2009, pp. 54-57)
176

Figure A.4: Sûzidilârâ Peşrev (source: Uslu and Doğrusöz, pp. 58-60)
177

Figure A.4 (continued): Sûzidilârâ Peşrev (source: Uslu and Doğrusöz, pp. 58-60)
178

Figure A.5: Neva Kâr, Itri (source: www.devletkorosu.com)
179

Figure A.5 (continued): Neva Kâr, Itri (source: www.devletkorosu.com)
180

181

182

183

Figure A.6: Pençgah Mevlevi Ayin, first Selam (source: www.devletkorosu.com)
184

Figure A.6 (continued): Pençgah Mevlevi Ayin, first Selam (source:

185

Figure A.6 (continued): Pençgah Mevlevi Ayin, first Selam (source:

186

Figure A.7: Mahur Beste, Dede Efendi (source: www.devletkorosu.com)
187

Figure A.8: Sûzidilârâ Mevlevi Ayin, second selam (source: Uslu and Doğrusöz,
2006, p. 52)
188

Figure A.9: Rast Şarkı, Dede Efendi (source: www.devletkorosu.com)
189

Figure A.9 (continued): Rast Şarkı, Dede Efendi (source: www.devletkorosu.com)
190

Figure A.10: Nigar Saz Semaisi, Reftar Kalfa (source: www.devletkorosu.com)
191

Figure A.11: Buselik Beste, Itri (source: www.devletkorosu.com)
192

Figure A.12: Hicaz Şarkı, Dede Efendi (source: www.devletkorosu.com)
193

Figure A.13: Kürdilihicazkar Şarkı, Cevdet Çağla (source: www.bulentsavas.com)
194

Figure A.13 (continued): Kürdilihicazkar Şarkı, Cevdet Çağla (source:

www.bulentsavas.com)
195

Figure A.14: O Magnum Mysterium, Victoria (source: Schubert, pp. 299-301)
196

Figure A.14 (continued): O Magnum Mysterium, Victoria (source: Schubert, pp.

299-301)
197

Figure A.14 (continued): O Magnum Mysterium, Victoria (source: Schubert, pp.

299-301)
198

Figure A.15: Exaudi Domine, Palestrina (source: Stewart, 1994, pp.124-129)
199

Figure A.15 (continued): Exaudi Domine, Palestrina (source: Stewart, 1994,

pp.124-129)
200


pp.124-129)
201


pp.124-129)
202


pp.124-129)
203


pp.124-129)
204

Figure A.16: Hüseyni Saz Semaisi, Tura (1972)
205

Figure A.16 (continued): Hüseyni Saz Semaisi, Tura (1972)
206

207

208

209

210

211

212

213

214

215

216

217

218

219

220

Appendix B: Personal Works
221

Figure B.1: Pençgah Nakış Ağır Semai
222

Figure B.1 (continued): Pençgah Nakış Ağır Semai
223

Figure B.1 (continued): Pençgah Nakış Ağır Semai
224

CURRICULUM VITAE
Name Surname: Peter Salvucci
Place of birth and date: Chester, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 27-06-1981
Address: PO Box 1292, Montreat, NC 28757, U.S.A.
Email: pnsalvucci@gmail.com
B.A.: Double degree in Music Performance and Jazz Studies
Professional Experience and Awards
May 13, 2016 Istanbul, Turkey

Presentation of article in MUSICULT ’16 conference
January 5, 2013 Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

Lecture-recital: “Exploring Turkish Music Performance on the Saxophone,”
held at 36th annual U.S. Navy Band Saxophone Symposium
December, 2012 Greensboro, NC, U.S.A.

Graduated from the University of North Carolina at Greensboro with
Disciplinary Honors
Publications on thesis
Salvucci, P. (2016). Towards a new theory of melodic development in Turkish

makam: Proposals for expanded possibilities in modulation, analysis, and
çeşni transposition. Proceedings from MUSICULT ’16, May 13-14 2016,
Istanbul, Turkey.
225

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ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY « GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND

TECHNIQUES OF TURKISH MUSIC COMPOSITION

Department of Musicology and Music Theory

Music Theory and Composition

ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY « GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS

TECHNIQUES OF TURKISH MUSIC COMPOSITION

Department of Musicology and Music Theory

Music Theory and Composition

Thesis Advisor: Prof. Ş. Şehvar BEŞİROĞLU

İSTANBUL TEKNİK ÜNIVERSİTESİ « SOSYAL BİLİMLER ENSTİTÜSÜ

TÜRK MÜZİĞİ BESTELEME TEKNİKLERİ

YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ

Müzikoloji ve Müzik Teorisi Anabilim Dalı

Müzik Teorisi ve Kompozisyon Programı

Tez Danışmanı: Prof. Ş. Şehvar BEŞİROĞLU

In Turkey, I am indebted to the academic and musical support of many: to my

June 2016 Peter SALVUCCI

İTÜ : İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi [Istanbul Technical University]

Table 2.1 : Kevseri’s compound usul equivalences .................................................. 25

Figure 2.1 : Safiyyüddin’s basic rhythmic groupings ................................................. 7

Figure 3.3 : Implied “minor” modulation in Yine Bir Gülnihal ................................ 50

TECHNIQUES OF TURKISH MUSIC COMPOSITION

TÜRK MÜZİĞİ BESTELEME TEKNİKLERİ

Türk müziğinde çokseslilik denemeleri on dokuzuncu yüzyıldan beri sürüyor.

milliyetçi hareket çoksesli müziğin estetiğini etkiledi. Bu dönemde özellikle

1.1 Purpose of Thesis

The main objective of this thesis is to investigate a comprehensive amount of

little mention of building on tradition. Furthermore, while the subject of polyphony in

Throughout the eras of Ottoman makam music, various non-standard compositional

2.1 Usul Defined

If viewed as a rhythmic cycle possessing a characteristic pattern of strong and weak

treatises appears to be the very same structure as an usul. This is clarified in a

Safiyyüddin’s Şerefiyye manuscript additionally references îka in a similar manner to

Figure 2.1: Safiyyüddin’s basic rhythmic groupings

Among contemporary musicologists, it is Özer who recognizes the direct connection

Figure 2.2: İka rhythm equated to aruz

Figure 2.3: Remel îka explained with aruz

2.1.1 Categories of usul

Figure 2.4: Nim Sofyan usul

Figure 2.5: Semai usul

Arel continues to describe each subsequent usul in terms of constituent smaller

Figure 2.6: Sofyan usul

Figure 2.7: Türk Aksağı usul

Figure 2.8: Aksak usul

Certain usuls contain a variety of interpretations in explanation of their constituent

2.1.2 Aruz (poetic meter)

2.1.2.1 The relationship between aruz and usul

Figure 2.9: Aruz vezin in Türk Aksağı usul

2.2 Mertebe (Metric Scale)

Figure 2.11: Melodic phrase in medium-mertebe Türk Aksağı

2.2.1 Darb usul

In his manual on usul, rhythmic pedagogue Hurşit Ungay makes mention of a

Figure 2.12: Darb usul

2.3 Nested Usul

2.3.1 Nested Düyek usul

Figure 2.13: Düyek Usul

2.3.1.1 Düyek within Muhammes usul

Figure 2.14: Nested Düyek usul within Muhammes usul

2.3.1.2 Düyek within Ağır Aksak usul

2.3.1.3 Nested Düyek within Dede Efendi’s Bayati Beste

Figure 2.16: Nested Düyek within Hafif usul

Figure 2.16 (continued): Nested Düyek within Hafif usul

Metric or rhythmic phasing can be defined as the process by which a rhythmic