ing the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Rouran, the Turkic Khaganate, and others.

In 1206, Genghis
Khan founded the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous land empire in history. His
grandson Kublai Khan conquered China to establish the Yuan dynasty. After the collapse of the
Yuan, the Mongols retreated to Mongolia and resumed their earlier pattern of factional conflict,
except during the era of Dayan Khan and Tumen Zasagt Khan.
In the 16th century, Tibetan Buddhism began to spread in Mongolia, being further led by
the Manchu-founded Qing dynasty, which absorbed the country in the 17th century. By the early
1900s, almost one-third of the adult male population were Buddhist monks.[17][18] After the collapse of
the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia declared independence, and achieved actual independence
from the Republic of China in 1921. Shortly thereafter, the country came under the control of
the Soviet Union, which had aided its independence from China. In 1924, the Mongolian People's
Republic was founded as a socialist state.[19] After the anti-Communist revolutions of 1989, Mongolia
conducted its own peaceful democratic revolution in early 1990. This led to a multi-party system, a
new constitution of 1992, and transition to a market economy.

Contents

 1History
o 1.1Prehistory and antiquity
o 1.2Middle Ages to early 20th century
o 1.3Modern history
 1.3.1Mongolian People's Republic
 1.3.2Cold War
 1.3.3Post-Cold War
 2Geography and climate
o 2.1Climate
o 2.2Wildlife
 3Demographics
o 3.1Languages
o 3.2Cuisine
o 3.3Religion
 4Government and politics
o 4.1Foreign relations
 4.1.1Embassies
o 4.2Military
o 4.3Legal system
o 4.4Administrative divisions
o 4.5Major cities
 5Economy
o 5.1Mineral industry
o 5.2Agriculture
 6Environment
 7Infrastructure
o 7.1Communications
o 7.2Energy
o 7.3Transportation
o 7.4Education
o 7.5Health
 8Culture
o 8.1Visual arts
o 8.2Architecture
o 8.3Music
o 8.4Media
o 8.5Mongolian cuisine
o 8.6Sports and festivals
 9See also
 10Notes
 11References
 12Further reading
 13External links

History
Main article: History of Mongolia

Prehistory and antiquity

Main articles: Prehistoric Mongolia and Proto-Mongols
Homo erectus inhabited Mongolia from 850,000 years ago.[20] Modern humans reached Mongolia
approximately 40,000 years ago during the Upper Paleolithic. The Khoit Tsenkher Cave[21] in Khovd
Province shows lively pink, brown, and red ochre paintings (dated to 20,000 years ago)
of mammoths, lynx, bactrian camels, and ostriches, earning it the nickname "the Lascaux of
Mongolia". The venus figurines of Mal'ta (21,000 years ago) testify to the level of Upper Paleolithic
art in northern Mongolia; Mal'ta is now part of Russia.

Pasture land in Arkhangai Province. Mongolia was the heartland of many nomadic empires.

Mongolian ordos (palaces) were likened to "cities on the move" (Plano Carpini).

Neolithic agricultural settlements (c. 5500–3500 BC), such as those at Norovlin, Tamsagbulag,
Bayanzag, and Rashaan Khad, predated the introduction of horse-riding nomadism, a pivotal event
in the history of Mongolia which became the dominant culture. Horse-riding nomadism has been
documented by archeological evidence in Mongolia during the Copper and Bronze Age Afanasevo
culture (3500–2500 BC); this culture was active to the Khangai Mountains in Central Mongolia. The
wheeled vehicles found in the burials of the Afanasevans have been dated to before 2200
BC.[22] Pastoral nomadism and metalworking became more developed with the later Okunev
culture (2nd millennium BC), Andronovo culture (2300–1000 BC) and Karasuk culture (1500–300
BC), culminating with the Iron Age Xiongnu Empire in 209 BC. Monuments of the pre-Xiongnu
Bronze Age include deer stones, keregsur kurgans, square slab tombs, and rock paintings.
Although cultivation of crops has continued since the Neolithic, agriculture has always remained
small in scale compared to pastoral nomadism. Agriculture may have first been introduced from the
west or arose independently in the region. The population during the Copper Age has been
described as mongoloid in the east of what is now Mongolia, and as europoid in the
west.[21] Tocharians (Yuezhi) and Scythians inhabited western Mongolia during the Bronze Age. The
mummy of a Scythian warrior, which is believed to be about 2,500 years old, was a 30- to 40-year-
old man with blond hair; it was found in the Altai, Mongolia.[23] As equine nomadism was introduced
into Mongolia, the political center of the Eurasian Steppe also shifted to Mongolia, where it remained
until the 18th century CE. The intrusions of northern pastoralists (e.g. the Guifang, Shanrong,
and Donghu) into China during the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC) and Zhou dynasty (1046–256
BC) presaged the age of nomadic empires.
The concept of Mongolia as an independent power north of China is expressed in a letter sent
by Emperor Wen of Han to Laoshang Chanyu in 162 BC (recorded in the Hanshu):

“
The Emperor of China respectfully salutes the great Shan Yu (Chanyu) of
the Hsiung-nu (Xiongnu)...When my imperial predecessor erected the Great Wall, all
the bowmen nations on the north were subject to the Shan Yu; while the residents
inside the wall, who wore the cap and sash, were all under our government: and the
myriads of the people, by following their occupations, ploughing and weaving,
shooting and hunting, were able to provide themselves with food and clothing...Your
letter says:--"The two nations being now at peace, and the two princes living in
harmony, military operations may cease, the troops may send their horses to graze,
and prosperity and happiness prevail from age to age, commencing, a new era of
contentment and peace." That is extremely gratifying to me...Should I, in concert
with the Shan Yu, follow this course, complying with the will of heaven, then
compassion for the people will be transmitted from age to age, and extended to
unending generations, while the universe will be moved with admiration, and the
influence will be felt by neighbouring kingdoms inimical to the Chinese or the
Hsiung-nu...As the Hsiung-nu live in the northern regions, where the cold piercing
atmosphere comes at an early period, I have ordered the proper authorities to
transmit yearly to the Shan Yu, a certain amount of grain, gold, silks of the finer and
coarser kinds, and other objects. Now peace prevails all over the world; the myriads
of the population are living in harmony, and I and the Shan Yu alone are the parents
of the people...After the conclusion of the treaty of peace throughout the world, take
notice, the Han will not be the first to transgress.[24] ”

7th-century artifacts found 180 km (112 mi) from Ulaanbaatar.

Since prehistoric times, Mongolia has been inhabited by nomads who, from time to time, formed
great confederations that rose to power and prominence. Common institutions were the office of
the Khan, the Kurultai (Supreme Council), left and right wings, imperial army (Keshig) and the
decimal military system. The first of these empires, the Xiongnu of undetermined ethnicity, were
brought together by Modu Shanyu to form a confederation in 209 BC. Soon they emerged as the
greatest threat to the Qin Dynasty, forcing the latter to construct the Great Wall of China. It was
guarded by up to almost 300,000 soldiers during Marshal Meng Tian's tenure, as a means of
defense against the destructive Xiongnu raids. The vast Xiongnu empire (209 BC–93 AD) was
followed by the Mongolic Xianbei empire (93–234 AD), which also ruled more than the entirety of
present-day Mongolia. The Mongolic Rouran Khaganate (330–555), of Xianbei provenance was the
first to use "Khagan" as an imperial title. It ruled a massive empire before being defeated by
the Göktürks (555–745) whose empire was even bigger.
The Göktürks laid siege to Panticapaeum, present-day Kerch, in 576. They were succeeded by
the Uyghur Khaganate (745–840) who were defeated by the Kyrgyz. The Mongolic Khitans,
descendants of the Xianbei, ruled Mongolia during the Liao Dynasty (907–1125), after which
the Khamag Mongol (1125–1206) rose to prominence.
Lines 3–5 of the memorial inscription of Bilge Khagan (684–737) in central Mongolia summarizes the
time of the Khagans:

“
In battles they subdued the nations of all four sides of the world and suppressed
them. They made those who had heads bow their heads, and who had knees
genuflect them. In the east up to the Kadyrkhan common people, in the west up to
the Iron Gate they conquered... These Khagans were wise. These Khagans were
great. Their servants were wise and great too. Officials were honest and direct with
people. They ruled the nation this way. This way they held sway over them. When
they died ambassadors from Bokuli Cholug (Baekje Korea), Tabgach (Tang China),
Tibet (Tibetan Empire), Avar (Avar Khaganate), Rome (Byzantine Empire), Kirgiz,
Uch-Kurykan, Otuz-Tatars, Khitans, Tatabis came to the funerals. So many people
came to mourn over the great Khagans. They were famous Khagans.[25] ”
Middle Ages to early 20th century
Main articles: Mongol Empire, Mongolia under Yuan rule, Northern Yuan dynasty, Dzungar Khanate,
and Mongolia under Qing rule
See also: List of medieval Mongol tribes and clans, List of Mongol states, and List of Mongol rulers

This map shows the boundary of the 13th-century Mongol Empirecompared to today's Mongols. The red area
shows where the majority of Mongolian speakers reside today.
The Northern Yuan at its greatest extent.

In the chaos of the late 12th century, a chieftain named Temüjin finally succeeded in uniting the
Mongol tribes between Manchuria and the Altai Mountains. In 1206, he took the title Genghis Khan,
and waged a series of military campaigns – renowned for their brutality and ferocity – sweeping
through much of Asia, and forming the Mongol Empire, the largest contiguous land empire in world
history. Under his successors it stretched from present-day Poland in the west to Korea in the east,
and from Siberia in the north to the Gulf of Oman and Vietnam in the south, covering some
33,000,000 square kilometres (13,000,000 sq mi),[26] (22% of Earth's total land area) and had a
population of over 100 million people (about a quarter of Earth's total population at the time). The
emergence of Pax Mongolica also significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia during its
height.[27][28]
After Genghis Khan's death, the empire was subdivided into four kingdoms or Khanates. These
eventually became quasi-independent after the Toluid Civil War (1260–1264), which broke out in a
battle for power following Möngke Khan's death in 1259. One of the khanates, the "Great Khaanate",
consisting of the Mongol homeland and China, became known as the Yuan dynasty under Kublai
Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan. He set up his capital in present-day Beijing. After more than a
century of power, the Yuan was replaced by the Ming dynasty in 1368, and the Mongol court fled to
the north. As the Ming armies pursued the Mongols into their homeland, they successfully sacked
and destroyed the Mongol capital Karakorum and other cities. Some of these attacks were repelled
by the Mongols under Ayushridar and his general Köke Temür.[29]

Altan Khan (1507–1582) founded the city of Hohhot, helped introduce Buddhism and originated the title of Dalai
Lama
Castle built in northern Mongolia by Tsogt Taij in 1601.

Tövkhön Monastery built in 1653 by Zanabazar. Here he created the Soyombo script in 1686.

After the expulsion of the Yuan dynasty rulers from China, the Mongols continued to rule their
homeland, known as the Northern Yuan dynasty. The next centuries were marked by violent power
struggles among various factions, notably the Genghisids and the non-Genghisid Oirats, as well as
by several Chinese invasions (such as the five expeditions led by the Yongle Emperor). In the early
15th century, the Oirads under Esen Tayisi gained the upper hand, and raided China in 1449 in
a conflict over Esen's right to pay tribute, capturing the Ming emperor in the process. When Esen
was murdered in 1454, the Borjigids regained power.[citation needed]
In the early 16th century, Dayan Khan and his khatun Mandukhai reunited the entire Mongol nation
under the Genghisids. In the mid-16th century, Altan Khan of the Tümed, a grandson of Dayan
Khan – but not a hereditary or legitimate Khan – became powerful. He founded Hohhot in 1557.
After he met with the Dalai Lama in 1578, he ordered the introduction of Tibetan Buddhism to
Mongolia. (It was the second time this had occurred). Abtai Khan of the Khalkha converted to
Buddhism and founded the Erdene Zuu monastery in 1585. His grandson Zanabazar became the
first Jebtsundamba Khutughtu in 1640. Following the leaders, the entire Mongolian population
embraced Buddhism. Each family kept scriptures and Buddha statues on an altar at the north side of
their ger (yurt). Mongolian nobles donated land, money and herders to the monasteries. As was
typical in states with established religions, the top religious institutions, the monasteries, wielded
significant temporal power in addition to spiritual power.[citation needed]

An image of an early 20th-century Oirat caravan, traveling on horseback, possibly to trade goods.

The last Mongol Khan was Ligden Khan in the early 17th century. He came into conflicts with
the Manchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and also alienated most Mongol tribes. He died in
1634. By 1636 most Inner Mongolian tribes had submitted to the Manchus, who founded the Qing
dynasty. The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia
under Manchu rule. After several wars, the Dzungars (the western Mongols or Oirats) were virtually
annihilated during the Qing conquest of Dzungaria in 1757–58.[30]
Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the 600,000 or more Dzungar were destroyed by a
combination of disease and warfare.[31]Outer Mongolia was given relative autonomy, being
administered by the hereditary Genghisid khanates of Tusheet Khan, Setsen Khan, Zasagt Khan
and Sain Noyon Khan. The Jebtsundamba Khutuktu of Mongolia had immense de facto authority.
The Manchu forbade mass Chinese immigration into the area, which allowed the Mongols to keep
their culture. The Oirats who migrated to the Volga steppes in Russia became known as Kalmyks.
The main trade route during this period was the Tea Road through Siberia; it had permanent stations
located every 25 to 30 kilometres (16 to 19 mi), each of which was staffed by 5–30 chosen families.
Urga (present-day Ulaanbaatar) benefited greatly from this overland trade, as it was the only[citation
needed]
major settlement in Outer Mongolia used as a stopover point by merchants, officials and
travelers on the Tea Road.[citation needed]
Until 1911, the Qing dynasty maintained control of Mongolia with a series of alliances and
intermarriages, as well as military and economic measures. Ambans, Manchu "high officials", were
installed in Khüree, Uliastai, and Khovd, and the country was divided into numerous feudal and
ecclesiastical fiefdoms (which also placed people in power with loyalty to the Qing). Over the course
of the 19th century, the feudal lords attached more importance to representation and less
importance to the responsibilities towards their subjects. The behaviour of Mongolia's nobility,
together with usurious practices by Chinese traders and the collection of imperial taxes in silver
instead of animals, resulted in widespread poverty among the nomads. By 1911 there were 700
large and small monasteries in Outer Mongolia; their 115,000 monks made up 21% of the
population. Apart from the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, there were 13 other reincarnating high lamas,
called 'seal-holding saints' (tamgatai khutuktu), in Outer Mongolia.

Modern history
Main articles: Mongolian Revolution of 1911, Mongolia (1911–24), Mongolian Revolution of
1921, Mongolian People's Republic, 1990 Democratic Revolution in Mongolia, and History of modern
Mongolia

The eighth Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, Bogd Khaan

With the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia under the Bogd Khaan declared independence.
But the newly established Republic of China considered Mongolia to be part of its own
territory. Yuan Shikai, the President of the Republic of China, considered the new republic to be
the successor of the Qing. Bogd Khaan said that both Mongolia and China had been administered
by the Manchu during the Qing, and after the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, the contract of
Mongolian submission to the Manchu had become invalid.[32][a]
The area controlled by the Bogd Khaan was approximately that of the former Outer Mongolia during
the Qing period. In 1919, after the October Revolution in Russia, Chinese troops led by warlord Xu
Shuzheng occupied Mongolia. Warfare erupted on the northern border. As a result of the Russian
Civil War, the White Russian Lieutenant GeneralBaron Ungern led his troops into Mongolia in
October 1920, defeating the Chinese forces in Niislel Khüree (now Ulaanbaatar) in early February
1921 with Mongol support.
To eliminate the threat posed by Ungern, Bolshevik Russia decided to support the establishment of
a communist Mongolian government and army. This Mongolian army took the Mongolian
part of Kyakhta from Chinese forces on March 18, 1921, and on July 6 Russian and Mongolian
troops arrived in Khüree. Mongolia declared its independence again on July 11, 1921.[33] As a result,
Mongolia was closely aligned with the Soviet Union over the next seven decades.
Mongolian People's Republic
In 1924, after the Bogd Khaan died of laryngeal cancer[34] or, as some sources claim, at the hands of
Russian spies,[35] the country's political system was changed. The Mongolian People's Republic was
established. In 1928, Khorloogiin Choibalsan rose to power. The early leaders of the Mongolian
People's Republic (1921–1952) were not communists and many of them were Pan-Mongolists.
The Soviet Union forcefully established a communist regime in Mongolia by later exterminating Pan-
Mongolists. In the 1960s, Soviets recognized the Mongolian People's Party as "real" communists,
who took power after the suspicious death of Pan-Mongolist leader Choibalsan.

Damdin Sükhbaatar

Khorloogiin Choibalsan instituted collectivisation of livestock, began the destruction of

the Buddhist monasteries, and carried out the Stalinist repressions in Mongolia, which resulted in the
murders of numerous monks and other leaders. In Mongolia during the 1920s, approximately one-
third of the male population were monks. By the beginning of the 20th century, about 750
monasteries were functioning in Mongolia.[36]
In 1930 Soviet Union stopped Buryat migration to the Mongolian People's Republic to prevent
Mongolian reunification. All leaders of Mongolia who did not fulfill Stalin's demands to perform Red
Terror against Mongolians were executed, including Peljidiin Genden and Anandyn Amar.
The Stalinist purges in Mongolia, which began in 1937, killed more than 30,000 people. Choibalsan
died suspiciously in the Soviet Union in 1952. Comintern leader Bohumír Šmeral said, "People of
Mongolia are not important, the land is important. Mongolian land is larger than England, France and
Germany".[37]

Mongolian troops fight against the Japanese counterattack at Khalkhin Gol, 1939

After the Japanese invasion of neighboring Manchuria in 1931, Mongolia was threatened on this
front. During the Soviet-Japanese Border War of 1939, the Soviet Union successfully defended
Mongolia against Japanese expansionism. Mongolia fought against Japan during the Battles of
Khalkhin Gol in 1939 and during the Soviet–Japanese War in August 1945 to liberate Inner
Mongolia from Japan and Mengjiang.[38]
Cold War
The February 1945 Yalta Conference provided for the Soviet Union's participation in the Pacific War.
One of the Soviet conditions for its participation, put forward at Yalta, was that after the war Outer
Mongolia would retain its independence. The referendum took place on October 20, 1945, with
(according to official numbers) 100% of the electorate voting for independence.[39]
After the establishment of the People's Republic of China, both countries confirmed their mutual
recognition on October 6, 1949. However, the Republic of China used its Security Council veto in
1955, to stop the admission of the Mongolian People's Republic to the United Nations on the
grounds it recognized all of Mongolia —including Outer Mongolia— as part of China. This was the
only time the Republic of China ever used its veto. Hence, and because of the repeated threats to
veto by the ROC, Mongolia did not join the UN until 1961 when the Soviet Union agreed to lift its
veto on the admission of Mauritania (and any other newly independent African state), in return for
the admission of Mongolia. Faced with pressure from nearly all the other African countries, the ROC
relented under protest. Mongolia and Mauritania were both admitted to the UN on 27 October
1961.[40][41][42] (see China and the United Nations)
On January 26, 1952, Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal took power in Mongolia after the death of Choibalsan.
While Tsedenbal was visiting Moscow in August 1984, his severe illness prompted the parliament to
announce his retirement and replace him with Jambyn Batmönkh.
Post-Cold War
The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 strongly influenced Mongolian politics and youth. Its people
undertook the peaceful Democratic Revolution in 1990 and the introduction of a multi-party system
and a market economy.
A new constitution was introduced in 1992, and the "People's Republic" was dropped from the
country's name. The transition to a decentralised economy was often rocky; during the early 1990s
the country had to deal with high inflation and food shortages.[43] The first election victories for non-
communist parties came in 1993 (presidential elections) and 1996 (parliamentary elections). China
has supported Mongolia's application for membership in to the Asia Cooperation Dialogue
(ACD), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and granting it observer status in the Shanghai
Cooperation Organization.[44]
Geography and climate
Main article: Geography of Mongolia

The southern portion of Mongolia is taken up by the Gobi Desert, while the northern and western portions are
mountainous.

At 1,564,116 km2 (603,909 sq mi), Mongolia is the world's 18th-largest country (after Iran).[45] It is
significantly larger than the next-largest country, Peru. It mostly lies between
latitudes 41° and 52°N (a small area is north of 52°), and longitudes 87° and 120°E. As a point of
reference the northernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same latitude as Berlin (Germany) and
Amsterdam (Netherlands), while the southernmost part is on roughly the same latitude as Rome
(Italy) and Chicago (USA). The westernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same longitude as
Kolkata (India), while the easternmost part is on the same longitude as Qinhuangdao (China) and
Hangzhou (China), as well as the western edge of Taiwan. Although Mongolia does not share a
border with Kazakhstan, its westernmost point is only 36.76 kilometres (22.84 mi) from Kazakhstan.
The geography of Mongolia is varied, with the Gobi Desert to the south and cold, mountainous
regions to the north and west. Much of Mongolia consists of the Mongolian-Manchurian
grassland steppe, with forested areas comprising 11.2% of the total land area,[46] a higher percentage
than the Republic of Ireland (10%).[47] The whole of Mongolia is considered to be part of
the Mongolian Plateau. The highest point in Mongolia is the Khüiten Peak in the Tavan bogd massif
in the far west at 4,374 m (14,350 ft). The basin of the Uvs Lake, shared with Tuva Republic in
Russia, is a natural World Heritage Site.

Climate
Main article: Climate of Mongolia
Mongolia is known as the "Land of the Eternal Blue Sky" or "Country of Blue Sky" (Mongolian:
"Mönkh khökh tengeriin oron") because it has over 250 sunny days a year.[48][49][50][51]

Mongolia map of Köppen climate classification.

Most of the country is hot in the summer and extremely cold in the winter, with January averages
dropping as low as −30 °C (−22 °F).[52] A vast front of cold, heavy, shallow air comes in from Siberia
in winter and collects in river valleys and low basins causing very cold temperatures while slopes of
mountains are much warmer due to the effects of temperature inversion (temperature increases with
altitude).

The Khentii Mountains in Terelj, close to the birthplace of Genghis Khan.

In winter the whole of Mongolia comes under the influence of the Siberian Anticyclone. The localities
most severely affected by this cold weather are Uvs province (Ulaangom), western Khovsgol
(Rinchinlhumbe), eastern Zavkhan (Tosontsengel), northern Bulgan (Hutag) and eastern Dornod
province (Khalkhiin Gol). Ulaanbaatar is strongly, but less severely, affected. The cold gets less
severe as one goes south, reaching the warmest January temperatures in Omnogovi Province
(Dalanzadgad, Khanbogd) and the region of the Altai mountains bordering China. A unique
microclimate is the fertile grassland-forest region of central and eastern Arkhangai Province
(Tsetserleg) and northern Ovorkhangai Province (Arvaikheer) where January temperatures are on
average the same and often higher than the warmest desert regions to the south in addition to being
more stable. The Khangai Mountains play a certain role in forming this microclimate. In Tsetserleg,
the warmest town in this microclimate, nighttime January temperatures rarely go under −30 °C
(−22 °F) while daytime January temperatures often reach 0 °C (32 °F) to 5 °C (41 °F) .[53][54]
The country is subject to occasional harsh climatic conditions known as zud. Zud, which is a natural
disaster unique to Mongolia, results in large proportions of the country's livestock dying from
starvation or freezing temperatures or both, resulting in economic upheaval for the largely pastoral
population. The annual average temperature in Ulaanbaatar is −1.3 °C (29.7 °F), making it the
world's coldest capital city.[52] Mongolia is high, cold, and windy. It has an extreme continental climate
with long, cold winters and short summers, during which most of its annual precipitation falls. The
country averages 257 cloudless days a year, and it is usually at the center of a region of high
atmospheric pressure. Precipitation is highest in the north (average of 200 to 350 millimeters (8 to
14 in) per year) and lowest in the south, which receives 100 to 200 millimeters (4 to 8 in) annually.
The highest annual precipitation of 622.297 mm (24.500 in) occurred in the forests of Bulgan
Province close to the border with Russia and the lowest of 41.735 mm (1.643 in) occurred in the
Gobi Desert (period 1961–1990).[55] The sparsely populated far north of Bulgan Province averages
600 mm (24 in) in annual precipitation which means it receives more precipitation than Beijing
(571.8 mm or 22.51 in) or Berlin (571 mm or 22.5 in).

Wildlife
Main article: Wildlife of Mongolia
See also: Category:Biota of Mongolia
The name "Gobi" is a Mongol term for a desert steppe, which usually refers to a category of arid
rangeland with insufficient vegetation to support marmots but with enough to support camels.
Mongols distinguish Gobi from desert proper, although the distinction is not always apparent to
outsiders unfamiliar with the Mongolian landscape.
Bactrian camels by sand dunes in Gobi Desert.

Mongolian steppe

Gobi rangelands are fragile and easily destroyed by overgrazing, which results in expansion of the
true desert, a stony waste where not even Bactrian camels can survive. The arid conditions in the
Gobi are attributed to the rain shadow effect caused by the Himalayas. Before the Himalayas were
formed by the collision of the Indo-Australian plate with the Eurasian plate 10 million years ago,
Mongolia was a flourishing habitat for major fauna but still somewhat arid and cold due to distance
from sources of evaporation. Sea turtle and mollusk fossils have been found in the Gobi, apart from
well-known dinosaur fossils. Tadpole shrimps (Lepidurus mongolicus) are still found in the Gobi
today. The eastern part of Mongolia including the Onon, Kherlenrivers and Lake Buir form part of
the Amur river basin draining to the Pacific Ocean. It hosts some unique species like the Eastern
brook lamprey, Daurian crayfish (cambaroides dauricus) and Daurian pearl oyster (dahurinaia
dahurica) in the Onon/Kherlen rivers as well as Siberian prawn (exopalaemon modestus) in Lake
Buir.

Riverine forest of the Tuul Rivernear Ulaanbaatar.

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Mongolia
Ulaanbaatar is the capital and largest city of Mongolia

In settlements, many families live in ger districts

Mongolia's total population as of January 2015 was estimated by the U.S. Census Bureau[56] to be
3,000,251 people, ranking around 121st in the world. But the U.S. Department of State Bureau of
East Asian and Pacific Affairs uses the United Nations (UN) estimations[57] instead of the U.S.
Census Bureau estimations. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population
Division[58] estimates Mongolia's total population (mid-2007) as 2,629,000 (11% less than the U.S.
Census Bureau figure). UN estimates resemble those made by the Mongolian National Statistical
Office (2,612,900, end of June 2007). Mongolia's population growth rate is estimated at 1.2% (2007
est.).[58] About 59% of the total population is under age 30, 27% of whom are under 14. This
relatively young and growing population has placed strains on Mongolia's economy.
The first census in the 20th century was carried out in 1918 and recorded a population of
647,500.[59] Since the end of socialism, Mongolia has experienced a decline of total fertility
rate (children per woman) that is steeper than in any other country in the world, according to recent
UN estimations:[58] in 1970–1975, fertility was estimated to be 7.33 children per woman, dropping to
about 2.1 in 2000–2005.[60] The decline ended and in 2005–2010, the estimated fertility value
increased to 2.5 and stabilised afterwards at the rate of about 2.2–2.3 children per woman.
Ethnic Mongols account for about 95% of the population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all
distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. The Khalkha make up 86% of the ethnic
Mongol population. The remaining 14% include Oirats, Buryats and others. Turkic
peoples (Kazakhs and Tuvans) constitute 4.5% of Mongolia's population, and the rest are Russian,
Chinese, Korean and American nationalities.[61]

Languages
The official language of Mongolia is Mongolian, and is spoken by 95% of the population. A variety
of dialects of Oirat and Buryat are spoken across the country, and there are also some speakers
of Mongolic Khamnigan. In the west of the country, Kazakh and Tuvan, both Turkic languages, are
also spoken. Mongolian Sign Languageis the principal language of the deaf community.
Today, Mongolian is written using the Cyrillic alphabet in Mongolia, although in the past it was
written using the Mongolian script. An official reintroduction of the old script was planned for 1994,
but has not taken place as older generations encountered practical difficulties.[62] The traditional
alphabet is being slowly reintroduced through schools.[63]
Russian is the most frequently spoken foreign language in Mongolia, followed by English, although
English has been gradually replacing Russian as the second language. Korean has gained
popularity as tens of thousands of Mongolians work in South Korea.[64]

Cuisine
Mongolian cuisine is rooted in their nomadic history, and thus includes much dairy content and meat,
but few vegetables. Two of the most popular dishes are Buuz (a meat-filled steamed dumpling)
and Khuushuur (a sort of deep-fried meat pie.)

Religion
Main articles: Religion in Mongolia and Freedom of religion in Mongolia

Mongolian shamanistic cairn

Grounds of Dambadarjaalin Monastery in Ulaanbaatar, with a stupa, in front of a sacred mount

with mantra inscribed on the slope and a shamanic ovoo on the top.

Amarbayasgalant Monastery
 Religions in Mongolia
(population aged 15 and above)[65]

Religion Population Share

Non-religious 735,283 38.6%

Religious 1,170,283 61.4%

Buddhism 1,009,357 53.0%

Islam 57,702 3.0%

Shamanism 55,174 2.9%

Christianity 41,117 2.2%

Other religions 6,933 0.4%

Total 1,905,566 100.0%

According to the 2010 National Census, among Mongolians aged 15 and above, 53%
were Buddhists, while 39% were non-religious.
Mongolian shamanism has been widely practised throughout the history of what is now Mongolia,
with similar beliefs being common among the nomads of central Asia. They gradually gave way
to Tibetan Buddhism, but shamanism has left a mark on Mongolian religious culture, and it continues
to be practiced. The Kazakhs of western Mongolia, some Mongols, and other Turkic peoples in the
country traditionally adhere to Islam.
Throughout much of the 20th century, the communist government repressed religious practices. It
targeted the clergy of the Mongolian Buddhist Church, which had been tightly intertwined with the
previous feudal government structures (e.g. from 1911 on, the head of the Church had also been
the khan of the country).[66] In the late 1930s, the regime, then led by Khorloogiin Choibalsan, closed
almost all of Mongolia's over 700 Buddhist monasteries and killed at least 30,000 people, of whom
18,000 were lamas.[67] The number of Buddhist monks dropped from 100,000 in 1924 to 110 in
1990.[66]
The fall of communism in 1991 restored public religious practice. Tibetan Buddhism, which had been
the predominant religion prior to the rise of communism, again rose to become the most widely
practised religion in Mongolia. The end of religious repression in the 1990s also allowed for other
religions to spread in the country. According to the Christian missionary group Barnabas Fund, the
number of Christians grew from just four in 1989 to around 40,000 as of 2008. In May 2013, The
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) held a cultural program to celebrate 20
years of LDS Church history in Mongolia, with 10,900 members, and 16 church buildings in the
country.[68] There are some 1,000 Catholics in Mongolia and, in 2003, a missionary from
the Philippines was named Mongolia's first Catholic bishop.[69] In 2017 Seventh-day
Adventistsreported 2,700 members in 6 churches up from zero members in 1991.[70][71]

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Mongolia
State Great Khural chamber in session

Mongolia is a semi-presidential representative democratic republic with a directly

elected President.[3][4][5] The people also elect the deputies in the national assembly, the State Great
Khural. The President appoints the Prime Minister, and nominates the Cabinet on the proposal of the
prime minister. The constitution of Mongolia guarantees a number of freedoms, including
full freedom of expression and religion. Mongolia has a number of political parties; the largest are
the Mongolian People's Party and the Democratic Party. The non-governmental
organisation Freedom House considers Mongolia to be free.[72]
The People's Party – known as the People's Revolutionary Party between 1924 and 2010 – formed
the government from 1921 to 1996 (in a one-party system until 1990) and from 2000 to 2004. From
2004 to 2006, it was part of a coalition with the Democrats and two other parties, and after 2006 it
was the dominant party in two other coalitions. The party initiated two changes of government from
2004 prior to losing power in the 2012 election. The Democrats were the dominant force in a ruling
coalition between 1996 and 2000, and an almost-equal partner with the People's Revolutionary Party
in a coalition between 2004 and 2006. An election of deputies to the national assembly on 28 June
2012 resulted in no party having an overall majority;[73] however, as the Democratic Party won the
largest number of seats,[74] its leader, Norovyn Altankhuyag, was appointed prime minister on August
10, 2012.[75] In 2014, he was replaced by Chimediin Saikhanbileg. The MPP won a landslide victory
in the 2016 elections and the current Prime Minister is MPP's Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh.

Mongolia's President Tsakhia Elbegdorj with U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry, June 2016

The President of Mongolia is able to veto the laws made by parliament, appoint judges and justice of
courts and appoint ambassadors. The parliament can override that veto by a two-thirds majority
vote. Mongolia's constitution provides three requirements for taking office as president; the
candidate must be a native-born Mongolian, be at least 45 years old, and have resided in Mongolia
for five years before taking office. The president must also suspend their party
membership. Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, a two-time former prime minister and member of the Democratic
Party was elected as president on May 24, 2009 and inaugurated on June 18 that year.[76] Elbegdorj
was re-elected on June 26, 2013 and was inaugurated on July 10, 2013 for his second term as
president.[77]
Mongolia uses a unicameral legislature, The State Great Khural, with 76 seats, which is chaired by
the speaker of the house. Its members are directly elected, every four years, by popular vote.[5]

Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Mongolia
Mongolia's President Khaltmaagiin Battulga and Vladimir Putin in Vladivostok, September 2017

Mongolia's foreign relations traditionally focus on its two large neighbors, Russia and the People's
Republic of China.[78]Mongolia is economically dependent on these countries; China receives 90% of
Mongolia's exports by value and accounts for 60% of its foreign trade, while Russia supplies 90% of
Mongolia's energy requirements.[2] It has begun seeking positive relations with a wider range of other
nations especially in cultural and economic matters, focusing on encouraging foreign investments
and trade.[79]
Embassies
Main article: List of diplomatic missions of Mongolia
Mongolia maintains many diplomatic missions in other countries and has embassies in the following
world capitals:[80]

 Ankara
 Astana
 Bangkok
 Beijing
 Berlin
 Brasilia
 Brussels
 Budapest
 Cairo
 Canberra
 Hanoi
 Havana
 Jakarta
 Kuwait City
 London
 Moscow
 New Delhi
 Ottawa
 Paris
 Prague
 Pyongyang
 Rome
 Seoul
 Singapore
 Sofia
 Stockholm
 Tokyo
 Vienna
 Vientiane
 Warsaw
 Washington, D.C.
Military
Mongolian Armed Forces engineers with the 017 Construction Regiment receive instructions before
participating in Khaan Quest 2013 in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, July 22, 2013.

Main article: Mongolian Armed Forces

Mongolia supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and has sent several successive contingents of 103 to
180 troops each to Iraq. About 130 troops are currently deployed in Afghanistan. 200 Mongolian
troops are serving in Sierra Leone on a UN mandate to protect the UN's special court set up there,
and in July 2009, Mongolia decided to send a battalion to Chad in support of MINURCAT.[81]
From 2005 to 2006, about 40 troops were deployed with the Belgian and Luxembourg contingents
in Kosovo. On November 21, 2005, George W. Bush became the first-ever sitting U.S. President to
visit Mongolia.[82] In 2004, under Bulgarian chairmanship, the Organization for Security and Co-
operation in Europe (OSCE) invited Mongolia as its newest Asian Partner.

Legal system
Main article: Judiciary of Mongolia
The judiciary of Mongolia is made of a three-tiered court system: first instance courts in
each provincial district and each Ulaanbaatar district; appellate courts for each province and also the
Capital Ulaanbaatar; and the court of last resort (for non-constitutional matters) at the Supreme
Court of Mongolia.[83] For questions of constitutional law there is a separate constitutional court.
A Judicial General Council (JGC) nominates judges which must then be confirmed by
the parliament and appointed by the President.
Arbitration centres provide alternative dispute resolution options for commercial and other
disputes.[84]

Administrative divisions
Main articles: Provinces of Mongolia and Districts of Mongolia
 Zavkhan

Govi-Altai

Khovd

Bayan-
Ölgii

Uvs

Bayan.

Övör.

Ömnögovi

Dundgovi

Dornogovi

Arkhangai

Khövsgöl

Töv

Khentii

Sükhbaatar

Dornod

Selenge

Darkh.

Bulgan

Orkhon

Ulaanbaatar

Govisum.

Mongolia is divided into 21 provinces (aimags) and subdivided into 329 districts (sums).[85] The
capital Ulaanbaatar is administrated separately as a capital city (municipality) with provincial status.
The aimags are:

 Arkhangai
 Bayan-Ölgii
 Bayankhongor
 Bulgan
 Darkhan-Uul
 Dornod
 Dornogovi
 Dundgovi
 Govi-Altai
 Govisümber
 Khentii
 Khovd
 Khövsgöl
 Ömnögovi
 Orkhon
 Övörkhangai
 Selenge
 Sükhbaatar
 Töv
 Uvs
 Zavkhan
Major cities
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to
reflect recent events or newly available information. (February 2019)
Main article: List of cities in Mongolia
About 40% of the population lives in Ulaanbaatar, and in 2002 a further 23% lived
in Darkhan, Erdenet, the aimag centers and sum-level permanent settlements.[86] Another share of
the population lives in the sum centers.

 v
 t
 e
Largest cities or towns in M
2008
Rank Name Province Pop. Ra
1 Ulaanbaatar Ulaanbaatar 1,340,000 1
2 Erdenet Orkhon 86,866 1
3 Darkhan Darkhan-Uul 74,300 1
4 Choibalsan Dornod 38,150 1
Ulaanbaatar 5 Mörön Khövsgöl 36,082 1
6 Khovd Khovd 28,601 1
7 Ölgii Bayan-Ölgii 27,855 1
8 Bayankhongor Bayankhongor 26,252 1
Erdenet 9 Arvaikheer Övörkhangai 25,622 1
10 Ulaangom Uvs 21,406

Economy
Main article: Economy of Mongolia

This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to

reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2016)

View of Ulaanbaatar with the Blue Sky Tower.

Economic activity in Mongolia has long been based on herding and agriculture, although
development of extensive mineral deposits of copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten and gold
have emerged as a driver of industrial production.[87] Besides mining (21.8% of GDP) and agriculture
(16% of GDP), dominant industries in the composition of GDP are wholesale and retail trade and
service, transportation and storage, and real estate activities.[87] The grey economy is estimated to be
at least one-third the size of the official economy.[87] As of 2006, 68.4% of Mongolia's exports went to
the PRC, and the PRC supplied 29.8% of Mongolia's imports.[88]
Mongolia is ranked as lower-middle-income economy by the World Bank.[89] Some 22.4% of the
population lives on less than US$1.25 a day.[90] In 2011, GDP per capita was $3,100.[2] Despite
growth, the proportion of the population below the poverty line was estimated to be 35.6% in 1998,
36.1% in 2002–2003, and 32.2% in 2006.[91]
Because of a boom in the mining sector, Mongolia had high growth rates in 2007 and 2008 (9.9%
and 8.9%, respectively).[87] In 2009, sharp drops in commodity prices and the effects of the global
financial crisis caused the local currency to drop 40% against the U.S. dollar. Two of the 16
commercial banks were taken into receivership.[87] In 2011, GDP growth was expected to reach
16.4%. However, inflation continued to erode GDP gains, with an average rate of 12.6% expected at
the end of 2011.[87] Although GDP has risen steadily since 2002 at the rate of 7.5% in an official 2006
estimate, the state is still working to overcome a sizable trade deficit. The Economist predicted this
trade deficit of 14% of Mongolia's GDP would transform into a surplus in 2013.[92]
Mongolia was never listed among the emerging market countries until February 2011
when Citigroup analysts determined Mongolia to be one of the "global growth generating" countries,
which are countries with the most promising growth prospects for 2010–2050.[93] The Mongolian
Stock Exchange, established in 1991 in Ulaanbaatar, is among the world's smallest stock
exchanges by market capitalisation.[94][95]In 2011, it had 336 companies listed with a total market
capitalization of US$2 billion after quadrupling from US$406 million in 2008.[96] Mongolia made a
significant improvement on the ease of doing business in 2012, moving up to rank 76 compared with
88 the previous year in the "Doing Business" report by the International Finance Corporation (IFC).[97]

Mineral industry
Main article: Mining in Mongolia
Oyu Tolgoi employs 18,000 workers and expects to be producing 450,000 tonnes of copper a year by 2020 [98]

Minerals represent more than 80% of Mongolia's exports, a proportion expected to eventually rise to
95%. About 3,000 mining licences have been issued.[92] Mining is continuing to rise as a major
industry of Mongolia as evidenced by the number of Chinese, Russian and Canadian firms starting
mining businesses in Mongolia.[2]
In 2009, the government negotiated an "investment agreement" with Rio Tinto and Ivanhoe Mines to
develop the Oyu Tolgoi copper and gold deposit,[87] the biggest foreign-investment project in
Mongolia, expected to account for one-third of Mongolia's GDP by 2020.[92] In March 2011, six big
mining companies prepared to bid for the Tavan Tolgoi area, the world's largest untapped coal
deposit. According to Erdenes MGL, the government body in-charge of Tavan
Tolgoi, ArcelorMittal, Vale, Xstrata, U.S. coal miner Peabody, a consortium of Chinese energy
firm Shenhua and Japan's Mitsui & Co, and a separate consortium of Japanese, South Korean and
Russian firms are the preferred bidders.[99]

Agriculture
Main article: Agriculture in Mongolia
In 2002, about 30% of all households in Mongolia lived from breeding livestock.[100] Most herders in
Mongolia follow a pattern of nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralism. Due to the severe 2009–2010
winter, Mongolia lost 9.7 million animals, or 22% of total livestock. This immediately affected meat
prices, which increased twofold; the GDP dropped 1.6% in 2009.[87]

Environment
Main article: Environmental issues in Mongolia
Environmental issues are desertification, deforestation and pollution due to industrialisation.

Infrastructure
Communications
See also: Telecommunications in Mongolia
Postal services are provided by state-owned Mongol Post and 54 other licensed operators.[101]

Energy
See also: Energy in Mongolia
Mongolia's main source of energy is thermal power, which is converted to electricity at the seven
power stations currently active in the country.

Transportation
Main article: Transport in Mongolia
Train in Zamyn-Üüd station in Dornogovi aimag

While the Mongolian horsecontinues to be revered as the national symbol, they are rapidly being replaced by
motorized vehicles.

Mongolian ferry Sukhbaatar on Lake Khovsgol in Khovsgol Province.

The Trans-Mongolian Railway is the main rail link between Mongolia and its neighbors. It begins at
the Trans-Siberian Railway in Russia at the town of Ulan-Ude, crosses into Mongolia, runs through
Ulaanbaatar, then passes into China at Erenhot where it joins the Chinese railway system. A
separate railroad link connects the eastern city of Choibalsan with the Trans-Siberian Railway.
However, that link is closed to passengers after the Mongolian town of Chuluunkhoroot.[102]
Mongolia has a number of domestic airports with some of them having international status. However,
the main international airport is Chinggis Khaan International Airport, located approximately 20 km
(12 mi) from downtown Ulaanbaatar. Direct flight connections exist between Mongolia and South
Korea, China, Thailand, Hong Kong, Japan, Russia, Germany, Kyrgyzstan, and Turkey. MIAT
Mongolian Airlines is Mongolia's national air carrier operating international flights, while other
domestic air carriers such as Aero Mongolia and Hunnu Airlines serve domestic and regional routes.
Many overland roads in Mongolia are only gravel roads or simple cross-country tracks. There are
paved roads from Ulaanbaatar to the Russian and Chinese borders, from Ulaanbaatar east- and
westward (the so-called Millenium Road), and from Darkhan to Bulgan. A number of road
construction projects are currently underway. Mongolia has 4,800 km (3,000 mi) of paved roads, with
1,800 km (1,100 mi) of that total completed in 2013 alone.[103]

Education
During the state socialist period, education was one of the areas of significant achievement in
Mongolia. Before the People's Republic, literacy rates were below one percent. By 1952, illiteracy
was virtually eliminated,[104] in part through the use of seasonal boarding schools for children of
nomadic families. Funding to these boarding schools was cut in the 1990s, contributing to slightly
increased illiteracy.
Primary and secondary education formerly lasted ten years, but was expanded to eleven years.
Since the 2008–2009 school year, new first-graders are using the 12-year system, and a full
transition to the 12-year system will not occur until the 2019–2020 school year, when the
current[when?] third-graders graduate.[105]
As of 2006, English is taught in all secondary schools across Mongolia, beginning in fourth grade.
Mongolian national universities are all spin-offs from the National University of Mongolia and
the Mongolian University of Science and Technology. Almost three in five Mongolian youths now
enroll in university. There was a six-fold increase in students between 1993 and 2010.[106]

Health
See Health in Mongolia

Culture
Main article: Culture of Mongolia
The symbol in the left bar of the national flag is a Buddhist icon called Soyombo. It represents the
sun, moon, stars, and heavens per standard cosmological symbology abstracted from that seen in
traditional thangka paintings.

Visual arts

Sita (White) Tara by Öndör Gegeen Zanabazar. Mongolia, 17th century

Before the 20th century, most works of the fine arts in Mongolia had a religious function, and
therefore Mongolian fine arts were heavily influenced by religious texts.[107]Thangkas were usually
painted or made in applique technique. Bronze sculptures usually showed Buddhist deities. A
number of great works are attributed to the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, Zanabazar.
In the late 19th century, painters like "Marzan" Sharav turned to more realistic painting styles. Under
the Mongolian People's Republic, socialist realism was the dominant painting style,[108] however
traditional thangka-like paintings dealing with secular, nationalist themes were also popular, a genre
known as "Mongol zurag".
Among the first attempts to introduce modernism into the fine arts of Mongolia was the painting Ehiin
setgel (Mother's love) created by Tsevegjav in the 1960s. The artist was purged as his work was
censored.
All forms of fine arts flourished only after "Perestroika" in the late 1980s. Otgonbayar Ershuu is
arguably one of the most well-known Mongolian modern artists in the Western world, he was
portrayed in the film "ZURAG" by Tobias Wulff.[109]

Architecture
Main article: Architecture of Mongolia
A ger in front of the Gurvan Saikhan Mountains

The traditional Mongolian dwelling is known as a ger. In the past it was known by the Russian
term yurt, but this has been changing as the Mongolian term becomes better known among English-
speaking countries. According to Mongolian artist and art critic N. Chultem, the ger was the basis for
development of traditional Mongolian architecture. In the 16th and 17th centuries, lamaseries were
built throughout the country. Many of them started as ger-temples. When they needed to be
enlarged to accommodate the growing number of worshippers, the Mongolian architects used
structures with 6 and 12 angles[clarification needed]with pyramidal roofs to approximate to the round shape of
a ger. Further enlargement led to a quadratic shape of the temples. The roofs were made in the
shape of marquees.[110] The trellis walls, roof poles and layers of felt were replaced by stone, brick,
beams and planks, and became permanent.[111]
Chultem distinguished three styles in traditional Mongolian architecture:
Mongolian, Tibetan and Chinese as well as combinations of the three. Among the first quadratic
temples was Batu-Tsagaan (1654) designed by Zanabazar. An example of the ger-style architecture
is the lamasery Dashi-Choiling in Ulaanbaatar. The temple Lavrin (18th century) in the Erdene
Zuu lamasery was built in the Tibetan tradition. An example of a temple built in the Chinese tradition
is the lamasery Choijing Lamiin Sume (1904), which is a museum today. The quadratic temple
Tsogchin in lamasery Gandan in Ulaanbaatar is a combination of the Mongolian and Chinese
tradition. The temple of Maitreya (disassembled in 1938) is an example of the Tibeto-Mongolian
architecture.[110] Dashi-Choiling monastery has commenced a project to restore the temple and the
25 metres (82 ft) sculpture of Maitreya.

Music
Main article: Music of Mongolia

Musician playing the traditional Mongolian musical instrument morin khuur

The music of Mongolia is strongly influenced by nature, nomadism, shamanism, and also Tibetan
Buddhism. The traditional music includes a variety of instruments, famously the morin khuur, and
also the singing styles like the urtyn duu ("long song"), and throat-singing (khoomei). The "tsam" is
danced to keep away evil spirits and it was seen the reminiscences of shamaning.
The first rock band of Mongolia was Soyol Erdene, founded in the 1960s. Their Beatles-like manner
was severely criticized by the Communist censorship. It was followed by Mungunhurhree,
Ineemseglel, Urgoo, etc., carving out the path for the genre in the harsh environment of Communist
ideology. Mungunhurhree and Haranga were to become the pioneers in the Mongolia's heavy rock
music. Haranga approached its zenith in the late 1980s and 1990s.
The leader of Haranga, famous guitarist Enh-Manlai, generously helped the growth of the following
generations of rockers. Among the followers of Haranga was the band Hurd. In the early 1990s,
group Har-Chono put the beginning for Mongolia's folk-rock, merging elements of the Mongolian
traditional "long song" into the genre.
By that time, the environment for development of artistic thought had become largely liberal thanks
to the new democratic society in the country. The 1990s saw development of rap, techno, hip-hop
and also boy bands and girl bands flourish at the turn of the millennium.

Media
Main article: Media of Mongolia

Mongolian media interviewing the opposition Mongolian Green Party. The media has gained significant
freedoms since democratic reforms initiated in the 1990s.

Mongolian press began in 1920 with close ties to the Soviet Union under the Mongolian Communist
Party, with the establishment of the Unen ("Truth") newspaper similar to the Soviet Pravda.[112] Until
reforms in the 1990s, the government had strict control of the media and oversaw all publishing, in
which no independent media was allowed.[112] The dissolution of the Soviet Union had a significant
impact on Mongolia, where the one-party state grew into a multi-party democracy, and with that,
media freedoms came to the forefront.
A new law on press freedom, drafted with help from international NGOs on August 28, 1998 and
enacted on January 1, 1999, paved the way for media reforms.[113] The Mongolian media currently
consists of around 300 print and broadcasting outlets.[114]
Since 2006, the media environment has been improving with the government debating a
new Freedom of Information Act, and the removal of any affiliation of media outlets with the
government.[115][116] Market reforms have led to an increasing number of people working in the media
year on year, along with students at journalism schools.[115]
In its 2013 World Press Freedom Index report, Reporters Without Borders classified the media
environment as 98th out of 179, with 1st being most free.[117] In 2016, Mongolia was ranked 60th out
of 180.[118]
According to 2014 Asian Development Bank survey, 80% of Mongolians cited TV as their main
source of information.[119]

Mongolian cuisine
Main article: Mongolian cuisine

Sports and festivals

Main article: Mongolia at the Olympics

Naadam is the largest summer celebration

The main national festival is Naadam, which has been organised for centuries and takes place over
three days in the summer, consists of three Mongolian traditional sports, archery, cross-country
horse-racing, and wrestling, traditionally recognized as the Three Manly Games of Naadam. In
modern-day Mongolia, Naadam is held from July 11 to 13 in the honour of the anniversaries of the
National Democratic Revolution and foundation of the Great Mongol State.
Another very popular activity called Shagaa is the "flicking" of sheep ankle bones at a target several
feet away, using a flicking motion of the finger to send the small bone flying at targets and trying to
knock the target bones off the platform. At Naadam, this contest is very popular and develops a
serious audience among older Mongolians.

Riders during Naadam festival

Horse riding is especially central to Mongolian culture. The long-distance races that are showcased
during Naadam festivals are one aspect of this, as is the popularity of trick riding. One example of
trick riding is the legend that the Mongolian military hero Damdin Sükhbaatar scattered coins on the
ground and then picked them up while riding a horse at full gallop.

Traditional Mongolian wrestling

Mongolian wrestling is the most popular of all Mongol sports. It is the highlight of the Three Manly
Games of Naadam. Historians claim that Mongol-style wrestling originated some seven thousand
years ago. Hundreds of wrestlers from different cities and aimags around the country take part in the
national wrestling competition.
Other sports such as basketball, weightlifting, powerlifting, and association football, athletics,
gymnastics, table tennis, jujutsu, karate, aikido, kickboxing, mixed martial arts have become popular
in Mongolia. More Mongolian table tennis players are competing internationally.
Freestyle wrestling has been practised since 1958 in Mongolia.[120] Mongolian freestyle wrestlers
have won the first and the most Olympic medals of Mongolia.
Naidangiin Tüvshinbayar won Mongolia's first ever Olympic gold medal in the men's 100-kilogram
class of judo.[121]
Amateur boxing has been practised in Mongolia since 1948.[122] Mongolian Olympic boxing national
team was founded in 1960. Communist government of Mongolia banned boxing during the period
1964–1967 but the government ended ban on boxing soon. Professional boxing began in Mongolia
in the 1990s.
Mongolia national basketball team enjoyed some success recently, especially at the East Asian
Games.
Association football is also played in Mongolia. The Mongolia national football team began playing
national games again during the 1990s; but has not yet qualified for a major international
tournament. The Mongolia Premier League is the top domestic competition.
Several Mongolian women have excelled in pistol shooting: Otryadyn Gündegmaa is a silver
medalist of the 2008 Olympic Games, Munkhbayar Dorjsuren is a double world champion and
Olympic bronze medal winner (now representing Germany), while Tsogbadrakhyn Mönkhzul is, as of
May 2007, ranked third in the world in the 25-metre pistol event.[123]
Mongolian sumo wrestler Dolgorsürengiin Dagvadorj won 25 top division tournament
championships, placing him fourth on the all-time list. In January 2015, Mönkhbatyn
Davaajargal took his 33rd top division championship, giving him the most in the history of sumo.
Bandy is the only sport in which Mongolia has finished higher than third place at the Asian Winter
Games, which happened in 2011 when the national team captured the silver medal. It led to being
chosen as the best Mongolian sport team of 2011.[124] Mongolia was proud to win the bronze medal
of the B division at the 2017 Bandy World Championship after which the then President of
Mongolia, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, held a reception for the team.[125]
Ulaanbataar holds an annual marathon in June. 2015 will have the sixth marathon that has been
organized by Ar Mongol. The race starts at Sukh Bataar Square and is always open to residents and
runners who come especially for this event.[126]

Kazakh hunters in Mongolia with eagles

Mongolia holds other traditional festivals throughout the year. The Golden Eagle Festival draws
about 400 eagle hunters on horseback, including the traveler Мөнхбаярт Батсайхан (Munkhbayart
Batsaikhan), to compete with their birds. The Ice Festival and the Thousand Camel Festival are
amongst many other traditional Mongolian festivals.
 See also
 Mongolia portal

 Asia portal

 Geography portal

 Index of Mongolia-related articles

 Outline of Mongolia
Mongolia – Wikipedia book

Notes
1. ^ This view is further explored in the school of thought of New Qing History.

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Further reading
 Elaine Ling; William W. Fitzhugh; Thubten Konchog Norbu (2009). Mongolia: Land of the Deer Stone.
Lodima Press. ISBN 978-1-888899-57-3. Archived from the original on October 20, 2013. Retrieved June
28, 2013.
 Mongolia, Encyclopædia Britannica
 "Mongolia". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
 Background notes on Mongolia, US Department of State
 Mongolia: Growth, Democracy, and Two Wary Neighbors (Q&A with Alan Wachman, May 2012)
 This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country
Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/.

External links
Mongoliaat Wikipedia's sister projects

 Definitions from Wiktionary

 Media from Wikimedia Commons

 News from Wikinews

 Quotations from Wikiquote

 Texts from Wikisource

 Textbooks from Wikibooks

 Travel guide from Wikivoyage

 Resources from Wikiversity

Government

 (in English) (in Russian) Official Website of the Government Organizations of Mongolia
 Mongolia Government Overview (in Mongolian)
 Chief of State and Cabinet Members
General information

 "Mongolia". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.

 Mongolian tourism website
 Mongolia at UCB Libraries GovPubs
 ‹The template Curlie is being considered for deletion.› Mongolia at Curlie
 Mongolia profile from the BBC News
 Mongolia at Encyclopædia Britannica
 Wikimedia Atlas of Mongolia
 Wrestling Roots
 Mongolia, Facts and Culture – from CountryReports.org