$59.

00

A timely and thorough

overview of wireless
standards, wired
subsystems, and topics
LIBRARY
FOCUS ON:
ranging from V2X to
ADAS and driverless cars
by Lou Frenzel

AUTOMOTIVE
COMMUNICATIONS

Copyright © 2017 by Penton Media, Inc.

All rights reserved.
ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY FOCUS ON: AUTOMOTIVE COMMUNICATIONS

PREFACE subsystems used in today’s vehicles. In addition,

AT ONE TIME, the only electronic communications
device in an automobile was a vacuum-tube AM radio
with a mechanical vibrator power supply. Today, the
modern vehicle is loaded with all sorts of electronic
and communications equipment.
Vehicle control subsystems now communicate
by way of multiple wired networks and wireless
communications gear like Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, cellular,
and others, and have now become a basic feature.
This new ebook examines the current state of automotive
communications adoption and gives a glimpse of what is to come.
Automotive-focused electronic design is one of the most
challenging within the electronics industry. The automobile is
a hostile environment with excessive heat, vibration, and dirt.
Its power source, the legacy 12-V battery, is clearly a serious
limitation and disadvantage. For communications equipment,
noise and electromagnetic interference (EMI) from competing
technologies requires special methods and design tradeoffs.
The ebook provides an overview of electronic communications
it serves as an introduction to the forthcoming
communications subsystems for ADAS, V2V/V2X,
and self-driving cars.
THE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK
The goal of this ebook is to provide an overview
of automotive communications technology, offering
a “big picture” perspective and detailing the role
of communications and its importance. It also
explains how most of the systems work. Consider
it an introduction to the technologies for those curious about
the subject matter, or a primer for those who may ultimately be
involved with such automotive subsystems.
The material contained here within is current as of the time
of its writing. However, the dynamic automotive and electronic
industries change rapidly and often. To keep up-to-date, continue
to monitor the Electronic Design and Microwaves & RF, as well as
relevant manufacturer and distributor websites.
Lou Frenzel, Contributing Editor

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO VEHICLE ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS........2
CHAPTER 2: WIRED IN-VEHICLE NETWORKING .................................................................5
CHAPTER 3: ADVANCED DRIVER ASSISTANCE SYSTEMS (ADAS)..........................................7
CHAPTER 4: VEHICLE COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY (V2X)........................................11
CHAPTER 5: VEHICLE RADAR..........................................................................................14
CHAPTER 6: LIGHT DETECTING AND RANGING (LIDAR)....................................................18
CHAPTER 7: SELF-DRIVING CARS....................................................................................20
MORE RESOURCES FROM ELECTRONIC DESIGN.............................................23

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 ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY FOCUS ON: AUTOMOTIVE COMMUNICATIONS

LOU FRENZEL, Contributing Editor

CHAPTER 1:

INTRODUCTION TO
VEHICLE ELECTRONICS
COMMUNICATIONS
SYSTEMS
T
oday’s automobile has become a mobile platform It should come as no surprise, then, that wired networks
loaded with electrical and electronic systems. Over and wireless communications are playing an increasingly major
the decades, these systems have morphed from a role in automobiles. This chapter takes a look at the scope of
battery for the headlights and tail lights to subsys- communications systems currently in use and those in the
tems of electronic controls that vehicles depend on pipeline, as well as the benefits they offer.
for safety and economy.
Electrical Systems Overview
The basic automotive electrical
system begins with the power
source and its basic electrical
applications. Take a look at these
electrical components, many of
which involve motors:

• Battery (12 V)
• Alternator, battery charger
• Starter motor
• Horn
• Windshield wipers
• Power windows
• Door locks
• Power seats
• Headlights
• Tail lights
• Mirrors
• Interior lights
• 12-V lighter outlets
• USB charger outlets
• Moon roofs
• Convertible tops

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ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

• Trunk release – CAN – MOST

• Automatic tailgate – LIN – FlexRay
• A/C and heating
ADAS
As you can see, the electrical load is already heavy before we even Advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) are electronic
get to the electronic subsystems and communications subsystems. systems that use communications techniques to improve driver
To help the power limitations of an increasingly electrical/ awareness and vigilance, as well as increase overall vehicle safety.
electronic car, most manufacturers are slowly moving toward a Such systems are now deployed and advanced versions are in
48-V battery and its related components. Some 12-V components development. Key features of an ADAS system include:
will be retained, but most devices will eventually evolve into 48-V
units. This trend is for both standard internal combustion engine • Backup cameras • Lane-departure warning
cars and hybrid electrics. The power system for electric-only • Adaptive cruise control • Blind-spot detection
vehicles is a separate topic and not covered in this book. • Automatic braking • Automatic parking

Electronic Subsystems Overview Various other features are often integrated, too, such as
Today’s main electronic subsystems include: communications technologies like video cameras. Radar and
ultrasonic sensors implement and automate all of these functions
• Ignition • Stability control and warning systems. Chapter 3 provides more detail.
• Fuel injection • Dashboard
• Engine control • Transmission Telematics
• Antilock braking • Backup camera Telematics is an automotive-related technology that employs
communications techniques for sending data to and from vehicles,
Each of these subsystems has at least one or more dedicated or for using satellite navigation systems like GPS for vehicle
microcontrollers. Furthermore, many of these subsystems need locations services. Different forms of telematics are integrated
to talk to one another. This has led to the development and into consumer vehicles and commercial vehicles like trucks and
deployment of electronic communications buses or networks. trailers.
Most vehicles have multiple buses. Most consumer vehicle manufacturers offer some form of
telematics accessory. The oldest and most widely adopted is GM’s
Communications Subsystems OnStar. It consists of a GPS receiver to provide location data to an
Now examine the many current communications subsystems: embedded cellular modem; the modem connects through local
cellular service with a central OnStar server, as well as human
• Entertainment – Adaptive cruise control operators on standby.
– AM radio – Lane departure warning Typical services offered include automatic collision notification,
– FM radio – Automatic braking emergency roadside service, diagnostics reporting, navigation
– Satellite radio (Sirius XM) – Blindspot detection help, and a wide range of other features. The cost varies, but is
– HD radio • LIDAR—laser-based radar typically in the $20-$40 per month range. Most other vehicle
– CD/DVD player to provide improved coverage manufacturers offer something similar.
– Video monitors surrounding the vehicle. Commercial vehicle telematics is used with trucks and fleet
• Navigation, GPS receiver • Video cameras to detect vehicles to keep track of their location, performance, and
• Wi-Fi hot spot with LTE vehicles, persons, and other operational condition. Fleet management involves the collection
cellular link obstacles in the surrounding of data remotely from trucks or other vehicles, and applying that
• Bluetooth, hands-free area. information into how the vehicles are used.
• Convenience • Wired networking buses or A telematics system employs a cellular link along with GPS to
– Tire-pressure monitor networks, some for monitoring report on location. However, sensors in the system can collect data
– Gate and garage-door and control, others for data. like speed, hours of operation, fuel usage, driver performance,
openers Chapter 2 provides more and diagnostics. The telematics system provides the data so that
– Remote keyless entry detail on these widely adopted companies can improve operating efficiency, productivity, vehicle
– Remote start/disable networks. scheduling, driver management, maintenance needs, and location
• Radar as used in advanced – Onboard-diagnostic tracking. Such systems are also used on the trailers and cargo
driver assistance systems (OBD) bus containers that trucks haul.
(ADAS) – Ethernet The core of a telematics system is the GPS receiver and cellular

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ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY
modem, usually with 3G technology. There’s movement toward
LTE, though, and perhaps 5G into the future. A satellite link can
be provided for critical applications.
New Communications Subsystems
The primary subsystems under development now for future
deployment are related to V2X, including vehicle-to-vehicle
(V2V), vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I), and other variations. V2X
systems are designed to provide safety and convenience.
The ready-to-deploy V2V option is dedicated short-range
communications (DSRC). DSRC is a version of Wi-Fi that lets
vehicles talk to one another and to any forthcoming infrastructure.
A competing option is 5G cellular radios (C-V2V). No final
decision has been made as of yet. Chapter 4 discusses V2X in
more detail.
The Self-Driving Vehicle
One vehicle-development trend that’s quickly ramping up is
the desire to create an autonomous vehicle (AV), i.e., one that can
navigate and drive independently of a human driver. Virtually
all automobile and truck manufacturers are researching and
developing such vehicles either independently or via partnerships
with tech companies. The major goal is safety—reducing accidents,
due to human failure or error, which could lead to injuries or
deaths. The realization of this goal is subject to question and
evaluation, although most players are committed to creating a
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
competitive product.
Autonomous vehicles will use a wide range of communications
technologies to achieve the self-driving ability. These include
V2X, GPS, radar, LIDAR, video cameras, and ultrasonics. Also
in the mix will be new developments in artificial intelligence
and machine learning. These technologies, along with new
developments in artificial intelligence and machine learning, are
summarized later in Chapter 7 on autonomous vehicles.
The Rationale
Why so much vehicle electronics? Here are the main reasons:
• Because we can
• Manufacturer competitiveness
• Safety
• Mandated regulations (gas mileage, pollution control, safety)
• Convenience
• Profit and productivity improvement
• Consumer demand
• Availability and affordability of components to do the job
These factors will continue to increase the number of processors,
sensors, motors, networks, and other electronic components in the
average vehicle. But don’t forget the massive role that software
plays in making it all work. n
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 ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY FOCUS ON: AUTOMOTIVE COMMUNICATIONS

LOU FRENZEL, Contributing Editor

CHAPTER 2:

WIRED IN-VEHICLE
NETWORKING
V
ehicles typically feature a large amount of electronic
devices that must talk to one another. With so many
devices, there’s only way to overcome the inherent
interconnection wiring complexity: Use a network.
Networks leverage efficient topologies that make
the interconnections simpler and more organized.
While networks can handle hundreds, even thousands, of nodes,
the communications needs of these various nodes vary widely, so it is
prudent to use networks that best fit the devices and the application.
Modern vehicles incorporate multiple networks that connect the
various devices as needed and manage the communications.
This chapter covers in-vehicle networking (IVN). It summarizes
the most widely used wired networks—ODB II, LIN, CAN, FlexRay,
Ethernet, and MOST—and how they’re deployed.
Vehicle Networking Overview
The modern vehicle employs multiple wired networks to
implement communications between sensors, actuators, and
controllers. The choice of network is dictated by the nature of the
devices involved, their degree of simplicity or complexity,
and need for speed of operation.
These network types have been standardized for years; 1G
virtually all auto manufacturers have agreed on the
150M
topologies and other features to handle various needs.
Figure 2-1 shows the relative cost per node for these
100M
networks, and their speed of operation.
DATA RATE (b/s)
Data rates for ODB II, which is connected via a multiwire cable,
range from 10 to 41.6 kb/s, depending on the version. Data format
is usually a UART type that sends data one byte at a time with start
and stop bits. A CAN version is available to support data rates of
250 or 500 kb/s. Multiple signaling protocols have been developed,
depending on the auto manufacturer. These include SAE J1850
PWM, SAE J1850 VPW, ISO 9141-2, ISO 14239 KWP2000, and
ISO 15765 CAN. Multiple standards also apply.
LIN
The simplest bus in the vehicle is the local interconnect network
(LIN). It’s used by a variety of non-critical sensors and actuators,
such as those used for power windows, seats, mirrors, switches, A/C
heating, and others. The connection is a single-wire bus with chassis
ground. Its networking format is a master-slave arrangement that
can accommodate up to 16 slaves. Data rate reaches 19.2 kb/s up
to 40 feet. The data format is similar to UART with a byte of data
transmitted with start and stop bits. LIN is sometimes used as a
sub-bus to CAN.
ETHERNET
MOST

ETHERNET
As for the networking medium, ODB II and LIN use
10M
a single wire with chassis ground. CAN, FlexRay, and FLEXRAY
Ethernet opt for shielded or unshielded twisted pair. The 1M
MOST network relies on optical fiber. CAN (HS)
2-1. These wired networks are
OBD II CAN (FT) the most prevalent in modern
The earliest auto bus was the on-board diagnostics bus 100k vehicles. The illustration
introduced in the 1970s. Its second-generation version OBD II LIN shows data rate with relation
monitors multiple points in the vehicle and can provide 10k to cost per node.
diagnostic codes to a service technician who plugs into
the port. COST/NODE

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 ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY CHAPTER 2: WIRED IN-VEHICLE NETWORKING

EXTERNAL ETHERNET CAN INSTRUMENTS/

DIAGNOSTICS OR CAN VEHICLE DASHBOARD usage expands in vehicles. Potential
OBD II GATEWAY
uses include cameras, radar, or even
MOST INFOTAINMENT the infotainment components. Its
INTERFACES SUBSYSTEM connection is the standard twisted-
CAN pair differential bus. The 100-Mb/s
CAN
version is the most common today,
FLEXRAY CAN although the 1-Gb version is now
ENGINE CHASSIS BODY BODY
popping up in some vehicles.
CONTROL CONTROL CONTROL CONTROL
MODULE MODULE MODULE MODULE MOST
The Media Oriented Systems
ENGINE STEERING SEATS HVAC Transport (MOST) is a special
SENSORS CONTROL
network designed to handle a vehicle’s
CAN/LIN

CAN/LIN
infotainment systems. It employs a
CAN

TRANSMISSION BRAKING MIRRORS WINDOWS

CONTROL CONTROL ring topology to support the radios,
FLEXRAY

video systems, audio media, GPS and

POWERTRAIN STABILITY DOORS WIPERS
navigation, and other related systems.
SENSORS CONTROL
The network, which uses plastic
ADAPTIVE 2-2. Here’s a simplified hypothetical, but optical fiber (POF) as its transmission
CRUISE representative, networking diagram of a medium, can run at speeds of 25, 50,
CONTROL
modern vehicle, including the types of network or 150 Mb/s. MOST is able to support
AIR BAG
connections. up to 64 devices and streaming media.

The Vehicle Network System

CAN
Perhaps the most widely used vehicle bus is the controller area
network (CAN) bus. Applications include engine management,
transmission control, ABS, and other systems. Its connection is
via a multiple drop bus using twisted-pair differential cabling.
Such cabling provides CAN with great noise immunity, which is a
blessing in the automotive environment.
Data rates depend on the length of the bus, but can be as low as
40 kb/s over a 1000-meter bus to 1 Mb/s at 40 meters maximum.
Versions of CAN include high speed (HS) version and fault
tolerant (FT).
FlexRay
FlexRay is a high-speed bus that connects critical components and
systems. These include engine control units, steering, suspension,
traction, and safety systems. It uses one or two unshielded twisted
pairs in a multidrop bus. The second cable pair adds redundancy
and reliability. FlexRay’s data rate reaches up to 10 Mb/s. A
key feature is its time-division multiple-access (TDMA) data
formatting, which provides deterministic transmissions for time-
critical functions.
Ethernet
This long-favorite networking technology has found its way into
vehicles because of its low cost, well-known, proven features and
performance. Ethernet primarily handles external connections
to the vehicle, but is also being applied in other areas as network
Figure 2-2 offers a simplified view of a modern vehicle network.
Because each vehicle is different, it’s only intended to illustrate the
concept. The diagram illustrates how the various buses described in
this chapter are used. The buses transfer sensor and switch signals
to the control unit inputs and deliver control signals to actuators
like motors, lights, solenoids, and other mechanical devices.
The control units, basically processors with memory, are
programmed to handle a specific segment of vehicle. Some
examples include the engine control unit (ECU), the chassis
control unit, and so on.
Most vehicles have one or more body control units (BCU) that
manage multiple sub-networks. The gateway manages the external
connections—it may connect to external diagnostic or testing
equipment via ODB II, Ethernet, or CAN. Another connection may
be to the infotainment system by way of MOST.
Additional networks are appearing in newer vehicles as they
incorporate advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) and self-
driving features. ADAS systems consist of adaptive cruise control,
lane-departure warnings, backup cameras, automatic braking, and
other subsystems. More cameras and radar are used with ADAS.
These networks must have low latency and deterministic response
capability in order to provide their intended safety measures.
Expect even more complexity to invade automotive networks with
the incorporation of wireless communications features like vehicle-
to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) systems. n
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LOU FRENZEL, Contributing Editor

CHAPTER 3:

ADVANCED DRIVER
ASSISTANCE
SYSTEMS
A
dvanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) are
electronic vehicle subsystems that provide a wide
range of features that improve driving safety. These
systems use communications technology in the
form of radar, video cameras, lasers, and ultrason-
ic sensors to detect obstacles and road markings,
helping the driver to avoid collisions and maintain the overall con-
trol of the vehicle. The goal of ADAS is to help reduce the number
of vehicle deaths and accidents. According to government data,
nearly 40,000 deaths occur each year in the U.S. along with mil-
lions of accidents. ADAS systems should significantly reduce these
figures in the coming years as more vehicles include them.
Today, ADAS are available in most new cars either as standard
equipment or as an add-on. The government may mandate
inclusion of ADAS in vehicles at some point, but current data
shows that consumers are readily adopting these extra-cost safety
systems. This chapter offers a brief overview of
ADAS technology.
VIDEO
Standard ADAS Features CAMERAS
automatic control of steering or brakes to prevent an accident.
Active systems prevent accidents if the driver does not act fast
enough or at all.
There is a major group of ADAS units widely deployed in
modern vehicles, consisting of backup cameras, lane departure
warning, blind spot detection, automatic braking, adaptive cruise
control and automatic parking.
Backup cameras. These have been around for some years now
and are widely accepted as a key safety technology. A rear-facing
video camera provides an image to a dash-mounted LCD display
that shows a complete wide angle view of the area behind the
vehicle. It takes the place of rear view mirrors and driver head-
turns. It has proven to be a great feature. Most of the newer
systems include some form of audible warning if another vehicle,
person, or object is detected. Even more advanced systems provide
automatic braking if driver action is not taken in a given time. The
OUTPUTS
ENGINE
DECISION PROCESSING
FUSION PROCESSING
VISION PROCESSING

ADAS defines a wide range of capabilities.

TRANSMISSION
In general, all of these subsystems use sensors RADAR
to detect road hazards or markings, processors BRAKES
to recognize them, and decision outputs that
LIDAR
either warn the driver or take corrective action. STEERING
These vehicle subsystems may either passive or
active. Passive systems simple detect a specific ULTRASOUND WARNINGS
condition then provide an audible and/or VISUAL,
STORE FEATURES INITIATE AUDIBLE
visible warning to the driver. It is up to the
FORMAT RECOGNITION CONTROL
driver to take corrective action if warranted.
Active systems sense and identify a threat, 3-1. Multiple levels of processing are generally needed to manage the sensor
and then provide a warning, but they also take inputs and condition them for developing responses and outputs.

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ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY
Surround view
Traffic-sign
recognition
Park assistance/
Surround view
Lane-departure
warning
Surround view
Camera
3-2. Video cameras provide coverage like this in typical ADAS
installations.
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has
mandated backup cameras in all vehicles by 2028.
Adaptive cruise control. Cruise control has been a feature
on most vehicles for decades: You set the speed, and the system
maintains that speed with throttle control. This feature is a real
comfort and pleasure on long highway trips and even improves
gas mileage. However, with heavy traffic of widely varying speeds,
cruise control becomes a nuisance as it tries to maintain a speed it
cannot achieve. Braking shuts it off and most systems do not work
at low speeds (<40 mph).
Adaptive cruise control provides automatic throttle adjustment
to match the speeds of surrounding vehicles. Most systems use
radar of a laser to detect vehicles in front. The distance to the
vehicle ahead is measured and the system calculates a desirable
spacing and speed then adjusts the throttle to follow safely. The
system can brake as needed to sustain a safe distance and speed. If
the vehicle ahead speeds up or turns off, the system will accelerate
to the previously set speed.
The secret to proper performance is the type of sensor. Both
lasers and radar work fine in good weather, but laser units can
get dirty or become degraded in rain, snow, or fog. Most newer
systems use one or more radar sensors.
Automatic braking. This subsystem uses cameras, radar, or
lasers to detect objects in front or back of the vehicle and initiates
active braking. Most systems can be turned off except for a driver
warning. Otherwise, the system will take over and prevent a
collision if the object is close enough.
Lane departure warning. Land departure warning systems
are also called lane-keeping systems or lane-keeping assist. What
they do is monitor lane markings on the road. Most systems use
video cameras and/or lasers to detect center lines and road edge
markings. With a passive system, if the vehicle moves out of its
lane, the driver receives an audible and visible warning. Some
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CHAPTER 3: ADVANCED DRIVER ASSISTED SYSTEMS
active systems can take control of the steering and/or brakes to
prevent the out-of-lane condition. These systems can minimize
the number of off-the-road crashes as well as the number of head-
on collisions.
Blind spot detection. Blind spot detection systems use cameras
to monitor those areas on the sides of the vehicle that the driver
typically cannot see. The structure of the vehicle or blockage
by seats or passengers create these blind spots that can be the
cause of an accident, especially if a driver tries to turn or change
lanes. The cameras are typically mounted in the outside side view
mirrors to cover the most common blind spots. Warnings are
typically audible, along with a lighted one in the rear view mirror
mounting. Blind spot detection is most commonly a passive
system, but some manufacturers have implemented active systems
that provide steering resistance if the driver tries to change lanes
with a hazard in place.
Automatic parking. You may have seen these systems in action
where a vehicle literally parallel parks itself, or automatically and
accurately performs a back up maneuver to park a towed trailer
or boat. The systems may use radar as well as ultrasonic sensors
that accurately measure distances. Both the steering and braking
systems are actively controlled with no driver intervention.
Considerable processing is involved to accomplish this feature.
More ADAS
The features described above are the primary and most widely
used. However, there are other subsystems that fall under the
ADAS category. Here is a short list of some popular options.
• Adaptive lighting. High beam control and swiveling headlights
for curves.
• Night vision. Infrared cameras let you see in the dark.
• Driver monitoring. Detects drowsiness, distraction, or
inattention and provides a warning or active correction.
• Traffic sign recognition. Detects stop signs and other signage.
• Alcohol detection door locks or ignition.
• Tire pressure monitoring.
Each manufacturer has its own set of ADAS features, names,
and capabilities. More are sure to be identified and implemented.
How ADAS Works
ADAS technology is a collection of advanced, eclectic and
sophisticated sensors, processors, and software. Figure 3-1 shows
the generic block diagram of most systems. The four types
of sensors are radar, LIDAR, video cameras, and ultrasonic
detectors. These senses generate the inputs to one or more
layers of processors that identify the inputs with a wide range of
algorithms and determine what actions to take—either passive
warnings or active control measures.
Radar. Radar, short for radio detection and ranging, is a
communications technique that transmits a radio signal, then
looks for and receives any reflection from a detected object.
ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY CHAPTER 3: ADVANCED DRIVER ASSISTED SYSTEMS

Then knowing the speed of light and radio waves, the system
can determine the distance to the object. Most radars can also
determine direction, object speed, and relative size.
Most automotive radars are single-chip 77 GHz transceivers
that use continuous wave (CW) rather than pulse modulation.
These may be mounted in the rear view mirror, side mirrors, and
front and rear bumpers. See Chapter 4 for more radar details.
LIDAR. This is the designation for light detecting and ranging.
This radar-like systems uses infrared light from a laser and seeks
reflections on its IR sensors. Lasers can provide greater detail
because of the shorter wavelength of light. As with radar, these
sensors may be mounted in the rear view mirror, side mirrors,
and front and rear bumpers. More detail is provided in Chapter 5.
Video cameras. Video cams have been around for decades and

THE RADAR CONCEPT 3-3. Representative Cross traffic Blind spot

A MAJOR REQUIREMENT in implementing
ADAS and self-driving cars is being able
to detect the presence of nearby objects
and measure distances accurately. This is
accomplished by using radar and similar
technologies like LIDAR and ultrasound.
Radar is shorthand for radio detection and
ranging. This technique was developed
during World War II and subsequently
has become perhaps the most important
electronic warfare technology. It has also
been widely adopted for weather satellites
and other weather measurements, marine
and aircraft navigation, speed detection,
and today ADAS and autonomous vehicles.
Radar Primer
The basic principle is that a short pulse
of radio signal is radiated in one direction
for the purpose of detecting remote objects.
The pulse signal is reflected by the object
and a receiver at the transmitting site
detects the reflected signal. The time it
takes the signal to travel to the target and
return is measured. By knowing the speed
or radio waves of 186,400 miles per second
(3 x 108 meters/s) and the time of transit,
the distance to the object can then be
accurately computed. The basic formula is:
D = (3 x 108)(T)
D is in meters and T is in seconds.
A more useful formula is:
D = 0.15T, where D is in kilometers (km)
and T is in microseconds (µs).
Another radar method is to radiate a
alert detection
coverage areas of
ADAS radar sensors.
Blind spot
detection
Adaptive cruise
control
Long Radar
Short/medium radar
signal is then compared to the transmitted Ultrasound
signal, and using a variety of methods, both Ultrasound is radiation of signals in the
the range and speed can be computed. ultrasonic range beyond human hearing,
Figure 3-3 shows the common coverage roughly 30 kHz to about 100 kHz. The
areas of embedded radars in ADAS most useful range is 40 kHz to 70 kHz.
equipped vehicles. Piezoelectric transducers radiate the signal
while the same or a similar sensor picks up
LIDAR the reflection and computes the distance.
These same principles can also be used Here the distance is based on the speed of
with light signals, mainly infrared (IR). Light sound in free space, or about 346 meters
detection and ranging transmits IR pulses per second.
that are reflected and received by an IR Ultrasound techniques are used simply
light sensor. The time of transmission and because they are better and more accurate
return are measured and the distance can than radar and LIDAR over short distances.
be computed. The same equations used Figure 3-4 illustrates the basic coverage
above apply. areas of an ultrasound parking assist
LIDAR is more useful than radar because feature.
its shorter wavelength provides more detail Chapters 5 and 6 cover radar and LIDAR
and it is better at producing 3D images. in more detail.
3-4. Ultrasound
sensors provide
accurate short-range
coverage for parking Park Park
applications. assistance assistance

continuous wave (CW) signal but cause it to

vary in frequency. The frequency is swept
over a range of frequencies for a known
interval. This signal is called frequency
modulated (FM) or chirp. The reflected Ultrasound

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ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY
provide more detail than ever thanks to high-resolution sensors.
The benefits are low cost, color recognition, and wide field of
view. Machine vision software, which has been developed and
improved over the years (mainly in manufacturing) provides
accurate object recognition. You will find these sensors mounted
in the rear view mirror, side mirrors or front and rear bumpers.
Figure 3-2 shows the general coverage areas of video cameras in
typical ADAS-equipped vehicles.
Ultrasound. Ultrasound is another radar-like systems that
uses ultrasonic signals in the 40 kHz to 70 kHz range to provide
distance measurement. The sensors are usually of the piezoelectric
type, with 58kHz a common frequency. These sensors are highly
accurate in distance measurements, but only over a short range.
They are used mainly in parking assist and blind spot detection
systems.
Processors. ADAS requires significant processing capability
to handle the sensor inputs and provide the identification and
decision-making capability. Again, refer to Fig. 3-1. A typical
arrangement is to use multiple levels of processing. Initially vision
processing captures the sensor data and formats it for the next
layer of processing. Another layer then performs recognition
algorithms and other feature identification operations. The output
then goes to a decision processor that will initiate the desired
outputs and actions. Along the way a variety of wired network
connections are used to transport the data.
Future ADAS
In addition to ongoing improvements in current systems,
forthcoming ADAS units will incorporate more communications
in the form of vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle-to-
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CHAPTER 3: ADVANCED DRIVER ASSISTED SYSTEMS
infrastructure (V2I) systems that have yet to be implemented.
The V2V systems will provide short-range links between nearby
vehicles as they exchange location, speed, direction, and other
data that can actively prevent accidents. The V2I systems will link
nearby vehicles to roadside stations that will give information on
traffic, weather, roadwork, and other data that will assist drivers.
More details on these systems are provided in Chapter 4.
Critical Issues
As ADAS systems are improved and evaluated, no doubt they
will be required by federal regulations. It is likely that significant
benefits will result. A key issue is getting consumer buy-in and
usage. That will no doubt occur over time. However, most drivers
must be trained in the usage of these systems if they are to be
effective. The presence and use of ADAS depend upon driver
knowledge of how it works and what it does. Manufacturers must
deliver clear and simple instructions and documentation that
inform and teach ADAS deployment. Learning and adapting to
ADAS takes time.
Finally keep in mind that these ADAS form the basis for future,
more-automated systems. Adaptive cruise control and automatic
braking bring the vehicle to a near autonomous state, but not
completely. Self-driving cars will incorporate ADAS in addition
to location and navigation technology, along with artificial
intelligence and machine learning processors and software to
implement fully autonomous driving. Chapter 7 gives a glimpse
of these forthcoming systems. n
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 ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY FOCUS ON: AUTOMOTIVE COMMUNICATIONS

LOU FRENZEL, Contributing Editor

CHAPTER 4:

VEHICLE
COMMUNICATIONS
TECHNOLOGY
T
o further develop the safety aspects of new vehi-
cles, the National Highway Transportation Safety
Administration (NHTSA) has mandated a com-
munications capability for all new vehicles begin-
ning in 2021. This feature is generally referred to as
vehicle-to-everything (V2X) and its more specific
functions such as vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle-to-infra-
structure (V2I) communications. This new communications re-
quirement will greatly improve ADAS safety by providing radio
communications between vehicles, as well as between vehicles and
nearby roadside units that supply valuable information.
Specific radio technology has been developed for this application.
Called Dedicated Short Range Communications (DSRC), it is a
Wi-Fi variant that operates in the unlicensed 5 GHz spectrum.
More recently, a competing technology called cellular V2X has
been offered as an alternative. This chapter summarizes both
technologies and their implications on safety.
The Intelligent Transportation System
It all begins with the Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), a
program of the Department of Transportation (DOT). Its goals are
to improve the safety and mobility of all modes of transportation
in the U.S. The ITS provides R&D that has focused on cars and
light trucks but ultimately will affect all sectors of transportation,
including trucking, trains, and aircraft. To achieve its goals,
the ITS advocates the adoption of a mix of wired and wireless

4-1. The Department

of Transportation’s
vision of the
Intelligent
Transportation
System: a) Different
types of vehicles
communicating; and
b) Vehicles talking
to one another at an
intersection.

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ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY CHAPTER 4: VEHICLE COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY

communications technologies and information systems. includes information such as exact vehicle location and direction
At the heart of the ITS effort are the communications systems of travel, speed, braking status, and some other data. The driver
that let vehicles talk to one another and to receive information en does not see it, but the BSM provides safety warnings giving time
route from nearby infrastructure sources. With the appropriate for the driver to react. Or it could trigger action such as automatic
communications and information, the number of collisions and braking or steering for collision avoidance maneuvers. The BSM is
deaths are expected to decline. And the path will be paved to updated and transmitted 10 times per second.
implement the forthcoming self-driving vehicles. Another proposed function of DSRC is vehicle-to-infrastructure
Figure 4-1 illustrates the ITS variations. Vehicles of all types (V2I) communications. The vehicle links up with roadside access
and even pedestrians communicate with one another as well as points that will provide additional useful information, such as
nearby terminals and cell sites. The goal is a safe, efficient, and traffic or road conditions, weather, construction, and traffic light
environmentally friendly transportation system that can adapt to status. A vehicle-to-network (V2N) connection is also possible for
forthcoming new systems like autonomous vehicles. other services to be determined.
Figure 4-2 shows the main elements of a V2V installation. The
V2V Systems system interfaces with other components in the vehicle by way
V2V systems let automobiles and light trucks communicate with of wired network connections. Examples are the driver interface,
one another directly. Their full adoption will greatly minimize selected vehicle processors, and ADAS components like steering
accidents and reduce the annual vehicle death toll. To achieve this and brakes.
end the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) On Jan. 12, 2017, the NHTSA issued a Notice of Proposed
developed the Dedicated Short Range Communications (DSRC) Rulemaking (NPRM) that would mandate DSRC and the
standard. supporting GNSS (GPS) technology on light vehicles. Public
DSRC was expected to be the official wireless technology for comments were received and closed on April 12. No final decision
use in vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communications. However that has been made. With the final determination in limbo, the cellular
decision seems to be up in the air, as a cellular standard has been option is being considered.
proposed as an alternative. Since there has been no final adoption
of DSRC, it appears that there is time to reconsider an alternative The Cellular Alternative
or some combination. The cellular option is known as cellular vehicle-to-everything
(C-V2X). It uses existing 4G cellular standards like LTE for both
DSRC Overview V2V and V2I. The 3GPP standards for LTE, specifically Release
DSRC V2V is a Wi-Fi variant and defined by the IEEE 802.11p 14, provide options such as LTE Direct or device-to-device
standard. The FCC allocated 75
MHz of spectrum (5.85-5.925 Security system
GHz) specifically for DSRC. That Provides and verifies V2V security certificates to ensure trust between vehicles
spectrum is divided up into seven
10 MHz channels. The standard GPS, DSRC
uses 52 subcarrier OFDM to antennae
achieve a data rate of 3 to 27
Mb/s. The range is estimated to
be an average of about 300 meters
Dedicated Short Range GPS receiver
up to one kilometer with a clear Communications • Provides vehicle position
Driver-vehicle
line of sight path. It offers 360- (DSRC) radio and time to DSRC radio
interface
Receives and transmits data • Provides timekeeping Generates warning
deg. coverage and a latency of less through antennae signal for applications issued to driver
than 50 ms.
The DSRC system transmits
a basic safety message (BSM) Memory Vehicle’s internal
Safety application
Stores security certificates, electronic control unit communications network
between vehicles. The BSM application data, and Existing network that
Runs safety applications
other information interconnects components
4-2. The main components of This in-vehicle equipment can consist of either a single,
a V2V system. DSRC is shown integrated unit or a discrete set of components
here, but a cellular-V2X solution
Sources: Crash Avoidance Metrics Partnership and GAO
would be the same except for
the radio technology.

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ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY
THE APPLE BLUETOOTH SOLUTION
TO FURTHER CONFUSE the V2V development is the
announcement of Apple’s recent U.S. patent 9,595,195B2 entitled
“Wireless vehicle system for enhancing situational awareness.”
The proposed system uses Bluetooth wireless for inter-vehicle
communications. Vehicles within range of one another would
broadcast position messages and receive messages so drivers
could be more aware of surrounding traffic. The goal is improved
safety. It is not clear at this time how this development will affect
the decision on V2V and V2I adoption.
(D2D) communications that avoids going through cell sites and
the network. Device to cell site and device to network are other
variations available. LTE Broadcast is another feature that allows
one way broadcasts to multiple users, thereby facilitating V2I or
V2N functions.
Some potential candidates for a V2V and/or V2I technology
are the currently available versions used in cell phones and other
equipment. The newer LTE-M and NB-IoT low-power versions are
not fast enough for this application. With LTE standards finalized
and hardware and software available, it is tempting to change to
C-V2X. A future option is the use of the forthcoming 5G systems.
A smooth transition from LTE to 5G is expected. With 5G, vehicles
would have the capability (high data rate, etc.) to deal with future
ADAS sensors and processors as part of autonomous vehicles.
Serious Considerations
The good news about DSRC is that it is a tested and proven
standard. It has been widely evaluated and developed. Hardware
and software are available now. It is cost-effective. But while
General Motors seems to be committed to DSRC, other automakers
are on the fence.
Some say that the 802.11p standard is a mature technology with
little growth potential. However there are other Wi-Fi standards
that offer some possible growth alternatives. One potential
downside may be poor latency. Latency is the transmission time
that should be typically less than 25 ms. Some say that DSRC is not
a fast enough for collision avoidance action.
Another potential conflict involves the unlicensed spectrum
used by DSRC. The spectrum conflict concern is the overlap of
the DSRC spectrum with the upper channels of the Wi-Fi 5GHz
spectrum used by 802.11a/ac/ax. Interference between the two
could cause collisions or disrupt critical Wi-Fi connections. Work
is being done to find possible co-existence or spectrum strategies
that will work for both applications.
DSRC targets both V2V and V2I systems. V2V appears to be
adequately covered by DSRC specifications. V2I depends upon the
development and deployment of a whole new infrastructure. This
is expected to involve the installation of sensors in and along the
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CHAPTER 4: VEHICLE COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY
roadways. Communications cells using the DSRC standard would
be installed at most intersections and at frequent intervals along
highways. This new infrastructure represents a major investment.
Where does the funding come from, and how long will it take to
install enough V2I cells to make the system effective?
The C-V2X alternative offers a possible solution. By adopting
LTE, a well developed technology with readily available hardware
and software, V2V equipment could quickly be made available.
The designated ITS 5 GHz spectrum described earlier would
be used with probable channel remapping. For V2I and V2N,
a network subscription would be required. One benefit is that
latency is much less—typically less than 5 ms.
One clear benefit is that the V2I systems could use the existing
cellular networks, thereby eliminating the need to build out a
new infrastructure. The cellular operators would need to offer the
service and possibly expand their networks to accommodate the
application. Service agreements would be needed for each vehicle.
Finally there is the coming transition from LTE to 5G. That is
not expected to launch until 2020 with a scale large enough to be
effective. Will the NHTSA and the vehicle manufacturers just wait
for 5G? One possible variation is DSRC for V2V and C-V2X for
V2I systems.
Some answers can be found with the 5G Automotive Association
(5GAA; www.5GAA.org), a recently formed organization made
up 50-plus automobile manufacturers, telecommunications
equipment companies, cellular service providers and others. The
stated objective is to develop, test, and promote communications
solutions and standardizations and to accelerate the availability of
V2V and V2I.
5GAA has recommended a cellular solution for V2X to the
NHTSA. They recommend that the dated DSRC be abandoned
in favor of the forthcoming cellular V2X systems using the
latest radio technology. Its general suggestion is to establish a
technology neutral regulation that emphasizes the desired safety
and performance requirements rather than a radio and network
standard.
As of this writing, the NHTSA was still on track to adopt DSRC
according the notice of proposed rulemaking issued in January
2017. If a final decision is made in 2019, then a two-year phase-
in period would occur to accommodate manufacturers’ product
development cycle, with the result that initial installations would
begin in 2021 and full compliance would be required starting in
2023. That decision is apparently being re-evaluated as the cellular
option is being considered. One possible approach is to adopt
DSRC for V2V and a cellular technology for V2I.
Continue to monitor the DOT, NHTSA, and 5GAA for further
status information.n
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 ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY FOCUS ON: AUTOMOTIVE COMMUNICATIONS

LOU FRENZEL, Contributing Editor

CHAPTER 5:

VEHICLE RADAR
O
ne of the main sensors in an
AUTOMOBILE RADAR CLASSIFICATIONS
automobile today is radar.
AND APPLICATIONS
It uses millimeter-wave (30
Long range radar Medium range Short range radar
GHz to 300 GHz) radiations Characteristic
(LRR) radar (MRR) (SRR)
to identify objects at the Frequency (typical) 77 GHz 79 GHz 79 GHz
front, sides, and rear of the Range 10 to 250 meters 1 to 100 meters 0.15 to 30 meters
vehicle and measures the distance to them. The
Lane change, blind spot
radar outputs are conditioned and processed Application Adaptive cruise control
detection
Parking assist
and the information derived from them is used
by the braking, steering, cruise control, alarms, Figure 5-1 shows the coverage areas of typical auto radars and
and other systems for driver assistance or automated driving. how they are deployed. Auto radars are also usually classified by
The concepts of radar have been known for over a century, but their range and application. This is summarized in the table above.
it wasn’t until 1937 that the Navy developed the first useable radar.
Radar was further developed during World War II and has evolved The Fundamentals of FMCW Radar
into a wide range of modern systems using the latest technology. An automotive radar transmitter (TX) radiates a continuous
This chapter covers the radar systems unique to modern wave (CW) signal toward a target; a receiver (RX) then looks for
vehicles. The emphasis is on the single-chip radars using a chirp the return or echo signal. The signal frequency is swept over a
continuous wave signal. range of frequencies for a known interval. This signal is said to
be frequency modulated (FM) or chirp. The reflected signal is
Automotive Radar Applications then compared to the transmitted signal and, using a variety of
Radar has become a key feature of ADAS and autonomous methods, the range and speed of the object can be computed.
vehicles. With its ability to detect objects and measure their The basic frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW)
distance and speed, these radar systems have been adapted to signal is a sine wave at some frequency in the 76 to 81 GHz range.
perform a variety of functions. Thanks to modern semiconductor This range has been allocated for automotive radars. 77 GHz is a
technology, the radar systems have been
reduced to one or more tiny integrated Blind Spot Lane
circuits. Small size and low cost have allowed Detection Departure
engineers to design in radar where it can Parking Aid Parking Aid
improve safety and convenience. The most
common applications today are: Collision Warning
• Adaptive cruise control
• Collision detection, warning, and avoidance.
• Blind spot detection.
• Lane departure warning.
• Cross-traffic alerts. Adaptive
Cruise
•Road object detection.
Control
•Parking aid. Rear-end Collision
Other uses may be found as development Collision Blind Spot Lane Warning
Warning Detection Departure
of the connected car and autonomous
vehicles continues. 5-1. Radar coverage areas as used in ADAS or self-driving vehicles.

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ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY CHAPTER 5: VEHICLE RADAR

Here fd is the Doppler frequency shift in Hz and fCW is the

Up-chirp
radiated carrier signal frequency in GHz.
Frequency

This assumes that the object is straight in front of the radar

L emitter. If it is an angle, some trigonometric calculations can
NA AL
SIG N be added to determine the angle of reflection, and therefore the
TX SIG
RX speed.
(a) Time
T
This time is a measure of the range. Radar System
The essential components of a FMCW radar are shown in Fig.
T 5-3. The transmitter consists of the carrier signal source from an
Frequency

Down-chirp oscillator or synthesizer. That signal is modulated by the sawtooth

wave to produce the “chirp.” The resulting signal is boosted by the
SIG AL
L
RX IGN
NA

power amplifier (PA) and sent to a transmitting antenna.

S

The receiver is made up of the receiving antenna, a low

TX

noise amplifier (LNA), and a mixer. This receiver is the direct

(b)
5-2. Two common modulating signals for FMCW systems: (a)
Sawtooth, up-chirp and (b) Triangle, up- and down-chirp.
popular frequency. Some current and earlier automotive radars
operate at 24 GHz, but the trend tends to be away from that
frequency.
Range. To achieve a distance or range (R) measurement, the
CW signal must be modulated in frequency. This modulation
uses a linear sawtooth or triangle wave to vary the carrier
frequency. The sawtooth produces an up-chirp with a linearly
increasing frequency. A triangle wave produces both up-chirps
and down-chirps that are better for distinguishing between
multiple detected objects that produce reflections. Figure 5-2
shows typical modulating signals.
When the return signal is mixed with the original input, the
result is a baseband signal from which the time of transit (t) can
be determined. Knowing the transit time allows the range (R) to
be computed.
R = (3 x 108)(t/2)
This is the speed of light and radio waves in meters per second
multiplied by the transition time (t) in seconds divided by 2. The
time t is double the time for the signal to reach the target and the
time to return.
The can be simplified to:
R = 0.15t
Range is in kilometers and t is in microseconds.
Speed. The speed of an object can be determined by measuring
the Doppler shift. The Doppler shift is a change in the CW signal
Time conversion type where the local oscillator (LO) frequency—in
this case, the radiated signal—is the same frequency. Some of the
original transmitted signal is reduced in amplitude in the power
divider and applied to the mixer as the LO signal. The mixer
produces a difference signal that is filtered by a lowpass filter
(LPF) and results in a baseband signal.
This signal contains the time and speed information. It is then
amplified and applied to an analog-to-digital converter (ADC).
With the baseband signal in digital format, it is subjected to digital
signal processing (DSP) algorithms like the fast Fourier transform
(FFT) that recover the desired information. That data is then
translated into outputs that provide control or warning signals.
Looking at the modulating waveforms in Fig. 5-2, you can see
that the frequency of the return signal will be different from the
transmitted frequency at any instant. When the two frequencies
are mixed, the difference is a baseband signal whose frequency
determines the time of transit. The DSP performed on this signal
is an FFT that does a frequency domain plot. This frequency is
then translated into a time interval.
In some instances, multiple reflections will occur from multiple
objects. Each reflected signal will be at a different location and so
SAW
GEN TX ANT
PA
MODULATOR
POWER
DIVIDER
SYNTHESIZER RX ANT
LNA
LPF

frequency caused by the movement of the object. As the object MIXER

moves closer to the transmitter, the frequency of the reflected AMP
MCU &
signal increases. As the object moves away from the transmitter, ADC
DSP
the CW frequency decreases. The speed or velocity (V) in mph is
determined by the formula: 5-3. Generic block diagram of a direct conversion radar
V = fd/3.9(fCW) transceiver showing the major components.

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ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY CHAPTER 5: VEHICLE RADAR

will occur at different times. Each signal will produce a different time.
baseband signal that the FFT will translate into the equivalent Note in Fig. 5-3 that separate transmitting and receiving
antennas are used to keep the transmitter
signal out of the receiver. The most
PWM common antennas are printed circuit
MCU board (PCB) patch types. Because of the
Level Adjustment
BB Low Pass small size of antennas at 77 GHz, simple
3-ChannelBB 6 6
RX BB
3-Channel SPI 6 6 antennas may actually be implemented on
RX BB
3-Channel SP I Σ∆
3-Channel
RX SP I the chip.
Rx ADC1..8
SP I Multiple patch antennas can be formed
into a matrix to create a phased array
LO that provides gain as well as directional
2-Channel ADC1..4 beamforming. A single antenna may also
MRD2001TX /1024 Sense
2-Channel be used if a ferrite circulator is used to
FC
Tx VCO
10 MHz
SPI isolate or block the transmitter signal from
FC SPI SPI
the receiver input. An example of a single
0…4V FM CW
antenna is a phased array or dielectric lens
DAC
Flash antenna.
RAM
PWM
Offset Commercial Automotive Radar
There are multiple vendors of automotive
40 MHz
radar devices. Some of the earlier available
XTAL
devices operated in the 24 GHz range.
5-4. The NXP MR2001 radar transceiver chipset. An external MCU does the Most of the newer devices use the 76 to 81
processing. GHz range, with 77 GHz being the most

LNA IF ADC Cortex R4F

@ 200MHz

(User programmable)
LNA IF ADC Digital Front
End
Boot
Prog RAM* Data RAM*
LNA IF ADC (Decimation ROM
filter chain)

QSPI Serial Flash

LNA IF ADC Radar Data interface
Memory*

SPI Optional External

MCU interface
ADC
PA
Bus Matrix

Buffer Radar
Hardware SPI / I2C PMIC control
Accelerator
Synth Ramp (FFT, Log-
PA x4
(20 GHz) Generator Mag, and Primary communication
others.) DCAN
interface (automotive)

PA
DMA Debug
For debug
UARTs

RF Control/
BIST Mailbox Test/ JTAG for debug/
Debug development
Osc. VMON Temp GPADC

Master subsystem
RF/Analog subsystem (Customer programmed)

5-5. A block diagram of the Texas Instruments AWR1443 single chip CMOS radar transceiver that includes the processing.

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ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY CHAPTER 5: VEHICLE RADAR

common. Representative of the newer IC radars are devices from

NXP and Texas Instruments.
The NXP MR2001 is a three-package SiGe chipset made up of
a two channel transmitter (TX), a three channel receiver (RX),
and a 38-GHz VCO signal source (Fig. 5-4). The three chips
are usually combined into a single 6 mm × 6 mm package. The
multiple transmitters and receivers allow designers to implement
multiple antenna solutions like phased arrays to provide gain and
beamforming.
This RF section is combined with an embedded microcontroller
unit (MCU) such as the NXP MPC577xK and a power source to
implement the complete and compact radar transceiver. Inter-
chip control is achieved by way of an SPI bus and interfaces to the
vehicle systems may be FlexRay, CAN, or Ethernet.
One single-chip radar solution is Texas Instruments’ AWR1xxx.
It combines three transmitters, four receivers, a synthesizer,
and all the MCU and DSP processors into one CMOS device.
The operating frequency range is 76 to 81 GHz. Figure 5-5 is a
simplified block diagram of the AWR1443. Multiple versions
combine different levels of processing power, memory size, and
interfaces.
Also available is the Infineon RTN7735PL three-channel
transmitter chip, the RTN7745Pl/46PL four-channel receiver both
combined in a eWLF package. Several support chips make up a
complete radar system.n

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 ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY FOCUS ON: AUTOMOTIVE COMMUNICATIONS

LOU FRENZEL, Contributing Editor

CHAPTER 6:

LIGHT DETECTING
AND RANGING (LIDAR)
L
IDAR is radar using light. You will see it referred to How LIDAR Works
as LiDAR and as light detection and ranging. The big LIDAR, like radar, can be implemented in either a continuous
question is, why do we need another radar-like sensor wave or pulsed format. Most automotive LIDAR is of the pulse
if we already have video cameras, RF radar, and ultra- type. A laser emits a short pulse of light and a nearby photodetector
sonic sensors? The primary reasons are that LIDAR of- receives the reflected light pulse. The time of transition (t) is then
fers greater precision and a superior three-dimension- used to calculate the distance or range (R) to the object.
al (3D) plot of a scene. It is superior at identifying objects. R = (3 x 108)(t/2)
LIDAR is currently not used on modern vehicles simply This is the speed of light in meters per second multiplied by the
because of its high cost. However, it is being transition time (t) in seconds divided by 2.
widely developed, and hopefully through The time t is double the time for the signal
technology breakthroughs and volume to reach the target and the time to return.
production, LIDAR cost will go down and The can be simplified to:
increased adoption will occur. It is one R = 0.15t
development that the autonomous-vehicle Range is in kilometers and t is in
movement is counting on to make self- microseconds.
driving cars practical and safe. Here is a Laser Source. The laser is typically an
primer on how this technology works. edge-emitting solid-state laser diode. The
light frequency is typically in the near
LIDAR Applications infrared (IR) range from 600 to 1000
Up until recently the main application nanometers. A common wavelength is 905
for LIDAR has been weather mapping. It nanometers (nm). Lasers with a 1550 nm
is widely used by the National Oceanic wavelength are also used. The IR light
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). passes through a lens to the target. The
Its benefit is its ability to generate precise newer automotive systems employ multiple
3D maps of Earth and its surroundings. lasers. Vertical cavity surface emitting lasers
Examples are storm surge modeling, (VCSELs) could be incorporated since they
shoreline mapping, hydrodynamic 6-1. The Velodyne LiDAR HDL-64E S3 are easier to make in IC form and can be
modeling, hydrographic surveying, and is a real-time LIDAR scanner with a more conveniently made into arrays.
land elevation or topographic models. Most rotating head for horizontal scan and an A key laser specification is its power.
LIDAR is implemented on airplanes or array of 64 channels of laser/detector Lasers are usually rated in watts and are
satellites. units for a wide vertical scan. available in ranges from milliwatts to
Now, LIDAR is a leading sensor type hundreds of watts. Lower power lasers are
being deployed for autonomous vehicles (AVs). You can recognize the most common. Keep in mind that the range of the LIDAR is
the LIDAR on an AV test car by the large cylindrical object on the dependent upon the laser power output.
roof that seems to be spinning. Light Detectors. The reflected laser light is picked up with a
LIDAR provides a 360-deg. view of nearby objects in great 3D lens and is applied to a light detector. There are three types of IR
detail. That data is combined with related radar and video camera light detectors that can adequately receive laser reflections. These
data to get a realistic picture of the area around the vehicle. are PIN photodiodes, avalanche photodiodes (APDs), and photo
multiplier tubes. The APDs are the most common. These are

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ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY
usually connected to a trans-impedance op amp for amplification
of the weak signal usually received. The photodiode output is a
measure of the light amplitude and the surface reflectivity of the
object. A common packaging arrangement is to include the APD
and laser into a common housing.
Scanning. LIDAR systems use a scanning technique to observe
a scene. The laser “paints” an area with short light pulses and the
photodiode picks up the back-scattered return pulses. The pulse
repetition rate (PRR) varies with the application but is usually in
the 10 kHz to 1 MHz range. Each pulse results in a photodiode
reading that creates a pixel to provide a time interval to determine
distance as well as a light amplitude value.
The scanning process is accomplished with a single laser-
photodiode assembly and a rotating mirror. Many of the current
AV test cars use the rotating mirror and/or prism assembly. This
implements the horizontal scan. These systems can provide a full
360 deg. of coverage around the vehicle. The laser beam is also
Specification Ultrasound Video Camera Radar
Inches to several
Range 20 meters 300 meters
meters
Heavy, scene Minimal, ok in
Effect of weather Negative
obfuscation. rain, fog, etc.
Effect of light None Poor night vision No effect.
Field of view Broad Broad Narrow
positioned vertically to provide a vertical scan. A common vertical
range of view is 20-30 deg.
An alternate method is called 3D flash. A strong but broad laser
beam illuminates a large area of the scene and a light sensor like
that in a digital camera captures the reflected light. The sensor is
either a CMOS or a CCD sensor with a matrix of pixel sensors.
Each pixel is interrogated to provide time and distance as well as
light intensity.
Factors Affecting Range. LIDAR systems can accommodate a
range from about 10 to 200 meters. The range is a function of the
laser power, the sensitivity of photodetector, beam divergence,
lens characteristics, reflectivity of the target, and the nature of
the environment out to the target. Any atmospheric characteristic
that affects light will determine the range. Laser light is greatly
attenuated and scattered by fog, smoke, clouds, and dust. Rain and
snow will also reduce the range.
Processing. The time/distance and light intensity information
is digitized with an ADC and stored in memory. This is processed
to create a 3D image that can be displayed or otherwise used to
interpret what the scene represents. The goal is to use that data to
determine the size and shape of an object and its distance. That
in turn can be used to recognize cars, people, and other objects.
Interestingly, the LIDAR image is not used alone. While the
LIDAR system is generating its own version of a scene, the video
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CHAPTER 6: LIGHT DETECTING AND RANGING (LIDAR)
cameras, radars, and even some ultrasound sensors are producing
digital versions of the same scene as well. The scenes from each
sensor are given to machine-vision software for interpretation. At
some point, the typical multiple stages of processing produces an
aggregated output that is used for making driving decisions.
Commercial LIDAR
An example of a modern LIDAR unit is the Velodyne HDL-64E
S3 (Fig. 6-1). It uses an array of 64 laser/detector channels aligned
to provide a 26.9-deg. vertical field of view. It uses a rotating head
that gives a horizontal 360-deg. field of view. Rotation rate can
be set from 5 to 20 Hz. This unit produces a point cloud of up to
2.2 million points per second. These points provide time of flight
(ToF) distance measurement with light intensity. Viewing range is
up to 120 meters with an accuracy of ± 2 cm. The interface is by
way of a 100 Mb/s Ethernet port.
Comparison of Automotive Sensors
LIDAR The table shows the characteristics of the
different sensors used in ADAS and self-driving
200 meters
vehicles. You can see why multiple sensors are
Poor results in used as no one sensor provides the complete
fog, smoke, etc. optimum scene capture and interpretation.
Minimal Some sensors like radar are just not good at
Broad object details detection. Video cameras and
LIDAR give a good picture of what an object
is. Video cameras also offer the benefit of color
recognition allowing stop lights and signs to be recognized.
Current LIDAR Status
Current vehicles have widely adopted radar, cameras and
ultrasound sensors for their ADAS installations. However, LIDAR
is not currently used in production vehicles. It is still a bit too large
and expensive. Luckily considerable development has occurred
in the past several years making great strides in lowering the
cost and miniaturizing the LIDAR units. It is expected that
when autonomous vehicles (AV) become available, most will
incorporate LIDAR. AVs like Tesla’s Model S with self-driving
AutoPilot software does not use LIDAR because of the cost issue.
Others may take that same route. Nevertheless, LIDAR is an
improvement that no doubt will be widely adopted when cost and
size issues have been resolved. n
☞ BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
 ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY FOCUS ON: AUTOMOTIVE COMMUNICATIONS

LOU FRENZEL, Contributing Editor

BILL WONG, Technology Editor

CHAPTER 7:

SELF-DRIVING
CARS
S
elf-driving cars, also referred to here as autono- who would not welcome an AV. A recent AAA survey indicated
mous vehicles (AVs), are the next big thing in the that 78% of respondents responded that they would be afraid to
automobile industry. AVs have been under test for ride in a self-driving car. In another AAA survey, more than half
several years and most of the technology is now in the respondents indicated a desire to have some autonomous
place. With some issues still to be finalized, AVs features in their next vehicle, meaning more and better ADAS. To
should start showing up in auto dealerships by many, the idea of a self-driving car is foolish. Many auto owners
2020. This chapter discusses the technology of AVs, the rationale, love to drive and want to continue to drive their own vehicle. Can
and the remaining issues to be resolved. self-drivers and real drivers coexist with one another?
Just to be clear, there are several stages or degrees of automation.
The Rationale for Self-Driving Vehicles These have been defined by the Society of Automotive Engineers
The primary reason stated for the development and deployment (see tables below). Currently we are at Levels 1 and 2. Test cars
of AVs is improved automotive safety. Some sources say that over have operated at Levels 4 and 5, but final products have not been
90% of road deaths could be eliminated. With up to 40,000 people manufactured.
dying each year in car accidents and millions of others injured,
it seems desirable to pursue an aggressive goal of reducing those The Components of an AV
figures as soon as possible. The primary parts of an AV are a comprehensive ADAS with full
Another rationale is personal convenience. Many do not like to sensor inputs from radar, LIDAR, video cameras, and ultrasound
drive or drive in difficult traffic conditions. Furthermore, many units. Next, a current GNSS/GPS navigation system and maps are
drivers continue to want to do other things while driving, such as essential. Add to this the V2V and V2I communications described
texting, eating, etc. Others such as older or handicapped citizens in an earlier chapter.
would love to have a self-driving option so they
can stay or become independent.
Some companies also see a way to reduce the DEGREES OF VEHICLE AUTOMATION
cost of personnel in some driving activities. AV Level Amount of automation
taxis are an example. Uber and Lyft are investing
in AVs. There is also potential for trucking and Level 0 No automation. Driver performs all functions.

delivery companies where driver costs are high.
It remains to be seen if these goals can actually
be attained in practice. Yet there is apparently
enough evidence to justify the billions of dollars
of investment by the auto companies, Silicon
Valley stalwarts, and startups. The big questions
center around the real outcomes like improved
Level 1 Driver performs all functions but ADAS systems provide alerts and partial control.
Partial automation. Driver must still monitor actions but automated systems control braking,
Level 2
steering and acceleration.
Automated driving systems perform all driving activities but driver must still be available to take
Level 3
control in special circumstances.
Level 4
Automated driving systems perform all driving activities.
Driver may still control the vehicle if needed.

safety. What are the unseen consequences? Level 5 Full automation. No driver needed but a driver may intervene if necessary.

There is still a huge number of consumers Source: Society of Automotive Engineers

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ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY
The idea is to provide as many sensory inputs as possible and
attempt to interpret the surrounding data as a real driver would.
All of this data needs to be manipulated and processed in real
time so that steering, braking, and accelerator setting outputs are
generated. All of this represents a massive computing requirement.
Fast multiple processors will be involved along with software.
As it has turned out, conventional processors and algorithmic
software are just not up to the job. But the auto industry has
discovered artificial intelligence (AI) in the form of machine
learning. The core of AVs will be based on AI and machine-
learning processes.
The latest idea in AI is “deep learning” technology, which is
based on deep neural nets (DNNs). Deep learning has moved AI
into the spotlight again because of improved performance enabled
by platforms like graphic processing units (GPUs). This has
turned many applications of DNN into practical concepts. Some
applications may use GPU clusters for training a DNN, but that
deployment may only require a microcontroller.
In the simplest sense, a neural network is an array of
interconnected nodes that connect a set of inputs to outputs. The
nodes have weights associated with them, and the inputs generate
a set of outputs based on the node. The challenge is determining
the weights, as well as the number of nodes in each layer, in
addition to the number of layers (or the depth) of the system.
The weights are usually determined by “training” the network
via a set of inputs, such as photos of a particular type of object,
and providing an indication of whether recognition is positive or
negative. DNNs are actually much more complex. They are made
up of neural networks.
Neural Networks
Artificial neural networks (ANNs) have been around for a long
time, but their high computational requirements for complex
networks has limited their use and experimentation until recently
with multicore systems such as GPUs providing an economical
platform for a variant called deep neural networks (DNNs).
Initially neural networks were of interest as a way of copying
biological neural networks like the human brain. The brain is
made up of neurons that are connected via an axon to synapse
and dendrites on other neurons. The electrical signals from
incoming signals are summed by the neuron. A result that exceeds
a threshold sends a signal via the axon.
ANNs are built in a similar fashion, but using electronics or
software. It takes many neurons to perform useful functions; the
human brain has 100 billion. A basic neural network consists of a
set of inputs and outputs with a hidden layer in between, as shown
in Fig. 7-1. A DNN has multiple hidden layers. The networks may
be the same logically, but the number of inputs, outputs, and
hidden layers varies as well as other configuration options. Of
course, the key to a system’s operation are the weights associated
with the connections and nodes.
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CHAPTER 7: SELF-DRIVING CARS
Neural network Deep neural network
Input Hidden Output Input Hidden Hidden Hidden Output
7-1. A neural network consists of a set of inputs and outputs
with a hidden layer in between. A deep neural network has
multiple hidden layers.
Neural networks require training to generate the weights used
in the system. Systems can learn dynamically, but these tend to be
more complex as training normally requires more computational
horsepower than inference. Training uses a feedback system
where an input is matched with outputs and the internal hidden
layer weights are adjusted. This process requires more than just a
few samples. A system with a large number of inputs like a photo
image and a large number of sample sizes will often require a
cluster or high end CPU and GPU to create a DNN configuration.
On the flip side, a microcontroller may often be sufficient for
some applications to utilize a DNN configuration to perform
inferences in real time. FPGAs and specially designed hardware
to address neural networks are also available.
DNNs have been used for a wide range of applications, from
identifying items in an image to voice recognition. These can be
done with conventional DNNs, but there are other configurations
that provide additional functionality. One of these configurations
is the convolutional neural network (CNN).
Convolutional neural networks are feed-forward ANNs that
may constrain the nodes in three dimensions. CNNs consist of a
stack of layers that include a convolutional, a pooling, and a fully
connected layer.
The actual design and configuration of neural networks is a bit
more complex than presented here, although training and using
the results on an existing system are much simpler. This typically
entails providing training input and then deploying the results
where a system might be used to identify dogs in photos.
Part of the challenge of using neural networks is that they are
essentially black boxes. This can be an advantage, but it essentially
hides what is going on inside the system. Properly preprocessing
input can also be critical to the success of using neural networks.
Likewise, neural networks are not applicable to every application,
but they do work very well for many applications.
Finally, it is possible to have a neural network provide feedback
on part of the reasoning behind their results, but in general they
do not provide this information. That may not be a problem if the
accuracy of the inference is sufficient for the application, like being
able to identify a dog within a picture at least 95% of the time.
ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY
AV systems will be based upon a combination of neural
networks and conventional algorithmic processors. It takes a
massive amount of computing power to emulate a human driver.
The concept has already been heavily tested with good success.
But nothing is perfect. Hopefully the end result will be good
enough for the real world.
Remaining Issues
There are still some unresolved problems to a total AV. In
addition to the unknown demand or lack thereof, the following
issues need attention.
• Regulation. Most if not all states will have AV laws. Automakers
fear the problem of meeting the differing regulations in 50 states
and adhering to eventual federal regulations. Hopefully some
common ground can be found. The Department of Transportation
recently announced its guidelines for automated vehicles, A Vision
for Safety: 2.0 (https://www.nhtsa.gov/technology-innovation/
automated-vehicles). This statement is a non-regulatory approach
to promote safe testing and development of automated driving
systems (ADSs). It is hoped that these guidelines to industry and
state regulators will encourage innovation and creativity while
ensuring safety as well as shape future policy and consistent
regulation.
• Security. Can self-driving systems be hacked? Probably. While
no one knows for sure how this can happen, it could. The entry
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CHAPTER 7: SELF-DRIVING CARS
path would no doubt be via the V2V or V2I facilities. Or it could
occur through any Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or cellular connection. Or
even through the OBD II wired diagnostic port.
•Insurance. Who is to blame in an accident? Would it be
the owner/passenger, the vehicle manufacturer, an equipment
provider, or an actual driver? Of course, it depends upon the
nature of the accident and cause and the policies to be established.
• Market acceptance. Will people actually buy AVs? Some will,
of course. The major customers may just be the taxi, fleet, delivery,
and truck companies. Will consumers buy them in volume or will
sales be like that of today’s electric vehicles (EVs), a 1% niche?
• Relationships with conventional drivers and cars. How will
AVs get along with the average driver of today? Will AVs be too
slow and conservative and simply annoy the usual driver? Will
there be road rage for the AV riders? It will be years before the
ADS systems including V2V and V2I become useful and all cars
include them, driverless and standard vehicles. Until then, some
adjustments will no doubt have to be made, especially by current
drivers.
• Driver Education. Will driver’s licenses go away or will the
requirements just be changed to match the AV situation? Learning
how to use ADAS equipment and full AV vehicles is critical to their
success in meeting the safety goals originally set.n
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