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A CFD Investigation of the Near-Blade 3D Flow for a Complete Wind Turbine

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Article · January 2010

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 A CFD Investigation of the Near-Blade 3D Flow for a
Complete Wind Turbine Configuration
Sugoi Gómez-Iradi George N. Barakos Xabier Munduate
The University of Liverpool The University of Liverpool The National Renewable Energy Centre
& CENER sgomez@cener.com g.barakos@liverpool.ac.uk (CENER) xmunduate@cener.com

CFD solvers. Further, wind tunnels open the

Abstract possibility of using advanced measurement
techniques not available on wind turbine farms. A
The trend towards large-diameter wind turbines for
large collection of experiments related to wind
off-shore environment makes compressible CFD
turbine measurements prior to 2003 are catalogued
methods for the analysis of horizontal axis wind
in the review paper of Vermeer et al. [1]. The
turbines very attractive. The operational
experiments are categorised according to the size
requirements with respect to noise, of these rotors
of the wind turbine, test conditions and type of
result in relatively high tip Mach numbers (of the
measured data. The NREL UEA Phase VI wind
order of 0.3 at sea-level conditions) and even
tunnel [2] campaign stands out as the most
higher local Mach numbers on the suction side of
comprehensive experiment for CFD validation. This
the blade.
is supported by the extensive use of this set of
The majority of the methods employed nowadays to
experiments by many researches [3-6]. The main
calculate blade loads and consequently the power
measured quantity was the chord-wise pressure
of the wind turbine are based on BEM and need the
distribution [2] at five span-wise blade sections,
flow incidence and the load coefficients at each
where a total of 22 pressure transducers were
blade section to estimate the aerodynamic loads.
placed in each of them. The geometric
The incidence for yawed flow cases, as well as the
characteristics of the two bladed upwind rotor
variation of the flow due to the blade-tower
configuration include the S809 aerofoil section [7]
interaction is difficult to predict, and therefore these
from 25% of the blade radius (R) to the tip.
methods do not perform well at such conditions.
Unfortunately, there were not any wake
For this research, the NREL UAE Phase VI wind
measurements, which could further enhance the
turbine is considered and an attempt is made to
value of these experiments and the fidelity of the
utilise the measured local flow angles (LFA) for
CFD validation. In this direction, the MEXICO [8]
comparisons with CFD. Results from isolated rotors
experiments look promising for validation purposes
with and without yaw are compared with
since they offer PIV measurements of the wake. At
experiments, as well as the computations for a
the moment of carrying out this investigation, the
complete wind turbine, highlighting the influence of
MEXICO data was not in the public domain yet.
the tower on the rotor aerodynamics. The results
The employed S809 section, the taper of the blade,
show good agreement for isolated rotor cases
as well as, the twist distribution and the blade pitch
when axi-symmetric flow is considered, and larger
were defined on the NREL UEA Phase VI
discrepancies for yawed flows. On the other hand,
experiments report of Hand et al. [2]. The tip and
the LFA variations due to the blade tower pass
root sections were not fully documented, and the
interaction are predicted reasonably well.
authors [9] have made an attempt to quantify their
effect. It was found that the pitch and aspect ratio of
Keywords the blade have much stronger influence on the
Local flow angle, yawed flow, NREL UAE Phase VI. aerodynamic loading than the exact shape of the
rotor/tower interaction, downwash, induction. root attachment and tip cup. For that work, isolated
rotor cases were considered (no tower and neither
1 Introduction nacelle) and the planform used for validation is
shown in Figure 1.
CFD solvers, although successful in several areas,
still need validation against field or experimental Limited research related to NREL UAE Phase VI
data. Field data provide more realistic operational campaign local flow angles (LFA) has so far been
conditions than wind tunnel measurements due to published and even less is done for the yawed flow
variations of the inflow and the associated conditions. Work published by DUT [10-12], with an
turbulence, in addition to a full-scale geometry. in-house free wake vortex method calculated the
However, uncertainties related to field angle of attack at several blade sections for non-
measurements make the controlled conditions of yawed and yawed flows. Kuik et al. [10] reported
the wind tunnel more suitable for initial validation of
that the flow near the rotor is rather complicated
and affected by the lift (vortex) of the blade and the
wake formation downwind of the rotor plane. The
wake and the finite span effects have in general a
small influence on the LFA in contrast to the
upwash caused by the lift. In practical terms, the
Biot-Savart law can be used as a correction for the
induced angle.
Figure 1: Pressure transducer distribution from
reference [2] and blade planform employed for
computations. Dashed lines on the blade represent
the full pressure transducer arrays at five span
sections and the dots the pressure transducers at
4% and 36% chord on the upper surface of the
blade. The five solid lines represent the local and
span-wise flow angle measurement probes used in
the H dataset of the experiments [2] (these probes
were removed for the S dataset of the experiments
(72rpm & 3° pitch)).
Sant et al. [11] used derived aerofoil data with a
BEM code to predict the low speed shaft torque
and the blade root flap/edge moments. They
concluded that reasonably good agreement was
achieved in these results when compared with
those derived from the pressure measurements.
Sant et al. [12] also show that using a free wake
vortex model, it was possible to derive the unsteady
angle of attack distributions from knowledge of the
aerodynamic normal and tangential forces acting
on the blades of a yawed rotor. For that purpose 5,
10 and 15m/s cases at 30° of yaw angle were
compared. In order to calculate inflow correction
curves, a 3D Lifting-Surface Inflow Correction
Method (LSIM) was developed [13] with the aid of a
vortex-panel code at University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign. Comparison of this method with 2D
methods suggested that, due to the 3D geometry at
the root and 3D flow effects at inboard stations, the
2D wind tunnel method of correction, developed
with OSU/CSU wind tunnel data [13], currently in
use at NREL over-predicts the upwash at pre-stall
angles of attack and under-predicts upwash at
post-stall angles of attack.
Madsen et al. [14] presented a comparison
between the EllipSys3D N-S solver, and the HAWC
and HAWC3D methods that are based on actuator
discs. That work focused on experiments at 7m/s
and 45° yaw case. They reported that the
agreement between the experimental data and the
LFA calculated with EllipSys3D was generally
good, although some deviations could be observed
for the inboards stations. Both HAWC and
HAWC3D underestimated systematically the LFA
due to the influence of upwash. Johansen et al. [15]
presented a method of determining the local angle
of attack. The method was based on determining
the disturbed axial velocity in the rotor plane and
was called the reduced axial velocity method.
Shen et al. [15,16] developed an iterative method
for determining the AOA based on the initial flow
angles, and using those values for estimating lift
and drag forces. Lift and drag forces are calculated
with these values and then the associated
circulation is computed. Computing the induced
velocity created by the bound vortex using
circulations and checking its convergence feeds the
iterative process, and once the convergence is
reached, the AOA and force coefficients can be
determined. The method has been compared
against Tellus 95kW rotor, NREL UAE Phase VI
and MEXICO experiments.
To the authors’ knowledge, no work has been
published on the LFA investigation related to
upwind full wind turbine rotor tower interaction with
CFD.
The present CFD work is motivated by the
established trend towards increased diameter
horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT). This trend
brings the design engineers near the edge of their
knowledge envelope and creates an opportunity for
CFD methods to be used as an economic
alternative to wind tunnel and field experimentation.
The Wind Multi-Block (WMB) solver [9] developed
at University of Liverpool’s CFD lab and CENER,
has been used in this work to investigate the
predictive capability of CFD and provide insight in
the obtained flow angle measurements. The WMB
solver has been validated [9,17] against the NREL
UAE Phase VI [2] wind tunnel experimental data.
Once confidence in the method was established,
calculations were carried out [17] for the complete
NREL UAE Phase VI wind turbine. A sliding grid
technique [18] has been employed in order to
compute the rotating (blades and hub) and the fixed
(nacelle and tower) elements using a CFD mesh of
7 million cells [17]. The computations are compared
in this paper with experimental local flow angles
from the RNEL UAE Phase VI.
2 Computations
2.1 WMB – CFD Solver
The Wind Multi-Block (WMB) is a CFD method
capable of solving the compressible URANS flow
equations on multi-block structured grids using a
cell-centred finite-volume method for spatial
discretization. WMB was designed to account for
the relative motion of the blades, structural
deformation and turbulent flow. A second-order
implicit method in space and time was employed,
and the resulting linear system of equations was
solved using a pre-conditioned Generalised
Conjugate Gradient (GCG) method with a Block
Incomplete Lower-Upper (BILU) pre-conditioner.
For unsteady simulations, a dual-time stepping
method was employed, where the time derivative
was approximated by a second-order backward
difference based on Jameson’s pseudo-time
integration approach. From the beginning, the
solver was designed with parallel execution in mind
and, for this reason, a divide-and-conquer
approach was used to allow for multi-block grids to
be computed on distributed-memory machines and
especially low-cost Beowulf clusters of personal
computers.
For the discretization of the convective fluxes,
Osher’s upwind scheme has been used and a
formally third-order accurate scheme is achieved
using a MUSCL variable extrapolation technique.
Viscous fluxes are discretized using central
differences, and boundary conditions are set using
two layers of halo cells.
The relative motion of the rotor and the non-moving
parts of the geometry, i.e. the wind turbine tower
and nacelle is taken into account using a sliding-
mesh algorithm [18]. According to this method, the
relative motion of the rotor mesh and the stationary
background mesh creates a time dependent
overlapping pattern of the block faces with non-
matching meshes at the interface between the
rotating and non-rotating parts. In this case, the
values of the primitive variables in the halo cells
along the block faces on the sliding-plane surface
were computed by interpolation over a group of
neighbouring cells in the block(s) on the opposite
side of the sliding plane. For the case considered
here, the overhead added by the sliding-plane
algorithm to the CPU time is around 4-5%.
2.2 Employed Meshes
The multi-block mesh topologies were generated
with ICEMCFD v11 hexa (isolated rotor and full
wind turbine). These structured meshes were
subdivided in more than 500 blocks each in order to
have a load balance of 97% or above on 48 CPUs.
The main details of the meshes are shown in Table
1.
Table 1: Characteristics of employed meshes.
Chord- (span-) Boundaries
Mesh Size
wise cells in radii (R)
Yawed
flows ~9 mill 210 (153) Inflow: 4.4,
5 m/s
Outflow: 8.8
7m/s
~3.5 mill 174 (117)
10m/s Far-Field: 8.8
13 m/s ~5.5 mill 180 (121)
20 m/s ~6.5 mill 240 (88) I:2.2 O:4.4 FF 4.4
Full WT ~7 mill 198 (95) I:4.4 O:8.8 FF 3.1
When isolated rotor geometry was generated, the
two blades, an approximate root attachment, as
well as a hub were modelled. The 20m/s case,
although it was studied as isolated rotor, was an
early computation, so the root attachment and the
hub were not modelled and the blades were 5.4%R
larger. Yawed cases had more cells along the span
of the blades to capture better the radial flow but
the increment of mesh size was mainly due to
addition of cells in the wake region. The full wind
turbine mesh had over 0.1mill surface cells
distributed between the blades, hub, nacelle and
tower. For all grids, the first cell height above any
-5
solid surface was of 1x10 normalised chords.
Finally, all cases were computed as unsteady.
3 Local Flow Angle
The WMB solver has been validated and employed
for wind turbine analysis [9,17], so in the following
subsections the local flow angle (LFA) study is
presented. First of all, the LFA & Span-wise flow
angles (SFA) obtained for isolated rotor cases at
different wind speeds will be shown. Then, a
comparison between 2D and 3D LFA, as well as,
incidence angle will be presented. For a fixed wind
speed, the comparison of the LFA at two yawed
positions will be analyzed. Finally, the influence of
the tower on the rotor aerodynamics through LFA
comparison will close this section. Note that for all
computations the experimental probes [2] were not
modelled in CFD, which could have some influence
especially at in-boards stations.
3.1 Non Yawed Flows in Isolated Rotor
To estimate the LFA from CFD, velocity values of a
small disk area around the location of the
experimental probe were extracted. Figure 2 shows
the extraction circle and its radial variation. The
circular sections extracted from the flow-field
demonstrated that extraction circle radii between
0.01 and 0.2 chords resulted in no significant
variation (less than 1%). This can be seen in Table
2 for several wind speeds and extraction radii.
 differences in flow angles are not fully understood
since the surface pressure coefficients agree very
well [8] with experiments for attached flow cases at
46.6%R and 63.3%R stations.

The SFA distribution shape is very similar with the

experiments within the analysed wind speeds with
a maximum variation of 2°. The agreement is worst
at the tip, where the experimental values of the
SFA also shown large differences between them.
On the other hand, the trend shown by the WMB
results agrees well apart for the 13m/s case. This
wind speed was hard to predict due to the strong
unsteady flow involved with an URANS
computation.
Figure 2: LFA calculation extraction radii variations
are presented for the 7m/s case at 84%R.

Table 2: LFA and SFA data dependence on the

extraction radii in chords for five wind speeds.

The comparison between experiments and

computed LFA agree well at outboard stations, as
Figure 3: Comparison between experimental and
can be observed in Figure 3. These results were
computed LFA & SFA for five wind speeds (5, 7,
expected since the outboard station surface
10, 13 & 20m/s) at five blade span locations. The
pressure coefficient predictions [8] were also good.
vertical lines are associated with the experiments
Inboards, the Cp of the first two stations was under-
and represent the maximum and minimum
predicted, except for the low or moderate wind
measured values excluding the azimuth angles
speeds, where the flow was still attached. There,
from 120 to 240, since they were more affected by
the agreement at 34%R is also good. Remarkably,
the tower. This is applicable to the rest of the
near the mid-span of the blade, at 51%R station,
figures in this paper unless otherwise mentioned.
the agreement between the computations and
experiments for all wind cases is poor. These large
3.2 Downwash Effect
The downwash effect is a 3D induction
phenomenon defined as the influence of the shed
vorticity at upwind locations. To estimate the
downwash effect produced in 3D rotating blades, a
method described in the following lines was
developed. Five span-wise sections of the NREL
UAE Phase VI blade were studied (S809 aerofoil)
using 2D computations at the same local Reynolds
number as the 3D case. From the 3D
computations, the loads and LFA were extracted at
five sections (34%R, 51%R, 67%R, 84%R and
91%R). The loads were computed based on the 22
pressure transducer values (see Figure 1)
pressures.
Then, 2D computations were performed trying to
approximate the 3D sectional loads varying the
angle of attack (AoA). Notice the normal coefficient
convection (2D: Cn & 3D: CN). To this end, the
obtained CFD pressures were processed, as the
experiments, with the equation shown below.
P [i ][m + 1] + P [i ][m ]
n degree. At 10m/s case, the flow behaves as less
CN = ∑ * ( x [i ][m + 1] − x [i ][m ])
i =1 2
Table 3: LFA for 2D & 3D cases with similar normal
coefficients at four wind speeds and the down-wash
effect.
Once the 2D and 3D loads match, the 2D LFA was
extracted following the same procedure of the 3D
cases. The relation between the 2D and 3D LFA is
presented in Table 3. The differences between
local flow angles for 2D and 3D computations can
be used as an estimate of the downwash seen by
the 3D blade.
The downwash effect is more pronounced at two
stations of the blade: at the tip and at the closest
measured section closer to the root attachment, at
34%R. These two stations should be, in principle,
be more affected due to the vortices formed at
geometric discontinuities. This inboard station has
shown to have the highest influence along the
blade for all cases computed, except for the 7m/s
one. At 5m/s, the approximate downwash appears
to be almost uniform along the span of the blade,
as can be seen in Table 3. At 7m/s, which is
characterized by steady flow conditions, the
downwash effect is concentrated at the tip of the
blade, and for the rest of the blade the difference of
LFA between the 2D and 3D flows is of about 1
steady and this is reflected in the flow angles,
especially at the inboard stations. This could be
explained by the root vortex formation at 25%R of
the blade and the span-wise flow due to the high
twist in that region.
At 13m/s case, where the flow is more stalled, the
differences between 2D and 3D LFA increase
considerably. At these conditions the flow is more
3D in nature resulting in a stronger downwash
effect at inboard stations that influences almost 2/3
of the blade span.
On the other hand, the difference of the AoA from
2D computations and the measured LFA,
decreases along the span-wise (see Table 3).
3.3 Yawed flows in isolated rotor
Yawed flows (at 10 and 30 degrees of yaw) were
also computed and analyzed for the 7m/s wind
speed case.
The computed surface pressure coefficients (Cp)
o o
shown in Figure 4 (30 of yaw and 330 azimuth,
o
being 0 azimuth the instrumented blade’s 12
o’clock position) are under-predicted, which also
occurred for the 10 degrees of yaw case. Other
o
azimuth angles, like 110 , are better predicted.
When the LFA was compared, the largest
differences were located at the inboard stations
while better agreement was seen at outboard
stations (Figure 5). Although these differences were
large, this was expected since there were also
discrepancies in the Cp predictions.
The stations between 120° to 240° are also
affected by the tower and since the computations
considered an isolated rotor this effect was not
predicted. In the same way, the effect of the
equipment located near the root of the blades
during the experiments, affected the first third of the
revolution of the blade, especially near the inboard
stations [2]. For the CFD computation, a small hub
was used and hence discrepancies were expected.
Figure 4: Cp comparison between CFD and
experiments at five span-wise stations (7m/s, 30°
yaw, 72rpm & 330° azimuth).
Figure 5: LFA comparisons between CFD and
experiments for 7m/s, 72rpm, 10° and 30° yaw at 3
span-wise stations.
3.4 Full Wind Turbine
Full wind turbine computations (rotor, hub, nacelle
and tower) were carried out using the sliding grid
technique [18] of the WMB solver. The results
presented here are for the non yawed 7m/s wind
speed case rotating at 72rpm. When the
experimental and computed Cp are compared it
can be said that the agreement was good and the
reduction of Cp due to the blade-tower interaction
was also well captured. Those affirmations are
backed by Figure 6, where the Cp comparisons are
presented, as well as the WMB torque prediction.
Figure 6: Cp and torque comparisons between
experiments and WMB predictions for the full wind
turbine configuration (7m/s, 72rpm & 0° yaw).
Figure 7: Torque comparisons between
experiments and WMB predictions for the isolated
and full wind turbine configurations (7m/s, 72rpm &
0° yaw).
Torque comparison from Figure 7 shows the
unsteady computations carried out with and without
modelling the tower and the values obtained from
experiments. The influence of the tower on the rotor
loads and the accuracy of the WMB to predict it are
clearly shown.

Further analysis has shown that when LFAs are

compared, the trend of the experiments is well
captured by the CFD at all span-wise stations as
can be seen in Figure 8. This overall good
agreement shows the capability of the CFD as a
predictive tool for full wind turbine analyses.
The almost 4° under-prediction at the 51%R station
may be due to some error in experimental data
and/or calculation, since the shape and the
amplitude of the LFA variations are well captured.
This is also supported by the good Cp predictions
at 46.6%R from Figure 6, which was the closest
section where the predictions were comparable
with the experiments. At 34%R inboard station, the
predicted trend agrees well with the experiments
and the mismatch in the magnitude is smaller than
two degrees. Some difference was anyway
expected at this station since there were also small
differences in the Cp predictions of Figure 6. At
outboard stations, the agreement is very good in
shape and in magnitude as is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 9: LFA at three azimuth positions (140°,

180° & 220°) for the 34%R (full wind turbine).

The variation of LFA at three different azimuth

Figure 8: LFA comparisons between experiments,
the isolated rotor and full wind turbine configuration
at 7m/s case.
positions shown in Figure 9 reflects the variation of
the flow-field due to the presence of the wind
turbine tower for this upwind configuration. There,
the LFA values decrease due to the upwind travel
of the pressure stagnated on the tower surface.
LFA computation variations effects are most
notable at the sections suction side close to the
leading edge and mainly in the wake region These
effects are greater at inboard stations because
there, the blade chord is larger and these sections
are closer to the tower for longer periods of time.
A visual example of the complicated flow structure
due to the presence of the tower and nacelle and
the interaction of them with the rotor wake is
visualized with a λ2 [19] iso-surface (see Figure 10).
The vortex shed by the geometric discontinuities at
the tip of the blade and where the root attachment
merges with the aerodynamic blade can be clearly
appreciated. These vortices play a major role when
the downwash effect is studied as explained in
section 3.2
Figure 10: λ2 iso-surface colored with the root of
the summation between the squared distance to
the rotational plane and the squared radii position
for the full wind turbine (7m/s, and 0° yaw case).
4 Conclusions and Future Work
The results of the local and span-wise flow angles
obtained with CFD can provide insight in the wind-
turbine flow and can be used as input, for simpler
engineering methods like BEM. To improve the
accuracy of the obtained prediction, the flow angle
probes should be modelled and computed with
CFD, especially at inboard stations where the local
velocity ratio is small. Alternatively, less intrusive
measurement techniques for flow angle
measurements also could be employed.
The obtained results show that CFD has adequate
resolution to provide the details of the flow. The
analysis of the data is, however, difficult since the
3D results contain no explicit information about flow
incidence. Comparison with 2D data is, however,
possible and provides valuable insight in the
quantification of the blade downwash along the
span of the blades.
In the future, the work will focus on further analysis
of this flow in an attempt to derive reduced models
for the trend of the local flow angle that could be
used in conjunction with simpler aerodynamic tools,
like BEM. The work also will focus in improving
yawed computations, via mesh refinement and
better geometry of the blade and hub and also the
inclusion of the DES for regions with stalled flow.
Acknowledgements
The financial support of this project by the National
Centre of Renewable Energy of Spain (CENER) is
gratefully acknowledged as well as the release of
the NREL data though the Annex XX consortium.
The authors are also grateful to the DEISA
consortium (www.deisa.eu), co-funded through the
EU FP6 project RI-031513 and the FP7 project RI-
222919, for support within the DEISA extreme
computing initiative.
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