Accepted Manuscript

Effect of extrusion processing on physicochemical, functional and nutritional

characteristics of rice and rice-based products: A review

Chandrakant Genu Dalbhagat, Dipendra Kumar Mahato, Hari Niwas Mishra

PII: S0924-2244(17)30467-3
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2019.01.001
Reference: TIFS 2387

To appear in: Trends in Food Science & Technology

Received Date: 17 July 2017

Revised Date: 6 December 2018
Accepted Date: 4 January 2019

Please cite this article as: Dalbhagat, C.G., Mahato, D.K., Mishra, H.N., Effect of extrusion processing
on physicochemical, functional and nutritional characteristics of rice and rice-based products: A review,
Trends in Food Science & Technology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2019.01.001.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Effect of extrusion processing on physicochemical, functional and nutritional

characteristics of rice and rice-based products: A review

Chandrakant Genu Dalbhagat*, Dipendra Kumar Mahato and Hari Niwas Mishra

Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,

Kharagpur 721302, India

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*Corresponding author e-mail: cgdalbhagat@gmail.com

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ABSTRACT

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Rice is one of the major cereal crops that act as an attractive material for the manufacture of

ready to cook (RTC) products like pasta, noodles; ready-to-eat (RTE) breakfast cereals,

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modified starch, weaning foods, snack foods, pet foods, and dried soup, because of its colour,
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bland taste, flavour as well as good processing characteristics. The extrusion is the most

versatile processing technology used in the food industry to develop the product having better
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nutritional, functional and sensory characteristics. This technique enables the control of the
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different processes like mixing, heating, cooking, shearing, and shaping of products. This
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review highlights the research work on the use of extrusion process technology to produce

rice and rice-based products. The extrusion process parameters namely feed moisture, barrel
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temperature, screw speed, and feed rate markedly affect the product quality and their

acceptability among consumers. The emphasis has been given on the effects of the feed
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mixture composition or ingredients and the extrusion process parameters on physicochemical,

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textural, pasting, thermal and nutritional properties of the rice extrudates.

Keywords: Rice; Extrusion; Barrel temperature; Screw speed; Feed moisture; Physico-

chemical; Textural; Pasting; Thermal; Nutritional Properties.

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

1 Manuscript: TIFS_2017_364

2 Effect of extrusion processing on physicochemical, functional and nutritional

3 characteristics of rice and rice-based products: A review

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4 Chandrakant Genu Dalbhagat*, Dipendra Kumar Mahato and Hari Niwas Mishra
5 Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,

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6 Kharagpur 721302, India

7 *Corresponding author e-mail: cgdalbhagat@gmail.com

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8 ABSTRACT

Rice is one of the major cereal crops that act as an attractive material for the manufacture of

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9 AN
10 ready to cook (RTC) products like pasta, noodles; ready-to-eat (RTE) breakfast cereals, modified

11 starch, weaning foods, snack foods, pet foods, and dried soup, because of its colour, bland taste,
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12 flavour as well as good processing characteristics. The extrusion is the most versatile processing

13 technology used in the food industry to develop the product having better nutritional, functional
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14 and sensory characteristics. This technique enables the control of the different processes like
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15 mixing, heating, cooking, shearing, and shaping of products. This review highlights the research

16 work on the use of extrusion process technology to produce rice and rice-based products. The
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17 extrusion process parameters namely feed moisture, barrel temperature, screw speed, and feed

18 rate markedly affect the product quality and their acceptability among consumers. The emphasis
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19 has been given on the effects of the feed mixture composition or ingredients and the extrusion
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20 process parameters on physicochemical, textural, pasting, thermal and nutritional properties of

21 the rice extrudates.

22 Keywords: Rice; Extrusion; Barrel temperature; Screw speed; Feed moisture; Physico-chemical;

23 Textural; Pasting; Thermal; Nutritional Properties.

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24 1. Introduction
25 Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a major cereal crop grown across the world after wheat and corn
26 (Altan, McCarthy, & Maskan, 2008; Hagenimana et al., 2006). It is cultivated in over 100
27 countries, and more than half of the world's population depends on it for the energy (Ohtsubo,
28 Suzuki, Yasui, & Kasumi, 2005). Moreover, it is the most suitable raw material for the

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29 manufacture of rice-based products as well as new cereal-based snacks, pre-cooked breakfast
30 cereals, modified starches, animal feed, and dietetic foods including beverages (Bryant, Kadan,

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31 Champagne, Vinyard, & Boykin, 2001; Guha & Ali, 2006) because of its colour, flavor, hypo-
32 allergenicity, bland taste and better processing characteristics (Hagenimana et al., 2006; Kadan,

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33 Bryant, & Pepperman, 2003; Yağcı & Göğüş, 2008). Apart from white rice, brown rice has been
34 reported to contain a surplus amount of dietary fibers, ferulic acid, vitamins, and gamma-

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35 aminobutyric acid (GABA) (Ohtsubo et al., 2005). They are being processed to make products
36 like brown rice snacks (Pardhi, Singh, Nayik, & Dar, 2016; Sumargo, Gulati, Weier, Clarke, &
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37 Rose, 2016), and brown rice pasta (Marti, Seetharaman, & Pagani, 2010; Wang et al., 2016).
38 Similarly, black rice, on the other hand, is typically a better source of important phytochemicals,
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39 fiber, and minerals and has gained popularity due to the anthocyanin content that prevents most
40 of the chronic diseases (Laishram & Das, 2017; Zhang et al., 2014).
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41 Nowadays, consumers are very keen to know the nutritional benefit of any product. In
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42 addition, the use of different food additives has become a major concern to the consumer.
43 Therefore, the use of natural substances having high nutritional value makes the product more
44 acceptable (Phongthai, D ’amico, Schoenlechner, Homthawornchoo, & Rawdkuen, 2017).
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45 Various ingredients are added to rice flour to improve the nutritional, textural or sensory
46 attributes of the rice-based extrudates. In order to enhance the textural, rheological and
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47 functional properties and to reduce the cooking losses of the final product, proteins such as egg
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48 white powder, lupin, casein, and cowpea are added as structuring agent (Larrosa, Lorenzo,
49 Zaritzky, & Califano, 2016; Mariotti, Iametti, Cappa, Rasmussen, & Lucisano, 2011). In the
50 same way, the emulsifiers and thickeners are added to reduce cooking losses and weight gain.
51 The different legume flours (e.g., pea, lentil, and soy) and fruit wastes (e.g., apple pomace and
52 orange peels) are added to enrich the protein and fibers content in products. The effects of
53 extrusion process parameters (viz. temperature, screw speed, screw configuration, die pressure,
54 torque) and the raw material properties (e.g. proportion of ingredients, particle size, moisture
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55 content) on the quality of extruded product have been studied by several researchers (Ding,
56 Ainsworth, Tucker, & Marson, 2005; Lai, 2002; Norajit, Gu, & Ryu, 2011; Pardhi et al., 2016;
57 Ravindran, Carr, & Hardacre, 2011; Shirani & Ganesharanee, 2009; Sumargo et al., 2016).

58 Many of the early reviews on food extrusion (Akdogan, 1999), effect of extrusion on

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59 quality parameters of extruded product (Alam, Pathania, & Sharma, 2016; Oikonomou &
60 Krokida, 2012), textural evaluation of extruded snacks (Anton & Luciano, 2007), stability of

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61 vitamins (Riaz, Asif, & Ali, 2009), reaction kinetics in food extrusion (Zhao et al., 2011) have
62 been reported. However, this review brings together the recent research on the extrusion of rice

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63 and rice-based products and effects of extrusion process parameters and feed composition (rice
64 flour blend) on the physicochemical, cooking, textural, pasting, thermal and nutritional
65 properties of the rice-based extrudate.

66 2. Extrusion
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67 Extrusion is versatile process comprising of operations like mixing, cooking, kneading,
68 shearing, shaping and forming (Singh Gujral & Singh, 2002; Xu et al., 2016). It is a versatile
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69 technique in which moistened expansible starch and protein material modifies under different
70 combinations of process parameters which provide a unique opportunity to prepare the novel
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71 product (Liu et al., 2011). It gelatinizes the starch, degrades the protein and forms complexes
72 among lipids, starch, and proteins that lead to the changes in the microstructure, chemical
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73 characteristics, as well as the macroscopic shape of the product (Hagenimana et al., 2006;
74 Arribas et al., 2017). It become an important manufacturing process for the products like
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75 breakfast cereals, savory snacks, crispy flatbread, pre-cooked flours, cereal-based baby food, and
76 textural proteins. Extrusion can be classified as hot and cold extrusion based on the method of
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77 operation, and the type of construction, i.e., either single- or twin-screw extruder (Mishra,
78 Mishra, & Srinivasa Rao, 2012). Fig. 1 depicts the extrusion technique for the production of rice-
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79 based products using different types of the extruder and die openings. The recent advancement in
80 technology has made it possible to control the extrusion process to achieve the desired
81 characteristics of the extruded product. The knwolede of extrusion process make it easy to
82 develop the food formulation or reciepe by chosing any cereal, protien, or fiber containing
83 ingredient. Less effluients and waste generation made extrusion technology accepted worldwide.
84

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85 2.1. Single screw extruder (SSE)

86 Single screw extruder (SSE) contains a single rotating screw in a metal barrel usually
87 having helical or axial grooves on the inner surface which convey the material to the transition
88 section where the screw channel becomes shallower, and the material becomes compact (Fig. 1).
89 The application of SSE for processing the rice flour is simple, but the control of the finished

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90 product characteristics is somewhat complicated.

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91 2.2. Twin screw extruder (TSE)
92 The twin-screw extruders (TSE) are complex and expensive but have several advantages

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93 over single-screw extruders. The ingredients are thoroughly mixed inside the barrel having two
94 screws before entering into the other zones of the extruder (Fig. 1). TSE can operate even at very
95 low feed moisture and provides with greater flexibility of operations to control variables of time,

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96 temperature, and screw speed.
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97 Extruders are widely used for the manufacturing of a variety of food products (Fig. 2).
98 These include directly expanded, unexpanded, texturized, modified and/or co-extruded products.
99 Different types of rice-based extruded products are prepared under various extruder process
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100 conditions using both single- and twin-screw extruders (Table 1).
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101 3. Effect of the co-ingredients on the quality of the product

102 The incorporation of the different ingredients in the feed formulations has been targeted
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103 to achieve desired changes in the quality of the end product. The ingredients like cereals,
104 legumes, fruits & vegetables, gums & emulsifiers, etc. improve the quality and sensory attributes
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105 of the product. Several studies have been reported for the extrusion of rice and other ingredients
106 as listed in Table 2.
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107 4. Effect of extrusion process parameters on the extruder operation parameters

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108 The primary extruder parameters like barrel temperature, feed moisture, feed rate, and
109 screw speed determine the secondary process parameters such as mass temperature, die pressure,
110 torque, and specific mechanical energy. During rice extrusion, starch undergoes thermo-
111 mechanical treatment which promotes the biochemical reactions like gelatinization, degradation,
112 and Maillard reaction. The proper control of these parameters gives the desired characteristics of

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113 the extruded product. The effect of extrusion processing parameters on the extruder operation
114 parameters and physicochemical properties is summarized in Table 3.

115 4.1. Mass temperature

116 Mass temperature also referred as the product temperature is measured at the die head

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117 assembly by varying the barrel and die temperature (Ilo, Tomschik, Berghofer, & Mundigler,
118 1996; Pansawat et al., 2008). The mass/product temperature primarily depends on the barrel

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119 temperature and is usually higher than it. The rise in product temperature is probably due to the
120 friction between the barrel surface and feed granules as they pass through the screw flight (Della

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121 Valle, Tayeb, & Melcion, 1987; Pansawat et al., 2008). Moreover, the positive effect of feed rate
122 causes, tighter packing of the material in the barrel and at the die which leads to high shear and
123 heat generation resulting in high mass temperature (Vainionpaa, 1991). Due to the shearing

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124 process, melt temperature increased minimally by 7-9°C while lowering the moisture, it
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125 increased up to 18-20°C (Onwulata, Smith, Konstance, & Holsinger, 2001). In another study of
126 hulled rice extrusion, the thermostable α-amylase significantly reduced the product temperature
127 as the energy utilized for the starch degradation and dextrination due to enzymatic hydrolysis
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128 (Xu et al. 2015)

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129 4.2 Die pressure & Torque

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130 Die pressure is the indicator of resistance to the flow of material through die opening
131 which is significantly affected by its geometry. It increases due to the accumulation of feed
132 material at the die opening. The torque of the extruder is an indicator for the safe working of the
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133 machine and a measure of work required to push the feed material out of the die opening during
134 the operation. Torque functions in two ways (a) for working the product, and (b) for rotating the
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135 screw at full & no load condition.

136 An increase in the feed moisture, temperature and screw speed reduces the die pressure
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137 and the torque (Singh, Sekhon, & Singh, 2007; de Pilli, Derossi, Talja, Jouppila, & Severini,
138 2012) because the high feed moisture increases the melt plasticity while the high temperature
139 decreases the viscosity. This may be correlated to the collision of starch molecules during
140 extrusion process leading to the gelatinization followed by swelling and disruption of fragile
141 molecules (Akdogan, Tomás, & Oliveira, 1997). Similar results were confirmed by Hu et al.
142 (2018) for extrusion of black rice.

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143 The rise in screw speed influences the shear rate and affects heat exchange in the barrel
144 due to which viscosity of the material decreases. This leads to a drop in the torque of extruder
145 (Guha, Ali, & Bhattacharya, 1997). Moreover, the blending of amaranth in rice flour decreased
146 the torque as it contained fat which functioned as a lubricant and decreased the melt viscosity in
147 the extruder (Ilo, Liu, & Berghofer, 1999). A similar effect of the presence of fat on the

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148 reduction of die pressure was observed by Singh Gujral & Singh (2002) during the extrusion of
149 brown rice grit and by Ying et al., (2017) during the extrusion of rice flour blend containing

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150 olive pomace. In addition, the low amylose content of the rice yields high torque because it
151 becomes sticky during the extrusion cooking while in the case of high amylose content, torque

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152 decreases with the rise in extruder temperature (Guha & Ali, 2006). In another study, the drop in
153 die pressure was observed in the extrusion of rice-pea flour blend due to the increase in amylose

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154 content (Singh, Sekhon, & Singh, 2007). On the other hand, high shear extrusion of whey protein
155 concentrate (WPC) and sweet whey solids (SWS) with rice flour had shown the rise in die
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156 pressure (Onwulata, Smith, Konstance & Holsinger, 2001). The extrusion of the phosphate salts
157 (sodium dihydrogen orthophosphate or disodium hydrogen orthophosphate dihydrate) with rice
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158 grits decreased the melt viscosity which ultimately reduced the die pressure (Singh, Kaur, Singh,
159 & Sekhon, 1999). The hulled rice extrusion along with thermostable α-amylase slightly
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160 decreased die pressure as a result of enzymatic hydrolysis of starch (Xu et al. 2015).
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161 4.3. Specific mechanical energy (SME)

162 Specific mechanical energy (SME) is the ratio of total mechanical energy derived from
163 conveying of material due to the screw rotation inside the extruder to the mass flow rate of feed
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164 to the extruder (Kantrong et al., 2018). The starch conversion during extrusion depends on the
165 extent of mechanical energy provided to the feed material which enhances the rupture of
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166 intermolecular hydrogen bonds. The higher starch gelatinization and product expansion occurs at
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167 high SME (Meng et al., 2010; Pardhi et al., 2016). SME is also an indicator of expansion and is
168 correlated directly with the melt temperature. The melt viscosity decreases at high temperature as
169 starch gelatinizes and the solid mass flow converts into the viscoelastic flow (Meng et al., 2010).
170 For high-temperature extrusion of high amylose rice flour, SME decreased, while it increased
171 slightly for low amylose rice flour (Guha & Ali, 2006). An increase in green gram level in feed
172 mixture increased the SME (Chakraborty & Banerjee, 2009), this could be probably due to the
173 higher protein content. Similar findings were presented for extrusion of the amaranth-rice blend

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174 (Ilo, Liu, & Berghofer, 1999). On the contrary, the extrusion of the rice grit with pea grit lowered
175 the specific energy consumption (Singh, Sekhon, & Singh, 2007). Further, the addition of apple
176 pomace to rice powder also exhibited an increase in SME (Mehraj et al., 2018)
177 The lubricating effect has been seen to increase with the rise in the feed moisture
178 resulting in low SME (Ding et al., 2005). However, at low moisture, SME tends to increase

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179 resulting in starch gelatinization and high product expansion (Ilo, Tomschik, Berghofer, &
180 Mundigler, 1996; Onwulata, Smith, Konstance, & Holsinger, 2001). Looking a bit further, a

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181 reduction in SME input due to the addition of thermostable α-amylase was observed due to the
182 enzymatic hydrolysis and degradation of starch (Xu et al. 2015). The shearing of material

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183 increases with the increase in screw speed that causes higher friction among material, screw and
184 barrel wall leading to rising in SME (Kantrong et al., 2018). Similar results were obtained for the

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185 oat and rice flour blend (Sandrin et al., 2018).
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186 5. Effect of extrusion process parameters on physicochemical properties of rice & rice
187 products
188 The extrusion process is the most promising technique for the production of the RTE and
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189 RTC products. The severity of the process and the incorporation of the different ingredients have
190 a great impact on the physicochemical properties of rice extrudate (Table 3).
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191
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192 5.1. Bulk density and expansion

193 The bulk density indicates the porosity of a product which influences package design and
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194 type of packaging material (Rathod & Annapure, 2017). The products extruded at high
195 temperature, high screw speed, and lower moisture; structural breakdown of the starch due to
196 high shearing, higher expansion, and lower density has been observed while the case is reversed
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197 for the products extruded at low temperature (Guha, Ali, & Bhattacharya, 1997; Suksomboon,
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198 Limroongreungrat, Sangnark, & Thititumjariya, 2011; Rathod & Annapure, 2017). The
199 expansion of the product is mainly dependent upon the die pressure and vapor pressure. As the
200 material exit the die opening, it expands due to the sudden release of water (Hu et al., 2018). This
201 leads to the drastic pressure drop between the die and the surrounding atmosphere (Singha et al.,
202 2018; Suksomboon et al., 2011). The lower feed moisture with higher temperature causes a
203 vapor pressure gradient which increases the pressure in the barrel (Sharma et al., 2017)

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204 On the other hand, high feed moisture alters the structure of amylopectin which reduces
205 the melt viscosity and elasticity of dough through plasticizing effect. This reduces the friction
206 between the extruder barrel, screw, and feed which affects the starch gelatinization and SME, in
207 turns, lowers the expansion and increases the bulk density (Ding et al., 2006; Giri &
208 Bandyopadhyay, 2000; Guha, Ali, & Bhattacharya, 1997; Liu et al., 2011; Pardhi et al., 2016).

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209 Higher feed rate increases the degree of fill which changes the melt rheological characteristics
210 that further enhance starch degradation and induces elastic effect with changes in density. Liu et

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211 al. (2011) observed that at low screw speed, the bulk density of texturized rice was increased.
212 This may be due to a decrease in starch gelatinization (Hagenimana et al., 2006). An increase in

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213 screw speed caused a slight decrease in expansion ratio which may be accountable to low melt
214 viscosity and high shear (Suksomboon et al., 2011).

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215 Further, the incorporation of the pre-gelatinised taro flour significantly increased the
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216 expansion ratio (Kamarudin et al., 2018). This could be credited to the increment in the starch
217 component in the blend. The addition of bean flour in rice exhibited high axial expansion than
218 the radial expansion as a result of the increase in viscous forces (Sumargo et al., 2016). The rise
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219 in the level of rice flour (0 to 50%) in the adlay-based extrudate increased the radial expansion
220 ratio while decreased the longitudinal expansion (Yang, Peng, Lui, & Lin, 2008). On the
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221 contrary, the addition of fenugreek polysaccharide exhibited the negative trend (Shirani &
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222 Ganesharanee, 2009). This effect was observed due to the presence of fibre which bound free
223 water and lowers the expansion capability (Brennan, Monro, & Brennan, 2008). Furthermore, the
224 incorporation of finger millet showed a greater effect on bulk density than sorghum in the rice-
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225 based blend because of high fibre and protein content (Seth & Rajamanickam, 2012). Similar
226 results were found for the addition of cauliflower trimmings and carrot pomace powder in rice
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227 flour ( Alam, Kaur, Khaira, & Gupta, 2015) and for the addition of tomato paste (Dehghan-
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228 Shoar, Hardacre, & Brennan, 2010).

229 Sacchetti et al. (2004) found a positive effect with the addition of chestnut flour on the
230 density. This may be due to the high sucrose content of chestnut flour that reduced the
231 expansion. A similar result was reported by El-Samahy et al. (2007) for the extrusion of cactus
232 pear-rice based extrudate. The fruit waste may contain pectin which reduces the cell wall fracture
233 by raising their extensibility and so the porosity increases (Larrea, Chang, & Martinez-Bustos,

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234 2005; Yanniotis, Petraki, & Soumpasi, 2007). The gums, on the other hand, breaks the expanding
235 matrix film in the extrudate which lowers the expanding capability and increases the bulk density
236 of extrudate. A similar result was obtained with the addition of fenugreek gum in the rice flour
237 (Ravindran et al., 2011) and sodium alginate and gum arabic for producing instant rice (Wang et
238 al., 2013).

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239 The higher protein content in the feed lowers the shear in the extruder which in turns

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240 decreases the differential pressure at the die end (Hood-Niefer & Tyler, 2010). The high protein
241 interactions form intermolecular disulphide upon heat treatment that reduces the swelling and

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242 lowers the expansion of extrudate (Nithya, Bosco, Saravanan, Mohan, & Alagusundaram, 2016).
243 The earlier studies on extrusion of brown rice and milled rice grit (Gujral, Sharma, Kumar, &
244 Singh, 2012); addition of pea grit (Singh, Sekhon, & Singh, 2007); partially defatted hazelnut

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245 flour (PDHF) & rice (Yağcı & Göğüş, 2008); and yam-rice-corn flour (Seth et al., 2015) showed
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246 similar results. Sharif et al., (2014) found that the soy fortification in waxy rice had a positive
247 effect on the product density while negative effect on the expansion. Further, the incorporation of
248 the olive pomace resulted in the higher density and lower expansion (Ying et al., 2017). This
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249 effect may be imparted by the fibre, fat and protein content of pomace. Similar findings were
250 observed by Mehraj et al., (2018)
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251
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252 5.2. Water absorption index (WAI) and water solubility index (WSI)
253 Water absorption index (WAI) is a measure of the water-holding capacity of the starch
254 after swelling in excess of water (Bryant et al., 2001; Rathod & Annapure, 2017). It is the
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255 indicator of the extruded product behavior during its interaction with water in further processing
256 and the degree of the starch conversion (Alam, Pathania, & Sharma, 2016) whereas, water-
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257 soluble index (WSI) is a measure of the degradation of starch molecules during extrusion which
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258 increases the amount of soluble polysaccharide (Altan et al., 2008; Nithya et al., 2016). The
259 availability of hydrophilic group influences the WAI (Pardhi et al., 2016). Due to starch
260 degradation, the molecular size decreases which reduce the water holding capacity of the
261 molecules which in turns decreases WAI (Guha, Ali, & Bhattacharya, 1997). The increasing
262 moisture content induces plasticizing effect which retards shearing and lowers starch
263 gelatinization and degradation thereby, increasing the WAI of rice-based extrudates (Ding et al.,
264 2005; Hagenimana et al., 2006; Suksomboon et al., 2011; Sharma et al., 2017). However, at low

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265 moisture content, excessive shearing of starch occurs which ultimately increase the solubility of
266 starch in water (Yağcı & Göğüş, 2008; Sandrin et al., 2018).
267 At high temperature and low moisture, WAI significantly decreases which can be
268 explained by the prevalence of dextrinization over gelatinization (Hagenimana et al., 2006). At
269 any temperature, high residence time (i.e. low screw speed) enhances cooking which increases

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270 WAI, whereas the high temperature and the high screw speed increases the number of soluble
271 solids (Guha, Ali, & Bhattacharya, 1997; Singha et al., 2018) by reducing the polymeric chains

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272 due to shear (Alam et al., 2016; Stojceska et al., 2009). Similar results were confirmed by
273 (Pardhi et al., 2016; Ding et al., 2005; Suksomboon et al., 2011). The extrudate having higher

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274 amylose content showed the higher value of WAI than the low amylose content (Sompong,
275 Siebenhandl-Ehn, Berghofer, & Schoenlechner, 2011). This may be because of lower amylose

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276 content which causes higher starch degradation during extrusion cooking resulting in higher
277 WSI.
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278 The increment in WAI was observed in extrusion of milled rice grit with higher starch
279 content (Singh Gujral & Singh, 2002) and for rice spaghetti Detchewa et al. (2016); whereas
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280 reduction in WAI was observed for pea grits and rice due to dilution of starch (Singh et al. 2007)
281 and rice-soy protein isolate (Noguchi et al. 1981). In a similar study of blending legume flour
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282 (yellow pea, chickpea and lentil) to rice had shown a significant rise in WSI while no effect on
283 WAI (Bouasla et al. 2017). Yang et al. (2008) found that an increase in the level of rice flour (0
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284 to 25%) significantly increased WAI while decreased WSI. Gujral et al. (2012) during extrusion
285 of the brown rice grit, reported the formation of an amylose-lipid complex which lowered WSI.
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286 Even the molecular interaction between the degraded starch, lipid, and protein may decrease the
287 solubility (Silva et al., 2009).
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288 The extrusion of rice flour with increasing level of sucrose reduces the WAI as the
289 sucrose reduces the starch gelatinization (Silva, Carvalho, & Andrade, 2009). A similar result
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290 was found for the extrusion of chestnut rice flour (Sacchetti, Pinnavaia, Guidolin, & Rosa, 2004).
291 The WAI of rice extrudate with an emulsifier, glycerol monostearate (GMS), decreased
292 significantly while with soy lecithin (LC) and sodium stearoyl lactate (SSL), a slight decrease
293 was observed (Wang et al., 2013). The GMS is lipophilic emulsifier with the nonpolar group
294 which forms a complex with amylose hydrophobic helix while LC and SSL are hydrophilic
295 emulsifiers with a polar group that forms cross-linking with starch and protein. This inhibits the

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296 leaching out of amylose during gelatinisation, swelling of starch, and reduces the water binding
297 capacity (Charutigon et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2013). The WAI of hulled rice decreased as the
298 concentration of the thermostable enzyme was increased (from 0.1 to 6%, db of starch) and the
299 reverse trend was observed for WSI (Xu et al. 2015). On the other hand, the increase in yam
300 flour had shown a significant positive effect on WAI due to rise in fiber content while the effect

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301 on WSI was not significant (Seth et al. 2015). Similar findings were confirmed by Sandrin et al.
302 (2018). The addition of apple pomace decreased the WAI due to the decrease of the starch part

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303 and increased the WSI as a result of high free sugar content (Mehraj et al. 2018).
304

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305 5.3 Colour
306 Colour of the extruded product plays important role in the acceptance among the

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307 consumers. It is largely affected by the feed matrix composition and the process condition used
308 in the preparation of the product. There are many reactions occurring during extrusion that
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309 affects the color of the extrudate. The most common reactions are non-enzymatic browning (e.g.,
310 Maillard reaction and caramelization) and pigment degradation (Ilo, Liu, & Berghofer, 1999).
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311 The most significant characteristic of the non-enzymatic browning reaction is the formation of
312 the colored compound which influences the appearance of the extruded product. The total color
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313 (△E) value does not only depend on the temperature but also the moisture content (Hagenimana
314 et al., 2006). The severity of thermal treatment markedly affects the color of the product as the
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315 temperature enhances the rate of browning reaction (Ilo, Liu, & Berghofer, 1999).
316 The high-temperature extrusion had a significant effect on the lightness of the product (da
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317 Silva Teba et al., 2017). Furthermore, they found that the rise in whey protein concentrate and
318 feed moisture influenced yellowness (b*) and redness (a*) value. The proteins and reducing
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319 sugars react at higher processing temperature promoting the browning reaction (Singha et al.,
320 2018). However, at low moisture, the high temperature enhances the Maillard reaction that
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321 changes the color of the product while at higher moisture the effect of high temperature is less
322 significant. Further, the screw speed negatively affects the color change as it impacts on the
323 residence time (Ilo, Liu, & Berghofer, 1999). On the contrary, Nithya et al. (2016) reported the
324 nonsignificant effect of screw speed and die head temperature on the colour change.
325 When the non-enzymatic reaction occurs during the processing, it leads to an increase in
326 yellowness of the product (Coutinho et al., 2013; Yağcı & Göğüş, 2008). The Maillard

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327 browning reaction significantly decreases the lightness (L*), redness (a*) and yellowness (b*)
328 values (Borah et al., 2015). The positive effect of barrel temperature on a* and b* whereas
329 negative on L* value was observed by Mehraj et al. (2018). In the same study, the exact opposite
330 trend was found when the feed moisture level increased. Rice green gram blend showed
331 significant changes in L* and b* (Bhattacharya, 1997). Bouasla et al. (2017) observed the

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332 decrease in L* and an increase in a* when legume flour added in rice flour for pasta
333 manufacturing. Similar results were obtained when fenugreek and fenugreek polysaccharide was

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334 added to rice flour (Shirani & Ganesharanee, 2009). The enzymatic extrusion of rice soybean
335 flour blend had shown a faster change in a* and b* value as compared to traditional extrusion

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336 (Xu et al., 2016). In another study on rice spaghetti, the soy protein isolate significantly
337 improved a* and b* value (Detchewa et al., 2016). On the other hand, the rice extrudate

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338 containing a high concentration of pea protein isolate exhibited a darker color (Philipp et al.
339 2017). The chestnut flour content in combination with the temperature caused browning as the
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340 high reducing sugar content promoted the milliard reaction (Sacchetti et al., 2004).
341
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342 6. Effect of extrusion process parameters on cooking characteristics of rice & rice products
343 The cooking quality of extruded product generally depends upon the gelatinization,
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344 degradation, retrogradation of starch and the rate of water penetration inside the product. It is
345 expressed in terms of cooking time, cooking loss and water absorption capacity (WAC). A large
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346 number of small pores and cracks allow easy water penetration during cooking (Detchewa,
347 Thongngam, Jane, & Naivikul, 2016). At the optimum cooking time (CT) the white core of the
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348 extruded rice products vanishes during cooking. da Silva et al., (2016) found no impact of
349 extruder temperature on the cooking time of pasta. On the contrary, cooking time was reduced at
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350 low moisture with an increase in temperature while it was increased with an increase in feed
351 moisture for lentil-rice noodle (Rathod & Annapure, 2017). The increased leaching and solubility
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352 of amylose and loss of starch crystalline structure increased WAC (Kaushal, Kumar, & Sharma,
353 2012). Wang et al. (2016) found that an increase in temperature caused a decrease in WAC, but it
354 remained constant when the screw speed increased. On the other hand, increasing the screw
355 speed and temperature decreased the cooking loss of brown rice pasta.
356 The previous studies have reported that addition of legume flour in extruded rice product
357 increased the WAC (Bouasla et al., 2017; Giuberti, Gallo, Cerioli, Fortunati, & Masoero, 2015).

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358 This may be due to denaturation of legume in hot water which increases the availability of polar
359 amino-acid groups for water uptake (Alonso, Rubio, Muzquiz, & Marzo, 2001). The cooking
360 loss is the critical factor for any RTC extruded product. It is an indicator of the disintegration of
361 the product during cooking (Larrosa et al., 2016). The negative impact of the barrel temperature
362 and positive effect of feed moisture on solid losses during cooking were discussed by Rafiq et al.

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363 (2017) for semolina brown rice legume pasta. The use of an emulsifier glycerol monostearate
364 (10g/kg) increased the cooking weight gain of rice pasta by 79% while reduced the cooking loss

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365 by 56% (Lai, 2002). Similarly, the effects of different additives on the cooking characteristics of
366 rice-based extruded products are shown in Table 4. The incorporation of these additives restricts

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367 the cooking losses of the extruded rice products to some extent.
368

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369 7. Effect of extrusion process parameters on pasting properties of rice & rice products
370 Rice starch undergoes expansion, gelatinization, and degradation during extrusion. The
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371 integrity of starch granules and gelatinization behavior can be stated by the pasting properties of
372 rice starch. The pasting profile of the extruded product provides the information regarding the
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373 arrangement of the macromolecule in the product (Barbiroli et al., 2013); the rigidity of starch
374 granules and amylose leaching (Kaushal et al., 2012). Pasting profile of the extruded product
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375 expressed in terms of pasting temperature (PT), peak viscosity (PV), hot paste viscosity (HPV),
376 cold paste viscosity (CPV), breakdown viscosity and setback viscosity. Pasting temperature (PT)
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377 is an indication of the minimum temperature at which gelatinization of the starch starts; starch
378 molecules swell by absorbing water (Kaushal et al., 2012; Marti et al., 2017). An increase in the
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379 screw speed enhances the extent of gelatinization (Guha et al., 1998). The PV, HPV and CPV
380 values generally decrease with an increase in the barrel temperature and screw speed.
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381 The decrease in the magnitude of PV reflects the greater degradation and gelatinization of
382 starch (Hagenimana et al., 2006). In fact, high PV values for the extrudates correspond to the
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383 higher fraction of ungelatinized starch while low values indicate a fraction of gelatinized starch.
384 This effect might be due to varying degrees of depolymerization and molecular entanglement as
385 a result of various processing conditions (Wang et al., 2013). Barbiroli et al. (2013) found that
386 the rice pasta prepared from extrusion cooking (Fig. 3) showed highest peak viscosity than the
387 parboiled rice flour pasta prepared by a conventional extrusion process and double extrusion.
388 This indicates the strong bonding between the starchy networks. Also, the high viscosity

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389 advocates the availability of the starch granules having the high swelling capacity (Marti et al.,
390 2010). During the holding period, the product paste exposed to high temperature and mechanical
391 shearing results in the breakdown of the amylopectin chain, i.e., amylose leaching and hence
392 decrease the viscosity (Barbiroli et al., 2013). The drop in peak viscosity indicates the increase in
393 solubility and decrease in swelling property (Laishram & Das, 2017).

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394 Low-temperature extrusion of rice flours displays higher HPV than high temperature
395 (>130°C) extrusion (Hagenimana et al., 2006). In the extrusion of cooked food materials, it has

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396 been observed that the combine effect of barrel temperature, screw speed, and moisture content
397 is significant on HPV. The CPV, on the other hand, shows the degree of starch retrogradation

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398 which occurs due to cooling. With an increasing barrel temperature, feed moisture with screw
399 speed decreased the CPV value (Wang et al., 2013). The cooling of hot pastes increases the

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400 viscosity as a result of re-association of starch (amylose) molecules (Marti et al., 2017). The
401 higher CPV value than the PV indicates the rearrangement of the starch molecule during cooling
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402 (Wang et al., 2013). Sompong et al. (2011) observed that all the extrudates prepared at high
403 moisture content showed higher values of hot paste and cold paste viscosities as compared to
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404 those extrudates prepared at low moisture content. This could be attributed to the presence of
405 high feed moisture content that decreases the stress on the granule disruption.
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406 Breakdown viscosity is the measure of the paste stability or disintegration of starch
407 granules during holding stage. Setback viscosity is the recovery of viscosity during cooling of
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408 heated starch and indicates the recrystallization of gelatinized starch. The highest setback value
409 indicates the highest tendency for retrogradation. Lai (2002) stated the effect of the emulsifier on
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410 the pasting properties of rice pasta. The addition of distilled glycerol monostearate delayed the
411 PT, increased PV and decreased the breakdown and setback viscosities while KM3000 slightly
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412 decreased the PT. The delaying in PT may be due to the formation of an emulsifier-amylose
413 complex that inhibits the swelling phenomenon. da Silva et al. (2016) reported the decrease in
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414 PV, breakdown, CPV, and setback as the moisture content increased for pasta. The extrusion
415 temperature also had a negative effect on the setback value. Xu et al. (2016) found a drop in
416 pasting properties of the traditionally and enzymatic extruded rice starch as compared to raw rice
417 starch. da Silva Teba et al. (2017) noticed the negative effect of whey protein concentrate on the
418 viscosity of the extruded samples. Sandrin et al. (2018) found that the peak viscosity of extruded

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419 samples was lower than non-processed samples. This difference may be due to the gelatinization
420 of the extruded samples.
421
422 8. Effect of extrusion process parameters on thermal properties of rice & rice products
423 Starch gelatinization is the process in which raw starch and water are subjected to heat

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424 resulting in swelling of the starch granules due to changes in its structure (Ding et al., 2006).
425 Starch usually get gelatinized or dextrinized during the extrusion process. In an extrusion

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426 cooking, high temperature and high shear processing with low moisture content thoroughly
427 disrupt the starch granules (Bryant et al., 2001). The degree of gelatinization is observed by

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428 measuring the melting enthalpy (△H) (Parada, Aguilera, & Brennan, 2011). The rice starch
429 extrudate had shown lower enthalpy change as compared to native samples after extrusion as a

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430 result of gelatinization (Wang et al., 2017). Steam treatment decreased the gelatinization
431 enthalpy of rice pasta as compared to that without steam treatment after extrusion (Lai, 2002).
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432 The fine crystalline order of the amylopectin formed due to longer chain creates a kinetic barrier
433 and consume more thermal energy for disruption. The high temperature is required for the
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434 dissociation of double-helices which otherwise cause a delay in gelatinization (chai, Thompson,
435 & Boyer, 1993). The higher gelatinization temperature attributes to the requirement of extra
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436 energy to start the gelatinization process (Martínez, Rosell, & Gómez, 2014). The addition of
437 stabilized rice bran in rice starch elevated the gelatinization temperature; promoted the starch
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438 gelatinization and changed the crystalline order of the extrudate (Wang et al., 2017).
439 The degree of gelatinization increases with the increase in temperature and feed rate and
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440 decreases with increasing feed moisture (Ilo, Tomschik, Berghofer, & Mundigler, 1996). Guha et
441 al., (1998) reported that gelatinization (99.0%) of the rice flour extrudate was reached a
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442 maximum at temperature 100̊C and screw speed 400 rpm. This could be due to a higher shear
443 force applied at higher screw speed. Wang et al. (2013) found that the degree of gelatinization
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444 decreased as the emulsifier was added while increased with the addition of thickeners. During
445 extrusion, a hydrophobic group and a hydrophilic group of the emulsifier forms a complex
446 product with rice components which avoids starch degradation, while thickeners increase friction
447 between barrel and feed; resulting in an increase in thermal energy and degree of gelatinization.
448 Xu et al. (2016) reported that the extent of gelatinization increased with the increase in barrel

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449 temperature up to 105°C at low moisture level (~20%), and then subsequent decrease was
450 reported with further increase of temperature.
451
452 9. Effect of extrusion process parameters on textural properties of rice & rice products
453 The textural properties of the extruded product are dependent upon its structural

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454 characteristics and are strongly related to the sensory attributes of the extruded product. The
455 extrusion cooking markedly affects the hardness, crispness, adhesiveness, chewiness, and

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456 springiness of the rice-based extruded products. The hardness is the measure of the force
457 required for a probe to penetrate through the extrudate to break or collapse it. It is an important

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458 human sensory perception and is related to product expansion and its structure (Yang et al.,
459 2008).

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460 Chanvrier et al. (2015) reported a positive effect of moisture content and a negative effect
461 of temperature on compression force extruded rice product. This corresponds to the porosity of
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462 the product. Similar findings were presented by Ding et al., (2005); Liu et al. ( 2011) and
463 Kantrong et al. (2018). The higher feed moisture content makes the extrudate dense leading to
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464 higher hardness (Kantrong et al. 2018). Increasing the feed rate at lower feed moisture
465 significantly increases the hardness of extrudate (Ding et al., 2006; Kanojia et al. 2016). Pardhi
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466 et al. (2016) reported that at high screw speed and high temperature, the hardness of the
467 extrudate yields low. The feed composition also affects the hardness of extrudates. An increase
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468 in the percentage of broken rice in blend decreased the hardness of expanded product. The
469 addition of protein to the blend further resulted in less expansion and increased the hardness of
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470 the final extruded product (Chaiyakul et al., 2009). Similar results were obtained for the addition
471 of fiber (Alam, Pathania, & Sharma, 2016; Mendonça, Grossmann, & Verhé, 2000; Yanniotis et
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472 al., 2007). Wang et al. (2013) found that the hardness of the reformed rice was increased due to
473 the addition of glycerol monostearate (GMS) in the blend.
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474 Crispness is the characteristic of the extruded product which is related to the low-density
475 cellular structure, i.e., brittleness which creates a high-pitched noise when the product is
476 subjected to fracture. The increase in the moisture content of feed decreases the crispness of the
477 rice extrudate because of the reduced conversion of starch (Ding et al., 2005). However, the
478 temperature has a positive influence on the crispness of the extrudate (Ding et al., 2006). But at
479 higher extrusion temperature in the extrusion of carrot pomace and rice, the larger air pockets

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480 were produced which had lesser number of the thin cell wall that decreased the crispness of the
481 product (Dar, Sharma, & Kumar, 2014). On the contrary, higher screw speed in combination of
482 the higher temperature increased the crispness of the mushroom rice snack (Kantrong et al.
483 2018). Instead, the protein incorporation to the blend leads to compressed bubble growth with a
484 dense structure and lower crispness of the extrudate (Chinnaswamy & Hanna, 1990a). Ravindran

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485 et al. (2011) found that the extrudate having fenugreek gum was crispier than the rice extrudate
486 having gaur gum and locust bean gum.

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487 Wang et al. (2013) reported that the adhesiveness of the reformed rice was increased with
488 the addition of glycerol monostearate (GMS) up to 0.5%, however, its addition decreased the

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489 adhesiveness. Adhesiveness of pasta was increased with incorporation of legumes flours viz.
490 lentil flour (Bouasla et al., 2017). Further, chewiness decreased with decreasing screw speed.

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491 This indicates that at lower screw speed and temperature the continuity of starch network
492 destroyed due to high extrusion pressure that ultimately caused lowering of chewiness (Meng et
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493 al., 2010).
494
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495 10. Effect of extrusion process parameters on the microstructure of rice & rice products
496 The micrographs of the extruded product reveal the information related to the presence of
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497 a fracture, the size of the pores, space between the cells, and structural orientation. Wang et al.
498 (2016) reported a development of porous and rough structure after the extrusion of rice starch
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499 and its blend with stabilized rice bran. The crystallinity of starch after extrusion was lost,
500 probably due to the development of fiber-starch and amylose-lipid complex. Norajit et al. (2011)
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501 found the presence of large pores in extruded rice and the pore size reduced with the addition of
502 hemp powder in rice and also revealed the presence of fat particles around the network (Fig. 4).
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503 The development of fracture in the product may be because of expulsion of the moisture from the
504 protein and carbohydrate matrix (Dar, Sharma, & Kumar, 2014). The extrusion at higher
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505 moisture content decreases the porosity of the product. A very few air voids in the extruded
506 products indicate the low capacity to evaporate moisture and expansion of the material. The
507 extrudate produced at higher temperature and moisture showed a structure with large air voids
508 (de Mosqueda et al., 1986; Von Borries-Medrano, Jaime-Fonseca, & Aguilar-Méndez, 2016). An
509 increase in extrusion temperature decreased the mean cell wall thickness which was increased
510 with an increase in moisture (Chanvrier et al., 2015). The homogenous pores formed in the pellet

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511 of pre-gelatinized taro and rice broken (Kamarudin et al., 2018). In another study with low
512 amylose rice starch produced smaller pores and thin cell as compared to high amylose rice starch
513 (Vanier et al., 2016). Addition of egg albumin formed a compact and homogenous structure of
514 rice-based gluten-free pasta (Phongthai et al., 2017). The gelation property of egg albumin
515 reorganized the macromolecule network in a compact structure. The change in the structure with

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516 the addition of pea protein isolate is well described by Philipp et al. (2017).
517

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518 11. Effect of extrusion process parameters on nutritional properties of rice & rice products
519 The both primary and secondary extrusion parameters significantly affect the nutritional

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520 quality of the extruded products. The changes in the nutritional component of the extruded
521 products are markedly noticeable.

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522
523 11.1. Carbohydrate
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524 The carbohydrate undergoes major changes under the influence of extrusion parameters.
525 Starch is one of the major carbohydrate and an important structural constituent in many rice
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526 products. Starch is given special considerations in food applications because it improves the
527 process convenience as well as the quality of products (Zheng et al., 2018). The major changes in
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528 starch include gelatinization, dextrinization, and depolymerization due to the extrusion cooking.
529 The extrusion process can further break the crystallinity and structure of starch molecules
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530 (Chinnaswamy & Hanna, 1990). The gelatinization of starch leads to the expansion of extruded
531 products and increase in gas-holding. During the gelatinization process, intermolecular hydrogen
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532 bonds are broken with the disruption of crystalline structure and enhancement of water absorbing
533 capacity. Also, the starch granules swells expansively with the expulsion of amylose molecules
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534 from the swollen starch granules (Wang et al., 2018). This leads to a formation of continuous
535 starch paste matrix of entangled amylose molecules (Ring, 1985) with suitable viscoelastic
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536 property and shear-thinning behavior (Evans and Haisman, 1980). This property of starch further
537 makes it more appropriate for hot-extrusion 3D printing (HE-3DP) (Chen et al.,2019).
538 The combined effect of temperature, moisture content and screw speed has been observed
539 to reduce the carbohydrate content from 53% in the native flour to 1–8% in the final extruded
540 products due to breakdown of amylopectin into intermediate molecular weight material
541 (Chanvrier et al., 2015). The formation of starch-lipid complexes was observed to increase with

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542 the increase of barrel temperature and was strongly reliant on the feed moisture content (De Pilli,
543 Derossi, Talja, Jouppila, & Severini, 2011). The extrusion process qualitatively modifies the
544 starch and addition of ingredients rich in protein and fibers are further reported to enhance the
545 nutritional quality of the rice-based extruded product (Nascimento et al. 2017). During extrusion
546 of low amylose rice flour and pomace (seeded banana and carombola), it was observed that the

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547 molten starch stick to the cellulosic wall and formed a complex wall that hindered the expansion
548 (Borah et al., 2016). Arribas et al. (2017) found the increment in total starch content of the rice

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549 extrudate, because of the formation of reducing sugars as a result of severe shearing. Ferreira et
550 al. (2016) suggested the use of gluten-free flour i.e. rice and other in the food formulation to

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551 produce a product with lower energy density. The solubility of solids was retarded in noodles
552 prepared with high amylose content (Jeong et al. 2016). This could be due to the enhanced starch

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553 interaction during heating and cooling that formed the strong structure.
554 The starch digestibility significantly increases in the extrusion process, because of the
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555 severe treatment at low moisture cause the breakdown of covalent hydrogen bonds (Parada et al,
556 2011). At high screw speed, amylose-lipid complexes, starch-protein complex, or resistant
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557 starch may form which may decrease the starch digestibility (Eerlingen & Delcour, 1995). de
558 Mosqueda et al. (1986) reported that during extrusion, the starch-lipid complex protects amylose
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559 from degradation. Starch digestibility increases with the increase in the barrel temperature as it
560 promotes the starch gelatinization (Guha, Ali, & Bhattacharya, 1997). Rathod & Annapure
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561 (2017) observed the higher digestibility of starch than protein during extrusion of lentil based
562 rice noodle. The structure of legume starch plays important role in the digestion of starch. The
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563 extrusion cooking at a higher temperature even modifies the digestibility characteristics of the
564 starch material. The digestibility of flours extruded at 100°C was significantly slower than those
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565 extruded at 125 and 150°C (Bryant et al., 2001).

566
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567 11.2. Protein

568 Proteins are heat labile compounds and are significantly affected by the extrusion
569 cooking. The alkali-soluble proteins are degraded more at an extrusion temperature of 135°C and
570 150°C than at 120°C (Noguchi et al., 1981). Moisture content, on the other hand, positively
571 affects the protein aggregation and negatively affects the interaction of the protein (Chanvrier et
572 al., 2015). High moisture level leads to the formation of protein aggregates by cross-linking of

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573 disulphide bonds which modify the starch-protein morphology in the extrudate. At constant feed
574 moisture, the protein content directly correlates to the hardness, crispness, and brittleness of the
575 extruded products (Chaiyakul, Jangchud, Jangchud, Wuttijumnong, & Winger, 2008). The lysine
576 content of rice protein reduced by 17% during the extrusion of batters (with 15% moisture) at
577 135°C for IR45, 13% for IR43 at 150°C and 11% for IR45 at 150°C. The cysteine was also

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578 affected, but no effects on methionine content were reported (Eggum, Juliano, Ibabao, & Perez,
579 1986; Noguchi et al., 1981).

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580 Extrusion leads to several molecular interactions like non-covalent molecular interaction,
581 covalent cross-linking, protein-lipid-starch interactions (Chanvrier et al., 2015; Day & Swanson,

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582 2013). In addition, it may be possible that the protein form a matrix encapsulating starch
583 granules and retarding its interaction with enzymes (Parada et al., 2011). This corresponds to a

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584 significant reduction in protein solubility of the extrudate (Arribas et al. 2017). Arribas et al.,
585 (2017) reported the decrease of soluble protein in the extruded rice pea flour blend as compared
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586 to the non-extruded blend. This may be due to the formation of disulphide bonds and the protein-
587 sugar complex. da Silva Teba et al., (2017) found a significant increase in amino acid after
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588 extrusion while their losses due to the Maillard reaction. Further, they revealed that the severe
589 extrusion (low moisture and high temperature) caused greater loss of amino acids. Also, the
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590 lower shearing and dissipation of mechanical energy as a result of higher feed moisture causes
591 higher retention of amino acids (da Silva et al. 2016). In addition, the mechanical shear disrupts
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592 the protein molecules, improving the protein digestibility. Moreover, the significant increase in
593 vitro protein digestibility was observed for the rice pea and carob flour blend (Arribas et al.,
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594 2017). The possible reason may be the protein denaturation and inactivation of antinutritional
595 factors (e.g., protease inhibitors).
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596
597
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598 11.3. Lipid

599 Lipids play a major role in extrusion cooking as they act as plasticizers or emulsifiers and
600 provide an appropriate texture and stickiness to the extrudate. The effects of extrusion
601 parameters on the lipid content of rice have been studied by several researchers. The reduction of
602 lipid content by 15% was observed due to lipid-protein complexes formation in fish and rice
603 flour extrudates when temperature increased from 100 to 200°C (Tumuluru, Sokhansanj,

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604 Bandyopadhyay, & Bawa, 2013). The high temperature causes oxidation of unsaturated fatty
605 acids to lipid hydroperoxides that lead to lowering of lipids in the final product (Van Hoan,
606 Mouquet-Rivier, & Treche, 2010). The increase in the extrusion temperature converts the lipids
607 into liquid oil and enhances the migration of the oil. This is because of the combined effect of
608 shear stress and high pressure that causes the expulsion of oil (Sandrin et al., 2018). In addition,

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609 the complex formation of lipid with amylose alters the structure and texture of the extruded
610 products. Monoglycerides and free fatty acids mostly form complexes when added to the high-

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611 amylose starch feed. This is attributed to the disappearance of lipid in the extrusion process.
612 However, the formation of the lipid-amylose complex is dependent upon the extrusion

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613 processing conditions and nature of starch and lipid (Arribas et al., 2017). The low moisture
614 content (19%) and high temperature (110–140°C) induced the interaction between stearic acid

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615 and starch and complex formation (Bhatnagar & Hanna, 1994). The moisture content decreases
616 the lipid content due to the plasticization effect of water. However, when the moisture content is
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617 increased, the viscosity of the blends decreased in the barrel leading to the reduction of die
618 pressure and accordingly most lipids were lost with the fat-rich materials. The extrusion of high
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619 lipid (over 5-6%) food hinders the performance of extruder by reducing the slip within the barrel
620 that ultimately reduces the torque (Camire, 2000).
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621
622 11.4. Antioxidants and total phenolic compounds (TPCs)
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623 Phenolic compounds present in any product are responsible for the antioxidant activity.
624 The availability of free and bound antioxidant activities in rice bran polished rice, and brown rice
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625 are however limited. The extrusion process parameters significantly affect their contents in the
626 final extrudates. In contrast, there is a report on the retention of some antioxidant compounds
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627 during extrusion of rice (Ohtsubo et al., 2005). The extrusion of the brown rice flours (IR-8, PR-
628 106 and Sharbati) at a temperature 100°C more significantly lowered the antioxidant activity and
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629 total phenolic content (TPC) (Gujral et al., 2012). Similarly, extrusion process with the feed
630 moisture (14, 18, and 22%) and screw speed (300, 350 and 400 rpm) significantly reduced the
631 antioxidant activity of extruded snacks from germinated brown rice flour (Chalermchaiwat,
632 Jangchud, & Jangchud, 2015). Further, TPC is affected by the feed moisture content and, to
633 some extent by the screw speed. The lower moisture and higher screw speed significantly
634 retained the TPC (Chalermchaiwat et al. 2015). The phenolic compounds are also reported to

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635 undergo decarboxylation at a higher temperature and moisture values (Brennan, Brennan,
636 Derbyshire, & Tiwari, 2011; Dlamini, Taylor, & Rooney, 2007). The total phenolics increased
637 significantly at 12-18% moisture content during the extrusion of rice-based snacks at 150-175°C
638 (Yağcı & Göğüş, 2009). On the contrary, Xu et al. (2016) reported the increase in the TPC with
639 an increase in moisture content at a lower temperature during the enzymatic extrusion of rice

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640 flour. The reason could be the improvement in enzymatic activity at higher moisture that created
641 the milder extrusion process condition. The total phenolic content increased due to expulsion of

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642 bound phenolics from the cell matrix of the materials (Yağcı & Göğüş, 2009) while the slight
643 reduction may be attributed to the alteration in the molecular structure of the phenolic

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644 compounds (Altan, McCarthy, & Maskan, 2009). Ti et al. (2015) reported the decrease in free
645 gallic acid (45%) and an increase in the free chlorogenic acid (27.1%) after extrusion. In

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646 addition, the significant loss of bound phenolic content was observed. On the other hand, with
647 the increase in temperature and decrease of die pressure, the soluble free and total phenolic acids
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648 rose significantly with the transformation of the soluble free and soluble conjugated phenolic
649 acid into insoluble bound phenolic acid (Hu et al., 2018). In another study conducted by Rani et
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650 al. (2018), the increment in the TPC and antioxidant activity of fermented flour after extrusion
651 was observed which may be accountable to the application of high temperature and pressure.
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652
653 11.5. Vitamins and minerals
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654 The stability of vitamins varies during the extrusion cooking due to variation in their
655 chemical composition and structure (Killeit, 1994; Singh, Gamlath, & Wakeling, 2007). The loss
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656 of riboflavin has been observed to increase with the increase in feed moisture and the screw
657 speed (Harper, 1988). During the extrusion, the retention of B vitamins around 44-62% in rice-
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658 based snacks and the higher stability of vitamin B2 and B3 were found (Athar et al., 2006).
659 Vitamins D and K are fairly stable as compared to vitamins A and E among the fat-soluble
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660 vitamins, with the exposure to oxygen and heat (Killeit, 1994). Thus, the vitamins are degraded
661 during extrusion cooking with the increased temperature, screw speed, feed moisture, feed rate
662 and die diameter. The minerals have been found to be heat stable during the processing of
663 various food matrices (Singh, Gamlath, & Wakeling, 2007). However, the extrusion of brown
664 rice and corn flour significantly enhanced the mineral content of the pasta (da Silva et al., 2016).
665 The extrusion process further enhances their absorption in the body by the removal of

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666 antinutritional factors like phytates and condensed tannins that form insoluble complexes with
667 the minerals and hinder the absorption (Alonso et al., 2001). The extrusion cooking increases the
668 amount of iron in all the cases. However, the effects other minerals still unknown which
669 necessitates further research for the mineral fortified extruded products (Singh, Gamlath, &
670 Wakeling, 2007). Singh et al., (2000) reported that the extrusion process significantly increased

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671 the iron, calcium, phosphorous and copper in a blend of wheat and rice flour. Further, they found
672 a significant reduction in the riboflavin, thiamine, and lysine. Thiamine content may be reduced

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673 due to heat denaturation and effect of shearing. The exposure of the riboflavin to light might also
674 cause a reduction in addition to shearing effect. On the other hand, Liu et al., (2011) found the

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675 higher retention of thiamin and riboflavin at higher feed moisture content. This effect may be due
676 to less shearing and drop in dissipative energy.

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677 The bioavailability of nutrients significantly affected by the antinutrients and plant toxins
678 (trypsin inhibitor, oxalic acid, phytic acid, and cyanide) present in the food produce (Kaushal et
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679 al., 2012). Extrusion of the wheat-rice (20:80 ratio) blend had shown complete destruction of
680 trypsin inhibitor. The increase in wheat flour part significantly decreased the inactivation rate,
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681 probably due to reduced heat treatment (Singh et al., 2000). Rathod & Annapure (2017) stated
682 that the reduction in antinutritional factors through extrusion and positively influenced the
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683 nutritional value of lentil based noodle.

684
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685 11.6. Fiber content

686 Dietary fiber plays important role in the human diet as it subdues the risk of many
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687 diseases such as colon cancer, constipation, diabetes, etc. (Arribas et al. 2017). It’s incorporation
688 in different food formulations benefit in the lowering of the calorific value which controls the
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689 weight gain (Arribas et al. 2017). In extrusion processing, the temperature and screw speed have
690 shown a profound effect on the fiber (Alam et al., 2016). The insoluble fibers in cauliflower
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691 trimming powder were got converted into soluble fibre due to extrusion (Stojceska et al., 2008).
692 The increase in the bulk density and SME have been generally observed with the addition of
693 fibers (Beck et al., 2018). However, total dietary fiber content decreased due to extrusion
694 (Arribas et al. 2017). In another study, Liu et al. (2018) found that the higher dietary fiber
695 content of the formulation significantly reduced the rapidly digestible starch (RDS) content of
696 extruded rice. When there is no addition of protein in the fiber content, the fiber gets embedded

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697 in the starch matrix. Also, in combination with the protein, it affects the expansion capacity of
698 the material as well as cell wall thickness (Beck et al., 2018). da Silva et al. (2016) reported that
699 the increase in fiber content in feed formulation lowers the starch and ultimately the starch-lipid
700 complexion.
701

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702 12. Effect of extrusion processing and co-ingredients on sensory acceptability of rice-based
703 extrudates

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704 The quality of the extruded product is dependent on the material characteristics and the
705 extrusion processing (primary and secondary) parameters. Chalermchaiwat et al. (2015) reported

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706 that feed moisture significantly affected the sensory acceptability of extrudate as compared to
707 screw speed. Further, they found that the overall shape acceptability of the extrudate prepared at

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708 14 % moisture was significantly lower than those extruded at 18-22%. Instead, Ibanoglu et al.
709 (2006) stated that the negligible effect of the extrusion process on overall acceptability and
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710 flavour of the gluten-free snack. Borah et al. (2016) found an inherent color change in the
711 extrudate of rice and seeded banana and carambola pomace with improved texture, mouthfeel,
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712 and appearance as compared to rice extrudate. These changes may be due to degradation of the
713 available starch molecules. The increase in screw speed had changed the appearance, and
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714 textural attributes of the pea fortified rice extrudates (Philipp et al., 2017). Apart from the
715 processing conditions, incorporation of the different ingredients influenced the sensory attributes.
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716 The intermediate chestnut flour content in the rice-based extrudate indicated higher acceptability
717 for flavour, but the excess amount made the extrudate bitter (Sacchetti et al., 2004). The bitter
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718 taste may be developed due to the Maillard reaction. In another study, fenugreek polysaccharide
719 addition to chick pea-rice flour contributed the crunchy texture to extrudate (Shirani &
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720 Ganesharanee, 2009). Bouasla et al. (2017) found that the increase in legume flour in rice flour
721 blend decreased the overall acceptability of pasta. Alam et al., (2016) found that the overall
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722 acceptability of the extrudate considerably affected by the die temperature, screw speed, and
723 fibre content.
724
725 13. Conclusion
726 Food extrusion technology has gained importance for the development of various novel
727 products. Rice has proved to be an integral constituent for the manufacture of various nutritious

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728 and healthy extruded products. Despite the potential to produce a high-quality product, the
729 severe operating conditions and improper food formulation may lead to a nutritional loss. The
730 optimum selection and control of the extruder processing conditions and ingredient formulations
731 could be useful for the development of a high-quality product with better sensory attributes and
732 consumer acceptability. The primary and secondary extrusion parameters significantly affected

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733 the physicochemical, cooking, textural, pasting, thermal and nutritional properties of the rice-
734 based extruded products. This information can help predict the behavior and performance of

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735 extruder machine and rice-based products concerning various consumer demands including
736 nutritional and health benefits.

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737
738 14. Future perspective

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739 The demand for healthy, nutritious and attractive ready-to-eat extruded snack food with good
740 physical and sensory attributes is increasing worldwide. The specially designed extrusion process
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741 and food formulations can meet the consumer's demand. The value addition and byproduct
742 utilization in the extruded product have a vast opportunity in the future. There are many areas
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743 that require further research regarding rice and rice-based extruded products. Some key points
744 can be derived from the present study:
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745 i. The raw materials/ingredients (rice and others) affect the performance of the extruder. The
746 study may be conducted for revealing the impact of the extrusion secondary process
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747 parameters on the product and correlating it to develop a high-quality product with good
748 sensory and nutritional attributes.
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749 ii. The use of the extruded flours of the pre-germinated raw ingredients may add bio-
750 functional components like gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) and dietary fibers in the
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751 extruded products.

752 iii. The severity of the extrusion process destroys the nutritional components (vitamins &
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753 minerals) of the final product. The modification in the extrusion process parameters can be
754 done to retain them.
755 iv. The detailed study on fortification of minerals & vitamins along with their interactions can
756 explore a vast opportunity in RTE fortified foods.
757
758 Acknowledgments

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759 The authors are thankful to the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Government of India for
760 the funding.
761
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Table 1
Extruded rice and rice-based products produced under various extrusion process conditions.
Extrusion condition

PT
Barrel
Product Ingredients Feed moisture Screw speed References
temperature
(%) (rpm)
(°C)

RI
Single-screw extruded products
Floating fish pellets Rice, Taro 79-100 40 150 (Kamarudin., 2018)

SC
Extruded flour Rice, Whey protein concentrate 80 16-23 - (da Silva Teba., 2017)
Gluten free pasta Brown rice 63.3-96.8 26.6-43.6 80 (Silva et al., 2016)
Rice pasta Rice 120 40 - (Barbiroli et al., 2013)

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Amaranth-enriched, gluten-free rice Parboiled milled rice, Amaranth Seed 25-120 40 - (Cabrera-Chávez et al., 2012)
pasta

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Instant rice Rice 30 - 70 28 - 36 150 -300 (Wang et al., 2013)
Ready-to-eat snack Whole corn, Brown rice 175 14 150 (Pastor-Cavada et al., 2011)
Snack Soybean flour, Purple rice 190 15-19 350 (Suksomboon et al., 2011)

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Rice-grit snack Rice grit, Durum flour, Partially 150-175 12-18 200-280 (Yağcı & Göğüş, 2008)
defatted hazelnut flour and Fruit waste

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Adlay based extrudates Adlay, Rice 140 - 50 (Yang, Peng, Lui, & Lin, 2008)
Cactus Pear rice based extrudate Orange yellow and Red cactus pear 100-160 16 250 (El-Samahy et al. , 2007)

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fruit, Rice
Rice vermicelli Rice flour and Modified starch 70-110 30 20-40 (Charutigon et al., 2008)
Rice grit extrudate Rice grit, Pea 130-170 18-24 100 (Singh, Sekhon, & Singh, 2007)
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Chestnut-Rice flour based snack Chestnut flour, Rice flour 90-120 35 80 (Sacchetti et al., 2004)
Black Rice pasta Balck rice, Joha rice, Egg white powder 35 35 100 (Lai, 2002)
Twin-screw extruded products
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Extruded black rice Black rice 90-120 - 150 (Hu et al., 2018)
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Pea fortified rice snack Rice, Pea protein isolate 130 19-23 400-600 (Philipp et al., 2017)
Extruded snacks Brown rice grits 130–170 14-18 400–550 (Pardhi et al., 2016)
Rice noodles Rice flour 90 35 200 (Jeong et al., 2016)
Brown rice pasta Brown japonica and indica rice flour, 100-120 12 80 - 120 (Wang et al., 2016)
soy protein isolate, gaur gum, sodium
alginate, xanthan gum, monoglyceride
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Pinto bean ready-to-eat snack Brown rice and Pinto bean flour 80-110 17.2-20.1 300 (Sumargo et al., 2016)
Soy-fortified millet based snack Rice, Soybean, Finger millet 184 18 285 (Seth & Rajamanickam, 2012)
Pea-rice based extruded product Pea, Rice, Gums 118 Water feed 306 (Ravindran et al., 2011)
rate 0.39 l/h

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Cookies Rice and Black bean flour 120-125 13.58-16 378 (Bassinello et al., 2011)
Energy bar Hempseed powder and Rice flour 60-130 20 200 (Norajit et al., 2011)

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Gluten free snack Rice, Soy, Teff flour, Milk powder, 80-150 - 200-350 (Stojceska et al., 2009)
Potato, Corn starch, Cran berry,
Beetroot, Apple, Carrot

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Rice flour extrudate Rice flour, Sucrose 70-100 27.9-42.1 150 (Silva et al., 2009)
Low GI extruded product Rice, Chick pea, Fenugreek 118 Water feed 300 (Shirani & Ganesharanee, 2009)
rate 0.42 kg/h

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Gluten free snack Rice, Maize, Chickpea 110 13-15 220-340 (Ibanoǧlu et al., 2006)

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Rice based expanded snack Rice 86.4-153.6 11.27-24.73 132.3-367.7 (Ding et al., 2005)
Ready to eat Snack Corn meal, Rice or Potato flour, Sweet 130-144 13-19.6 300 (Onwulata et al., 2001)
whey solids or Whey protein
concentrate

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Mineral fortified snack Wheat bran and Broken rice flour 93-97 - 300 (Singh et al., 2000)

Table 2

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Effect of co-ingredients on characteristics of rice based extruded products.

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Co-ingredients Function References
A) Cereal
Wheat i. Wheat protein provides viscoelastic network and optimal dough properties (Mariotti et al., 2012)
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ii. Impart its characteristic taste, colour, and to ease the digestion process (Kadan et al., 2003)
Maize i. Enhances nutritional quality and palatability of the extruded product (Miller, 1990)
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ii. Utilized for gluten-free pasta and other products (Mariotti et al., 2012; Padalino et al.,
2011)
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Millets i. Provides better expansion ratio, water solubility index, water absorption index, water (Geetha et al., 2016)
holding capacity, colour and bulk density.
ii. Improves the sensory characteristics
B) Legumes
Soybean i. Reduces expansion and increases hardness of the final product (Li et al., 2005; De Mesa et al., 2009)
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ii. Provide a well-balanced protein intake, along with other functional, nutritional, and (Singh et al., 2014)
health benefits
Pea i. Low glycemic index product with better nutritional and organoleptic properties (Ravindran et al., 2011)
ii. Protein enriched product (Singh et al., 2007)

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Pinto bean i. Decreases rapidly digestible starch and increases resistant starch (Sumargo et al., 2016)
ii. Increases In vitro protein digestibility and decreases the starch digestibility

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Black bean i. Increases hardness and fracturability values. (Bassinello et al., 2011)
C) Vegetable

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Potato i. Potato starch has better gelling, thickening, stabilisation and gelatinizing property (Eliasson & Gudmundsson, 1996);
ii. Provides firmness to the product (Waterschoot et al., 2014)
Carrot Pomace i. Increase the dietary fibres (Kumar et al., 2010)

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ii. Adds β-carotene and ascorbic acid
Amaranth i. Improves mineral and fibre content (Cabrera-Chávez et al., 2012)

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ii. Reduces protein solubility and improves protein digestibility
Cauliflower i. Adds fibers and antioxidants (Alam et al., 2016)

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Fenugreek i. Imparts bitter taste above 2% level (Shirani & Ganesharanee, 2009)
Fenugreek polysaccharide i. a slight reduction in radial expansion while increase in longitudinal expansion (Shirani & Ganesharanee, 2009)
ii. Low GI product

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D) Fruit

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Cactus pear i. Adds nutraceuticals properties (El-Samahy et al., 2007)
ii. Reduces expansion, water soluble index and water absorption index
iii. Increases bulk density, ash content and colour attributes
Chestnut i. Decreases the gelatinisation and expansion (Sacchetti et al., 2004)
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ii. Favours the browning reaction
Hazelnut i. Increase in bulk density and water solubility index, (Yağcı & Göğüş, 2009)
ii. Decrease in porosity and water absorption index of the extruded snacks.
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E) Gums i. Addition of gaur gum & locust gum up to 5% reduces the hardness while above 5% (Ravindran et al., 2011)
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(Gaur gum, Locust bean increases the hardness

gum, Fenugreek gum) ii. Addition of fenugreek gum increases the hardness & crispiness at all levels

F) Emulsifiers i. Improves cooking characteristics (reduces cooking losses and increases water gain) (Lai, 2002)
Glyceryl mono-stearate ii. Reduces the stickiness of product
(GMS) and Commercial iii. GMS imparts a creamy white colour to product while KM3000 imparts yellow colour
emulsifier (KM 3000) to product
iv. Retards the gelatinization
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Table 3

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Effect of extrusion process parameters on the extruder operation parameters and physicochemical properties of rice extrudate.
Process parameter BT FM SS FR References

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Mass Temperature ++ - + + (Pansawat et al., 2008)
Torque - - - + (Guha et al., 1997)
Pressure - - - + (Guha et al., 1997)

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SME - - + - (Guha et al., 1997; Singh et al., 2007)
Bulk density -- ++ - + (Ding et al., 2005; Giri & Bandyopadhyay, 2000; Guha et al., 1997; Liu et al., 2011;

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Rathod & Annapure, 2017; Suksomboon et al., 2011)
Expansion ++ -- + + (Ding et al., 2005; Liu et al., 2011; Suksomboon et al., 2011)
WAI -- ++ - + (Ding et al., 2005; Liu et al., 2011; Pardhi et al., 2016; Suksomboon et al., 2011)

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WSI ++ -- + - (Ding et al., 2005; Hagenimana et al., 2006; Pardhi et al., 2016)

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Total colour change (△E) ++ -- - - (Hagenimana et al., 2006; Ilo et al.,1999)
*BT: Barrel temperature; FM: Feed moisture; SS: Screw speed; FR: Feed rate;

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+, – , ++ & -- denote slight positive, slight negative, positive and negative effects, respectively
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Table 4
Effect of different additives on cooking characteristics of the rice extrudates.

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Ingredient Levels used (%) Cooking loss (%) Cooking yield ratio Hardness / Firmness (N) References
Rice bran protein concentrate 6–9 7.50 – 7.70 1.79 – 1.93 1.016 – 1.018 (Phongthai et al., 2017)

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Rice proteins isolate 10 6.69 - - (Kim et al., 2014)
Egg albumin 6-9 4.38 - 4.63 2.01 – 2.02 1.182 – 2.036 (Phongthai et al., 2017)
16 0.85 - 1.10 2.60 – 2.91 3.010 – 4.120 (Ferreira et al., 2016)

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3.5 - 6.0 4.70 - 8.41 2.62 – 2.92 0.390 – 1.150 (Sarawong et al., 2014)

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Egg white powder 14.68 3.19 – 9.55 2.40 – 3.54 - (Laishram & Das, 2017)
Whey Protein 6–9 5.36 - 5.42 2.00 - 2.02 1.706 – 2.190 (Phongthai et al., 2017)
Soy protein concentrate 6–9 6.45 - 6.92 1.83 - 1.84 0.810 – 1.060 (Phongthai et al., 2017)

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2.5 – 10 17.0 - 21.8 2.46 – 2.54 1.830 – 2.230 (Detchewa et al., 2016)
Soy protein isolate 8 6.7 - 11.2 1.12 - 1.21 18.46 – 23.41 (Wang et al., 2016)
Glycerol monostearate (GMS) 1 11.0 - 13.0 1.55 – 1.66 1.340 – 1.450 (Lai, 2002)

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Commercial emulsifier 1 18.0 – 22.0 1.10 – 1.35 1.850 – 2.140 (Lai, 2002)

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(KM3000) EP
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(a) (b)

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Fig. 1. Extrusion technology for the production of rice-based products (a) Single-screw extruder (b) Twin-screw extruder (c) Types of
die openings (d) Co- & counter-rotating screw.

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Fig. 2. Rice-based extruded products manufactured by using different co-ingredients.
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Fig. 3. Pasting properties of (a) P1- pasta of rice flour, (b) P2- pasta of parboiled rice flour using conventional extrusion process, and
(c) P3- pasta of parboiled rice flour using double extrusion process (Source: Barbiroli et al., 2013).
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(a) (b) (c) (d)

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(e) (f) (g) (h)
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Fig. 4. Effect of extrusion temperature (a) 110 °C, (b) 120 °C, (c) 130 °C, & (d) 140 °C (Dar et al., 2014) and portion of hempseed (e)
Non-defatted hemp, (f) 20 % defatted hemp, (g) 30 % defatted hemp, & (h) 40 % defatted hemp on the microstructure of rice-based
extruded product (Norajit et al., 2011).
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Highlights
• The review includes the effect of extrusion on the quality of the rice-based products.
• The effect of incorporation of co-ingredients along with rice has been explained.
• The extrusion process parameters and selection of the ingredients can be obtained for

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development of the rice-based product.

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