1

RESEARCH
vuql/a kku
1. Introduction:
Research is a systematic approach to answering scientific question. It is a systematic, logical and an
unbiased process wherein verification of hypothesis, data analysis, interpretation and formation of
principles can be done. It is an intellectual enquiry or quest towards truth. It leads to enhancement of
knowledge. The main objective of research is to discover new facts or to make fresh interpretation
of known facts. RESEARCH 'kCn Qzkalhlh Hkk"kk ds RECHERCHE 'kCn ls cuk gS] ftldk vFkZ gSA To Look,
To investigate

2. Types of research
Research can be divided in various types regarding their utility which are given below

2.1- On the basis of objective of research

Fundamental/Basic research
Applied
Action
2.2- On the basis of precision of research finding.
Experimental
Non-experimental
2.3- On the basis of approach of research finding.
Longitudinal research: Life cycle, historical
Cross sectional research
2.4- On the basis of nature of research finding.
Descriptive
Correlational

2.5- Details of these types of researches

 Fundamental Research:
Basic research also called pure research or fundamental research, is scientific research aimed to
improve or developed scientific theories for prediction of natural phenomena. The principles of
fundamental research are used in applied research. Ex. Jean Piaget theory of cognitive
development of human.

 Applied research
Collection and analysis of data to examine the usefulness of theory in solving practical
educational problems.

 Action research
The research stream of immediate application is action research. Interventions to ameliorate
¼lq/kkj½ a given situation. Introduced by ¼LVhQsu ,e dksjs½- The usual sequence of action research
steps: Plan, act, observe, reflect

 Experimental research:
Manipulating an independent variable in controlled conditions and measuring its effect on
dependent variable. Standardized tests

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 Ex post-facto research:
The research is carried out after the incident. Observing the effect on dependent variable and
making probes into factors/variables which explain it. It takes typical characteristic tests. Ex.
A researcher intends to explore the effect of possible factors for the organization of effective
mid-day meal interventions

 Descriptive research:
Obtaining information concerning the current status of phenomena. It takes Questionnaire. Ex.
A researcher is interested in studying the prospects of particular political party in an urban area.

 Historical research:
One type of qualitative research, it involves examining past events to draw conclusion and make
predictions about future. The conclusion/ finding of research cannot be generalized to other
situations. It using primary and secondary sources.

 Participatory Research:
It recognizes knowledge as power.
It emphasises on people as experts.
It is a collective process of enquiry

 Critical feature of qualitative research:

Actual settings are the direct source of data.
Data take the forms of words or pictures.
Data collection with bottom-up empirical evidences.
Researcher becomes immersed in the situation, present or past related to the phenomena.

 Symbolic interactionism
Explaining patterns of behaviour in terms of meanings and their representations which people
share.

3. Process of Research:
Research is a scientific activity. It has a systemic process which are given below:

3.1 -Sequence of research steps

 Selection of topic/Problem formulation/Identification of research problem
 Listing of research objectives
 Review of literature
 Hypothesis making
 Methodology/Development of a Research design, Sampling
 Collection of data
 Data analysis
 Result and Discussion
 Formulation of generalizations and conclusions.

Note: All these components are the part of research; it has proper sequence but sometimes it
appear that some steps are skipped in research sequence while questions comes in exam. So be
careful about that; for example we can see the questions came in previous years UGC NET exams:

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All the steps given below are correct. These are different example.

Example: 1- Sequence of research steps

 Problem formulation,
 Hypothesis making,
 Development of a Research design,
 Collection of data,
 Data analysis and formulation of generalizations and conclusions.

Example: 2- Sequence of research steps

 Selection of topic,
 review of literature,
 Collection of data,
 Interpretation of findings.

Example: 3- Sequence of research steps

 Identification of research problem,
 Listing of research objectives,
 Methodology,
 Collection of data,
 Data analysis,
 Result and discussion.

4. Thesis and Dissertation Writing

Thesis and dissertation writing follow a prescribed steps as given below:

4.1 The core elements of writing a dissertation are:

 Introduction;
 Literature Review;
 Research Methodology;
 Results;
 Discussion
 Conclusion
4.2- In a Ph.D. thesis the correct sequence for showing scheme of Chapterisation.
 Introduction,
 Survey of related studies,
 Design of study,
 Data-presentation; analysis & Interpretation,
 Formulation of generalization & Conclusions,
 Suggestions for further research,
 References & Appendix

4.3-A good thesis writing involve:

 Reduction of punctuation and grammatical errors to a minimum
 Careful checking of references.
 Consistency in the way the thesis written
 A clear and well written abstract
 A thesis statement is an assertion ¼,d n`<d
+ Fku½
 In a thesis, figures and tables are included in : the text itself ¼ewy ikB esa gh½

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4.4- Some important points related to thesis/dissertation

 Reporting format is formally prescribed in Doctoral level thesis
 A detailed description of methodology of research is required in: Thesis/Dissertation
 The format of thesis writing is the same as in a research dissertation
 When planning to do as social research, it is better to be familiar with literature on the topic.
 A research paper contains peer-reviewed original research or evaluation of research conducted
by others.
 Placebo effect: Change in behaviour due to expectation that a drug will have some effect.
 Impact factor: An indication of the quality of a research journal.

5. Research Problem:
 Formulating a research question an initial mandatory requirement for pursuing research.
Problem is a question proposed for solution.
 A problem is an interrogative sentence or statement that asks what relations exits between two
or more variable.
What are the effects on pupil performance of different types of incentives?

5.1-Criteria of Problem:
 It should be possibilities of empirical testing.
How many angels can dance on the head of a pin?
 The problem should be express a relation between two or more variable.
How are A and B related to C?
 The problem should be stated clearly and unambiguously ¼vlafnX/k½ in question form.
Do teacher comments cause improvement is students’ performance?

6. Hypothesis:
Hypothesis is the combination of two English words taken from Greek word. Hypo + Thesis:
Hypo means Tentative and Thesis means Statement
Hypothesis is a conjectural ¼vuqekfur½ statement of the relation between two or more than two
variables (Kerlinger). It is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. A hypothesis is made on
the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigations. A good hypothesis
based on Deductive reasoning.

6.1- Characteristics of hypothesis:

 A conjectural statement
 The hypothesis is the logical consequence of the evidence.
 Hypothesis are always in declarative sentence form, and they relate, either generally or
specifically, variable to variable.
 Tentative solution of problem.
 The working instrument of theory.
 Hypothesis can be deducted from theory and from other hypothesis.
 It can be tested.
 Hypothesis is never really proved or disproved.
 It is like playing a game of chance.
 Hypothesis incorporate ¼lfEefyr djuk½ the theory, or part of it, in testable or near-testable form.

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6.2- Criteria of Hypothesis

 Hypothesis are statements about the relation between variable.
 Hypothesis carry clear implication for the testing the stated relations

6.3- Types of Hypothesis:

 On the basis of variable quantity:
a) Simple b) Complex
Group study contribute to higher grade achievement.
Group study contribute to higher grade achievement and self-efficacy.

 On the basis of variable relation

a) Universal b) Existential

 On the basis of variable special objective

a) Research hypothesis: It based on old theories or any research. It generally denote H1.
Directional: Female students perform well in numerical aptitude test rather than male
students.
Non-directional: Male and female students perform differently in numerical aptitude test
b) Null hypothesis: There is no relationship or significant different between male and
female learning ability. It generally denote H0. Ex. Male and female students perform
equally well in numerical aptitude test

Working hypothesis: A working hypothesis is a provisionally accepted hypothesis for

further research.

6.4- Hypothesis error

Type 1 error: Rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. (Alpha error)
Types 2 error: Accepting the null hypothesis when it is false. (Beta Error)

7. Research Design
Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain to
research question and to control variable. It is a framework for every stage of the collection and
analysis of data.

7.1-Purpose of Research Design

 To provide conclusive answer to the research problem
 To control the relevant extraneous variables
 To isolate the effect of experimental variable.
 To suggest suitable statistical method for the analysis of research problem.
 To maximise experimental variance and to minimise error variance

7.2Types of Research Design

Single Group Design Or Within Subject Design
Between Group Design Or Between Subject Design
Factorial Design

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8. Sampling
The process of taking samples from population is called sampling.

Population: Population means all the member of any well-defined class of people, events or objects.
Finite and knowable
Finite and unknowable
Infinite

Sample: Sample is a selected part which is representative of the whole.

8.1- Types of Sampling:

Sampling can been divided in two types.

A) Probability Sampling: ¼laHkkO;rk izfrn”kZu½%

When population is known and has equal chance to select. It has three types:
 Simple Random sampling: (lottery method, Drum method),
 Stratified Random Sampling: When population is heterogeneous. Further it has been
divided in two types: Proportional and Disproportional Sampling
 Cluster or Area Sampling

B) Non-probability Sampling: ¼vlaHkkO;rk izfrn”kZu½%

When population is completely not known and sample has not equal chance to select. It has more
types:
o Quota Sampling,
o Purposive (Judgement sampling),
o Snow ball ¼fgedanqd½,
o Accidental,
o Systematic

8.2- Sampling Cases means

 Sampling of people, newspapers, television programmes etc.
 Sampling error decreases when increase in sample size
 Standard error: The variation between the mean of population and the mean of sample.

9. VARIABLE ¼pj½:
A variable is something that varies. A characteristics, number or quantity that increases or
decreases over time, or take different value at different situation.

9.1Characteristics of Variable:
 It define measureable attribute or condition
 It has possibility to change
 It influence or to be influenced
 It define whole class of thing

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9.2- Types of Variable:

 Independent Variable: factor that is manipulated
Type E variable: Directly manipulated, also called active variable.
Types S Variable: Indirectly manipulated, also called Assigned variable
 Dependent Variable: factor that is measured
 Extraneous Variable: Conditions or factors excluded from influencing the outcome
of an experiment. Any variable that controlled by researcher. Are also known as control
variable. It impacts the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent
variable. It has two types relevant and irrelevant.

 Quantitative variable: any variable that is manipulated,

 Qualitative variable: any variable that cannot be manipulated, are also called attribute,
organismic variable

 Continuous variable: A variable that has an infinite number possible value, are also called
quantitative variable
 Discrete variable: A variable that has an finite number possible value, are also called
qualitative variable

 Polytomies Variables ¼f}Hkkth pj½: As: Day-Night, Selected-Not selected

 Dichotomies Variable ¼cgqHkkth pj½: As: Religious Preference

10. Method of Data Collection:

o Observation
o Interview
o Rating Scale
o Check List
o Case study
o Socio-metry: J. L. Moreno (1934)
o Survey
o Questionnaire:
Steps required to design a questionnaire:
 Planning the test
 Preparation the test
 Selection the item
 Evaluating the test

11. Statistical Test

 Parametric test: When population is known. It includes: t-test, F-test, Product moment, Mean
 Non-parametric test: When population is unknown. It includes: Chi-square test, Sign test,
Median, Run test

Mean: It means Average of Value

Median: It means Average of position
Mode: It means Average of frequency

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12. Frequency distribution of a research data

12.1- NPC: Normal

Probability Curve:
Normal probability
curve, is bell shaped
curve and a graph
representing a
distribution of
scores. The curve is
also known as
Gaussian curve. It is
an ideal symmetrical
frequency curve and
is support to be based
on the data of a
population. All the
three central
tendencies: mean,
median and mode of
the normal distribution are the same and they lie at the centre. They are represented by 0 (Zero)
𝑋−𝑚
along the base line. The data put in NPC is converted in Z score. Formula of Z score: 𝑍 = 𝜎

12.2- Kurtosis: The term kurtosis refer to the peakedness or flatness of a frequency distribution as
𝑄
compared with the normal. Formula: Ku (𝑃90−𝑃10)
There are three categories of kurtosis:
 Leptokurtic: A positive frequency distribution of a research data which is symmetrical in
shape similar to a
normal distribution
but centre peak is
much higher is said
to be Leptokurtic.
The value of Ku is
less than .263

 Mesokurtic:
Normal curve
called mesokurtic.

 Platykurtic: A
negative frequency
distribution flatter
than normal curve
is said to be
platykurtic. The
value of Ku is
greater than .263

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12.3- Skewness: A distribution is said to be skewed when the mean and median fall at different
3(𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛−𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛)
points in the distribution. Formula: Sk= 𝜎
There is two types if skewness:
a) Positive Skewness: In a positive skewed distribution the value of mean will be higher than
the value of median. It skewed to the right.

b) Negative Skewness: In a negative skewed distribution the value of median will be higher
than the value of mean. It skewed to the left.

13. APA style of referencing format:

Reference writing format suggested by American Psychological Association

13.1-Feature of APA format

 Invert authors’ name (Last name first)
 Italicize titles of longer works such as books and journals
 Alphabetically index reference list

13.2- American Psychological Association (APA) reference format:

Ex: Sharma, V. (2010). Fundamentals of Computer Science. New Delhi : Tata McGraw Hill

13.3- Modern Language Association (MLA) reference format:

Ex: Hall, Donald. Fundamentals of Electronics. New Delhi : Prentice Hall of India, 2005

 When two or more successive footnotes refer to the same work the following expressions is used: ibid

ibid stand for ibidem, a Latin word meaning “in the same place. It is used in footnotes
to refer to a source cited in a previous entry.

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14. Ethical Norms and Guidelines involve in research:

 Copyright, Patenting policy, Data sharing policies
 The issue of ‘research ethics’ may be considered pertinent at which stage of research? At the
stage of data collection and interpretation
 Research ethics has a direct connection more often with which stages of research? Problem
formulation and reporting of research findings.
 Conducting a review of the literature that acknowledges the contributions of other people in the
relevant field or relevant prior work.
 Discussing with your colleagues confidential data from a research paper that you are reviewing
for an academic journal.
 Objectivity, Honesty, Integrity

Negative implications for ‘research ethics’:

 Related studies are cited without proper references.
 A research study is replicated with a view to verify the evidences from other researches.
 Both policy making and policy implementing processes are regulated in terms of preliminary
studies

15. Conference, Seminar, Symposium & Workshop

A Symposium ¼laxks”Bh½ is a formal gathering in an academic setting where participants are experts in their fields.
These experts present or deliver their opinions or viewpoints on a chosen topic of discussion. It would be correct
to label a symposium as a small scale conference as the number of delegates is smaller. There are the usual
discussions on the chosen topic after the experts have presented their speeches. The chief characteristic of a
symposium is that it covers a single topic or subject and all the lectures given by experts are completed in a single
day.

A Conference ¼lEesyu½ refers to a formal meeting where participants exchange their views on various topics.
Conference can take place in different fields, and it need not be academic in nature all the time. Thus, we have
parent teacher conferences, sport conferences, a trade conference, a conference of journalists, conference of
doctors, a conference of research scholars, and so on. A conference is a meeting that has been prearranged and
involves consultation and discussion on a number of topics by the delegates. Conference and symposium are
similar events where speakers come together and give their opinions on a chosen subject.

A Seminar ¼fopkj xks”Bh½ is a form of academic instruction, either at a university or offered by a commercial or
professional organization. It has the function of bringing together small groups for recurring meetings, focusing
each time on some particular subject, in which everyone present is requested to actively participate. The Instructor
has prepared the concepts and techniques they will present and discuss through a combination of visual materials,
interactive tools or equipment, and demonstrations. It includes some take home material for the participants that
relates to the lecture. A full laboratory phase is not a requirement.

A Workshop ¼dk;Z’kkyk½ includes all the elements of the Seminar, but with the largest portion being emphasized
on “hand-on-practice” or laboratory work. The Lab work is designed to reinforce, imprint and bring forward an
immediate functioning dimension to the participant’s eye and hands by implementing and practicing the actual
concept or technique that was taught through the lecture and demonstration process.

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A Congress ¼dkaxzs’k½ would typically be held once a year per discipline, highlighting the achievements, notable
results in that field. These are typically attended by leaders in that field, and feature a series of invited talks

Note: This PDF is compiled in the context of research comes in UGC NET first paper. It is only basic
learning material; for more detail and deep understanding about research study research books. If you
find any error or any suggestion regarding this feel free to mail me, your valuable feedback give me a
direction to make it more educable.
Thanks

Jitendra Kumar Pal

Assistant Professor
Department of Education
Email: jitendra.edu10@gmail.com

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