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ISBN: 978-0-7277-0108-4
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h e l d in L o n d o n o n 2 4 - 2 5 F e b r u a r y 1981
Discussion on Paper 2 15
R. H O L M E S 17
Discussion on Paper 3 23
4. An introduction to crack growth testing in the U KOS RP and its relevance to the design of
offshore structures. H. G . M O R G A N and T. W . T H O R P E 25
5. The effect of North Sea service conditions on fatigue crack growth in structural steel.
T. W . T H O R P E , A. R A N C E , D. R. V . S I L V E S T E R , P. M. S C O T T a n d H. G. M O R G A N 35
Opening address
T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s a d d r e s s is to g i v e a b r i e f It w a s n e c e s s a r y t h e r e f o r e to get d a t a o n
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the O f f s h o r e w e l d m e n t s in t h i c k e r p l a t e .
S t e e l s R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t and to show h o w A l t h o u g h m u c h w o r k had b e e n d o n e o n c o r r o s i o n
p r o b l e m s are d e a l t w i t h . l i t t l e w o r k h a d b e e n done o n c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e
W h e n s e t t i n g u p the p r o j e c t in 1 9 7 3 - 7 4 it w a s in sea w a t e r , or to show t h e e f f e c t s o f c a t h o d i c
a p p r e c i a t e d that m o s t o f the a v a i l a b l e d a t a on protection, temperature, intermittent wetting
f a t i g u e w e r e not d i r e c t l y a p p l i c a b l e to and d r y i n g and so o n . Most fatigue work had
conditions offshore. The initial requirements b e e n d o n e in air and so t h e s t a n d a r d a i r
t h e r e f o r e w e r e to b u i l d u p a d a t a p o o l o f v i a b l e f a t i g u e c u r v e s had to be m o d i f i e d to t a k e
i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h m o r e n e a r l y r e p r e s e n t e d the account of offshore environments.
o f f s h o r e c o n d i t i o n s , and from t h i s d a t a b a s e to M u c h e f f o r t is spent in t h e o f f s h o r e i n d u s t r y
m o v e f o r w a r d to p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n and an in i m p r o v i n g the w e l d m e n t s b y t o e g r i n d i n g and
u n d e r s t a n d i n g that w o u l d b e o f v a l u e to h e a t t r e a t m e n t , and p o s s i b l y b y u s e o f T I G
d e s i g n e r s and to p r o v i d e a sound b a s i s for d r e s s i n g and p e e n i n g , and so it w a s d e s i r a b l e
future guidance n o t e s . to q u a n t i f y t h e s e i m p r o v e m e n t s in t e r m s o f
T h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t g a p s to b e filled in the t h e i r e f f e c t on c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e l i v e s . Some
i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e t h e n w e r e the e f f e c t s d u e w o r k w a s t h e r e f o r e p r o g r a m m e d to s t u d y t h i s
to g e o m e t r y . M o s t o f the i n f o r m a t i o n w a s t a k e n p r o b l e m - w i t h h i n d s i g h t , u n f o r t u n a t e l y n o t as
from p l a t e s p e c i m e n s , but in fact the a r e a s o f m u c h as is d e s i r a b l e .
c o n c e r n o f f s h o r e are t u b u l a r j o i n t s . At the M a n y v a r i a b l e s w e r e to b e s t u d i e d , s o m e o f
start o f t h e p r o j e c t l i t t l e t u b u l a r w o r k had w h i c h w e r e i n d e p e n d e n t and s o m e i n t e r d e p e n d e n t
b e e n c a r r i e d out and not all the r e s u l t s had of one a n o t h e r . T h e aim w a s to m a k e t h e w o r k
been published. T h e r e w a s an o b v i o u s n e e d to g i v e r e s u l t s w h i c h would b e i m m e d i a t e l y u s a b l e
s t u d y t u b u l a r j o i n t s in as m a n y g e o m e t r i c a l and in d e s i g n and a s s e s s m e n t and to a v o i d b e i n g
load c o n f i g u r a t i o n s as p o s s i b l e . lured into the i n t e r e s t i n g t r a p of d e e p s c i e n c e
M u c h of the w o r k a v a i l a b l e in 1 9 7 3 - 7 4 w a s on which may take a considerable amount of u n
base plate of unrepresentative thickness r a v e l l i n g b e f o r e b e i n g of p r a c t i c a l u s e .
(6-10 m m ) , w h e r e a s the a r e a s of i n t e r e s t o f f N e v e r t h e l e s s , it w a s a p p r e c i a t e d that b a s i c
s h o r e are in w e l d m e n t s in e x c e s s o f , say, 32 m m . w o r k on c r a c k g r o w t h and c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e
PROJECT MANAGEMENT
UKAEA/SRD
1 1
STRESS ANALYSIS MATERIAL PEDIGREE BASIC FATIGUE TESTS TUBULAR JOINT FRACTURE TESTS
of Tubular Joints TESTS in air and sea water TESTS
(including cathodic protection) in air
with constant and variable
amplitude loads
Tests on T-Joints Selection of Fracture
Computer Analysis with constant and Resistant Materials
ATKINS R&D Tests on Weldments variable amplitude loads. WELDING INSTITUTE
WELDING INSTITUTE Tests on Large H-Joints
NATIONAL ENGINEERING
Strain Gauged LABORATORY NATIONAL ENGINEERING
Acrylic Models LABORATORY
LLOYDS REGISTER
OF SHIPPING
Tests on Steel Plate Tests on T, K and TK
Photoelastic Studies UKAEA/Harwell Joints with constant
NOTTINGHAM UNIVERSITY UKAEA/RFL amplitude loads
WELDING INSTITUTE
Fig. 1. UK O f f s h o r e S t e e l s R e s e a r c h Project
b e h a v i o u r w o u l d b e n e c e s s a r y to a c o m p l e t e O r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y t h e p r o j e c t w a s set out as
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p r o b l e m s o f f s h o r e and t h i s s h o w n in F i g . 1. S t r e s s a n a l y s i s w a s r e q u i r e d to
has also been studied. g i v e an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e d e t a i l e d b e h a v i o u r
T h e requirement that the results should be o f the t u b u l a r j o i n t s . M a t e r i a l p e d i g r e e is
i m m e d i a t e l y u s a b l e p u t c o n s t r a i n t s on t h e r e a l l y a f i l i n g c a b i n e t w i t h all t h e d e t a i l s of
p r o j e c t to r e p r e s e n t w h e r e p o s s i b l e t h e materials, specimen manufacture, weld
c o n d i t i o n s f o u n d o f f s h o r e (in p a r t i c u l a r in t h e p r o c e d u r e s and so on for f u t u r e u s e and
N o r t h S e a ) , b o t h in t h e s e l e c t i o n of reference.
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s p e c i m e n s and o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e T h e b a s i c f a t i g u e t e s t s a r e d e s i g n e d to show
test conditions. T h i s led i n e v i t a b l y to s o m e the effects of the various testing p a r a m e t e r s .
compromises. T h e f o u r t h c o l u m n in F i g . 1 is c o n c e r n e d w i t h
A c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t o f w o r k w a s n e c e s s a r y to the tubular joint tests w h e r e the basic
m o u n t a p r o j e c t o f t h i s m a g n i t u d e , b o t h in i n f o r m a t i o n from c o l u m n s 1-3 is b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r ,
a d v i c e a n d in t h e p h y s i c a l p r o d u c t i o n o f and the f a i l u r e m o d e s o f t u b u l a r j o i n t s are
s p e c i m e n s (from 5 0 lb to 20 t o n s ) and t h e c o s t studied.
was £4.25 m i l l i o n (1980 p r i c e s ) . Twelve T h e work done on fracture toughness of
c o n t r a c t o r s w e r e e m p l o y e d and a d v i c e and h e l p w e l d m e n t s u s e d o f f s h o r e is not y e t c o m p l e t e it
w e r e t a k e n f r o m m o s t o f t h e oil c o m p a n i e s , c o u l d b e the s u b j e c t for a c o m p l e t e and
c o n t r a c t o r s and a s s e s s o r s a c t i v e o f f s h o r e in t h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l c o n f e r e n c e in i t s e l f .
North Sea. I w o u l d l i k e to a c k n o w l e d g e t h e i r I should like to a c k n o w l e d g e t h e f i n a n c i a l aid
support w i t h advice, the use of their r e c e i v e d from the D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y and t h e
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and f r e e a c c e s s to t h e i r E u r o p e a n C o a l and S t e e l C o m m u n i t y , and a l s o t h e
construction yards. v a l u a b l e c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h c o l l e a g u e s in the
European Offshore Programme.
2
J. G. HICKS, MA, FWeldl, MRAeS, Consultant
in Welded Fabrication and Design
The UKOSRP basic fatigue programme was designed to acquire information on the fatigue life of
welded joints in sea water for use in compiling design rules for offshore structures. The test
programme was designed to examine the variables relevant to offshore platforms; the various test
series were chosen to isolate the variables as far as possible and also to facilitate comparison
with existing data. Although the main aim of the programme was to acquire stress/life data for
constant amplitude and variable amplitude loadings a number of tests measured the crack propagation
rates with the intention of deriving a generalised fatigue life prediction method based on
computed stresses.
4
G. S. B O O T H , M A , P h D , M W e l d I, T h e
W e l d i n g Institute
C o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e c o r r o s i o n fatigue strength o fw e l d e d j o i n t s
Constant amplitude fatigue tests have been performed on welded steel joints under environmental
conditions intended to be representative of those experienced by an offshore platform in the North
Sea.
The S-N curves for freely corroding joints and for joints alternately immersed in sea water and
exposed to air were not significantly different from the results of joints tested in air.
At high stress ranges, cathodic protection did not influence the fatigue lives of continuously
immersed joints. As the stress range was decreased, however, the cathodically protected joints
exhibited increasingly longer lives than the freely corroding joints.
Grinding the weld toes resulted in only a small increase in the fatigue strength of freely
corroding joints. This increase was much smaller than is achieved in joints tested in air.
Table 1
Specification o f s t e e l t o BS 4 3 6 0 g r a d e 50D
Mechanical Properties
Table 2
Parameter Range
PH 7 . 8 to 8.2
Salinity 32 - 37 gm/litre
D i s s o l v e d Oxygen 11 - 12 mg/ntre
Concentration (92% - 99% s a t u r a t e d )
6
125
45°
200
556
38
81 81
60 /
316
200
150 38
Actuator load
node quality and the remaining plates from tested at the free corrosion potential, which
steel to BS 4360:1972 grade 50D (modified). was found to be -0.63V with respect to a silver/
The steel specification is summarised in table silver chloride reference electrode. (All
1. potentials were measured with respect to this
electrode). Secondly, tests were carried out
b) Specimen Design and Fabrication on joints cathodically protected at the poten
10
The specimen configuration is shown in tial recommended" for immersed steel struc
figure 1. Manual metal arc welding, using tures of -0.85V. This potential was maintained
electrodes complying with BS 639:1976 E51 28H, to ±0.02V using an impressed current system.
was used to fabricate the specimens and a pre The anode was platinum wire wound onto a nylon
heat temperature of 150°C was employed. Each framework surrounding the joint. Thirdly,
specimen was manufactured individually and each tests were carried out on joints which were
weld pass was continued onto a run-off tab alternately immersed in sea water at the free
which was subsequently machined off. corrosion potential for six hours and exposed
to air for six hours. This immersion/exposure
The weld toes of one series of joints were cycle was selected to simulate tidal zone con
5
ground using the technique recommended to ditions.
achieve an improvement in fatigue strength.
This involved grinding to a depth of 0.8mm ii) Stressing Conditions. As illustrated
beneath the plate surface at the weld toes on in figure 2, each joint was loaded in cantilever
the stressed plate. A pneumatic grinder with a bending. Two strain gauges were bonded onto
100mm diameter disc with a 36 grit in an epoxy the specimen centre line, 15mm from the weld
matrix was used. toe as shown in figure 2. The strain gauges
were used to establish the initial load but
c) Test Conditions thereafter the tests were carried out under
In air, the fatigue strength of a welded load control. The load was applied by a hy
joint is relatively insensitive to a number of draulic actuator of approximately 20kN
variables which significantly influence the capacity.
2
fatigue strength in other environments .
Previous work ' has identified four major para Because the main source of dynamic load
meters which influence the rate of fatigue crack ing acting on an offshore platform derives from
growth in sea water. These are sea water tem wave action, the tests were performed at a
perature, electrochemical potential, loading frequency of 1/6Hz, a typical wave frequency.
frequency and stress ratio (minimum stress/ As a result of the low testing frequency, the
maximum stress = R ) , with other variables such duration of some of the tests was greater than
as sea water chemistry exerting only a secondary a year and some unbroken specimens are still
influence. Thus, in order to obtain relevant accumulating cycles. In order to obtain suf
S-N curves it was essential to carry out the ficient results in a realistic time, a special
tests with values of the four major parameters test rig, shown in figure 3, was built to
appropriate to a platform in the North Sea. enable 32 specimens to be tested simultaneously
The tests were therefore carried out under the and independently.
following environmental and stressing con
ditions. As a result of the existence of large
tensile residual stresses in as welded joints,
i) Environmental Conditions. Each speci the effective stress ratio should be large and
men was placed in a sea water cell as shown positive in the vicinity of the joint, irres
diagrammatically in figure 2. The volume of pective of the applied stress ratio. The
each cell was approximately 10 litres and the fatigue crack growth rate, however, appears to
8
sea water flow rate was approximately 1 litre/ be independent of stress ratio above R = 0 . 6
min. and therefore in as welded joints no effect of
stress ratio was expected. The tests were
The sea water was prepared according to a carried out at R = - 1 , i.e. fully reversed
standard specification for substitute ocean loading in order to reproduce the loading
9
w a t e r . Stock solution number 3, however, was likely to occur in real structures. Addition
not added and thus the sea water did not con ally, tests were carried out at R = 0 to con
tain heavy metal ions. Acceptable ranges for firm that the levels of residual stress were
the pH, chlorinity, bicarbonate ion concentra sufficiently high to result in effective stress
tion and salinity of the sea water had been ratios greater than 0.6 under both applied
defined and are shown in table 2. When any stress ratios.
parameter neared the extreme of its allowed
range a fresh mix of sea water was substituted. PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
This occurred approximately every three months. The specimens failed by fatigue crack
growth from the weld toe through the plate
The temperature of the sea water was main thickness. A failed specimen, tested at the
tained within the limits of 5°C to 8°C, which free corrosion potential, is shown in figure 4.
is representative of the temperature range in A specimen was assumed to have failed when the
the North Sea. maximum stroke of the actuator was reached.
This corresponded to a crack through approxi
The specimens were tested under three mately half the plate thickness. By then, how
environmental conditions. Firstly, joints were ever, the fatigue crack growth rate would have
9
FATIGUE STRENGTH O F W E L D E D JOINTS
I I 1 1 I i i i i I I I 1 1 i i i i 1 I I I I i i i II
4
10 2 3 4 5 105 2 3 4 5 1Q6 2 3 4 5 10?
Cycles
10
PAPER 2: B O O T H
11
FATIGUE STRENGTH O F W E L D E D JOINTS
400
350
300
200
CNI
E Ground.
E
150
it 18
100
90
X AW air results
80 A toe ground
70
60
• AW
A toe ground constant immersion -
J AW i
50 i i I I i i i I1 l I
4
10 2 3 4 5 105 2 3 4 5 106 2 3 4 5 10?
Cycles
400
I II I i i i i J I M
350
300
\ l ^— O—
D
200
X o •
150 X
X.
B k O
- V
38
I 18 J / -JL.
1
18 ; \ X
100 Em
X
90
80 mean Class F design curve
mean minus t w o standard deviations, Class F design curve
70 ©CO
Continuous immersion • — R = 0 • -*»-R=-1
60 Intermittent immersion ©—*-R=0 E - H ^ = - 1
Cathodically protected o—•*R=0 • ~^R=-1
50
ti'i I I I
4
10 2 3 4 5 105 2 3 4 5 106 2 3 4 5 107
Cycles
12
PAPER 2: B O O T H
13
FATIGUE STRENGTH O F W E L D E D JOINTS
14
Discussion o n Paper 2
o f s t e e l e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r c r a c k i n i t i a t i o n in w e l d e d j o i n t s , i.e. b a s e d on t h e n o m i n a l p l a t e
the propagation of crack growth? It is w e l l s t r e s s and n o t i n c l u d i n g t h e s t r e s s c o n c e n
known that calcareous deposits can b e produced tration due to the joint geometry.
by marine organisms. Similarly these could As part of the investigation to determine the
p r o d u c e p H c o n d i t i o n s d e t r i m e n t a l to steel cor strain gauge position, a strip of strain gauge
rosion and consequently to crack p r o p a g a t i o n . elements was located approaching t h e weld t o e .
The maximum strain measured by the gauge nearest
D R P. M . S C O T T , UKAEA, Harwell t h e weld t o e ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 mm d i s t a n t ) w a s
U s i n g a r t i f i c i a l s e a w a t e r in c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e about twice the nominal strain. This figure
t e s t s is a c o m p r o m i s e b e c a u s e t h e b i o l o g i c a l m u s t b e u s e d w i t h c a u t i o n and c a n n o t b e t a k e n as
activity of sea w a t e r could only be simulated a precise measurement of the joint strain con
in field e x p e r i m e n t s . H o w e v e r , there are some centration factor.
i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t it m a y n o t b e a b a d c o m p r o m i s e . T h e s p e c i m e n s w e r e loaded s u c h that s t r a i n s in
T h e c a t h o d i c r e a c t i o n w h i c h r e s u l t s in t h e e x c e s s o f y i e l d s t r a i n w e r e e x p e r i e n c e d in t h e
p r e c i p i t a t i o n of calcareous deposits on steel l o c a l i z e d r e g i o n at t h e t o e o f t h e w e l d . This
s u r f a c e s , and clearly influences fatigue lives, is i n e v i t a b l e in all t e s t s on a s - w e l d e d j o i n t s
is t h e s a m e in a r t i f i c i a l o r n a t u r a l s e a w a t e r , because of the presence of high tensile residual
although the rate of reaction m a y be different. s t r e s s e s and t h e s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n e f f e c t o f
S u l p h a t e r e d u c i n g b a c t e r i a is a s e r i o u s the joints.
p o t e n t i a l problem as h y d r o g e n sulphide could be
a n t i c i p a t e d to have a large influence on fatigue DR K. S. V I R D I , The City University
life. C a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n is k n o w n t o i m p e d e In v i e w o f t h e l a r g e s c a t t e r o b t a i n e d in f a t i g u e
the g r o w t h of sulphate reducing b a c t e r i a and t e s t s in g e n e r a l , w a s a n y a t t e m p t m a d e to test
s u c h e v i d e n c e as t h e r e is from t h e f i e l d s u g the repeatability of the tests results?
g e s t s t h a t a n a e r o b i c c o r r o s i o n is a r a r e o c c u r W i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e line f o r m e a n m i n u s t w o
rence . s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s in F i g . 8 o f P a p e r 2 , do
Further information on the influence of foul t h e m e a n s r e f e r to s t r e s s e s o r t o f a t i g u e life?
ing on c o r r o s i o n and corrosion fatigue would be T h e m a t h e m a t i c a l a n a l y s i s w o u l d lead t o d i f f e r e n t
desirable. a n s w e r s in t h e t w o c a s e s .
c r a c k g r o w t h , o w i n g t o i t s e f f e c t on t h e m o r p h and D D 5 5 .
o l o g y o f t h e c a l c a r e o u s s c a l e t h a t f o r m s as a
result o f cathodic protection. DR N . M . I R V I N E , UKAEA, Culcheth
In s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f S-N d a t a S is t h e
M R D . T . F E R N , McDermott Engineering (London) i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e and N t h e d e p e n d e n t o n e .
Would Dr Booth confirm that the stresses quoted T h u s 'mean m i n u s t w o s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s ' refers
on t h e S-N c u r v e s r e f e r t o t h e p l a t e s t r e s s at t o s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s o f log N .
the toe of the weld?
P R O F E S S O R H . F E S S L E R , University of Nottingham
What v a l u e of strain concentration factor w a s
In T - j o i n t s t h e g r e a t e s t n o m i n a l s t r e s s m a y
m e a s u r e d at t h e t o e o f t h e w e l d ?
o c c u r in t h e c h o r d and t h e c h o r d end o f t h e
W e r e t h e s p e c i m e n s l o a d e d so t h a t t h e y e x p e r i
fillet m a y become critical instead o f the brace
e n c e d s t r a i n s in e x c e s s o f y i e l d s t r a i n in t h e
end. Parametric equations are very useful, but
toe of the weld?
d o t h e y take t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e m a x i m u m s t r e s s
into account?
DR B O O T H
T h e s t r e s s e s u s e d in t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e S-N
curves were those measured by a strain gauge REFERENCES
15 m m f r o m t h e w e l d t o e . A n e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y 1. B r i t i s h S t a n d a r d s I n s t i t u t i o n . Code of
had been performed to ensure that this location practice for fatigue. BSI, London, 1980,
was outside the region of stress concentration BS 5 4 0 0 , Part 1 0 .
produced b y the joint geometry. Thus the results 2. B r i t i s h S t a n d a r d s I n s t i t u t i o n . Fixed off
w e r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l form f o r shore structures. B S I , London, 1978, DD 55.
16
G. S. BOOTH, MA, PhD, MWeldl, The
Welding Institute, and R. HOLMES, BSc,
National Engineering Laboratory
T h i s p a p e r is a n i n t e r i m r e p o r t o f f a t i g u e t e s t s c a r r i e d o u t o n t w o t y p e s of w e l d e d j o i n t u n d e r a
narrow band random stress history. The tests have b e e n performed under environmental conditions
simulating an offshore platform in the North Sea.
The u s e of root m e a n square stress range as a controlling parameter h a s been studied and
comparisons have b e e n drawn between tests performed on joints w h i c h were freely c o r r o d i n g ,
a l t e r n a t e l y i m m e r s e d a n d e x p o s e d or c a t h o d i c a l l y p r o t e c t e d . Finally, the results have b e e n
compared with allowable endurances calculated u s i n g the k n o w n stress history, the a p p r o p r i a t e
fatigue design curve and Miner's hypothesis with 2 / N = 1 . n
Fig. 1 .
S y n t h e s i s of
stress history
C / 1 2 / 2 0
"by "breakdown i n t o f o u r
Rayleigh distributions
18
PAPER 3: B O O T H A N D HOLMES
19
FATIGUE STRENGTH O F W E L D E D JOINTS
is u s e d i n t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e p o w e r n , w h e r e n is t h e e x p o n e n t i n t h e P a r i s
C/12/20 stress distribution. Each segment of power law. This nth root parameter has a
t h e R a y l e i g h d i s t r i b u t i o n u s e d to s y n t h e s i s e m e c h a n i s t i c b a s i s in t h a t it is d e r i v e d from
the C/12/20 stress spectrum has a characteristic the average increment of crack extension per
p a r a m e t e r , t h e r o o t m e a n s q u a r e v a l u e , w h i c h is cycle. T h i s a p p r o a c h , h o w e v e r , s u f f e r s frcm
u s e d m a t h e m a t i c a l l y t o d e r i v e the R a y l e i g h t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e t h a t t h e r e is n o u n i q u e v a l u e
distribution. These root mean square values o f n , a l t h o u g h 3 is c o m m o n l y t a k e n , a n d t h a t
a r e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to t h e r o o t m e a n s q u a r e u n d e r c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e c o n d i t i o n s the f a t i g u e
value of the C/12/20 spectrum itself. crack growth rate characteristics cannot simply
be described by a single line as assumed in the
Secondly, the root m e a n square stress range p o w e r law. F i n a l l y , the u s e o f t h e r o o t m e a n
w a s u s e d fcr conformity w i t h the accepted s q u a r e s t r e s s r a n g e e n a b l e s the d a t a to be
p r a c t i c e of p r e s e n t i n g the results of fatigue presented simply and in a form w h i c h can readily
t e s t s on w e l d e d joints in terms of stress r a n g e . be understood. If, at a future date, reanalysis
in t e r m s o f a n o t h e r p a r a m e t e r is c o n s i d e r e d
I t is a c c e p t e d t h a t o t h e r m e t h o d s o f desirable then this can easily be achieved.
p r e s e n t i n g the d a t a , exist. For example, an
a l t e r n a t i v e p a r a m e t e r ( r e f . 8 ) is t h e n t h r o o t F i g u r e s 2 to 5 a l s o s h o w t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
o f t h e m e a n o f t h e p e a k s t r e s s e s r a i s e d to t h e free corrosion constant amplitude m e a n line,
WO -| 1 — t i l l F i g . k. Effect of
350 e n v i r o n m e n t at R =
300 (transverse joints)
<\, 200
i
i
Q J 150
Constant amplitude
R=-1
WO
350
300
*t 200
Constant amplitude
R= 0
s 0
V
£ 100
90 C/12/20 Omean +30 rms y \ =a
spectrum
SO
70
• Sea water, free corrosion
60
E Sea water, intermittent
50 immersion
• Sea water, cathodic protection
F i g . 5. Effect of
UO
e n v i r o n m e n t at h i g h
H
3 ^ 5 2 3 4 5 3 ^ 5
mean stress (transverse 10 10a
10c
10'
joints) Cycles
20
PAPER 3: B O O T H A N D HOLMES
21
Discussion o n Paper 3
r e a l i s t i c to r e g a r d it as g i v i n g a r u l e o f t h u m b c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e stress d e p e n d s o n t h e r . m . s .
w h e r e b y t h e e n d u r a n c e o b t a i n e d from t h e r . m . s . stress. T h e g r e a t e s t p r o p o r t i o n o c c u r s at t h e
s t r e s s d i v i d e d b y a f a c t o r o f , s a y , 1.2 g i v e s a lowest r . m . s . s t r e s s and f o r t h e l o w e s t r . m . s .
reasonable lower bound assessment. 2
r a n g e s t u d i e d (60 N / m m ) ; a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 % o f
2
The s e l e c t i o n o f c y c l i c f r e q u e n c y p o s e s e x t h e c y c l e s w e r e b e l o w 14 N / m m (class F d e s i g n
p e r i m e n t a l p r o b l e m s ; t h e f r e q u e n c y should n o t s t r e s s f o r a n e n d u r a n c e of 2 x 1 0 ^ c y c l e s , from
be too high and endurances should not be too DD 5 5 ) .
short. T h e A u t h o r s h a v e o p t e d to u s e a r e a l i s It is i n t e n d e d in t h e f u t u r e t o u s e c o n s t a n t -
tic f r e q u e n c y at t h e e x p e n s e o f h a v i n g v e r y l o w a m p l i t u d e d a t a and a linear c u m u l a t i v e d a m a g e
c y c l i c e n d u r a n c e s and h i g h s t r e s s e s . It is r u l e to c a l c u l a t e e n d u r a n c e s u n d e r n a r r o w - b a n d
s u g g e s t e d that it m i g h t b e p r e f e r a b l e in f u t u r e random loading.
w o r k to c o n s i d e r t h e c o m p r o m i s e o f a h i g h e r The calculated endurances have been estimated
f r e q u e n c y , s a y 1 H z , so that m a x i m u m e n d u r a n c e s using the class F design curve from D D 5 5 . No
could b e r a i s e d from a b o u t 2 x 1 0 ^ c y c l e s to allowance h a s been made for c o r r o s i o n w i t h the
6
12 x 1 0 c y c l e s . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t aspect m a y e x c e p t i o n that c y c l e s o f r a n g e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g
be t h e p e a k s t r e s s e s w h i c h a r e e v i d e n t l y a b o u t to e n d u r a n c e s g r e a t e r than 2 x 10** h a v e b e e n
2
75 N / m m a b o v e m i n i m u m s p e c i f i e d y i e l d for t h e c o n s i d e r e d n o n - d a m a g i n g and h a v e b e e n i g n o r e d .
t e s t s r e p o r t e d in t h e P a p e r . The greatest proportion of cycles which h a s been
In s e r v i c e c o n d i t i o n s low s t r e s s e s c a n b e s u r i g n o r e d is t h e r e f o r e about 1 0 % .
prisingly damaging. What p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e
s t r e s s e s a p p l i e d in t h e s p e c t r a w e r e b e l o w t h e M R M . J. B A K E R , Imperial College of Science and
2 x 10^ cycle constant-amplitude stress? Technology
It is s u r p r i s i n g that t h e A u t h o r s h a v e n o t W e r e t h e test s p e c i m e n s t a k e n f r o m t h e s a m e c a s t
u s e d t h e i r c o n s t a n t - a m p l i t u d e free c o r r o s i o n of s t e e l ? T a k i n g into a c c o u n t t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e
d a t a to c a l c u l a t e e n d u r a n c e s u n d e r n a r r o w - b a n d v a r i a b i l i t y i n , f o r e x a m p l e , y i e l d s t r e s s and
random loading. Is it n o t a p p r o p r i a t e to do s o ? u . t . s . that c a n o c c u r for s t e e l w i t h t h e s a m e
Endurances have been estimated using the nominal specification, were the test specimens
class F c u r v e from D D 55 ( r e f e r e n c e 9 o f t h e randomized before testing or h a s any attempt
Paper). Has any allowance been made for b e e n m a d e t o c o r r e l a t e the f a t i g u e test r e s u l t s
corrosion? with material properties? D i f f e r e n c e in t h e
ratio of the yield stress to the limited peak
DR B O O T H , in reply 2
stress of 420 N / m m m a y be relevant.
The r e a s o n s f o r u s i n g r . m . s . s t r e s s r a n g e a r e
e x p l a i n e d in t h e P a p e r . W e a g r e e that it m a y DR B O O T H
be p o s s i b l e to p o s t u l a t e a r u l e o f thumb The material used for specimen fabrication satis
giving a factor relating endurance under fied t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f BS 4 3 6 0 g r a d e 5 0 D .
n a r r o w - b a n d l o a d i n g t o that u n d e r c o n s t a n t The specimens were not deliberately randomized,
amplitude. H o w e v e r , as y e t i n s u f f i c i e n t but w e r e e x t r a c t e d from p l a t e s from d i f f e r e n t
r e s u l t s h a v e b e e n o b t a i n e d to m a k e it p o s s i b l e casts. The chemical analysis and mechanical
to suggest a v a l u e f o r t h i s p a r a m e t e r a l t h o u g h p r o p e r t i e s o f each p l a t e u s e d t o f a b r i c a t e
it m a y b e p o s s i b l e t o d o so w h e n f u r t h e r s p e c i m e n s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d at t h e W e l d i n g I n s t i
results become available. t u t e and e a c h s p e c i m e n c a n b e r e l a t e d t o an
We a l s o a g r e e that t e s t i n g at a h i g h e r fre original plate. Thus the precise yield strength
24
H. G. MORGAN, BSc, MSc, PhD, Springfields
Nuclear Power Development Laboratories,
and T. W. THORPE, BSc, Atomic Energy
Research Establishment, Harwell
A n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o c r a c k g r o w t h t e s t i n g i nt h e U K O S R P a n d its
r e l e v a n c e t o t h e d e s i g n o fo f f s h o r e structures
The basic techniques of fatigue crack growth testing are discussed and their application in the
UKOSRP work explained. The e f f e c t s of some fundamental v a r i a b l e s such a s s t r e s s - r a t i o , t h i c k n e s s
and environment are considered and some initial conclusions d r a w n .
TABLE 1
38 m m p l a t e
76 m m p l a t e
Specification
5^0 J
21*f9H/1 2061H
Elongation, % 18 m i n . 31 31 k2
-W(25mm)
8W 3W
(35mm) 70mm (70 m m )
o
|
i-l
C AK
38 m m plate T specimen
Fig. 3
300
152 I
450
152
900
3-point bend specimen
225
152| I
450
axial specimen
26
PAPER 4: M O R G A N A N D THORPE
by a certain increment. I f the l i m i t s o f the 12. Early tests showed a marked effect of sea
i n t e g r a t i o n a r e c h o s e n w i t h care to r e p r e s e n t w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e so a s t a n d a r d t e m p e r a t u r e
a n y i n i t i a l d e f e c t p r e s e n t i n the s t r u c t u r e a n d r a n g e o f 5 C - 1 0 C w a s used a s b e i n g r e p r e s e n t a
some f i n a l l e n g t h w h e n f a i l u r e c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d t i v e o f w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e s i n the N o r t h S e a f o r
to h a v e o c c u r r e d , t h e n s o m e m e a s u r e od the safe m o s t o f the y e a r .
l i f e t i m e o f a s t r u c t u r e c a n be o b t a i n e d . This
i s a g a i n a s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f the r e a l s i t u a t i o n 13- Harwell*s preliminary tests also showed
and can be complicated by uncertainties that crack growth rates could increase as cyclic
r e g a r d i n g the s i z e o f i n i t i a l d e f e c t , the f r e q u e n c y d e c r e a s e d a n d an e s t i m a t e o f n a t u r a l
e x t e n t o f c r a c k i n g at f i n a l f a i l u r e a n d b y n o n - w a v e f r e q u e n c y i n the N o r t h S e a s u g g e s t e d t h a t
l i n e a r i t y o f the d a / d N v s A K d a t a w h i c h c a n i f s i m p l e c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e l o a d i n g w a s to b e
occur under certain environmental conditions. used, then a frequency of 0.167 H z would be
T h e s e l e c t i o n o f i n i t i a l d e f e c t size i s most representative; this frequency was used
particularly critical since a growing crack for all environmental tests.
w i l l b e r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t f o r the m a j o r i t y o f
its lifetime. 14. F u r t h e r c r i t i c a l v a r i a b l e s w e r e s h o w n to
b e the e x t e n t o f e l e c t r i c a l p o l a r i s a t i o n , the
Experimental details s t a r t e r n o t c h s h a p e a n d the e f f e c t s o f i n t e r
8• T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e s u s e d at H a r w e l l mittent wetting, these variables are discussed
and Springfields have b e e n described in detail in more detail elsewhere (ref. 1 ) .
e l s e w h e r e ( r e f s 2 , 3» 6 a n d 7) b u t w i l l be
briefly reviewed. P r i o r to the m a i n test 15* T e s t i n g at R = - 1 The essence of a
p r o g r a m m e , a s h o r t p i l o t s t u d y o f some of the f a t i g u e test i s that the s p e c i m e n o r c o m p o n e n t
m o r e o b v i o u s v a r i a b l e s w a s c a r r i e d out at A E R E i s s u b j e c t e d to c y c l i c l o a d i n g , t h a t i s , to a
H a r w e l l a n d from t h i s the m a i n v a r i a b l e s range of stress. T h i s s t r e s s r a n g e m a y be
identified. wholly in tension, wholly in compression, or any
c o m b i n a t i o n of t h e s e t w o . T h e r a t i o o f m i n i m u m
9- M a t e r i a l S t r u c t u r a l s t e e l m a n u f a c t u r e d to to m a x i m u m s t r e s s i s c a l l e d t h e R - r a t i o o f the
B S ^ 3 6 0 : 5 0 0 w a s s u p p l i e d b y the B r i t i s h S t e e l t e s t , t h u s a test at R = 0 w i l l h a v e a m i n i m u m
C o r p o r a t i o n a n d the i n i t i a l m a t e r i a l p e d i g r e e s t r e s s o f 0 , a test at R = 0 . 5 w i l l h a v e a
d e t e r m i n e d at the W e l d i n g I n s t i t u t e , C a m b r i d g e . value of minimum stress half that of the
T h i s m a t e r i a l w a s s u p p l i e d i n the form o f hot m a x i m u m a n d so o n . U s i n g t h i s n o m e n c l a t u r e it
r o l l e d , n o r m a l i s e d p l a t e i n t h i c k n e s s e s of i s u s u a l to d e n o t e a test w h i c h h a s a m a x i m u m
76 mm a n d 38 m m . The p r o p e r t i e s of these tensile component exactly equalled b y a c o m p r e s
p l a t e s are r e p r o d u c e d i n T a b l e 1. From this s i v e c o m p o n e n t a s a test w i t h R = - 1 • It c a n
p l a t e m a t e r i a l the s p e c i m e n s , s h o w n i n F i g s 2 b e s e e n that the R - r a t i o i s n o t a m e a s u r e o f
a n d 3 were c u t . Because of their asymmetric absolute stress or stress intensity in the
l o a d i n g the compact t e n s i o n s p e c i m e n s , i n t w o component but only a measure of the cyclic
thicknesses, could only be used in tests where loading. The c r a c k g r o w t h t e s t s a t H a r w e l l a n d
the s t r e s s c y c l e s w a s a l w a y s i n t e n s i o n a n d S p r i n g f i e l d s w e r e c a r r i e d out at R - r a t i o s o f ;
t h u s it w a s n e c e s s a r y to d e v i s e two t y p e s o f - 1; 0 ; 0 . 5 ; 0 . 7 a n d O . 8 5 .
I - s h a p e d s p e c i m e n s to a l l o w t e s t s w i t h com
p r e s s i v e c o m p o n e n t s o f s t r e s s . The h e i g h t / 16. The compact tension specimens u s e d for
w i d t h r a t i o o f t h e s e s p e c i m e n s w a s c h o s e n so R = 0 to R = O . 8 5 t e s t i n g a r e e s s e n t i a l l y s e l f -
that a r e a s o n a b l e r a n g e o f s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y a l i g n i n g a n d n e e d e d no f u r t h e r a t t e n t i o n . The
c o u l d be c o v e r e d . I shaped specimens however needed careful
s e t t i n g u p i n the m a c h i n e a n d a l i g n m e n t u s i n g
10. Three specimens configurations were used d i a l g a u g e s or a t t a c h e d s t r a i n g a u g e s . The
in tests with surface notches, cantilever f i r s t f e w m i l l i m e t r e s of g r o w t h w a s m o n i t o r e d
b e n d i n g a n d a x i a l l y l o a d e d at S p r i n g f i e l d s a n d c a r e f u l l y for d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o
t h r e e - p o i n t b e n d i n g at H a r w e l l ( F i g . k). f a c e s o f the s p e c i m e n and a t t e m p t s m a d e to
S t a r t e r n o t c h e s for the t h r o u g h - c r a c k e d c o r r e c t a n y u n e v e n g r o w t h b y s h i f t i n g the
s p e c i m e n s w e r e s p a r k m a c h i n e d a n d for the s p e c i m e n i n the g r i p s . I n s o m e c a s e s it w a s
s u r f a c e - c r a c k e d s p e c i m e n s r o u g h e d out w i t h a i m p o s s i b l e to c o r r e c t this d i s c r e p a n c y a n d w h e n
slitting disc and finished by spark machining t h e c r a c k l e n g t h s o n the t w o f a c e s d i f f e r e d b y
F i n a l m a c h i n e d t h i c k n e s s e s w e r e 35 mm a n d m o r e t h a n 2 mm, the test w a s a b a n d o n e d .
70 m m .
17. Crack length measurement At S p r i n g f i e l d s
11. Environment T h e s h o r t p r e l i m i n a r y test crack measurement was predominantly by optical
p r o g r a m m e at H a r w e l l w a s i n t e n d e d to i n d i c a t e microscope, giving a possible resolution of
w h i c h v a r i a b l e s were m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d b e t t e r t h a n kO u,m, a l t h o u g h s o m e t r i a l s w e r e
resulted in a number of basic experimental c a r r i e d out u s i n g a D . C . p o t e n t i a l d r o p
conditions being identified. T h e s e a w a t e r to technique. This technique was abandoned w h e n
be u s e d w a s s t a n d a r d i s e d o n that o b t a i n a b l e it p r o v e d to h a v e a r e s o l u t i o n n o b e t t e r t h a n
from the E n g l i s h C h a n n e l t h r o u g h A M T E H o l t o n the microscopes. At A E R E , c r a c k l e n g t h s i n
H e a t h a n d w a s s t o r e d i n s t o c k t a n k s at e a c h CTS specimens were determined by D . C . p o t e n t i a l
site, T h i s s e a w a t e r w a s c i r c u l a t e d p a s t the d r o p a n d b y m e a s u r e m e n t of c r a c k m o u t h o p e n i n g
s p e c i m e n s i n p e r s p e x b o x e s at a r a t e o f a b o u t displacement. Both laboratories used A . C .
2 L / m i n and the w a t e r i n the c i r c u i t w a s c h a n g e d p o t e n t i a l d r o p e q u i p m e n t to m e a s u r e c r a c k front
regularly. shape in surface-notched s p e c i m e n s .
27
C R A C K G R O W T H I N S T R U C T U R A L STEELS
x 10 Hz.
• 1 Hz.
o 0-1 Hz. • 76 mm decreasing Load /
• 0-05 Hz. 3-0 A constant " <j
/ 0
o 38 mm decreasing Load
• - CHELL (ref 11 ) /
61
fo and BOWIE (ref 10) L = f t /
high ,
load / £
range/ P -2 2-5 /
/ +0 /
/
o
/
Z_ o
o ' A / /
o
.y 2 0 ' /*/
00 / /
a E 1A /• /
o
C9 7
/ / I
/V / /w = 3
/
1-5-h
10 o . ^
/V/ //
1-0
0-2 0-4 0-6 0-8 >0
10-
10 100
AK MPaym
AK MPa/m Fig.7. Relative crack length a
/W
Fig.5. Fatigue crack F i g . 6 . Fatigue crack
g r o w t h as a f u n c t i o n growth as a function
o f O2 c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f g r e q u e n c y in
a n d t e m p e r a t u r e in SEAWATER
SEAWATER
° R=0to0-1 °y +
A
R= 0 - 0 - 8 5
A
R=0-5
x R=0-7
• R=0-85
28
PAPER 4: M O R G A N A N D THORPE
20. F i g u r e 5 s h o w s that a d e c r e a s e i n s e a w a t e r
t e m p e r a t u r e from 2 0 C to 5 C c a n r e s u l t i n a w h e r e a i s the a p p l i e d s t r e s s a n d a the crack
length.
r e d u c t i o n o f a b o u t a f a c t o r of 2 i n the g r o w t h
r a t e at s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y r a n g e s g r e a t e r t h a n
a b o u t 1 8 - 2 0 M P a / m a l t h o u g h the e f f e c t is m u c h 23- The method of compliance c a l i b r a t i o n h a s
l e s s m a r k e d at v a l u e s b e l o w t h i s . A l s o s h o w n b e e n described in general t e r m s b y other
i n F i g . 5 i s the r e d u c t i o n i n c r a c k g r o w t h w o r k e r s ( r e f . 9) a n d a l s o i n the s p e c i f i c c a s e
rates caused by a reduction in dissolved oxygen o f t h e s e s p e c i m e n s , (refs 3 a n d 7 ) . The r e s u l t s
l e v e l from the n o r m a l 7-8 mg/L to 1 m g / L , t h i s a r e s u m m a r i s e d in F i g . 7 for b o t h 7 6 a n d 3 8 mm
r e d u c t i o n b e i n g e v i d e n t t h r o u g h o u t the r a n g e o f p l a t e s p e c i m e n s a n d is a p l o t o f c o r r e c t i o n
s t r e s s i n t e n s i t i e s t e s t e d b u t l e s s d r a m a t i c at f a c t o r oc v s the n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l i s e d c r a c k
a
b e s e e n that a l t h o u g h the R = - 1 d a t a
g e n e r a l l y lie t o w a r d s the u p p e r b o u n d o f the
+ 655.7( /W) a 2 - 5
- I017( /W)
a 3 - 5
s c a t t e r b a n d , the d i f f e r e n c e i s n e v e r g r e a t e r
than a factor of about 2 . This discrepancy
5 c o u l d b e a c c o u n t e d for by the u n d e r e s t i m a t i o n
+ 638.9(7w)^ (3)
o f A K b y i g n o r i n g the c o m p r e s s i v e p a r t o f the
l o a d i n g c y c l e , but it is c l e a r that it w o u l d
23- The m e a n l i n e d r a w n t h r o u g h the d a t a be e q u a l l y u n r e a l i s t i c to t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t the
points in F i g . 8, derived by a linear r e g r e s w h o l e o f the c o m p r e s s i v e c y c l e . It w a s felt
sion analysis, has been used as a reference that w i t h o u t f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e e f f e c t
line in subsequent f i g u r e s . of reversed loading, definite conclusions could
29
C R A C K G R O W T H I N S T R U C T U R A L STEELS
30
PAPER 4: M O R G A N A N D T H O R P E
a n s w e r to the p r o b l e m s o f c r a c k g r o w t h i n
large offshore structures. The work does
h o w e v e r s e r v e to i n d i c a t e t r e n d s a n d h i g h l i g h t
a r e a s d e s e r v i n g o f f u r t h e r a t t e n t i o n w h i l s t the
d a t a p r o d u c e d i s u s e f u l i n the a s s e s s m e n t o f
possible theoretical analyses of structures and
the p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e i r o p e r a t i n g l i f e t i m e s .
J>k. C o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e t e s t s a r e t h e m s e l v e s a
s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f the r e a l - l i f e s i t u a t i o n
a l t h o u g h b e c a u s e o f t h i s s i m p l i c i t y a n d the
lack of any interaction effects between cycles,
t h e y a r e u s e f u l f o r e v a l u a t i n g the i m p o r t a n c e
o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l v a r i a b l e s w h e t h e r l o c a l or o n
a large scale. It can be seen from the data
in F i g . 5 that temperature can play a large
p a r t i n d e t e r m i n i n g the r a t e o f c r a c k p r o p a g a
t i o n a n d s i n c e it i s k n o w n t h a t e v e n m o d e s t
temperature increases can have a large effect
o n c o r r o s i o n r a t e s , it i s t h o u g h t t h a t t h i s c a n
manifest itself in terms of very m u c h more Fig.lU x U00
r a p i d c o r r o s i o n o f the c l e a n m e t a l s u r f a c e s Optical micrograph shoving n o r m a l i s e d structure
e x p o s e d at the c r a c k t i p . This theory of
dissolution-assisted growth does have its
drawbacks h o w e v e r , particularly since there is
considerable evidence to s h o w that excessive
c o r r o s i o n c a n l e a d t o b l u n t i n g o f the c r a c k
tip with resultant reduction in growth rate
and even complete crack a r r e s t . (Refs 3 and
12) A l t h o u g h it m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d t h a t w a t e r
t e m p e r a t u r e i n the N o r t h S e a m a y b e r e l a t i v e l y
l o w f o r a l a r g e p a r t o f the y e a r , q u i t e
considerable local temperature changes could
o c c u r i n the v i c i n i t y o f h o t r i s e r s o r n e a r
the w a t e r l i n e .
M > M 2 +
+ 2e" (5)
2k +
+ 2e~ > H 2 t (7)
37- I n n e u t r a l s o l u t i o n s , the o x y g e n r e a c t i o n
is generally favoured but in conditions where
solution mixing is i n e f f i c i e n t , local d e p l e t i o n
of oxygen can occur, resulting in a reduced
corrosion rate. I f a n o d i c d i s s o l u t i o n of
m a t e r i a l a t the c r a c k t i p i s a m e c h a n i s m o f
enhancement of crack growth, this reduced
corrosion could be reflected i n the observed
c r a c k g r o w t h r a t e . F i g . 5 d o e s i n fact s h o w
s u c h a r e d u c t i o n w h e n the o x y g e n l e v e l i n the
s e a w a t e r i s a r t i f i c i a l l y r e d u c e d f r o m 7 mg/L to
1 Wg/l.
31
C R A C K G R O W T H I N S T R U C T U R A L STEELS
the r e d u c e d e f f e c t s o f s o l u t i o n v a r i a b l e s a n d
the g e n e r a l l y h i g h e r c r a c k g r o w t h r a t e s o b s e r v e d with a point of inflection occurring at a A K
at h i g h e r l o a d r a n g e s ( F i g . 3 a n d 6 ) . o f a b o u t 25 M P a y & i . A n u m b e r o f p o s s i b l e r e a s o n s
have b e e n suggested for this b u t it w o u l d s e e m
41. F u r t h e r e v i d e n c e f o r the e f f e c t s o f that the most likely e x p l a n a t i o n i s that it i s
difficult environmental access is provided by only w h e n the stress intensity r e a c h e s t h i s
the d a t a f o r t e s t s at d i f f e r e n t R - r a t i o s . level that the crack tip plastic zone i s o f
F i g . 10 a n d 11 s h o w s a i r d a t a o b t a i n e d a t s u f f i c i e n t s i z e to a l l o w h o m o g e n e o u s f l o w o f
H a r w e l l a n d S p r i n g f i e l d s a t five R - r a t i o s . material at the crack tip, with fatigue crack
A l t h o u g h a d e g r e e o f s c a t t e r e x i s t s the d a t a growth by a striation mechanism. P r i o r to
are generally very close together and there is t h i s , t h e r e l a t i v e size of p l a s t i c z o n e a n d
no obvious trend with increasing R-ratio. This material g r a i n size cause l o c a l constraint o f
suggests that the mechanism of crack growth i n m a t e r i a l f l o w w i t h the r e s u l t t h a t c r a c k g r o w t h
this material is not dependent on R-ratio, and is more crystallographic. This is consistent
electron fractography confirms that no gross w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t the s m a l l e s t s t r i a t i o n
differences exist. spacing observed in this material is of the
o r d e r o f 0 . 1 - 0 . 2 u-m - the a p p r o x i m a t e g r o w t h
42. The effects of R-ratio in seawater tests rate at the point of inflection.
i s h o w e v e r quite p r o n o u n c e d ( F i g s 12 a n d 13)
w i t h i n c r e a s e s i n g r o w t h r a t e o f u p to x 6 b e i n g 45. Ductile failure of low-carbon mild steels
o b s e r v e d b e t w e e n R = 0.1 and R = O.85. Again has been investigated by a number of workers
for l o w e r R - r a t i o s , v e r y l i t t l e e f f e c t o f s e a ( r e f s 12 a n d 13) a n d the f e a t u r e s s e e n o n t e s t s
w a t e r i s s e e n a t A K < 20 M P a / m a l t h o u g h t h e c a r r i e d o u t f o r U K O S R P are e n t i r e l y i n a g r e e
high-R tests show their greatest enhancement in ment with these other investigations. F i g . 15
this region. T h e s e r e s u l t s a g a i n p o i n t to shows that failure in air is almost exclusively
larger crack openings or longer effective times ductile w i t h faint fatigue s t r i a t i o n s b e i n g
32
PAPER 4: M O R G A N A N D THORPE
33
T. W. THORPE, BSc, A RANCE, D. R. V.
SILVESTER, BSc, and P. M. SCOTT, BSc, PhD,
Atomic Energy Research Establishment,
Harwell, and H. G. MORGAN, BSc, MSc, PhD,
Springfields Nuclear Power Development
Laboratories
2. This paper r e v i e w s the crack g r o w t h data Effect of Mean Stress on Crack Propagation
o b t a i n e d for BS 4 3 6 0 : G r a d e 50D s t e e l . The Rates
propagation rates of through-thickness cracks 6. A tubular joint subjected to fatigue
h a v e been m e a s u r e d u n d e r a w i d e range of typical s t r e s s e s could e x p e r i e n c e a w i d e r a n g e of m e a n
in-service conditions. The applicability of stresses depending upon a combination of
s u c h data to the g r o w t h of m o r e r e a l i s t i c c r a c k structural loading, residual welding stresses
s h a p e s w h i c h could d e v e l o p from a c t u a l w e l d i n g and post weld heat t r e a t m e n t . A s e r i e s of tests
d e f e c t s w a s d e t e r m i n e d by m e a s u r i n g the crack under freely c o r r o d i n g c o n d i t i o n s in seawater
g r o w t h rates of s e m i - e l l i p t i c a l s u r f a c e cracks u s i n g R v a l u e s in the r a n g e -1 to + 0.85 (a
u n d e r a smaller range of test c o n d i t i o n s . The m e a s u r e of the m e a n stress d e f i n e d as the ratio
m a i n results of this i n v e s t i g a t i o n and p o s s i b l e of m i n i m u m over m a x i m u m l o a d ) w e r e c a r r i e d o u t .
a p p l i c a t i o n s are s u m m a r i s e d and the remaining T h e s e revealed that an i n c r e a s e in the R r a t i o
p r o b l e m s in this field are o u t l i n e d . (i.e. increasing the tensile mean stress),
e n h a n c e d the crack p r o p a g a t i o n rate ( F i g . 3 ) ,
CRACK PROPAGATION STUDIES but this effect saturated for values of R
b e t w e e n 0.5 and 0.7 (refs. 3 , 4 , 5 ) . It was
Introduction p o s s i b l e to e n c o m p a s s all t h e s e s e a w a t e r data by
3. The e x p e r i m e n t a l details of the tests an u p p e r b o u n d i n g line, d e s c r i b e d by t r a n s l a t i n g
c a r r i e d out have been d e s c r i b e d in the previous the m e a n air data line x 6 in the c r a c k g r o w t h
p a p e r at this c o n f e r e n c e ( r e f . 1 ) , w h i c h a l s o rate d i r e c t i o n .
i n c l u d e s the results of the crack p r o p a g a t i o n
tests conducted in air. In the following The E f f e c t of C o r r o s i o n P r e v e n t i o n M e a s u r e s on
s e c t i o n s of this p a p e r , the r e s u l t s described Crack Growth
were obtained from through-thickness cracked 7. The effect of the two m e t h o d s of o f f s h o r e
C o m p a c t T e n s i o n ( C T ) or S i n g l e E d g e N o t c h ( S E N ) c o r r o s i o n p r e v e n t i o n , c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n and
r 5 i i i i i i i i I i i i i i i i I _J l I 1 I ' » ' I l l I 11
10
10 ' 10"' 10~ 1
Frequency Hz 1 100
3 6
PAPER 5: T H O R P E , R A N C E , SILVESTER, S C O T T A N D M O R G A N
,-0.65/
1-10
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ ^
WWWWWN
L\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\l
6.5
K\\\\\\\N
k\\\\\\\\\\\N
k\\\\\\\\\\\\\\^ I
15%NaCl
^dilute
seawater
10"
10"'
10-9
100
CYCLIC STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR,AK, MPa/rrT CYCLIC STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR, AK, MPq/m
Fig.3. 38 m m plate axial tests in s e a water Fig.U. 3 8 m m plate axial tests in seawater at
at R = - 1 t o O . 8 5 a n d f r e e l y c o r r o d i n g R = -1 t o 0 . 8 5 and - 0 . 8 5 v (Ag/AgCl) (• S.C.E.)
37
C R A C K G R O W T H I N S T R U C T U R A L STEELS
CYCLIC STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR, AK, MPaJffT CYCLIC STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR, A K, MPo/rrT
38
PAPER 5: T H O R P E , R A N C E , SILVESTER, S C O T T A N D M O R G A N
o n the s u r f a c e and at the i n t e r i o r centre of the between crack aspect ratios and the relative
crack, (the " i n - d e p t h " g r o w t h ) , were measured crack depth, as has been reported by other
v i s u a l l y from s p e c i m e n s u r f a c e o b s e r v a t i o n s and workers (refs. 13, 1 4 ) .
b e a c h m a r k s on the fracture s u r f a c e and by A . C .
potential drop. W h e n e v a l u a t i n g the stress i n
18. T h e same u n i q u e crack a s p e c t ratio/crack
tensity factors for these cracks the best
depth relationship was also evident from
s o l u t i o n was found to be that of K o t e r a z a w a and
s p e c i m e n s w i t h s e m i - e l l i p t i c a l c r a c k s t e s t e d in
M i n a m i s a k a ( r e f . 1 1 ) but it was a l s o found that
3-point b e n d i n g and freely c o r r o d i n g in s e a w a t e r
t h e f i n i t e w i d t h c o r r e c t i o n factor a c c o u n t e d for
(ref. 8). T h e crack growth data for these a n d
a s u b s t a n t i a l part of the v a r i a t i o n in s t r e s s
the cantilever bend specimens is plotted in
i n t e n s i t y factor with crack g r o w t h (ref. 1 2 ) .
F i g s . 9 and 1 0 . The results a p p e a r e d to e x h i b i t
17. The results for crack growth in air a s m a l l e r R r a t i o d e p e n d e n c e than t h o s e of the
o b t a i n e d have been plotted in the n o r m a l m a n n e r previous CT and SEN through-thickness crack
for both s u r f a c e and i n - d e p t h c r a c k g r o w t h in s p e c i m e n s , but f u r t h e r work w o u l d be r e q u i r e d to
F i g s . 7 and 8 r e s p e c t i v e l y . The crack g r o w t h confirm this. A g a i n the i n - d e p t h c r a c k g r o w t h
r a t e s in both t h r e e - p o i n t and c a n t i l e v e r b e n d i n g rates appeared a n o m a - lously low c o m p a r e d to
s h o w e d quite good a g r e e m e n t w i t h the results of previous data, but nevertheless within
the CT and SEN tests, although there still experimental scatter. An a p p r o x i m a t e in-depth
a p p e a r s to be a slight o v e r - e s t i m a t i o n of stress K c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r w a s d e r i v e d f r o m the a i r
i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r s at the deepest point of the d a t a , e q u a l to about 0 . 8 , and a p p l i e d to the
cracks. T h i s w o u l d seem to i n d i c a t e a slight corrosion-fatigue in-depth data. The latter
e r r o r in the i n - d e p t h K c a l i b r a t i o n factor w h i c h t h e n a g r e e d w e l l w i t h the through-crack data.
w o u l d h a v e to be borne in m i n d w h e n e x a m i n i n g A l l the s e m i - e l l i p t i c a l c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e d a t a
the c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e d a t a . The c r a c k g r o w t h w a s w i t h i n the "6x m e a n a i r d a t a " u p p e r b o u n d
r a t e s w e r e o b s e r v e d to be i n d e p e n d e n t of i n i t i a l d r a w n for the C T a n d S E N s p e c i m e n t e s t s .
c r a c k aspect r a t i o . This b e h a v i o u r was m i r r o r e d
10"
o
tr
o
< 10"
J L i i i i I 10" —1 I I / M M J I I I I II
1 10 100 1 A
10 100
CYCLIC STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR, A K, M Pa V"rrT
CYCLIC STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR, AK, MPaVm
Fig.7. Crack growth results along the surface Fig.8. Crack growth results for the deepest
for semi e l l i p t i c c r a c k s in 38 m m t h i c k p l a t e s p o i n t o f s e m i e l l i p t i c c r a c k s in 38 m m
s t r e s s e d in b e n d i n g in a i r p l a t e s s t r e s s e d in b e n d i n g i n a i r
39
C R A C K G R O W T H I N S T R U C T U R A L STEELS
10 100
10 100
CYCLIC STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR, AK,MPa/m
CYCLIC STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR, AK, MPa Vm
40
PAPER 5: T H O R P E , R A N C E , SILVESTER, S C O T T A N D M O R G A N
25. T h e c l o s e a g r e e m e n t of C T , SEN a n d s u r f a c e
f l a w e d s p e c i m e n c r a c k growth data in a i r was
expected, provided that for e a c h specimen an
accurate c a l i b r a t i o n of the cyclic crack tip
stress intensity factor w a s available. The
in-depth K calibration for semi-elliptical
c r a c k s w o u l d , by comparison w i t h CT d a t a , s e e m
to be imperfect but, for the purposes of
e x a m i n i n g the r e l a t i v e effects of c r a c k g r o w t h
enhancement by seawater, the agreement was
considered adequate.
41
C R A C K G R O W T H I N S T R U C T U R A L STEELS
42
PAPER 5: T H O R P E , R A N C E , SILVESTER, S C O T T , M O R G A N
J o u r n a l of t e s t i n g a n d E v a l u a t i o n 6, 1 9 7 8 , 1 8 3 . 1 7 . M A R T I N J. P a p e r 32
1 4 . SMITH J.A., P E T E R S O N M . H . and B R O W N B.F. McDONALD A. and THOMSON J.F. P a p e r 34
C o r r o s i o n , 26 ( 1 2 ) , 1 9 7 0 , 5 3 9 . W Y L D E J. P a p e r 36
15. B R I S T O L P. F a t i g u e of o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s : D I J K S T R A O . D . and HARTOG J. P a p e r 35
effect of s e a w a t e r on crack p r o p a g a t i o n in P r o c e e d i n g s of the S e m i n a r on E u r o p e a n O f f s h o r e
structural steel. Ref. 17. S t e e l s R e s e a r c h , W e l d i n g Inst. A b i n g t o n ,
16. T U R N B U L L A . to be p u b l i s h e d . Cambridge, Nov. 1978.
43
Discussion o n Papers 4 and 5
Crack growth
specimen 1 3 .
100
20 - x
\ 40 60 \ . 80 100*
Load
Specimen Condition N end of test range
13 Air 5x10 6
270 kN
- 1 0 0 \- L Surface crack length
D Brace diameter Sea water
16
with c p .
4-3 x 1 0 6
240 kN +- - +•
Sea water
17
free corr.
4-3 x 1 0 6
240 kN o—o
Fig. 1. Strain and crack measurements during fatigue tests
1
the load d i s t r i b u t i o n , h o w e v e r , must be c a r e higher value o f A K to b e m a i n t a i n e d for a given
fully considered. If m a j o r c h a n g e s in l o a d crack l e n g t h , and h e n c e h i g h e r r a t e s of crack
d i s t r i b u t i o n , o t h e r t h a n in t h e v i c i n i t y o f propagation and shorter fatigue lives in joints
the c r a c k , o c c u r for a significant fraction of where all t h i c k n e s s e s have been scaled up.
the fatigue life, there will be a major problem One c a n n o t expect to get saitsfactory predic
in f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s b a s e d m o d e l s o f c r a c k tions of fatigue b e h a v i o u r in t u b u l a r joints
g r o w t h d u e to c o m p l i a n c e e f f e c t s on s t r e s s i n from fracture mechanics approaches, unless one
tensity factors. In t h i s c a s e , a c c u r a t e v a l u e s takes into account the stress gradients into
of stress intensity could not be computed w i t h the thickness and a r o u n d the tubular joint,
out i n d i v i d u a l c o m p l i a n c e c a l i b r a t i o n s f o r e a c h
geometry. W h e t h e r o r n o t t h i s is a m a j o r p r o b DR 0. H. B U R N S I D E , Southwest Research Institute,
lem c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y f r o m San Antonio, Texas
fully strain gauged joints. With regard to e l l i p t i c a l f l o w s , it is m y under
s t a n d i n g that in t u b u l a r j o i n t s t h e r e are m u l
IR 0 . D . D I J K S T R A , TNO-IBBC, Delft tiple crack initiation s i t e s . T h e s e are c i r
Figure 1 gives the results of strain m e a s u r e c u l a r or e l l i p t i c a l and g r o w to link i n t o a
m e n t s on l a r g e Dutch tubular joint t e s t s . The single crack which propagates simultaneously
m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e t a k e n at t h e h o t s p o t s o f t h e t h r o u g h t h e t h i c k n e s s a n d a r o u n d t h e w e l d at t h e
joints during the fatigue tests. The most toe. If e x t e n d e d to t u b u l a r n o d e s , d o e s t h e
r e m a r k a b l e is t h e d i f f e r e n c e in b e h a v i o u r for w o r k in P a p e r 5 c o n s i d e r g r o w t h o n l y a f t e r t h i s
t h e c a t h o d i c a l l y p r o t e c t e d s p e c i m e n (16) a n d link-up h a s o c c u r r e d ? If s o , is the p e r i o d from
the non-protected specimen (17). The cathod t h e time o f m u l t i p l e i n i t i a t i o n s t o g r o w t h i n t o
ically protected specimen has a relatively a single flow small compared with total life,
later initiation but a faster crack growth. and h e n c e c a n it b e n e g l e c t e d ?
T h e n u m b e r o f c y c l e s to t h e e n d o f t h e t e s t
were the same for both specimens. DR SCOTT
In the p r e d i c t i v e c r a c k g r o w t h c a l c u l a t i o n s on
DR SCOTT t u b u l a r j o i n t s r e f e r r e d to in P a p e r 5, o n l y
This is v e r y interesting work. More corrosion s i n g l e c r a c k s o f f i x e d or v a r y i n g g e o m e t r y w e r e
fatigue data for tubular joints are needed so considered. U n d o u b t e d l y , s o m e j o i n t s and load
that it is p o s s i b l e to resolve some of the ing m o d e s lead to m u l t i p l e i n i t i a t i o n and s u b
issues relating to how cracks grow and how they sequent coalescence, of c r a c k s , but other types
are affected by sea w a t e r corrosion and cathodic do n o t . M u l t i p l e i n i t i a t i o n and c o a l e s c e n c e
protection. m a y be d i f f i c u l t to m o d e l and o n l y f u r t h e r w o r k
c a n d e m o n s t r a t e w h e t h e r o r n o t t h i s w o u l d lead
PROFESSOR F.M. BURDEKIN, University of t o s i g n i f i c a n t i n a c c u r a c i e s in f a t i g u e c r a c k
Manchester Institute of Science and Technology growth calculations.
I should like to clarify the question of effects
of thickness on fatigue behaviour. Paper 4 DR N . M . IRVINE, UKAEA, Culcheth
finds no effect of thickness changes on r a t e s of Examination of tubular joint S-N performance
crack propagation, as m e a s u r e d in fracture reveals significant effects of g e o m e t r y and load
mechanics tests. In w e l d e d joints in full-scale c a s e for t h e same hot spot stress. However, the
structures, the effect of scaling up thickness use of t h i s m e t h o d against lower bound fatigue
as compared with laboratory specimens will be to design curves is e s s e n t i a l for d e s i g n p u r p o s e s -
increase the absolute size of any zones of although these design curves may well introduce
stress concentration. This is t u r n causes a plate thickness as a p a r a m e t e r in t h e future.
46
N. M . I R V I N E , PhD, BSc, S a f e t y a n d Reliability
Directorate, United Kingdom A t o m i c Energy
Authority
The United Kingdom Offshore Steels Research Project has used steel models, acrylic models,
photoelastic and finite element analyses to deduce stress levels and distributions in simple
tubular connections. The methods are described and reviewed. In particular peak or "hot spot"
stress is defined for welded steel connections, and comparison with analytically derived values is
given.
The anomolous case of high ft ratio connections is then examined and the performance of semi
empirical parametric equations for peak stress concentration factor is critically examined for this
case.
The UKOSRP stress analysis programme consisted Table 1 gives the overall set of cases studied.
of four parts:- Figure 1 shows the nomenclature used for
(a) Static strain gauge tests on steel welded tubular connections in this paper.
joints, which would subsequently be tested in
fatigue, 2. STRESS ANALYSIS METHODS
(b) finite element analysis of these joints, 2.1 Steel Joints
(c) static strain gauge tests on acrylic The selection of joints for fatigue testing was
model joints, and made on the basis of covering the widest
(d) a photoelastic study of weld profiles, as possible practical range of parameters within
featured on the steel model tubular joints. reasonable cost constraints. Although simple
T-joints are not common in offshore structures,
Throughout the work, unit load cases have been their behaviour gives a clear insight into the
taken, which could then generate other more response of more complex tube connections and
complex load conditions by superposition. The these were used to study variations in /3 and r .
three main load cases for each brace were:- To reduce stress concentrations in actual
(a) axial load on the brace, offshore structures, the chord radial
(b) a moment applied to the brace in the deformation must be kept small which tends to
reference plane containing the brace and chord lead to either low y values or stiffeners.
centre line ('in plane' or 'longitudinal' Since this project does not cover the effects
bending), of stiffeners in fatigue, it is limited to
(c) a moment applied to the brace in the fairly low y values, and a value of about 12 has
plane containing the brace centre line but been taken as representing the minimum practical
perpendicular to the reference plane ('out of value of bending steel plates to tubes. The
plane', 'transverse' or 'lateral' bending). K-joints are intended to study the effect of
adjacent brace and overlapped braces on joint
The joints were freely supported at the end behaviour and two values of r have been used.
faces of the chord in all but the steel model
analysis (but reacted torsion loads in case (c)). All the joints, ranging in chord diameter from
The steel models have fixed end conditions, 168 mm to 1830 mm, have been made to standard
which are corrected for when comparison is made offshore fabrication procedures (1,2,3)
with the other stress analysis data. although for the smallest joints it has not
Chord dia of
Chord dia on
Joint other steel
fully gauged
Refer r joints to be Analysis Methods Remarks
steel joint
-ence fatigue tested
(mm)
(mm)
K7 .53 .51 457 168 Acrylic Model 3 braces Q = 135° 90°, 45°
C = -.236 (overlap)
K8 .53 .86 457 (T = .78) 168 Acrylic Model
48
PAPER 6: I R V I N E
been possible to scale down the weld size. The calculating stresses in tubular joints is the
smaller joints have been welded only from the finite element method. Cost considerations
2
outside to AWS Dl.1.75 . The larger 1830 mm ruled out the possibility of three dimensional
chord diameter joints, where internal welding analysis and attention was directed to thin
is possible have been made taking an amalgam of shell elements.
offshore practice, with a minimum external weld
leg length of a quarter of the brace wall The chosen programme had to fulfil the following
thickness, t, and internal and external blend requirements:
ing fillet radii of t/2. (a) Substructuring facilities should be
available
Tolerances on dimensions are based on offshore (b) The programme had to have full technical
practice, but make allowance for the different support readily available
constraints on model testing to those required (c) A suitable range of shell elements was
in a structure. In general, the variation in needed.
diameter and out of roundness are less than 1%
of the tube diameter. Angles are within VP and After careful appraisal of the available
tube centre lines intersect within 1 mm of the systems, ASAS, written by Atkins Research and
nominal intersection. The largest variation Development, Epsom, was chosen for the work,
occurs in tube thickness. The variation within using the isoparametric semi-Loof thin shell
a given tube is about 3% (although it rises up element developed by I r o n s ^ K
to 10% in some instances), but the variation of
the average tube thickness from the nominal is The analysis was aimed at demonstrating the
high (up to 15%) especially on the smaller tube suitability of thin shell elements for tubular
sizes, mainly because tube thickness is not a joints and was supported by a series of com
controlled parameter in the manufacturing pro parisons with acrylic strain gauged models
cedure (which is controlled on weight). On the which were intended to cover some of the more
1830 mm diameter chord specimens, thickness difficult features, such as the deep inter
tolerances were within 2%. section thickness for large diameter braces,
the short length to thickness ratios which
Chord lengths on the largest specimens were occur in overlapped sections of overlap brace
somewhat shorter than desirable, due to joints and the presence of stiffening rings.
limitations on plate size.
Use was made of planes of symmetry and anti
It was not practical to extensively strain symmetry in each joint to reduce the mesh size
gauge all the steel joints, and a selection Although this resulted in the need for addi
was made so as to give as big a range of tional load cases, there is a net cost saving
geometry as possible, with usually the largest since the finite element solution cost varies
joint with any given set of geometric parameters at some power of the number of nodes making up
chosen to most closely model that found in the problem.
practice. In some cases a smaller joint has
also been fully gauged to indicate size effects. In general, all the results were obtained using
The remaining joints have check gauges to con material properties of steel (Youngs Modulus,
firm they are behaving as expected, with addi E = 210 GPa, Poisson ratio v = . 3 ) . However,
tional strip gauges and miniature gauges in where comparisons were made with acrylic models,
some instances to study the stress distribution properties of acrylic were used (E = 3.3 GPa,
close to the weld toe. v = .36). Since results were to be expressed
as stress concentration factors the effect of
The T-joints have flanges welded to the tube variations in E is not important. Comparisons
ends and are held in test frames which (unlike between analyses with v- .3, and v - .36
the rest of the stress analysis) are intended to indicate that the effect of Poisson ratio
approximate to a fixed end condition on the differences is small.
chord. This is to limit deformation during
fatigue testing, and thus allowing an increase The preparation of data and presentation of
in the test frequency. Loading is applied by results from the analysis has been discussed by
a hydraulic actuator to the brace through a Parkhouse^), j i l l not be covered here. It
a n c w
flange connection. Bending loads are applied should, however, be noted that the results of a
by a hydraulic actuator set up perpendicular to finite element analysis are very extensive
the brace axis. including displacements, stresses, and strains
at all the nodes making up the analyses joints,
Each K-joint is supported by a pin through the features not found without considerable addi
chord at one end, and the braces attached to tional effort in other methods. The advantage
links or actuators. This system means that no of this, and the addition of extra load cases
load is carried on the chord perpendicular to at little extra cost in finite element work,
the chord axis, and the brace forces in this depends upon the use to which the results are
direction must balance. A combination of basic put. With well defined peak stress locations
load cases is thus required for comparison with much of this material will be unused, but in
steel joint results. more complex joints, where behaviour is
difficult to predict, the wide range of
2.2 Finite Element Analysis information provided greatly increases com
The only adequate purely analytical method for prehension of the problem.
49
STRESS A N A L Y S I S O F T U B U L A R J O I N T S
The joints studied by this method included a Experimental errors in the results will occur
simple T-joint (Tl), providing a comparison with due to inaccuracies in the gauge positions,
finite element results to determine a suitable errors in the model dimensions, eccentricity of
mesh size and demonstrate the validity of thin the applied loads, errors in the gauge factors
shell assumptions, and further models as out of the strain gauges and drift in the instru
lined in section 2.2 to study particular mentation. An analysis of these factors showed
analytical modelling difficulties. They also that the greatest possible error in the
include the large bulk of the multi-brace joints, measured strains was either a percentage error
which were more cost effectively studied by this of + 13.5% for the axial loading case and
technique. + 10.5% for the bending cases, or an absolute
strain error of + 0.1, whichever is greater.
It is found that acrylic creeps under load, but
the rate of creep decreases with time. One 2.4 Photoelastic T e s t s 6
minute after applying the load the rate of Ten T-joints were analysed all of the same
creep is 3 % per minute. The strain gauges are basic non-dimensional parameters (Table 1,
always read one minute after load application joint T l ) . To provide a direct comparison with
and two or more increments and decrements of other methods, the first case had no weld pro
load are used to confirm that the material is file. Other profiles were the same as the
then behaving linearly. Pieces of acrylic tube minimum weld profiles required for the steel
were used to determine the Youngs Modulus after joints with both single and double sided weld
one minute of load, and this was found to be ing. The three main loading cases of brace
3.3 GPa. axial load and in-plane and out of plane bend
ing were studied.
After assembly, the specimen was mounted in a
test frame. The ends of the chord were The models were made in Araldite CT200 and 6 0 %
supported by flexible transparent PVC diagram by weight of hardener HT907, and assembled
webs which were designed to react shear and from four precision castings, made using slate-
torsion loads while applying neither bending epoxy moulds.
moment at the chord ends nor restraint against
warping of the chord cross-section. Each T-joint had a chord outside diameter of
127 mm. Careful dimensional checks were made
The three main loading cases were then applied on them before testing. Variation in tube
to the free end of the brace. Axial load was diameter and out-of-roundness did not exceed
applied by a screw jack, the load being 1% and tube thickness variations did not exceed
monitored by a ring gauge dynamometer. In 6% in the region of the intersection.
plane and out of plane bending moments were
applied by a horizontal beam which was bolted All models were suspended from a steel frame on
to the free end of the brace. Down load was long pivoted links. These links were connected
applied to one end of this beam by dead weights to the chord by a shaft through the links and
while an equal up load was applied to the other end cap. This arrangement made axial loads in
end by dead weights acting through a centrally the chord due to thermal expansion or model
pivoted beam. deformations negligible. Loads were applied to
the brace by weights attached to flexible steel
Along lines of symmetry, strain gauge pairs cables which passed over pulleys. Couples were
were used to obtain principal strains, and applied by attaching opposed arc segments to
elsewhere principal strains and directions were the brace end. The arc centres coincided on
obtained from strain gauge rosettes. The strain the brace axis. This arrangement eliminated
concentration factors have been converted to changes in the applied couple due to rotation
stress concentration factors using the relations. of the brace.
50
PAPER 6: I R V I N E
To reduce deformations due to the weight of a Nominal stresses arise due to the tubes behav
model the brace and chord were filled with oil ing as beams, and may be calculated by frame
and the model was completely immersed in the analysis of the structure. Away from connec
oil. The density of the oil was less than that tions this gives an accurate assessment of
of the model material and the correct weight stress levels.
balance for the chord was achieved by trapping
a segment of air inside the chord by correctly Geometric stresses result from the differences
positioned vent-holes in the chord end caps. in deformation between the chord and brace
The effective weight in oil of the brace, end under load. For example, in a T-joint under
cap and steel attachment was counter-balanced axial tensile brace load, the brace extends
by an additional upward force on the brace. A only very slightly, whereas the circular cross
small separate load was required for this section of the chord becomes significantly
purpose for the bending load case models; for elongated to a pear shape section. This can
the axially loaded models the appropriate easily be seen on many of the steel tubular
allowance was made in the main load. specimens which have been tested in the UK
Offshore Steels Research Project. The
Slices were cut from each loaded model by means differences in deformation require the tube
of a thin high-speed cutting wheel with a walls to bend so that the chord and brace
diamond impregnated edge. A soluble oil coolant remain in contact at the weld. They also cause
was used during the cutting operation and the (in the case of axial brace load) a maldistri
surface quality of the slices was such that no bution of the nominal membrane stresses round
further treatment or dressing was required. the brace circumference. Since the brace is
The slices were typically 2.5 mm thick, relatively rigid, an axial load causes it to
experience having shown that in models of this move away from the chord, pulling the chord wall
size stress gradients through the thickness of with it. At the crown, the chord wall displaces
such slices are negligible. easily (ie it is not very stiff), whereas at the
saddle, chord displacement is more difficult.
In the models with direct load along the brace Because the saddle is stiffer most of the brace
axis slices were taken from the reference plane axial load is carried at this point, giving
(plane 1) to include approximately 65 mm of the stress concentrations due to maldistribution
brace, 75 mm of the chord outside the brace and in nominal stress alone of about 2.
the central part of the chord, and from the
plane perpendicular to the reference plane Wall bending stresses decay away fairly linearly
(plane 2) to include approximately 65 mm of the in an axial direction on the brace for a dis
brace and a 90° portion of the chord. Similar tance of . 8 V r t , and subsequent recovery to
plane 1 slices only were cut from the in plane become negligible at about 5/rt. Membrane m a l
bending models and plane 2 slices only from the distribution recovers much more slowly and takes
out of plane bending models. some 3 brace diameters to fully disappear. In
the chord, it is very difficult to define a
Several difficulties arose in the tests, due to linear region for stress decay, but over about
an apparent effect of the oil on the fringes at 5° of arc, the stress is fairly linear.
the surface of the tubes, and due to the gross
distortion of the tubes. These problems were Notch stresses arise because of the finite
eventually overcome by considering either an thickness of the tube walls and weldments.
additional model with a compressive load (for Near the weld, the chord wall 'gives* slightly
the axial case) or opposite sides of the joint near the surface due to the adjacent brace wall
(for bending cases) where the stresses should bending, rather like a localised hinge. This
be equal and opposite, and taking the mean of effect is not propagated far through the wall
the two readings. The overall error in the thickness, however, and thus leads to a local
results is now expected not to be more than region of three-dimensional stresses. The
12% at any location. sharper the notch at the weld toe, the less the
restraint to surface hinge behaviour and the
3. DETERMINATION OF PEAK STRESS LEVELS higher the notch stresses.
3.1 General
This section is based on a large amount of data * For those familiar with ASME codes for pressure
on stress analysis of tubular joints obtained vessels, nominal stresses in this paper would
within the UKOSRP programme, all of which cannot be ASME 'primary stresses', geometric stresses
be quoted in this section. Experimental support would be ASME 'secondary stresses' and notch
for the statements made will be found in UKOSRP stresses would be ASME 'peak stresses'. M a l -
Interim Reports. distributed membrane stresses are ASME 'local
Primary-Membrane stresses'. Pressure vessels
Stresses in tubular connections arise from three have machined welds but this is not so
main causes; there is the basic structural generally in offshore structures, and the
response of the joint to the applied load variable notch stresses are thus built into
(nominal stresses), the need to maintain com the fatigue data for structures, whereas
patibility between the tubes (geometric stresses) notch stresses are considered as an input
and highly localised deformations in part of stress in pressure vessels.
the tube wall (notch stresses)*.
51
STRESS A N A L Y S I S O F T U B U L A R J O I N T S
It has recently become apparent from a study of estimation from distribution near the weld toe
a wide range of parameters on steel joints that is unnecessary. Secondly, following on from
the size of notch stress regions also appear to this, that this stress be compatible with the
be a fraction of V"rt, and a maximum value for stress that would be used on a fracture mech
T and X-joints of .2CV"rt is now agreed for use anics analysis of crack growth at such a weld
7
by the various European programmes. toe such as given by Gurney : which for plates
is the hot spot stress described in the first
3.2 The definition of hot spot stress point. Thirdly that, practically, this stress
The various stress analysis methods are able to be experimental reproducible, which is not
cope to a varying extent to each of the main possible if it is measured in the highly vari
stress types (Fig 2 ) . This section considers able "notch stress" region near the weld toe,
how the results for each analysis method may be where local variations of overall weld geometry
used to determine stresses for actual welded and weld bead size can have influence. Stresses
steel connections. In general, the required inside the notch region are undoubtably impor
stress for fatigue calculation's is the stress tant in describing fatigue crack initiation and
level at the weld toe excluding notch stresses. early growth at the hot spot, but these pheno
mena form only a small part of the total fatigue
This approach to the definition of effective life of a tubular joint. Such stresses decay
fatiguing stress known more usually as "hot rapidly as crack growth takes place into the
spot" stress rests on three arguments. Firstly welded joint from the weld toe.
that such a stress should be compatible with
those used on that plate specimens, where the Accordingly, the linear stress distribution
notch region exists over a length proportional found outside the notch region on a tubular
to plate thickness. The "nominal" stress at the joint is extrapolated to the weld toe to
weld toe is easily calculated from geometrical obtain experimental values of tubular joint hot
considerations, and thereby hot spot stress spot stress. The use of this method was evolved
52
PAPER 6: I R V I N E
from the above considerations and from examin Technical Working Party on Tubular Joint Testing
ation of stress distribution obtained experi to be as follows for X and T joints (Fig 3 ) .
mentally in the weld toe region of tubular
joints. This definition of hot spot stress is Chord saddle: between a maximum of the greater
now held to be the most realistic expression of 0.2 V r t or 4 mm from the weld toe to a minimum
the fatigue crack growth inducing stress acting of 5° of arc from the weld toe.
on a tubular joint.
Chord crown: between a maximum of the greater
A further point relates to the form of expres 0.2 V r t or 4 mm from the weld toe to a minimum
sion used for the extent of the notch region of 0 . 4 " V r t RT where R, T are chord outer radius
(0.2"/"rt). Weld dimensions on a tubular joint and wall thickness respectively.
welded to AWS standards (as is customary on
structural member connections) are related to Brace saddle and crown: between a maximum of
brace thickness and therefore the size of the the greater of 0.2V" rt or 4 mm from the weld
notch region resulting should also scale with toe to a minimum of 0 . 6 5 V " rt.
increasing joint size. (Indeed as joint size
increases a measurement taken inside the notch These expressions have all been derived from
region very near the weld toe becomes increas experimental data.
ingly dependent on the shape of the toe weld
bead and will describe only crack initiation A further difficulty that can arise in certain
and growth in the vicinity of that particular locations of certain tubular joints is that
feature, which in a large joint is only one of stress obtained perpendicular to the weld toe
many weld runs). may not be the maximum principal stress, which
is not so directed. In these cases, where
The extent of the linear stress regions on rosette gauges have to be used to discern this
tubular joints has now been agreed by the ECSC phenomenum, the value of stress quoted as the
53
STRESS A N A L Y S I S O F T U B U L A R J O I N T S
hot spot stress, is taken as the (conservative) is effectively stiffened against bending ( 8 , 6 ) 9
value of extrapolated maximum principal stress. for welds with fillet radii, the length is
shorter. As a result of this the stress pattern
3.3 Stresses obtained by analysis obtained along the brace may be moved so that
Following from the above definition of hot spot the peak on the model results occurs on the weld
stress the methods of generating hot spot
stress values from the various stress analysis
methods employed are now described. a = 0 . 2 - / r t but not
3.3.1 Strain gauged steel models
smaller than 4 mm
In the case of strain gauge techniques on steel
models, a smooth surface is required on which
to attach the gauge, and hence two or more
gauges are used and values extrapolated to the
toe from the region of stress linearity. The B2 * 0.65 N / T T
extrapolation method requires care, since the
innermost gauge should be as near the weld to
as possible, to reduce extrapolation errors,
but outside the notch region, and the outmost
gauge should be in the region where the decay
in geometric stress is still linear.
TABLE 2
Performance of semi-empirical equations in stress concentration factor (SCF)
calculations for high P tubular joints
SCF
TIT 6.3
4.81 S i
i ;
4.30 C
T18 13.35 | 1.0 ! 0.71 j 10.49 AX 3.7
3.41 S
2.70 3.51
1 ' ?
5.90 C
T37 14.28 1.0 1.0 j 10.67 AX 8.0 4.58 5.85
5.14 S
j
27-29DX 14.28 1.0 1.0 i 10.0 AX : 3.0 3.40 - -
54
PAPER 6: I R V I N E
at a distance of the effectively stiffened They should be moved in towards the weld toe
length from the nominal tube surface connection, rather than away from it with the corrollary
and the stress then at the weld toe gives the that analytically obtained valves without
required stress level for the weld toe. Alter correction now under-predict at the saddle.
1
natively the factor 3 / (1 + x / y ) " , given by For the in plane bending case where the stress
9
Wordsworth can be used where x = weld leg is essentially zero by symmetry this is
length on chord. unimportant: however it affects the higher SCF
values found in axial and out of plane bending
A special problem can occur on the brace, since loads.
at the saddle, or at an angled brace/chord
intersection at the crown, the inner wall meets However for axial loads this problem is
the chord before the outer wall. Strains alleviated by a complication caused by the
measured on the outer wall near this area can change in stress distribution around the chord
be affected by the increased brace wall stiff brace intersection. For increasingly high p
ness, leading to a dip in the strain behaviour. joints, stresses at the saddle fall, whilst
As this effect would usually occur within what those some 30° or more around the intersection
would on a steel joint be a weld, it is of no continuing to the crown rise. This is caused
major consequence but makes acrylic model by the relative inflexibility of the chord at
results somewhat more difficult to interpret. its saddle point (which is now the neutral axis
of chord bending) compared to the cases where
3.3.3 Photoelastic results p is smaller. (Up to approximately P = 0.85,
Photoelastic models have none of the problems the reverse is this case). Thus the position
associated with stress extrapolation, since of the hot spot changes to a point between the
results may be measured at any location, and saddle and the crown, but nearer to the crown.
even in the region which simulates the weld. Hence the modelling disparity at the saddle
ceases to be of importance but care must be
3.3.4 Finite element results taken to identify the position of peak stress
Superficially by far the least accurate model as predictions at saddle and crown are both
ling is the use of thin shell finite elements. too low.
The elements lie in the middle surface of the
tube wall, and the tubular connection is made However for out of plane bending the hot spot
along the intersection curve of the brace and remains very near the saddle and the modelling
chord middle surface. Stresses are calculated inadequacy then results in SCF values being
from a membrane stress and a moment at the underpredicted.
middle surface, and free surface stresses
obtained by calculating the bending stress due In the case of X-joints, further difficulties
to the moment and adding on the membrane stress. arise because the load transfer across from one
This results at the intersection in peak free brace to the other opposite as in welded con
surface stresses 'on the brace' which actually struction, is interrupted by the presence of
lie inside the chord wall. One fairly obvious the small portion of chord between, which
step was to move the resulting stress pattern results in local bending stresses which are not
on the brace so that the peak value occurred picked up in analytical models.
at the trub chord outer surface, assuming the
chord wall to be rigid. In fact, the local Some examples are given in Table (2) of actual
surface hinge effect (notch stresses) implies and predicted SCF values in high ft connections.
that the chord is not so rigid as this step These use recognised semi-empirical equations
would suggest, and a somewhat smaller movement 12
developed by K u a n g , H G i b s t e i n and Smedley .9
of the stress pattern is necessary. The first two are based on thin shell finite
element work and the authors specify that the
A review of this problem for all the stress range of parametric validity does not extend
10
analysis methods described is given by I r v i n e . beyond § - 0.85: however in practice this
restriction is not always observed. Smedley's
4. THE CASE OF SIMPLE TUBULAR JOINTS WITH equations are quoted as viable up to P = 1 ,
LARGE BRACES and are based on acrylic model data: however,
The geometry of tubular T-joints with/3 = 1 has these equations can be adjusted for use with
been analysed as part of UKOSRP. Though this high p connections, by slightly lowering the
geometry is not usual in offshore structures, value of p to take account of brace "narrowing"
p - 1 X-joints have been used and the general at the weldment at the saddle point.
problem of the stress analysis of high P joints
can be expressed in terms of the UKOSRP T 5. COMPARATIVE PERFORMANCE OF STRESS ANALYSIS
geometries. The basis of the problem is the The tubular connection type Tl where P = =0.5 T
inadequate modelling of the weldments at the (Table 1) can be used to illustrate the
saddle. Fig (4) illustrates the shortcomings difference in performance between the stress
of the analysis models in this region: this now analysis methods used. When the brace is loaded
has a crucial difference to lower p connections in tension, peak stresses are found at the
in that idealised intersections are now beyond saddle point B on the chord side of the weld.
the actual weld toe rather than behind it. This was also found for a steel model tested
Therefore the previous comments on "shifting" by Djikstra and Hartog, (13), whose results
analytic stress distribution should be reversed. are reproduced in Fig 5. Corresponding brace
55
STRESS A N A L Y S I S O F T U B U L A R J O I N T S
• Welded S t e e l Model
~ Acrylic Model
F i n i t e elements
A c r y l i c model
O O Thin Shell Finite Element
p=0-5
WELD PROFILE
p=10
F i n i t e elements
a c r y l i c models Fig 6. J o i n t T l : brace s t r e s s a n a l y s i s method
s t e e l model (Dutch
specimen No 5
stresses are shown in Fig 6. The physical
Photoelastic
model corresponding most exactly in shape to
5 the steel welded model is the photoelastic
model with single sided welds (to correspond
to actual profiles obtained) quoted by Clayton
( 6 ) . Also taken from this publication are the
corresponding acrylic model and finite element
analysis results. As expected, the closest
agreement with steel data comes in that order,
particularly so for stresses in brace (Fig 6 )
where the absence of welds in the acrylic
Steel model r e s u l t s c o r r e c t e d model affects the local stiffness of the brace
rather more than the chord. Finite element
for s t r a i n to stress concentration
results, suffering from lack of physical thick
factor & d i f f e r e n t ^ value
ness (though not stiffness) from the thin shell
formulation used, tend to be further displaced
towards the chord-brace mid-surface inter
section and, though still conservative, will
in general be the most inaccurate of the
methods used in this critical region.
6. CONCLUSIONS
To provide the offshore structural designer
with effective stresses experienced at the weld
toes of tubular steel welded connections,
analytical models can be used to give data that
is generally accurate when compared to the hot
spot stress whose basis and definition is
described herein. Acrylic model work has been
found in particular to be reliable, cheap and
Fig 5. J o i n t T l chord s t r e s s a n a l y s i s method flexible. Photoelasticity and steel modelling
of comparison give the ability of modelling weldments in
56
PAPER 6: I R V I N E
detail and the former method allows the 5. PARKHOUSE J G 'Computer Aided Analysis of
extraction of stress data from any part of the Tubular Joints' Offshore Steels Symposium,
connection, rather than at points where strain Cambridge, November 1978.
gauges have been affixed: stresses in the 6. CLAYTON A M 'Effect of Weld Profile on
interior of the structure can also be determined. Stresses in Tubular T-Joints'. UKOSRP Interim
Finite element analyses can significantly over- Report 2/03. August 1977.
predict brace stresses. 7. GURNEY T R. 'The influence of thickness
of the fatigue strength of welded joints'
However care should be taken for connections Behaviour of Offshore Structures Conference
where P> 0.85, particularly for out of plane Paper 41, London August 1979.
bending loads as the resultant stress can be 8. WORDSWORTH A C 'The Experimental Determin
underpredicted analytically. As a corollary, ation of Stresses at Tubular Joints' BSSM/RINA
parametric validity range of P should be Joint Conf. on Measurement in the Offshore
recognised when using semi-empirical equations Industry. September 1 9 7 5 .
to obtain values of hot spot stress concentration 9. WORDSWORTH A C and SMEDLEY G P. 'Stress
factor. concentrations at unstiffened tubular joings'.
European Offshore Steels Research Seminar
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Paper 31, November 1978.
All of the work described in this paper was 10. IRVINE N M. 'Comparison of the perform
undertaken as part of the United Kingdom ance of the stress analysis methods used in
Offshore Steels Research Project (UKOSRP). UKOSRP in the region of the chord brace inter
The project was commissioned by the Department sections'. UKOSRP technical Interim report
of Energy through the Offshore Energy Technology 2/08 May 1979.
Board and has received financial aid 11. KUANG A B, POTVIN A B, LEICK R D,
from the European Coal and Steel Community. KAHLICH J L. 'Stress Concentration in Tubular
Joints' Soc. Petroleum Engs. Jnl, August 1977,
8. REFERENCES pp287-299.
1. API Recommended Practice for Planning 12. GIBSTEIN M. 'Parametrical stress analysis
Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore of T joints' European Offshore Steels Research
Platforms RP2A Seventh Ed 1976. Seminar Paper 26, November, 1978.
2. AWS Structural Welding Code Dl. 1-75 13. DIJKSTRA 0 D and HARTOG J. 'Dutch part of
(Rev 7 6 ) . large scale tubular joint fatigue test
3. DEPT OF ENERGY. Guidance on the Design and programme'. European Offshore Steels Research
Construction of Offshore Installations. Second Seminar Paper 35, November 1978.
Ed 1977. 14. DIJKSTRA 0 D and DE BACK J. 'Fatigue
4. IRONS B. 'The Semi-Loof Shell Element' strength of welded tubular T and X joints'
Chapter 11 in Finite Elements for Thin Shells Paper OTC 3696, 12 annual Offshore Technology
and Curved Members. Ed by ASHWELL D G and Conference, Houston, May 1980.
GALLAGHER R H Wiley 1977.
57
A. C W O R D S W O R T H , M I M e c h E , Lloyd's
Register of Shipping
The t h i r d part o f a s y s t e m a t i c r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m m e t o d e v e l o p p a r a m e t r i c e q u a t i o n s f o r o b t a i n i n g h o t
spot S.C.F.s at t u b u l a r j o i n t s is d e s c r i b e d . T h i s p a r t o f t h e p r o g r a m m e covers u n s t i f f e n e d , n o n -
overlapped, K and KT joints under three basic loading conditions. The p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d
f o r m u l a e for T , X a n d Y j o i n t s are e x p a n d e d , i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e test r e s u l t s , t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t
t h e a d d i t i o n a l b r a c e s at K a n d K T j o i n t s .
INTRODUCTION particular interest. This p r o c e d u r e r e q u i r e s
1. T h e w e l d e d joint b e t w e e n i n t e r s e c t i n g large and very expensive test frames e t c . Costs
t u b u l a r m e m b e r s is a c o m m o n d e t a i l in c u r r e n t can b e reduced by testing geometrically similar
types of fixed offshore steel structures. s m a l l s c a l e s t e e l test s p e c i m e n s b u t t h e r e are
F a t i g u e f a i l u r e s o f some o f t h e s e j o i n t s h a v e t h e n p r a c t i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s s u c h as t h e
o c c u r r e d d u r i n g s e r v i c e , a n d it h a s b e e n avoidance of excessive welding distortion, and
n e c e s s a r y t o d e v e l o p d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s for t h e t h e c o s t s in t e r m s o f t i m e a n d m o n e y are s t i l l
avoidance of such failure 1 - 5 - Tn general, the high.
p r e f e r r e d d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e is as f o l l o w s : -
A much cheaper technique has been
(a) Establish the expected loading spectrum developed. Briefly, this consists of m a n u f a c t
for the specified design life. uring scale models of the joints from
commercially available acrylic t u b i n g , applying
(b) Determine the range of nominal loads the relevant loading conditions, and m e a s u r i n g
a n d cyclic s t r e s s e s i n t h e t u b u l a r m e m b e r s o f t h e the resulting strains by electric resistance
structure. strain gauges after preliminary assessment o f
the strain distribution b y a b r i t t l e l a c q u e r .
(c) Estimate the range of cyclic stresses F e a t u r e s o f t h e t e c h n i q u e are t h e l o w cost i n
at t h e h o t spot a d j a c e n t t o t h e a t t a c h m e n t t e r m s o f b o t h t i m e and m o n e y a n d t h e w a y i n
welds between each tubular member. w h i c h t e s t s p e c i m e n s can b e m o d i f i e d t o e x a m i n e
the various types of joints.
(d) Undertake a cumulative damage
c a l c u l a t i o n b a s e d o n t h e a l l o w a b l e S-N c u r v e The basic technique o f utilising scale
and the Palmgren-Miner h y p o t h e s i s . models to determine stress distributions has
b e e n t h o r o u g h l y d e v e l o p e d at t h e L l o y d ' s
S t a g e (c) o f t h e p r o c e d u r e i n v o l v e s Register of Shipping's Research Laboratory over
the application o f an appropriate stress t h e y e a r s and h a s b e e n s u c c e s s f u l l y a p p l i e d t o
c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r (K) t o t h e r a n g e s o f pressure v e s s e l s , engine components and ship
n o m i n a l s t r e s s e s to d e t e r m i n e t h e r a n g e s o f t h e structures.
h o t spot s t r e s s e s f o r e a c h j o i n t . The
p r i n c i p a l p r o b l e m o f c a r r y i n g out t h i s s t a g e is 2.1 Properties of Acrylic and Specimen
t h e l a c k o f r e l i a b l e d a t a on s t r e s s Construction. Thin w a l l transparent
concentration factors for the different a c r y l i c t u b i n g is c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e i n a
g e o m e t r i e s a n d c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f j o i n t s and r a n g e o f s i z e s from 2 5 m m t o 300 m m d i a m e t e r
modes of loading on the braces and chord and w i t h w a l l thicknesses from 3 m m to 6 mm.
members.
The acrylic material creeps under load
ACRYLIC MODEL TESTS b u t t h e rate o f c r e e p d i m i n i s h e s r a p i d l y w i t h
2. The most direct method of determining time. This c h a r a c t e r i s t i c h a s b e e n i n v e s t i g a t e d
t h e s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s at t u b u l a r joints is t h o r o u g h l y a n d it h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t ,
by manufacturing full scale test specimens and p r o v i d e d all m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e m a d e at a g i v e n
a p p l y i n g the r e q u i r e d l o a d s t o t h e m , u s u a l l y b y time after application of the load, stress
hydraulic jacks. The general stress distribut c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s e s t a b l i s h e d o n an a c r y l i c
i o n can b e d e t e r m i n e d , in q u a l i t a t i v e t e r m s , b y m o d e l do n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m t h o s e
the use o f a b r i t t l e l a c q u e r a n d q u a n t i t a t i v e m e a s u r e d on s t e e l s t r u c t u r e s .
measurements can then b e made b y attaching
r e s i s t a n c e s t r a i n g a u g e s at t h e p o i n t s o f Acrylic has several attributes which
60
PAPER 7: W O R D S W O R T H
Before this can h e done the location o f the b e i n g allowed between the application o f each
" h o t s p o t s " m u s t h e f o u n d so t h a t t h e g a u g e s can increment and the recording o f the strains.
h e f i t t e d at t h e c o r r e c t p o s i t i o n s . Measurements are made under both increasing
and decreasing loads to demonstrate elastic
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a b o v e o b j e c t i v e it behaviour.
is s o m e t i m e s u s e f u l f o r a d e s i g n e r t o k n o w t h e
general strain in qualitative terms so that an T E S T PROGRAMME
informed estimate of the effects of modificat 3. A p p l i c a t i o n s for the t e c h n i q u e
ions t o the design etc. can b e m a d e . described above have arisen from three m a i n
sources v i z : -
S t r e s s c o a t b r i t t l e l a c q u e r is u s e d t o
i n d i c a t e b o t h t h e "hot s p o t " p o s i t i o n a n d t h e (i) United Kingdom Offshore Steels Research
overall strain distribution. T h e l a c q u e r is Project (UKOSRP)
sprayed onto the specimen and allowed to dry.
W h e n l o a d is t h e n a p p l i e d , t h e l a c q u e r c r a c k s (ii) Lloyd's Register of Shipping's internal
at a g i v e n s t r a i n a n d t h e s p r e a d o f t h e c r a c k s test programme.
with increasing load thus gives a v i v i d p i c t u r e
of the overall strain distribution. Strain (iii) Ad hoc tests for oil companies etc.
contours can b e p l o t t e d b y m a r k i n g t h e extent
o f t h e c r a c k s at v a r i o u s l o a d i n c r e m e n t s w i t h I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r joint is
a chinagraph pencil while stress trajectories o f l i m i t e d u s e a n d it is o f m o r e g e n e r a l
can be obtained by drawing lines normal to the assistance to designers if a series o f joints
cracks. are examined under a range of loading c o n d i t i o n s .
The r e s u l t s o f s u c h an e x e r c i s e c a n t h e n b e
Resistance strain gauges are glued to c o n d e n s e d a n d p r e s e n t e d e i t h e r g r a p h i c a l l y o r as
t h e s p e c i m e n s at t h e "hot s p o t s " a n d at o t h e r empirical equations. For design purposes the
points where quantitative results are required. l a t t e r f o r m o f p r e s e n t a t i o n is p r e f e r a b l e s i n c e
W h e r e t h e r e is a s i g n i f i c a n t s t r a i n g r a d i e n t a the equations can b e handled b y computers w h i c h
n u m b e r o f 1 m m gauges are used so that the are essential t o t h e fatigue analysis o f
measurements can b e extrapolated into the joint offshore structures.
corners. Where strain gradients are both very
high and n o n - l i n e a r , strings o f up t o t e n gauges T o d a t e , t h e m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e set c f
w i t h g a u g e l e n g t h s o f 0.5 m m a n d e l e m e n t s at empirical equations which c o v e r , T.Y.K. and K T
1 mm pitch may b e used. joints has b e e n developed by Kuang ( 6 ) .
However, the assessment o f all currently
C y a n o a c r y l a t e a d h e s i v e is u s e d f o r available empirical equations shows that the
g l u e i n g t h e g a u g e s in p l a c e . Strain gauge S . C F . s calculated from them vary considerably.
terminal pads are usually not attached to the Furthermore, many types o f complex multi-brace
specimens s i n c e , due to their relatively high joints and m o d e s o f loadings h a v e n o t b e e n
stiffness, they would locally reinforce the investigated and this imposes limits on reliable
acrylic and influence the strains therein. fatigue calculations. A comprehensive investig
ation covering all the common types o f joints
2.k Test P r o c e d u r e . As remarked e a r l i e r , the and loading conditions was t h e r e f o r e embarked
loads are applied either b y a screw j a c k , which u p o n b y L l o y d ' s R e g i s t e r of S h i p p i n g . The
is m o n i t o r e d b y a r i n g g a u g e d y n a m o m e t e r , o r b y programme contains four major parts which are
dead weights. C a l i b r a t i o n s t r a i n g a u g e s are b e i n g completed in t u r n . Each successive part
f i t t e d t o t h e t u b u l a r m e m b e r s at p o s i t i o n s examines joints o f increasing complexity of
remote from t h e joints w h e r e the strain distrib joint g e o m e t r y . It w a s h o p e d t h a t a t h o r o u g h
u t i o n is u n d i s t u r b e d a n d c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d understanding o f the simple joints obtained
using basic theory. from the earlier parts of the p r o g r a m m e , together
w i t h t h e w o r k d o n e u n d e r c o n t r a c t for t h e
The normal strains measured by these U n i t e d Kingdom. O f f s h o r e S t e e l s P e s e a r c h P r o j e c t ,
gauges are compared with the calculated strains w o u l d i n d i c a t e an e f f e c t i v e l i n e c f i n v e s t i g a t
to verify the effective Young's Modulus of the ion for the progressively more complex joints
acrylic. encountered later in the programme.
The brittle lacquer tests are usually The parts of the programme are as
done first. T h e s t r e s s c o a t l a c q u e r is a p p l i e d
as p r e s c r i b e d b y t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s e x c e p t t h a t , follows:-
in o r d e r t o a v o i d c r a z i n g o f t h e a c r y l i c , n o
a l u m i n i u m u n d e r c o a t is a p p l i e d . (i) T and X type joints.
61
STRESS A N A L Y S I S O F T U B U L A R J O I N T S
View on 'A'
ja^2 "
Crown q
00
1
1
g/D g/D
Y-16 p=0,5
r=o.s e =e =45°
A B
63
STRESS A N A L Y S I S O F T U B U L A R J O I N T S
Y
joints w e r e first constructed a n d
\sin e B /
t h e c a s e s w h e n it w a s t h e l o a d e d b r a c e , a n d
a l s o f o r t h e c a s e s w h e n it w a s t h e n o n - l o a d e d 6 5
64
PAPER 7: W O R D S W O R T H
Once again, the three terms in square 1+.6 Brace Stresses . The tests on T joints
b r a c k e t s r e f e r t o (i) t h e Y j o i n t S . C . F . ( i i ) showed that w h e n T>0.U, the m a x i m u m stresses
the carry-over function (iii) the reinforcing occurred o n t h e chord side o f t h e j o i n t s .
e f f e c t w h i c h is o n c e a g a i n s m a l l b u t is p e r h a p s
significant for KT joints. v E q u a t i o n 1 0 A gives t h e b r a c e S . C . F . as
a f u n c t i o n o f t h e c h o r d S.C.F. This very
simple equation tends to be unconservative w h e n
I F 9 > 9
A B
K_<K and conservative when K _ > K
B c or s B c o r s.
5
K S = ("YTB ( 1 . 6 - 1.156 )]
Limited measurements o f brace S.C.F.s
„2 were made on t h e K and K T joints and these
1.35 + 3
sin 9
A +
indicated that equation 10A would tend to b e
c o n s e r v a t i v e w h e n it w a s s i g n i f i c a n t , i . e .
w h e n K >'K
w
B c o r s.
Y Sy Sg i ns i n 6 2/ 02 /
11 + + R 2RT
[l + 0.2 J T h e e q u a t i o n s are a l s o a m e n a b l e t o
simplification at the direction o f t h e u s e r .
The carry-over function of
2
These latest equations are currently
1 + y g sin 6 / 2 R
0.2 being considered by the Societies Offshore
Services Group with a view to including t h e m in
is s m a l l w h e n v i e w e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f their fatigue analysis programme. The p r e v i o u s
the general accuracy of the basic Y joint l y d e t e r m i n e d T , Y and X j o i n t e q u a t i o n s h a v e
equation. It is t h e r e f o r e r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t , f o r b e e n in use for some t i m e .
p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , t h e a b o v e e q u a t i o n is
simplified to the original Y joint equation, The next part of t h e test programme
i.e. w i l l seek t o quantify the effects o f i n t e r n a l
stiffeners in t h e chord.
0 -
1.5-1.
V °- 7 5
Y T 8
(i.6e - }
o.7e )sm
2
65
STRESS A N A L Y S I S O F T U B U L A R J O I N T S
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS K g =YT8(6.78-6.1*2^)sin ( 1
- 7 +
°' 7 3
\ 1A.
The Author wishes to thank t h e Societies
Committee, Technical Director and Chief Crown position
Surveyor for permission to publish this paper.
He w o u l d also like to thank Messrs. J.Dolding K = K f
+ K K" 2A.
and A . Nestor for their skilled assistance in c c o c
the Laboratory, and other colleagues for their
helpful comments. K = (0.7+ 1.37Y M l - 6 ) ) ( 2 s i n ° ' e - sin^e) 3A 5
S . C . F . at w e l d t o e .
Saddle position. Chord side.
66
Discussion o n Papers 6 and 7
DR I R V I N E , Paper 6 c o m b i n a t i o n o f m e m b r a n e and b e n d i n g s t r e s s .
Even on the simplest of tubular connections, the A f u r t h e r a s s u m p t i o n is that t h i s c r a c k g r o w t h
s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e w e l d b e g i n s on t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e o f t h e m o d e . A l l
r e g i o n , is e x t r e m e l y c o m p l e x a n d t h e m a x i m u m w o r k in U K O S R P u s e d t h e hot spot s t r e s s c o n c e p t ,
v a l u e o f s t r e s s on a n y t u b u l a r c o n n e c t i o n w i l l b o t h in s t r e s s a n a l y s i s and f a t i g u e t e s t i n g
be yield. At t h e s h a r p c o r n e r w h e r e t h e last of t u b u l a r j o i n t s .
weld toe meets the parent plate the geometry P r e s e n t k n o w l e d g e on h o t spot s t r e s s e v a l u
discontinuity, especially when coupled with the a t i o n c a n b e e x t e n d e d from t h e s i m p l e j o i n t s
further discontinuity of weld toe defects, will a l r e a d y e x a m i n e d to cover t h e c o m p l e x c o n n e c
a l m o s t i n e v i t a b l y g i v e r i s e t o a local v a l u e o f t i o n s as u s e d o f f s h o r e w i t h f e a t u r e s s u c h as
s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r so h i g h a s to bi-planar bracing, overlapped bracing and
produce yield stress locally. In t h e h o t spot i n t e r n a l s t i f f e n i n g , and t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s
r e g i o n (which is so c a l l e d b e c a u s e o f t h e p o s application of complex loading, where accurate
s i b l e local h e a t i n g p r o d u c e d b y l a r g e - s c a l e hot spot s t r e s s v a l u e and p o s i t i o n m a y b e
c y c l i c p l a s t i c i t y ) t h e zone o f y i e l d s t r e s s w i l l d e d u c e d o n l y from d e t a i l e d k n o w l e d g e o f s t r e s s
be largest. It is t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y to s e l e c t distributions around the weld toe for each load
from t h e s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n o n a t u b u l a r joint case. (The h o t spot does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y o c c u r
a v a l u e o f s t r e s s that is d e f i n a b l e , e x p e r i m e n t at t h e c r o w n o r s a d d l e p o s i t i o n s e v e n f o r s i m p l e
a l l y r e p e a t a b l e and w h i c h c a n b e u s e d as t h e T-joints.)
s t r e s s input to a f a t i g u e e n d u r a n c e e s t i m a t i o n . In e s s e n c e , w h e n t h i n shell a s s u m p t i o n c a n b e
A n e a r l y a p p r o a c h to t h i s p r o b l e m u s e d t h e justified for all potential areas of fatigue
p u n c h i n g s h e a r a p p r o a c h w h i c h is d i f f i c u l t t o d a m a g e s u c h t h a t c r a c k g r o w t h is d o m i n a t e d b y
link to f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s c o n c e p t s o f f a t i g u e membrane and bending stresses, through-thickness
c r a c k g r o w t h as it i m p l i e s c o m p l e t e l y s h e a r - s t r e s s e s c a n b e i g n o r e d and h o t spot s t r e s s c a n
g e n e r a t e d c r a c k g r o w t h w h i c h is o b s e r v e d , in b e r e g a r d e d as r e p r e s e n t i n g a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
m o d e I I I , o n l y in t h e final s t a g e s o f t u b u l a r stress controlling fatigue e n d u r a n c e . However,
joint f a t i g u e c h o r d f a i l u r e w h e n c o n s i d e r a b l e w h e n t h i s is n o t t h e case a n d e s p e c i a l l y w h e r e
through-thickness cracking has occurred. large s h e a r s t r e s s e s c a n b e a n t i c i p a t e d (as i n
T h i s a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n f o l l o w e d b y t h e hot overlapped braced connections) there is a case
spot s t r e s s a p p r o a c h w h i c h r e c o g n i z e s that for e x a m i n i n g o t h e r a p p r o a c h e s . As yet experi
c r a c k g r o w t h b e g i n s o n t h e s u r f a c e in t h e r e g i o n m e n t a l d a t a o n f a t i g u e c r a c k g r o w t h in s u c h
o f h i g h e s t s t r e s s and c a n b e d e s c r i b e d b y m o d e I c o n n e c t i o n s is s p a r s e and s e e m s to w a r r a n t
fatigue crack growth. A high tensile surface further investigation.
s t r e s s d e v e l o p s c r a c k s from w e l d t o e d e f e c t s
and such a s t r e s s is a c o m b i n a t i o n o f m e m b r a n e P R O F E S S O R H . F E S S L E R , University of Nottingham
and b e n d i n g s t r e s s e s and is q u o t e d as t h e sum Could Mr Wordsworth clarify t h e method o f e x t r a
m a t i o n o f t h e m e m b r a n e and e x t r e m e f i b r e p o l a t i o n u s e d t o o b t a i n t h e S C F v a l u e s g i v e n in
s t r e s s e s at t h e s u r f a c e , d e f i n e d in such a w a y Paper 7?
as to a v o i d i n c l u s i o n o f t h e local w e l d t o e o r T h e f a i l u r e s w h i c h i n i t i a t e d at t h e i n s i d e o f
n o t c h c o n c e n t r a t i o n e f f e c t s w h i c h r a i s e this t h e b r a c e a n d at t h e c r o w n o f o v e r l a p p e d b r a c e s ,
s t r e s s to y i e l d at t h e w e l d t o e . S u c h a s t r e s s as r e p o r t e d in P a p e r 6, are in a g r e e m e n t w i t h
can b e u s e d to p r e d i c t e a r l y s t a g e s o f c r a c k p h o t o e l a s t i c r e s u l t s as i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g . 1,
g r o w t h but c a n b e c r i t i c i z e d , on a f r a c t u r e which shows the principal stresses around t h e
m e c h a n i c s b a s i s , as n o t r e c o g n i z i n g t h e d i f f e r f i l l e t s o f an o v e r l a p p e d 9 0 ° / 4 5 ° K j o i n t . This
e n c e b e t w e e n c r a c k g r o w t h i n d u c e d b y axial a n d m o d e l w a s a n a l y s e d b y Little.-'-. T h e p r o p o r t i o n s
b e n d i n g s t r e s s e s and i g n o r i n g s h e a r s t r e s s are d / D = 0 . 5 3 , D / T = 2 5 . 6 , t/T = 0.5 w i t h c i r
d r i v e n c r a c k g r o w t h m o d e s s u c h as m o d e I I , w h i c h c u l a r f i l l e t s r = t/2 w i t h a n e c c e n t r i c i t y o f
m a y b e p r e s e n t if a n y s i g n i f i c a n t t h r o u g h - +D/4. T h e joint w a s u n d e r b a l a n c e d a x i a l l o a d
t h i c k n e s s s t r e s s e s can b e l o c a l l y s u p p o r t e d , ing w i t h t h e 4 5 ° b o r e in t e n s i o n . Stress
and t h e m o d e III crack g r o w t h . indices are multiples o f the mean axial stress
At p r e s e n t , h o t spot s t r e s s b a s e d fatigue in t h e 4 5 ° b r a c e . T h e g r e a t e s t s t r e s s in t h i s
endurance prediction using a design S-N c u r v e is joint o c c u r s i n s i d e t h e 90° b r a c e at t h e c r o w n .
in w i d e s p r e a d u s e . Its u s e a s s u m e s that f a t i g u e
c r a c k g r o w t h is p r e d o m i n a n t l y - m o d e I, a r i s i n g M R W O R D S W O R T H , in reply
from w e l d t o e d e f e c t s and d r i v e n b y a The method of extrapolation consisted of extra-
An
Fig. 1
68
D I S C U S S I O N O N PAPERS 6 A N D 7
69
K. J. MARSH, DPhil, ME, National Engineering
Laboratory
After giving some reasons for the necessity for large-scale testing of welded joints under
realistic loading conditions, the overall scope of the work at NEL and WI in this part of the
UKOSRP programme is outlined. The test rigs (and testpieces) at both establishments are described
and some of the results discussed particularly concerning the observed 'thickness effect'. Finally
a summary of the benefits arising from the work so far is given, together with suggestions for
further work.
1000
Endurance- Cycles
76
PAPER 8: M A R S H
7. Fig. 2 shows the in-plane bending test rig member, giving cyclic axial loading.
for 0.17 m chord diameter T-joints. The hori
zontal loading actuator at the left of the pic RESULTS
ture applies cyclic loads to the end of the 13. Constant-amplitude fatigue tests on all
brace member, the chord member being clamped at sizes of joints are well advanced and have been
each end but free to bend or bulge. In this reported at the European Seminar (ref. 3) at
case the brace/chord ratio is 1.0. A basically the Welding Institute in 1978, and the BOSS
similar test rig is used for T-joints of either Conference (ref. 4) in London in 1979. Random-
0.45 or 0.90 m chord diameter, incorporating a loading tests on tubular joints simulating wave
larger capacity loading actuator, as shown in loading conditions should commence very shortly.
Fig. 3. In this case the testpiece shown is of Subsequent papers by Mr A McDonald from NEL and
0.45 m chord diameter with a brace/chord ratio Dr G Wylde from WI will present latest results
of 1.0. in detail but in general terms the results so
far may be summarized in Fig. 11, which covers
8. T-joints tested in the brace axial-loading the joints up to 0.9 m diameter, all of which
mode can be tested in servo-hydraulic fatigue are tested in the as-welded condition. (The
machines. Fig. 4 shows a fatigue test on a 1.8 m diameter testpieces, being stress-
0.17 m chord diameter testpiece in a ±250 kN relieved, give an S/N line which is not immedi
machine. The loading actuator in the base of ately comparable with these.) It can be seen
the machine applies the load through the verti that there is a distinct size effect, the S/N
cal brace member to the chord member, clamped lines becoming progressively lower with increas
at its ends to the crosshead. Similarly, the ing size or thickness of testpiece. In particu
larger joints are tested in a ±2.5 MN fatigue lar, the results for the 0.9 m diameter chord
machine as shown in Fig. 5, the loading actuator testpieces, shown together with the ±(2 standard
in this case being in the crosshead of the deviations) band, in terms of the stress range
machine. The testpiece shown is of 0.9 m chord at the 'hot spot', can be seen to be lower than
diameter. All these T-joint rigs are at NEL. the currently accepted design line at long
endurances. This has given rise to much dis
9. Turning now to the test rigs at WI, Fig. 6 cussion about a revision of the design S/N line;
shows an out-of-plane bending test on a 0.17 m the situation is not straightforward, since the
T-joint. (The actuator at the bottom-left S/N line for the stress-relieved 1.8 m diameter
applies static axial-compressive loading to the testpieces shows quite a pronounced beneficial
chord member, where necessary.) effect from stress-relieving, being somewhat
higher than the line for the unstress-relieved
10. Fig. 7 shows the axial test rig for 0.17 m 0.9 m testpieces shown. There are, however, as
joints, with a test on a non-overlap KT-joint. yet insufficient data to quantify this effect
Compressive loads are applied to two braces conclusively.
through actuators of 80 and 100 kN capacity,
tensile loads being reacted in the third brace. CONCLUDING REMARKS
14. The work on tubular welded joints in UKOSRP
11. On a larger scale Fig. 8 shows the 0.45 m so far has had a number of benefits.
axial test facility, again with a non-overlap
KT-joint on test. The first diagonal brace a It has provided validation, over a wide
takes a 500 kN compressive force, the right- range of geometries, of various analytical or
angle brace takes a 300 kN compressive force and empirical stress distribution predictions.
the third leg (diagonal) reacts the tensile
forces. b It has considerably increased the volume of
fatigue data on tubular welded joints for design
12. Finally, at NEL again, we come to the purposes, particularly in the case of the
largest joints, those of 1.8 m chord diameter, larger, more realistic joints where very few
shown earlier in Fig, 1. Because of the size of data previously existed.
the joints and the load requirements, the test-
pieces were designed in the double-T or H con c It has allowed studies of crack propagation
figuration, with the loading actuators acting in tubular welded joints and the assessment of
between the corresponding ends of the two devices for detecting and monitoring the growth
chords, as in Fig. 9, thus eliminating the need of cracks.
for a high strength supporting test rig. The
whole testpiece floats on needle-roller bearings d It has highlighted the importance of various
at each corner, which have been shown to provide aspects, such as the effect of stress relief,
negligible restraint to deflection. The test and particularly the necessity for obtaining
shown is a bending test, where the two loading some data from testpieces of realistic size,
actuators, one on either side of the brace mem manufactured to realistic offshore practice,
ber, are operated 180° out of phase, thus apply rather than relying wholly on data from model
ing an in-plane bending to the two chord members size testpieces.
with respect to the connecting brace. Axial
brace loading requires much greater load 15. However it is clear that further work needs
capacity and Fig. 10 shows one of the two to be done to quantify the trends shown more
special ±5 MN load capacity actuators being set fully. Obvious gaps in the initial programme
up. In this case, the two actuators are oper are tests on tubular joints in a sea-water
ated in phase, one on each side of the brace environment and tests on repaired, rewelded
77
E N D U R A N C E O F T U B U L A R SPECIMENS
tubular joints (possibly underwater weld This paper is presented by permission of the
repairs). In particular it can now be seen that Project Management, UK Offshore Steels Research
more data are needed on the larger testpieces, Project, and of the Director, National
and at longer endurances. Processes used in the Engineering Laboratory, Department of Industry.
offshore industry to prolong fatigue endurance, It is Crown copyright.
in particular weld treatment and node stress-
relieving, require further quantification. Much REFERENCES
effort has been spent in developing both the 1. MARSH K.J. Full-scale testing - an aid to
test rigs and expertise in carrying out the the designer. Journal of the Society of
initial programme. This should be capitalized Environmental Engineers, 1974, 13(4), 15-22.
upon by extending the programme to complete a 2. MARSH K.J. The new strong floor structure
thorough understanding of fatigue in offshore testing building at NEL. International Journal
structures. of Fatigue, 1979, 1(1), 3-6.
3. Select Seminar on European Offshore Steels
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT S Research at the Welding Institute, Abington
This work forms part of the United Kingdom Hall, Cambridge. UK Department of Energy,
Offshore Steels Research Project, commissioned Offshore Steels Research Project/Commission of
by the Department of Energy through the Offshore the European Communities, Coal and Steel
Energy Technology Board. The research is carried Community, 1978.
out with financial aid from the European Coal and 4. BOSS '79. Proceedings of the Second
Steel Community. International Conference on Behaviour of
Offshore Structures. BHRA Fluid Engineering,
Cranfield, Beds, 1979.
78
J. G. W Y L D E , P h D , BSc, T h e W e l d i n g Institute,
a n d A. M c D O N A L D , BSc, A R C S T , National
Engineering Laboratory
This paper describes some modes of fatigue crack development which have been observed in welded
tubular joints tested at The Welding Institute and at The National Engineering Laboratory as part of
the United Kingdom Offshore Steels Research project. Crack developments in T-joints having various
diameter to wall thickness ratios tested under axial brace loading and in-plane and out-of-plane
bending moments are described. In addition the crack development in an overlap K-joint subjected
to out-of-plane bending is presented. The numbers of cycles to end of test are compared with those
to first visual cracking and it is shown that the majority of the fatigue life of a tubular joint is
occupied in the propagation of visual cracks. Finally, measurements of actuator displacement on
T-joints subjected to in-plane and out-of-plane bending are described. These results indicate that
specimen stiffness is retained until the final stages of the fatigue life.
tt tt tt tt
704 0.51 tt
tt tt tt
705 1.0 0.71 tt
tt tt
709 o/lap K 0.53 0.51 tt
3.98 1-3 1
4.97 1-3, 4-5 2
8.83 1-7 3
12.20 8 1 4
20.65 10 5 5
25.51 12 7 6
27.26 12 11 2 7
27.95 12 15 3 8
30.79 12 15 6 9
33.89 12, 28-30 22 10 10
36.33 12. 28-30 25 14 11
37.32 12, 25-30 28 18 12
38.80 12, 24-30 30, 33-37 20 13
40.49 12, 23-30 42 23 14
80
PAPER 9: W Y L D E A N D M c D O N A L D
Table 3. Continued
5 CHECK
Cycles x 10 A B c D E F G H I J
NO.
1.57 20 0 - - - 1
1.63 23 0 - - - 2
1.83 30 0 - 3
1.98 37 17 18 - - 4
2.48 95 73 18 - - 5
2.53 110 101 18 20 18 6
81
E N D U R A N C E O F T U B U L A R SPECIMENS
1.35 — 24 23 1
1.39 24 26 2
1.40 28 30 3
1.53 - 29 39 4
1.58 - 29 47 5
1.61 -- 29 51 6
7
1.63
1.66
- 29
29
53
60 8
1.70 -- 29 64 9
1.73 29 73 10
1.86 -19 29 99* 11
2.00 25 30 133* 12
2.03 25 33 143* 13
Cycles A B C D E F G H CHECK
NO.
2.86 x 1 0 5
27-29 1
3.66 3-6, 27-29 2
4.52 2-9, 27-29 3
5.83 1-9, 27-29 4
6.08 1-9, 21-29 5
8.43 11, 21-29 6
9.08 1 12, 19-30 7
9.57 1 13, 19-30 8
1.02 x 1 0 6
2 15, 18-30 9
1.10 2 30 10
1.16 3 30 11
1.21 6 30 12
1.30 6, 12-16 30 13
1.35 8, 10-17 30 14
1.41 17, 19-21 30: 35-36 15
1.46 22 30, 35-38 16
1.52 22, 25-28 39 17
1.60 32 45 5 18
1.65 33 50, 57-59 6 19
1.69 34 52, 57-59 7 20
1.77 41 74 9 21
1.81 45 85 4 22
1.88 48 85 10 23
1.95 48 94 17 24
1 .96 48 105 22 25
1.99 48 110 22 26
2.06 48 110 25 27
2.11 60 117 29 12 28
2.17 65 124 30 22 29
2.22 73 126 33 31 30
2.26 73 136 39 22 4 31
2.27 75 136 42 27 12 32
2.28 75 142 44 32 15 33
2.30 75 143 45 44 30 34
2.31 75, 85-100 145 50 36 35
82
PAPER 9: W Y L D E A N D M c D O N A L D
applied cycles at various stages during the 4 and 8 per cent of the total life, i.e. at a
fatigue life of a number of specimens. The very early stage in the fatigue test, and con
stages reported are crack detection, the attain sequently the majority of fatigue life was oc
ment of a through thickness crack (where this cupied in the propagation of visual cracks.
could be confidently estimated) and end of test. This observation is consistent with the
The lives to crack detection, N-|, correspond to 4
v i e v / ^ ' ' ^ that because of the presence of
first visual crack detection and are conse small defects at the toes of a welded joint in
quently subject to some degree of scatter cor the form of slag inclusions, and the presence of
responding to the length of crack at detection. a stress concentration due to the weld shape,
An attempt was made to eliminate this scatter by the initiation period for a welded joint is
using an alternative definition for first crack negligible and the entire fatigue life is oc
ing, corresponding to a 10 per cent variation in cupied in crack propagation. In conventional
output on the highest reading strain gauge. simple welded specimens it is unusual to detect
However, since cracks invariably initiated at fatigue cracking visually as early as 10 per
varying distances from the closest strain gauge cent of the total lifetime. Possibly in welded
these values were also subject to scatter and tubular joints the relatively high stress con
are not presented here. centration factors which are present due to the
overall joint geometry in addition to the stress
The attainment of a through thickness crack, concentration existing, due to the presence of
N 2 , represented a closely defined point during the weld, serve to accelerate the initial stages
the life of each tubular joint. On the smaller of crack growth such that cracks may be detected
joints of 168 mm. chord diameter loaded under visually at an earlier stage in the fatigue
out-of-plane bending of the brace, the chord life.
ends were closed with solid plates. On the ma
jority of these specimens the chord was pres The figures quoting the percentage of life
2
surized to 5 lbs/in with air. A pressure gauge to through thickness cracking indicate that on
was fitted to the system and a loss of pressure average this occurred at approximately 45 per
could be taken to indicate that through thick cent of the total life. Observations made with
ness cracking had occurred. On the remaining the aid of the liquid solution whilst maintain
specimens the chord ends were not closed and the ing the internal pressure, and also of the re
attainment of a through thickness crack could sulting fracture surfaces after the test, indi
only be estimated from the dynamic strain range cated that once a through thickness crack had
measured on those strain gauges close to the occurred, the ligament over the remainder of the
centre of the crack. By plotting the output crack length broke through in a relatively small
from these gauges against cycles for specimens number of cycles to form a through thickness
with internal pressure, and examining the strain crack over almost the total surface crack length
response at the known point of through thickness before any significant additional surface crack
cracking, it was found that this corresponded to growth occurred.
a minima on the strain range v. cycles curve.
This feature was used where possible to estimate The fatigue lives N-| and N3 are plotted
the cycles to through thickness cracking on against the initial extrapolated hot spot strain
other specimens. range on logarithmic axes in figures 1 and 2 for
some of the 168 mm. and 457 mm. diameter joints.
The end of test criterion varied between Also shown on these figures are the API(5) X-X
each test series. In some instances it was de 1
and X^-X" curves and the British standard Draft
termined by the limit of actuator stroke. On for Development DD 55^6) Q curve for comparison
other joints the fatigue test was terminated 1
As discussed in the previous paper^" ), for
when the secondary cracks propagating away from joints of these dimensions the results for the
the weld toe had reached a length equal to the end of test condition fall on the safe side of
chord radius. Finally on some joints tested all of the existing design S-N curves for tubu
under axial loading, complete brace separation lar joints. However, both figures indicate
was achieved. Since the rate of crack propa that if an alternative design criterion were
gation invariably accelerated rapidly towards selected, for example if a fatigue limit design
the end of each test these variations are not was used, i.e. if it were required that no
thought to be significant in terms of the num cracks should form during the service life of
ber of cycles to end of test, particularly when the structure, then the margin of safety would
plotted on logarithmic axes. be reduced considerably.
Also shown in table 2 are the numbers of 3.2 Modes of surface crack development
cycles to first visual crack detection and to The surface fatigue crack growth develop
through thickness cracking expressed as percen ments for various joints are shown in figures
tages of the cycles to the end of test. 3-6. These figures show the line of crack
Clearly there is some scatter in these data, growth in relation to the weld toe. The num
however, the results show some clear trends. bers quoted alongside the crack refer to the
The figures giving the first visual cracking as inspection number and the corresponding actual
a percentage of thu end of test show that in crack lengths are listed in tables 3-6. The
only four of the examples quoted was first vis surface crack growth developments for three T-
ual cracking not detected within the first 10 joints subjected to out-of-plane and in-plane
per cent of the total life. In the majority of bending and axial brace loading are presented
instances cracks were detected visually between in figures 3-5 and the corresponding actual
83
E N D U R A N C E OF T U B U L A R SPECIMENS
84
PAPER 9: W Y L D E A N D M c D O N A L D
•60
85
E N D U R A N C E O F T U B U L A R SPECIMENS
86
PAPER 9: W Y L D E A N D M c D O N A L D
n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r
12\
11 I
10
9
8
7
6 Through-thickness cracking
5
4U crack
First visual
detection
3\
2
1 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 100%
•i J J » » • '> i I i J u i I i—i—LL—J—LL LL -j
2 468 10. 12 % 16 18 20 22 2L 26 28 30 32 3U 36 38 40 42 U 46
s
Cycles x 10
Fig. 7. Actuator displacement on 168 mm. diameter T-joint subjected to
out-of-plane bending (Specimen No. 704/2)
Through-thickness r
r First visual cracking
crack detection
10 12 H
Cycles x10 16 6 18 20 22 24 26
Fig. 8. Actuator displacement on 914 mm. diameter T-joint subjected to
in-plane bending (Specimen No. E1A).
87
E N D U R A N C E OF T U B U L A R SPECIMENS
crack lengths in tables 3-5. In each case the monitoring the dynamic response of the struc
cracks initiated at the weld toe in the chord ture to artificially induced vibrations during
member and propagated around the weld. In the service.
two joints subjected to applied bending moments
there was some crack branching with secondary 4. CONCLUSIONS
cracks propagating away from the weld into the In addition to the basic fatigue results
chord. The cracks initiated at different loca expressed in terms of hot spot strain range v.
tions under each loading mode. Under out-of- cycles to failure, the following conclusions
plane bending the fatigue crack initiated close have been drawn from observations of crack de
to the saddle point, and under in-plane bending velopment and specimen deflection during the
it initiated at the crown. Under axial loading fatigue tests.
there was multiple cracking at various loca
tions around the weld toe. 1. Fatigue cracks were detected visually in
the majority of tubular joints tested at less
Figure 6 shows the mode of crack develop than 10 per cent of the total life.
ment in an overlap K-joint subjected to out-of-
plane bending. In this instance there was mul 2. Tubular joints can sustain long fatigue
tiple crack initiation in the chord along the cracks with relatively little loss of stiffness.
weld toe. The initial small cracks joined to Virtually no change in stiffness was observed
form a long crack which propagated around the prior to through thickness cracking and it was
weld toe before branching into the chord at a only in the final 10 per cent of life that the
number of locations around the brace circum stiffness reduced significantly.
ferences.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work forms part of the United Kingdom
3.3 Variation of specimen stiffness
Offshore Steels Research Project, commissioned
Figures 7 and 8 show measurements of ac by the Department of Energy through the Offshore
tuator displacement on T-joints subjected to Energy Technology Board. The research has been
out-of-plane and in-plane bending. Both carried out with financial aid from the Euro
figures show the same variation in displace pean Coal and Steel Community.
ment with cycles. They show that the d i s
placement remained virtually constant until REFERENCES
through thickness cracking occurred. On the 1. McDONALD A. and WYLDE J.G. Experimental
specimen subjected to out-of-plane bending results of fatigue tests on welded tubular
this occurred at 47 per cent of the total life joints. Conference on Fatigue in Offshore
and on the specimen loaded under in-plane ben Structural Steels. Inst. Civil Engineers, Feb
ding at 80 per cent of the total fatigue life. ruary 1981.
Furthermore in both examples it was not until 2. MARSH K. The fatigue strength of tubular
the final 10 per cent of the total life that welded joints, ibid.
there was a significant increase in specimen 3. MADDOX S.J. An analysis of fatigue cracks
deflection and consequently loss of specimen in fillet welded joints. International Journal
stiffness. of Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 11, No. 2, April
1975.
This observation is significant in rela 4. MADDOX S.J. Assessing the significance of
tion to a tubular joint within a structure with flaws in welds subject to fatigue. Welding
some degree of structural redundancy. The fact Journal, Vo. 53, No. 9, September 1974, pp;
that joints can sustain very large fatigue 401S - 409S.
cracks with relatively little loss of stiffness 5. API Recommended Practice for Planning, De
suggests that in a structure where the load on signing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Plat
a joint will be governed to some extent by forms. API RP 2A, Eleventh edition, January
structural deflections the loading will not de 1980.
crease until the joint contains a very long 6. British Standard Institution. Draft for
crack. This would seem to severely limit the Development: Fixed Offshore Structures,
scope for detecting early fatigue cracking by DD55:19780
88
A. M c D O N A L D , BSc, A R C S T , National
Engineering Laboratory, and J. G. W Y L D E ,
PhD, BSc, T h e W e l d i n g Institute
10 E x p e r i m e n t a l results o f fatigue t e s t s o nt u b u l a r w e l d e d j o i n t s
The most recent results of the tubular joint test programme of UKOSRP are presented together
with the published data obtained from similar tests carried out in the Netherlands. The UK
tests were carried out on specimens ranging in chord diameter from 168 mm to 1830 mm and in
wall thickness from 6 mm to 76 mm subjected to axial in-plane bending and out-of-plane bending
modes of loading. The change of fatigue strength with chord dimensions is illustrated and the
implications of this with regard to current design codes is discussed.
Chord
Specimen Joint Dimension Loading Test
Number Type mm Mode Laboratory
D T
p
90
PAPER 10: M c D O N A L D A N D W Y L D E
Table 1. (Continued)
Chord
Specimen Joint Dimension Loading Test
Number Type mm Mode Laboratory
D T P T
91
E N D U R A N C E OF T U B U L A R SPECIMENS
Chord Hot-spot N
Specimen Strain
Diameter Strain Range Number of cycles to
Number Ratio
mm AE failure
10
168 17/1
17/3
17/4
1049
798
1624
-1 2.05
5.9
2.0
x
x
x 10°
t
5
895 6.1 x 6 1 0
Unbroken
18/6 Retested
1474 1.86 x 6 1 0
1 0
18/6 6
1674 2.51 x 10°
18/10
2574 2.65 x 10°
18/13
1955 1.1 X
18/14 5 1 0
1154 8.5 x 1 0
18/16 6 6
92
PAPER 10: M c D O N A L D A N D W Y L D E
Table 4 . (Continued)
Chord Hot-spot
Specimen Strain
Diameter Strain Range Number of cycles to
Number Ratio
mm Ae failure
X 10°
X 10°
l
38/2 650 5.0 X
1 0
x 10°
x 10$
l
5
624/3 1215 2.9 x 10
93
E N D U R A N C E OF TUBULAR SPECIMENS
Table 4- (Continued)
Chord . 1 Hot-spot , . N
Diameter
mm
q
1
Ratio"* Number of cycles to
failure
6
E D 2 341 3.32 X 10
F-jA 308 2.0 X 107 Unbroken
P]_A 1170 2.4 X 10? Retested
F ^ 340 2.0 X Unbroken
F]B 580 3-33 X 10° Retested
F C X 267 2.0 X 10? Unbroken
FxC 1080 2.45 X 10 Retested
F^D 549 8.89
l
X 10°
6
F C 2 720 2.75 X 10
F D 2 486 2.0 X 1 0 7 Unbroken
F2D 1455 2.5 X 10 Retested
6
F A 2 875 2-13 X 10
66
F B 2 694 7.32 X 10
H 18 654 1.25 X io«
H 20 875 7.4 X 10
21 6
H 624 4.34 X
H 22 I664 1.10 X
K
H 23 425 2 X Unbroken
H 23 1331 3.6 X io5 Retested
Co--efficients of
Chord equation
diameter
mm m C
94
PAPER 10: M c D O N A L D A N D W Y L D E
m
of construction used. On the 1830 mm diameter N Ae = C
chord specimens tested at NEL, two actuators
were housed between the chord members, one at Where N = endurance at end of test (cycles xlO^)
each end of the H construction and thus no Ae = "hot-spot" strain range (x 10~°) and
reaction frame was required. C and m axe constants.
12. The results are plotted separately 21. In Figs. 4-8 the results are compared with
according to chord diameter in Figs. 4 - 7 the AWS and DD55Q design curves. The results
and the most recent results obtained in the for the 168 mm diameter joints all fall well
Netherlands (7) are also included on the on the safe side of the design lines, but above
appropriate figures. endurances of 2 x 10° cycles, a few results
from the larger sizes either fall very close to
13. For each size of specimen, a linear the lines or below them. Above 2 x 1 0 cycles, 6
regression analysis was carried out on the the AWS - XX curve must be considered to be
data to obtain the best fit Ae - N curve unsafe, and even the use of the Q curve in this
on the basis that it would take the form region would have to be carefully considered.
95
E N D U R A N C E O F T U B U L A R SPECIMENS
PAPER 10: M c D O N A L D A N D W Y L D E
E N D U R A N C E O F T U B U L A R SPECIMENS
"l—i—i—r-r- -I 1—I I l |
-i 1 r
• NEL R = -1
X W.I. R = 0
A TNO R = 0
2000
A TNO R = -1
<
tr
S 1000
cr
o
i
UJ
o 500
z
2
2 200
-L i i i i 1
s
10 io 6
10*
ENDURANCE - N cycles
• 1 1 • 1 i i |
• NEL R =-1
<
£ 2 000
</>
- A TNO R= 0
o
cr
i
1000 • •
A
jr 500
•
o
a.
in
"^-^BjC
DD55Q
200
. 1 1 . 1 j i i i. . . 1 1 1 Li .J 1 1 1 J.-1 J 1 1
10 5
10* 107
ENDURANCE - N cycles
98
PAPER 10: McDONALD AN D WYLDE
-l 1 1 1—I i i |
• NEL R r - 1
2000
o
cr
u
z 1000
i
< 500
cr
<
cr
DD 5 5 Q
200
O
X
JL -I 1 1—I I I i I _I I I L. -j i t_
6
105 10 107
ENDURANCE - N cycles
T i 1—i—i i i i i i—i—i—i i i
2000
DD550 - H
200
o
x
i i i1 -I I I t i l l I I I I I I I -I i i_
10* 10 6
10*
ENDURANCE - N cycles
99
E N D U R A N C E OF T U B U L A R SPECIMENS
CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES
2 2 . Hot spot strain range is a reasonable 1. The design of new tubular structures.
method of characterising the fatigue performance American Welding Society. Structural Welding
of welded tubular joints. This applies to Code Dl.1.72 Section 10.
joints of varying geometries subjected to differ 2. British Standards Institution. Draft
ent modes of loading providing the joint dimen f©r Development: Fixed Offshore Structures
sions are similar although there is some evidence DD55: 1978.
that where /? and T are small, the brace diameter 3. MARTIN T. The fatigue strength of
may be the dominant parameter. welded tubular T-joints with a large diameter
ratio. Select Seminar, European Offshore
2 J . Within the range of joint sizes investi Steels research held at The Welding Institute.
gated, there is a reduction in fatigue strength Paper No. 32 (November 1978).
as chord dimensions are increased. 4. McDONALD A & THOMSON J.F. The fatigue
strength of large scale welded tubular T-
2 4 . At endurances greater than 2 x 10 cycles, joints. Ibid, paper No. 34.
there are several results below the design lines. 5. WYLDE J.G. Preliminary results of
static and fatigue tests on tubular T-joints
ACKNOWLEIJGEiyENTS subjected to out-of-plane bending moments.
Ibid, paper No. 36.
2 5 . This work forms part of the UK Offshore 6. WYLDE J.G. & McDONALD A. The influence
Steels Research Project, commissioned by the of joint dimensions on the fatigue of welded
Department of Energy through the Offshore tubular joints. Second International Conference
Energy Technology Board. The research has on behaviour of offshore structures. Paper No.
been carried out with financial aid from the 42 (August 1979).
European Coal and Steel Community. 7. DIJKSTRA O.D. & de BACK J. Fatigue
strength of tubular T- and X- joints. Twelfth
26. The authors would like to thank the staff annual offshore technology conference. Paper
of the Service Loading Division of the OTC 3696 (May 1980).
National Engineering Laboratory and the Off
shore Laboratory at the Welding Institute for
their assistance in working out results and
carrying out the tests.
100
Discussion o n Papers 9 and 1 0
i n d e p e n d e n t o f a b s o l u t e j o i n t s i z e as is t h e DR WYLDE
case when they are obtained analytically or Certainly many of those factors will influence
by the u s e of parametric equations. f a t i g u e p e r f o r m a n c e o n b o t h t h i c k and t h i n
joints. In p a r t i c u l a r t h e e f f e c t s o f
DR G. E D W A R D S , Shell Research KSEPL, The Hague g e o m e t r i c f a c t o r s such as m i s a l i g n m e n t and
M y q u e s t i o n r e l a t e s t o t h e fact t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t angular offset can give rise to high
f a t i g u e l i f e m a y s t i l l r e m a i n in a t u b u l a r j o i n t additional stress concentration factors which
w h e n c r a c k g r o w t h is w e l l d e v e l o p e d . would reduce fatigue strength.
In a n o p e r a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n , w h e n a c r a c k is
f o u n d , a d e c i s i o n m u s t b e m a d e as t o w h e t h e r o r M R D . T . FERN, McDermott Engineering (London)
n o t r e p a i r m u s t b e c a r r i e d o u t . T h e r e s u l t s in I have been involved with fatigue life appraisal
P a p e r 9 i n d i c a t e t h a t it c o u l d b e p o s s i b l e in and t h e r e p a i r o f t w o m a j o r j a c k e t s t r u c t u r e s
t h e f u t u r e t o j u s t i f y n o n - r e p a i r (for s a y a o f s i m i l a r d e s i g n in t h e N o r t h S e a . O n e w a s
year or t w o ) on a fatigue b a s i s . H o w e v e r , to i n s t a l l e d in 1 9 7 5 and t h e o t h e r in 1 9 7 7 . Both
d o t h i s , a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e u l t i m a t e h a v e s u f f e r e d f a t i g u e d a m a g e and r e p a i r m e a s u r e s
strength of the cracked joint would be needed. in t h e form o f b o l t e d c l a m p s and n e w m e m b e r s w e r e
Could the Authors comment on the problems of installed during 1980.
assessing the ultimate strength of a cracked One aspect involved two types of similar
joint following a fatigue test? Have they X - j o i n t on t h e t w o p l a t f o r m s . T h e c h o r d is o f
o b t a i n e d a n y i n f o r m a t i o n in t h i s a r e a ? 24 in d i a m e t e r a n d t h e b r a c e s 1 2 ^ / 4 in d i a m e t e r .
F a t i g u e c a l c u l a t i o n s s u g g e s t that t h e j o i n t s on
DR WYLDE t h e first s t r u c t u r e s h o u l d b e e x h i b i t i n g c r a c k s ,
I agree that the residual static strength of but inspection showed no cracking. However, the
t h e j o i n t s w i t h a l a r g e f a t i g u e c r a c k is o f s e c o n d set o f j o i n t s in t h e o t h e r s t r u c t u r e h a d
great importance. No tests have been carried b e e n s t i f f e n e d e x t e r n a l l y to e n h a n c e t h e f a t i g u e
out at t h e W e l d i n g I n s t i t u t e t o m e a s u r e r e s i d u a l life. Data which became available between
strengths b e c a u s e the test rigs are not designed the two designs showed that there w a s a fatigue
to s u p p l y t h e m a g n i t u d e o f l o a d s n e c e s s a r y . p r o b l e m at t h e X - j o i n t a n d so t h e d e s i g n e r s added
Some w o r k on this h a s b e e n carried out b y t h e e x t e r n a l ring s t i f f e n e r s . The stiffened
Det N o r s k e V e r i t a s . ^ joints cracked. S u b s e q u e n t t e s t s s h o w e d that
the X-joint w a s fairly f l e x i b l e ; adding stiffeners
DR IRVINE m a d e it less f l e x i b l e . The computer analysis
C r a c k d e p t h is c o n t r o l l e d b y c r a c k l e n g t h w h i c h a s s u m e d r i g i d j o i n t s - a c o m m o n a s s u m p t i o n on
is r e s t r i c t e d b y t h e p e a k e d s t r e s s f i e l d at t h e most offshore structures. When the true flexi
h o t spot w h i c h f a l l s o n e a c h s i d e on t h e s i t e b i l i t i e s w e r e t a k e n into a c c o u n t , t h e o r i g i n a l
of initial crack p r o p a g a t i o n . T h i s is a b a s i c j o i n t w a s s h o w n to h a v e a h i g h e r t h e o r e t i c a l
geometrical effect which distinguishes crack f a t i g u e l i f e , and so it w a s c o n c l u d e d that joint
growth development b e t w e e n tubular and p l a t e flexibility must be taken into account.
w e l d e d specimens,- i r r e s p e c t i v e o f d i f f e r e n c e s D r i l l i n g t h e t i p s o f c r a c k s w a s t r i e d on b o t h
b e t w e e n offshore and onshore loading and p l a t f o r m s and found t o b e e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t .
environment. T h u s loss o f s t i f f n e s s w i l l s t i l l T h e d i v e r h a s great d i f f i c u l t y f i n d i n g t h e
be v e r y gradual u p to t h r o u g h thickness c o r r e c t p o i n t to d r i l l and d i f f i c u l t y d r i l l i n g
cracking. the hole. T h i s is n o l o n g e r r e c o m m e n d e d as a
With r e g a r d to r e s i d u a l static s t r e n g t h , r e l i a b l e m e t h o d o f s t o p p i n g t h e c r a c k on a
Gibstein^ has presented accounts of static structure under water.
testing of fatigue damaged T joints. He found T h e c r a c k s on t h e t w o s t r u c t u r e s w e r e s i m i l a r
that static strength remaining was 0 . 2 4 - 0 . 4 0 % to t h o s e f e a t u r e d in P a p e r 9; in p a r t i c u l a r t h e
of calculated undamaged static strength. His o u t - o f - p l a n e test on a T - j o i n t (Fig. 3 o f P a p e r
end o f l i f e f a t i g u e f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n w a s t h a t 9) b e a r s a s t r i k i n g r e s e m b l a n c e to t h e w o r s t
80-90% of the weld toe periphery was surface cracked joint.
cracked. A l l r e p a i r s so far h a v e b e e n b y b o t t l e d c l a m p .
U n s t a b l e f r a c t u r e c a n o c c u r in b a d l y d a m a g e d New designs for clamps incorporating metal/metal
t u b u l a r j o i n t s - o n e o f t h e H j o i n t s t e s t e d at and m e t a l / g r o u t / m e t a l f r i c t i o n s u r f a c e s and long
N B L e n d e d i t s life t h i s w a y b y fast f r a c t u r e in high-strength preloaded bolts have been used.
the brace which was 5 0 % through cracked. Such So far t h e s e h a v e p r o v i d e d a d e q u a t e r e i n f o r c e
a f a i l u r e w a s o f m o d e I t y p e (bending a n d m e m m e n t to t h e d a m a g e d s t r u c t u r e and t h e y a r e
b r a n e s t r e s s i n d u c e d ) a n d f a i l u r e s in t h e c h o r d e x p e c t e d to c o n t i n u e t o d o s o .
w o u l d b e o f m o d e III t y p e (shear s t r e s s i n d u c e d ) , Further repairs are planned. At present the
but a l l e x p e r i e n c e in t h i s c a s e is t h a t it w i l l f
c l i e n t s p h i l o s o p h y is t o add r e i n f o r c i n g c l a m p s
b e d u c t i l e in n a t u r e . t o j o i n t s w h e r e t h e p r e d i c t e d f a t i g u e lives a r e
low, I b e l i e v e that P a p e r s 9 and 1 0 m a y c h a n g e
M R T . B O K A L R U D , Det Norske Veritas this philosophy.
F r o m t h e w o r k d e s c r i b e d in P a p e r 1 0 it s e e m s
t h a t t h e r e is t h i c k n e s s e f f e c t on t h e DR W Y L D E
fatigue strength. Is t h e r e a n y r e a s o n t o W i t h r e g a r d to t h e X - j o i n t p r o b l e m , w h e r e a d d i n g
suspect that the size effect can be increased by reinforcement has produced a cracking problem
other fatigue governing factors? Thinking of w h i c h p r e v i o u s l y o n l y e x i s t e d on p a p e r , in a n y
c o r r o s i o n , w e l d g e o m e t r y , m i s a l i g n m e n t s , load structural analysis the stresses predicted will
configuration and other boundary c o n d i t i o n s , d e p e n d on t h e f l e x i b i l i t i e s a t t r i b u t e d to t h e
when heavy thicknesses are working together various joints. In t h i s i n s t a n c e a s s u m i n g r i g i d
w i t h o t h e r n e g a t i v e f a t i g u e f a c t o r s c a n it b e j o i n t s p r e d i c t e d h i g h s t r e s s e s b u t in fact t h e
expected that the thickness effect will increase? j o i n t w a s f l e x i b l e and t h e s e h i g h s t r e s s e s did
102
D I S C U S S I O N O N PAPERS9 A N D 1 0
M R M c D O N A L D , i n reply MR PARKHOUSE
The Dutch specimens were m a d e according to It is k n o w n that the parameter that describes
A P I s p e c i f i c a t i o n and I w o u l d n o t e x p e c t that the degree of distress at a c r a c k t i p is n o t
t h e i n c o r r e c t w e l d p r o f i l e is t h e c a u s e o f t h e the stress t h e r e , b u t (nominal stress x /crack
lower Dutch r e s u l t s . Having seen the Dutch length). It is n o t so c o m m o n l y known that the
s p e c i m e n s I t h i n k that t h e g e n e r a l w e l d s h a p e tip o f a n o t c h - a toe of a weld, for example -
is v e r y s i m i l a r t o that o f t h e s p e c i m e n s t e s t e d is s i m i l a r l y distressed even b e f o r e cracking
in t h e U K . according to (nominal stress x / n o t c h size)
where notch size is r e l a t e d to p l a t e thickness.
IR 0 . D . D I J K S T R A , TNO-IBBC At p r e s e n t there is n o t a n a m e for such a
F i g u r e s 1 and 2 show a w e l d p r o f i l e o f t h e large parameter like stress intensity factor, but there
Dutch joints. probably will be soon. The importance of this
103
ENDURANCE OF TUBULAR SPECIMENS
is that there is a size effect for uncracked tested at 15 Hz and large specimens at high load
notched weld toes just as there is for cracks, at 1 Hz.
so weld toe performance is also sensitive to
plate thickness. REFERENCES
1. Gibstein, M.B. Parametric stress analysis
DR K. S. VIRDI, The City University, London of T-joints. European Offshore Steels
At what frequency were the tests described in Research Seminar, Cambridge, 1978, IX/P26.
Papers 9 and 10 carried out? It could be that Welding Institute, Abington, 1980.
the frequency of testing has little or no 2. American Petroleum Institute. Recommended
influence on the fatigue life. practice for planning, designing and
constructing fixed offshore platforms, 11th
MR McDONALD edn. API, Washington, DC, 1980, RP-2A.
The test frequency was in the range 1-15 Hz.
Normally small specimens at low load were
104
A M. C L A Y T O N , BSc(Eng), M I M e c h E , Risley
Nuclear Power Development Laboratories,
UKAEA, Risley
The design of tubular joints for offshore structures against fatigue has in the past largely relied
on S-N curves derived from small scale model tests. After a review of S-N failure data and its
use in design this paper considers the mechanics of fatigue crack growth, to show areas where these
more complex techniques can provide a basis for the better appreciation of the importance of the
parameters involved. It is concluded that whilst S-N failure data is likely to remain the main
design tool, the use of crack growth data will eventually provide support for extrapolation of the
data to larger sizes and longer lives than can be economically considered in experimental work. It
will also provide a means of considering the significance of existing defects.
106
PAPER 11: CLAYTON
Fig 1 S-N Curves from API RP2-A (X X*) and Dept of Energy Guidance Notes (Q) compared with
f
UKOSRP tubular joint test failure results. • X and X are for improved profile and as welded
connections respectively.
|brace|
no of cycles
Fig 2 Variation of crack length with cycles Fig 3 Development of a fatigue crack in the
in an edge cracked plate (schematic). (r,s,t) plane. (a) Crack in chord wall and
r,s,t directions. (b) Stress distribution
around development of crack.
107
PREDICTION OF CRACK G R O W T H IN TUBULARJOINTS
change in crack length, which rapidly increases crack growth which then increases the AK at the
as failure is approached, figure 2. In the case initial endurance stress level to cause further
of a tubular joint, the situation is more com growth. The continuing downward slope of the
plex, but efforts are now being expended to S-N curve takes this into account. In time,
carry out a similar integration process. corrosion pitting in sea water would induce high
strains and crack growth at lower stresses, and
17. In general a fatigue crack grows normal to a modified X-curve allowed for this by continu
the direction of the maximum principal stress. ing the curve at the original slope, the impli
In many loading configurations of simple tubular cation being that once growth can occur, sea
joints this is along the weld toe of the con water does not increase the growth rate. It is
nection (figure 3 ) . Usually, the crack starts extremely difficult to simulate tubular joint
very close to the highest stress location (the crack geometry and the very low stress levels
hot spot) and then its surface growth is along in a laboratory specimen to provide a similar
a decreasing stress path. However, for many ingress of sea water to the crack tip, and the
situations, the initial stress does not decrease tests on tubular joints in sea water with and
significantly for J of the intersection length, without cathodic protection reported in the
and the hot spot stress level is an adequate Dutch p a r t o f the European programme indicating
representation of the stress field. Since, in accelerated crack growth will need further sup
practice the stress 90° round the intersection portive work in the UK.
is fixed by other considerations (in pure in-
plane or out-of-plane bending, it will be zero, 21. Crack opening occurs only under tensile
under axial load, the chord crown stress is stress? compressive,stresses press the crack
largely controlled by beam bending behaviour), faces together and do not induce strain concen
the whole initial stress field is dictated by trations at the crack tip. However, some years
the hot spot stress which gives it its good ago the Welding Institute proposed that welding
characterising role in fatigue. produces residual tensile stresses of yield mag
nitude which keep the crack open over the whole
18. The major component of stress through the cycle. This is the justification of the use of
tube wall is due to tube wall bending, which stress range in the S-N curve and most of the
produces roughly equal but opposite stresses on data on tubular joints at different applied
the inner wall to those near the weld toe, and stress ranges appears to confirm this concept.
hence a neutral axis near the centre of the wall Post weld heat treatment of some of the larger
thickness. Crack growth inwards is therefore joints in the UK Offshore Steels Research Pro
very restrained, and relies on extensive surface ject seems to have relieved these residual
growth to move the neutral axis before through stresses and on tests which go from tension to
thickness cracking can occur. As a result there equal compression in each cycle, there appears
appears to be a minimum necessary crack length from the limited data available to be an improve
for a given depth growth which produces crack -ment in fatigue life compared with non heat
shapes ranging from a semi-circular shape for treated joints. Shot peening of welds is a fur
small defects to an aspect ratio of (length/ ther extension of residual stress control which
depth) of about 10 at breakthrough of the chord induces a residual compressive stress on the
wall. If it were assumed that crack length surface, reducing crack growth. This process
growth showed a response similar to the simple may also hammer flat weld microcracks.
crack in a plate, depthwise growth would be
much more linear with number of cycles, figure 22. Whilst most tubular joint tests are carried
4, and this is observed in the tests reported out under constant amplitude loading, some tests
in the previous session. have been conducted under load spectra, ideally
representing sea conditions and the response of
19. The slow inwards growth causes cracks to the structure in the region of the node. Miners
remain visually tight, which results in the num Law of cumulative fatigue damage for a number of
ber of cycles to the first visible crack to be different stress ranges can be shown to follow
large, in spite of considerable surface length. directly from the da/dN vs AK relationship pro
The same effect is partially responsible for vided each cycle is independent. In the case
the stiffness of the joint remaining high for of random loading, it may be shown that linear
much of life. This stiffness maintains the cumulative damage assumptions result in a mean
original stress field around the connection for effective stress range given by
considerable crack growth (except very near the
m in
crack itself, of course) and accounts for the N Aa = ZAa
initial hot spot stress field characterisation mean
being applicable throughout most of life. where EAo* is the sum of all the individual
stress ranges in the spectrum, which can fre
20. The early X-curves showed a decreasing slope quently be determined analytically, and m is
for low stress ranges. Below some endurance the slope of the da/dN vs AK plot. It should
level, constant stress range tests show no crack be noted, however, that a previous large cycle
growth. In fracture mechanics terms, there is sets up a compressive residual stress which re
some threshold AK level below which the crack duces the effect of a following smaller cycle.
extension would be less than one atomic lattice Some care must therefore be taken in the choice
spacing and no growth would occur. Since in of spectra and a study into typical true spectra
practice the structure sees a spectra of differ found in offshore structure nodes is being con
ent stress ranges, the larger ones will cause ducted within the UKOSRP project.
108
PAPER 11: CLAYTON
extent offshore inspection could determine such is a function of crack size absolutely, but the
a narrow crack in the large welded areas of con stress distribution can be scaled on size, an
cern is an open question. increase in size means that the crack is physi
cally longer whilst it is at a given stress level
24. As far as crack growth analysis is concerned, and would thus grow more rapidly With the deve
0
there will be difficulty in following crack beha lopment of theoretical methods of calculating
viour as breakthrough of the chord wall occurs, tubular joint crack growth, it should be possible
where the highly constrained through crack b e to test the significance of this Q
to
w
<D depth growth length growth| crack becomes
c predominates predominates a through
o wall slit
r
all bending strain
04
Q) Fig 5 Effect of size on crack growtho
* 10 A given crack length a in the same nominal
C
fd strain field is at a higher strain level
in a larger connection. The yield zone r
is shorter than a in a small connection,
0) but may be larger than a in a larger
1
connection ( r ) .
M
O
U
O
N2
no of cycles
Fig 4 Variation of crack dimensions with
cycles in a tubular joint (schematic) Curve a
0
109
PREDICTION OF CRACK G R O W T H IN TUBULAR JOINTS
27. A s noted earlier, the yielded zone at the toe of complex offshore nodes would prove an enor
of a weld due to the weld geometry stress concen mous task. Furthermore, even in the UKOSRP
tration may be smaller or larger than the micro- joints, information on some of the inputs (such
crack size. If it is smaller than the microcracks as residual stress) is not obtainable and must
in a small joint, due to the scaling of the stress be surmised from the results of tubular joint
field with size, it will become larger than the tests.
microcracks in a larger joint. Cracks might be
expected to grow very rapidly in such a high 31. For most design purposes, therefore, fail
strain field to the yield zone depth, and thus ure data correlated in the form of the S-N
the effective initial crack size would become a curve will remain in use. The value in study
function of joint size a This phenomena is being ing crack growth lies in two directions.,
investigated using photoelasticity 0 The process Firstly, it provides a basis of understanding
appears reasonable from tubular joint results, the fatigue process so that the importance of
since the size effect is only strongly apparent the geometric loading, material and environ
up to N l , beyond Nl size does not seem very mental parameters can be assessed. From this
important„ Some explanation which considers the experimental data can be extrapolated in a
early growth is therefore indicated. logical manner Secondly, it provides a means
0
110
Discussion o n Paper 1 1
Studies of yield zone size in welded joints (b) nominal stress a , distance x from crack
x
are currently being made to determine the tip length a
significance of the yield zone size. a ^ a/(a/x)
x
Strain g a u g e stresses
Fig. 1
REFERENCE
1. Fessler, H. and Little, W. J. G. Elastic
stresses due to axial loading of a two-brace
tubular K joint with and without overlap.
J. Strain Analysis, 1981, Jan., 67-77.
112
P. J. FISHER, MIMechE, Lloyd's Register of
Shipping
Early fatigue life estimation methods based on the punching shear concept and blanket factor
techniques together with the S-N curves used are summarised. Current fatigue design employing
parametric stress concentration factors, an updated punching shear concept and alternative
approaches with the current S-N curves being used in the UK and USA are discussed. This includes
comment on present knowledge with respect to size effects, weld profile control, weld improvement,
post weld heat treatment and the effects of sea water. Early results of work being carried out
by Lloyd's Register of Shipping, part funded by the Department of Energy, on correlation of some
North Sea platform secondary member fatigue cracking with current design by comparitive studies of
approach, stress concentration factors and S-N curves, are given.
North Sea
20 ,
15
Life r 26 years(S-N curve Q)
JC 10 Damage plots
en
>
5 L Life = 99 years
2 4 6
10° 10 10 10 10 10 200 Stress range N/mm 2
50 100 J150
Exceedances/50 years
3 7.5 12 Wave height m
114
PAPER 12: F I S H E R
7. Guidance Notes. On publication of the the findings. Other UKOSRP and ECSC projects
DOE guidance (ref.3), the S-N curves therein are investigating the effects of PWHT, sea
were generally adopted in the UK. The Q, water and weld profile improvement so that
K and T curves were variations of the AWS XX, these may be quantified.
KK and TT curves (see Fig.3). For the punching
shear concept, although the Guidance Notes 14. With fixed steel platforms now being
referred to the AWS for T and K punching shear designed for water depths up to 300 m and
relationships, the notes also stated that stress considering the general increase in topside
concentrations had been allowed for in the T loading, dynamic effects are becoming more
and K curves. This led in some instances to important. This can be accounted for in
the T and K curves being used with unmodified deterministic analyses but more and more
brace nominal stresses. platforms are being checked by full dynamic
analysis.
8. Brace life. Both the. AWS D1.1 and the
Guidance Notes required the brace to be checked 15. There are several UKOSRP and ECSC projects
when the punching shear concept was used to investigating an alternative method for estimat
estimate the chord life. In the AWS D1.1 ing fatigue life based on a fracture mechanics
1
the D'D curve was used in conjunction with approach.
the brace nominal stress. Until the late
seventies the most widely used method in the UK Stress concentration factors
for estimating brace lives was that given in 16. Parametric equations. Using stress
the Guidance Notes. The method employed blanket concentration factor parametric equations, brace
geometric factors in conjunction with S-N curve and chord hot spot stresses can readily be
F. This curve was based on the BS 153 class F calculated from the brace nominal stresses.
flat cruciform joint detail and the geometric The equations have separate terms for axial,
factors were obtained from the results of early in-plane and out-of-plane bending stresses.
tubular joint tests carried out at Sheffield Probably the most comprehensive and widely used
University. are those by Kuang et al (ref.4). These
equations are based on the results of an
9. Weld profile improvement. From the extensive joint finite element analysis study
Guidance Notes the Q curve could be used for the and cover T, X, K and KT type joint configura
brace with an improved profile, achieved by toe tions. Marshall (ref.5) and Gibstein (ref.6)
grinding, on the brace side of the saddle weld. have also produced parametric equations based
The same geometric factors as used with curve F on finite element analysis.
were employed. Due to the different slopes of
curves F and Q, the life increase varied depend 17. The Wordsworth/Smedley equations (ref.7)
ing on the stress range level. are at present limited to simple T and X type
joints but work is continuing to cover other
10. There was one other tubular joint S-N joint configurations. These equations have
f f
curve in AWS D1.1 namely E E which could be been derived from the results of acrylic model
used in conjunction with the brace nominal testing carried out as part of the UKOSRP
stress to estimate lives of complex joints programme. Comparing equations, e.g. Kuang
(i.e. with gusset plates and ring stiffeners). and Wordsworth, for the same joint configuration
This curve did not feature in the Guidance can show differences in stress concentration
Notes and was not generally used in the UK. (see Fig.4). For the joint configuration shown
and for some values of /3(r brace rad./R chord
11. During the seventies although it was rad.) different lives can result depending on
considered that post weld heat treatment (PWHT) which set of equations are used.
would give some improvement in fatigue life, due
to a reduction in residual tensile stresses, no 18. To use parametric equations fatigue analy
actual benefit was given. On the other hand it ses have become more sophisticated. They must-
was also thought that the effects of a sea water differentiate between axial, in-plane and out-
environment might reduce life but again this was of-plane loading, each joint has to be catego
not allowed for. With respect to weld profile rised correctly, and planes defined. However
improvement, apart from the brace life increase this has led to a more accurate prediction of
given for brace weld toe grinding in the fatigue life. Equations are available for T,
Guidance Notes, already discussed, no other X, K and KT single plane joints but further work
quantifiable benefit was given. is required to extend the range to cover complex
multi-brace joints and also to include the
CURRENT FATIGUE DESIGN effects of stiffening - gussets/ring stiffeners.
General
12. The mainstay for fatigue analysis is still 19. Hot spot stress. A difficulty is defining
the deterministic approach using a Miner cumula a standard hot spot stress so that the stresses
tive damage summation as outlined previously. measured in tests, calculated in finite element
However, a significant advance in fatigue life studies and derived by using parametric
estimation has been achieved by the introduction equations are compatible. The conventional
of parametric equations. definition is the stress normal to the weld at
the toe, including the effect of the brace/chord
13. As results become available from UKOSRP, intersection but excluding the influence of the
ECSC and other tubular joint test programmes, weld itself. As part of the UKOSRP programme,
revised S-N curves are being proposed reflecting comparitive studies are being carried out on
115
S U M M A R Y OF CURRENT DESIGN
2000
1 I i 1 1 1 1 i
2 3 4 5 6 7
10 10 10 10 io 10 10
Cycles
25
. Wordsworth/Smedley
SCF — — — Kuang et al
chord
V [ hord rad.\_ ,
c
?
20 0 \chord t. /"
«Wbrace t.\ = 0.8
' \chord t.J
0 (chord/brace angle)
15
10
In-plane bending
116
PAPER 12: FISHER
experimental (including full scale testing) air but that there may well be a penalty for
and theoretical hot spot stresses, using joints in the splash zone. For fixed platforms
parametric equations to derive a standard hot now being installed there are normally no brace
spot definition. to chord joints in the splash zone, apart from
vertical X bracing, but for other structures a
Current S-N curves penalty might be significant.
20. Revised punching shear concept. The AWS
and DOE empirical punching shear curves which 26. Other UKOSRP and ECSC projects are
are still current and can be used for estimat investigating the benefit of weld profile
ing chord lives have already been discussed. improvement - grinding, peening and TIG
In the API RP 2A eleventh edition (ref.1), dressing. Booth (ref.12) has demonstrated a
S-N curves are presented and the punching shear significant increase in endurance for toe
concept uses a single S-N curve KK (see Fig.5) grinding and hammer peening. The grinding
which overcomes the earlier problem of joint removes defects and undercut whilst peening
selection. However, the revised cyclic punch builds in compressive stresses and may also
ing shear stress range formula, which in some eliminate defects. Where it is not possible to
respects is more difficult to apply than increase wall thickness to improve fatigue life,
parametric equations, must be incorporated in Lloyd's give an increase in life of two for toe
any computer analysis. grinding or carefully controlled peening.
21. An XX curve is also presented in the API Dynamic analysis, alternative approach
which is similar to the AWS XX and DOE Q curves 27. Dynamic amplification. For structures
(see Fig.5). These three curves are those with natural periods less than three seconds,
currently used in conjunction with the peak hot dynamic effects are not normally considered
spot stress, usually derived from parametric since waves with periods less than this do not
equations, to estimate the critical fatigue life significantly affect fatigue life. Where the
be it in the brace or chord side of the saddle period of the first mode of vibration is over
weld. For the complex joints where the three seconds, dynamic effects are considered.
equations do not apply, stress concentrations In deterministic analysis this can be achieved
can be determined by joint finite element by the appropriate factoring of stress ranges.
analysis or test (e.g. acrylic model). Dynamic amplification factors are obtained by
simple dynamic analysis of the structure.
22. Profile control. In the API the XX and
KK curves are to be used only where the weld 28. Dynamic analysis. For deep water plat
profile merges smoothly with the adjoining base forms (2uXT300~mT^nnore detailed dynamic
metal. Where there is no such profile control, approach is required such as a stochastic
1
curves X'X and K'K' (see Fig.5) are to be used. fatigue analysis. In this nominal stress
1
Curves XX and X'X are included in the S-N curve ranges are determined from a dynamic spectral
comparitive study presented later. There are analysis of the platform and a probability
two other curves in the API, D'D' (see Fig.5) distribution (scatter diagrams) of the seas
1
and E'E which are similar to the same designat producing these ranges is considered. The
ed curves in the AWS already discussed in early maximum probable stress range inclusive of
fatigue design. stress concentration factor is evaluated from
an assumed Rayleigh distribution of stress
23. Size effect. The hot spot S-N curves were range. Two limitations of the method are
derived from small specimens mainly plate, with that a single predetermined wave steepness is
wall thicknesses up to 12 mm. The results of used and water surface profile effects are neg
the full scale testing to date show for some lected. Fatigue lives are computed using the
32 mm thickness specimens test lives that fall Miner cumulative damage summation. Typically
just below the existing XX/Q curves - Dijkstra a platform would be sized using a deterministic
(ref.8). This is believed to be due to a approach, possibly with dynamic amplification,
thickness effect and has been investigated by then checked by a full dynamic analysis.
Gurney (ref.9). Test and theoretical work is
continuing which could lead to a revision of 29. Alternative approach. This method using
the Q curve or an additional curve as per the linear elastic fracture mechanics to estimate
API XX and X'X' curve. fatigue life is being developed, Tomkins
(ref.13). Life is estimated based on the crack
24. Work is being carried out within the rate of propagation but clearly the resultant
UKOSRP and ECSC programmes, De Back et al life would also depend on the time to crack
(ref.10) and Booth (ref.11), to investigate initiation. This method is not used at present
the effects of PWHT and sea water on fatigue for design but may be particularly useful for
endurance. It is eventually hoped to give checking cracks discovered in platforms that
some benefit for PWHT but since this is likely could not be repaired immediately due to bad
to be dependent on stress ratio (min./max. weather conditions.
stress) it will require modifications to exist
ing computer fatigue analysis programs. FATIGUE CORRELATION STUDY
General
25. Work on the effects of sea water show 30. This study is funded jointly by the Depart
generally that with cathodic protection the ment of Energy and Lloyd's Register of Shipping.
fatigue life obtained is much the same as in The primary objective of the study, which was
117
S U M M A R Y OF CURRENT DESIGN
10' 10* 10 10 10 10 10 c
10
Cycles
Fig. 5. S-N curves
118
PAPER 12: F I S H E R
Table 1. Factors affecting fatigue life and isolation. Information is supplied by the
its estimation platform operators and every effort is made
to obtain the correct environmental criteria
Environmental and condition of the platform prior to any
Water depth - tides cracking. As results from fatigue tests
Wave spectra - heights, exceedances, become available, particularly those funded
directionality by the UK Government, these will be incorporat
Wave periods - associated with wave heights ed into the overall programme.
Current - magnitude and direction
Soil conditions - foundation stiffness Correlation study of cracking
32. To date four North Sea platforms, which
Loading (external and internal) have experienced some cracking, have been
Wave force coefficients - C and C
n M
considered. All the cracking initiated in the
., D M weld toes on either the brace or chord sides of
Wave theory
Slamming - effect on C^ the tube to tube saddle joints. Only one of
Roughness - effect on C^ these platforms suffered cracking in primary
joints. For this platform it was clearly
Overall structural configuration shown that the cracking was not due to fatigue
Piling - stiffness varies with wave height but to some other cause.
Fatigue stresses 33. Another of these platforms which experi
Joint configuration enced only superficial cracking had joints
Weld shape - profile strengthened by extensive in-plane and out-of-
Weld surface - as welded, ground, peened plane external stiffening. Since there are no
Residual stress - fabrication, welding, PWHT parametric equations covering this type of
Alternating stress - degree of axial, in-plane joint the study of this particular platform was
and out-of-plane bending somewhat limited. Further work could be
Stress concentration factor - parametric carried out using detail joint finite element
equations analysis or stress concentrations obtained by
Dynamic amplification test (acrylic/photo-elastic modelling).
started in 1977, is to ensure that the safety 34. For the remaining two platforms, cracking
standards in the Guidance Notes with respect occurred in secondary joints but was confined
to fatigue are updated using the accumulated to the first horizontal levels above and below
experience gained in the North Sea. Under the the waterline. In some cases vertical loading
study North Sea platforms with known fatigue was more critical than lateral when including
cracks in members and other uncracked platforms the increase in wave loading caused by the
are considered to check the validity of current plating around the conductor slots. In one
fatigue analysis techniques. case there was an increase in wave loading due
to a build up of marine growth on the horizon
31. In the study of a particular platform all tal level in question. For both platforms the
the factors in Table 1 are considered there cracking essentially occurred in simple T type
fore maintaining an overall balance rather than connections with wall thickness up to 25 mm.
concentrating on an individual parameter in
Cracki nq Peak 1
Life (yrs .) using
Loading S-N curve
damage
Joint Joint Brace (B) predominance
stress 2
No. Type or Discovered DOE 2
API 3
API 4
range Z
Chord (C) (yrs) API
N/mm 2
Q f DM)' KK
X X'
1 K B 3 Out-of-plane 434 0.2 0.1 112 -
II II II 407 0.3 0.2 9.0
2 T C 3
ti 0.2
- 0.4
3 T C 3 II
II
II
II II
483 0.3
0.5
- 28
4 T C 3 300 0.9
1.8 0.7
-
0.9
5 T
T
B 6 In-plane
II II
130
3.0 1.1
-
1.1
6
7 X
C
C
6
6 Out-of-plane
114
76 14.0 4.5
- 0.0
119
S U M M A R Y OF CURRENT DESIGN
3 5 . Definition of member failure. The cracking fatigue using early blanket type factors. These
on the two platforms in question, when factors, particularly for axial and out-of-plane
discovered, varied from minor surface cracking loading, were much lower than the more realistic
to complete detachment. It is considered that SCFs that would be obtained using parametric
an appropriate general definition for correla equations.
tion purposes would be 30-40% through thickness
cracking. This is typical damage for much of 3 9 . As far as is known the profiles on the
the secondary joint cracking being investigated. cracked joints merged reasonably with the base
In tubular joint fatigue testing this is also metal. However, lives are also shown for the
f f
representative of end of test in that deflect X X curve, which covers joints where no such
ions become excessive and loading unbalanced. profile exists. Lives for high peak damage
However, for primary joints, in a structure with stresses are fairly similar to Q as expected
limited redundancy, this degree of damage would (see Fig.5) the difference increasing as the two
normally be in excess of that acceptable to a curves diverge with reducing peak stress. For
Certifying Authority. more normal life joints the peak stresses would
f f
not be this high and the X X curve would give
3 6 . Discussion of results. Table 2 shows a much reduced life.
estimated lives for typical cracked joints, the
lives were calculated using Lloyd's determinis 4 0 . Lives for the API D D brace curve and the
f f
tic fatigue approach (ref.14). The program revised punching shear KK curve are also shown
uses parametric equations in conjunction with for comparison. The revised punching shear
S-N curve Q to derive lives based on a Miner concept gives similar results to the original
summation, for typical stress spectrum and AWS concept, discussed earlier, in that for
damage plot see Fig. 6 . The Q curve used is a predominant in-plane loading it gives a conser
98?o probability of survival curve. The mean vative estimate relative to Q but for predomin
curve would result in lives some 3 to 4 times ant out-of-plane loading it can be optimistic.
greater than those shown and would give reason The exception to this is joint 7 which has a ft
able correlation with the time to crack dis ratio (r/R) of 1 . 0 and hence a relatively low
f f
covery for most joints. The Q curve is based hot spot SCF. The D D curve gives a very
on specimens up to 1 2 mm thickness which is high life for joint 1 (brace) but this would
typical for these joints. For joint 7 where be covered in some respects by a chord life of
the correlation is not good it is thought that 0 . 7 years using the revised punching shear KK
the cracking was caused by excessive deflection curve (result not shown in table).
due to earlier cracking of other adjacent
joints. Comparitive study of S-N curves
4 1 . As part of the fatigue correlation work,
3 7 . For one of the platforms the early cracking comparitive studies are being made of stress
was mainly due to the close proximity of the concentration factors and S-N curves. Table 3
horizontal level in question with the waterline shows some early results of an S-N curve com
and the build up of marine growth which signifi paritive study being carried out, the 8 joints
cantly increased wave loading in the vertical considered are typical of North Sea platforms.
direction. Wave slam was investigated but the The lives quoted are based on the total damage
effect was found to be small compared with considering two wave directions and four wave
other wave forces. heights to derive the stress spectra.
38. The other platform was designed against 4 2 . The fatigue lives shown in Table 3 have been
1
Peak Life (yrs.) using S-N curve
Brace (B)
Joint Joint damage
or
No. Type stress 2
Chord (C) DOE AWS 2
API Z
API 2
API 3
range f
Q XX XX X X« D'D'
N/mm^
120
PAPER 12: FISHER
121
J. R. PETRIE, MSc, FIMarE, F I M e c h E ,
D e p a r t m e n t of Energy
A review and brief history of the information concerning fatigue of offshore structures as given in
the Department of Energy's guidance notes for the design and construction of offshore installations,
the methods used in preparation of these proposals, and implementation of them to both new and
existing offshore structures. The latest proposals for amendment to the guidance on fatigue matters
is not available at this time but it is hoped that the author will be able to give a verbal
presentation of these proposals, which have been derived from the latest research, at the seminar.
opportunity to ensure that essential repairs can assumed load spectra, SN curves and stress con
be carried out quickly and prevent disastrous centration factors.
consequences.
11. This then was the extent of the 1974
5« In the 1974 edition of the Guidance Notes, guidance on fatigue which whilst identifying
(Reference 3 ) which was of course based on the certain areas and items which had to be taken
state of the art existing in 1973> "the Section into consideration, did not in any way indicate
on fatigue ran to about half a page. how such consideration should be made. It was
however implicitly understood that there was a
6. This half page indicated that full con
lack of detailed information in the 1974 publi
sideration should be given to the effects of
cation and the most important requirement was
fatigue, particularly in the design of joints
that of updating the fatigue analysis.
and in the case of steel structures the welded
connections. 12. It was laid down that this analysis should
be brought up to date each time renewal of cer
7. The scope of the analysis was based on an
tification was sougjht and additionally if
assessment of those components which were not
experience suggests that a fresh fatigue invest
essential to the stability and integrity of the
igation was desirable. This latter could be
structure and which were accessible for inspec
based on the improvement of analysis parameters
tion and repairs, such components needing only
since the last fatigue assessment was made.
an "approximate analysis". However, a full
cumulative damage fatigue analysis was required 13* The Department's original intention was to
for those components which were established as keep the Guidance Notes up to date by issuing
being essential to the stability and integrity amendments from time to time. However, it was
of the structure or for which it was impractic felt that/this could not be achieved at that
able to carry out inspection and repair. particular time and in 1976 it was decided, as
Additionally all members and joints in the there were a large number of changes to be made
splash zone were included. to the Guidance Notes, to issue a Second Edition
which duly came out in late 1977*
8. The analysis was to be based on suitable SN
curves and stress concentrations factors 14« For this Second Edition we felt that we had
appropriate to the curves being used. These more information available on which to base the
factors could be derived by empirical methods or fatigue guidance and the Department conscripted
calculated by an accurate analysis. a number of persons who were involved in the UK
Offshore Steel Research Programme to contribute
9. Mention was also made of the matters which
to the entry. Thus in the 1977 edition of the
had to be specially considered such as stress
Guidance Notes the fatigue section extended to
fluctuations caused by the dynamic effect of
3l3 pages of notes, 2 pages of SN curves, 6 pages
waves, variation in buoyancy due to wave action
of various figures concerning non-tubular joints
or flooding of submerged members, the effects of
and a number of references for the user to
member vibration in the splash zone; any special
consider.
weld profile treatment such as grinding or
peening; and the quality of materials and weld 15* It was felt that although the 1977 edition
consumables. of the Guidance Notes was more informative and
consequently would be more useful to those
10. An effective factor of safety of two was
people concerned with the design and certifica
then added by the statement that the results of
tion of offshore installations, it was still not
the analysis should show a probable life of not
in any way considered to be a final and defini
less than double the period for which certifica
tive statement. It was therefore still made
tion was sougjht, due allowance being made for
clear that calculations and data relating to the
corrosion fatigue and any inaccuracies in the
fatigue life of an offshore installation should
124
PAPER 13: PETRIE
be updated in the light of experience and/or 20. This drafting panel is led by Dr Brian
research indicated the need generally or for any Tomkins of the Marine Technology Support Unit at
installation in particular. Harwell as co-ordinator and includes representa
tives from the Welding Institute, a major
RESEARCH
operator, a designer and Petroleum Engineering
16. Since 1977 the research and development
Division. Their primary task is to examine the
programme concerning fatigue has progressed ! f
existing Department of Energy Q curve and con
rapidly and although a large number of papers
sider if a revised fatigue curve is justified in
have been given at various seminars and
view of the results of the research carried out
symposia, these have tended to cover only small
under the United Kingdom Offshore Steel Research
specific parts of the United Kingdom Offshore
Project. To give a wider base, and therefore a
Steels Research Project and though recommenda
more fully considered and definitive result, the
tions have been given from time to time, these
drafting panel is also going to take into con
have been limited to those particular areas of
sideration other work, among which will be a
research. This, of course, further indicates
study carried out by Lloyd's Register of
that fatigue is not a single area of considera
Shipping on fatigue correlation, the recent
tion but rather that a large number of items
modifications to the United States Design Codes
have to be considered to enable a fatigue life
(API RP 2A and AWS D1.1), any other current data
to be promulgated. Indeed this can be seen from
available from American research programmes, and
the range of papers that are to be given at this
some work carried out in Holland. All are to be
symposium.
considered very carefully by the panel before
17* Having then had two editions of Guidance accepting the criteria for inclusion in the work.
Notes, the latest now being three years old and However there is a problem in that the various
containing inadequate information having regard research programmes, whilst all being concerned
to the present day state of the art concerning with fatigue problems, are not necessarily con
fatigue, it was clearly necessary to provide an ducted in the same way or under the same condi
amendment to update the Guidance Notes. tions. For example it is often unclear as to
whether the specimens have been post weld heat
18. It was therefore requested that the
treated or not.
Steering Group for the fatigue research prepare
a draft report for consideration by the Depart CONSULTATION
*•
ment. However it was found that this was
21. When any changes to the Guidance Notes are
impractical bearing in mind the very large
proposed, (and such changes may be suggested or
amount of information that had to be considered,
proposed by anyone, either as individuals or
correlated, and processed to end up with
organisations) a draft amendment is drawn up by
reasonable Guidance Notes.
the Petroleum Engineering Division of the
19. It was consequently decided that a drafting Department of Energy. The proposed amendments
panel should be constituted with the sole are then the subject of consultation with
function of considering the report by the organisations in the United Kingdom representa
Steering Group and all other relevant criteria tive of the persons who will be affected by any
relating to fatigue and produce a detailed such changes. In effect such proposals are sent
revision of the fatigue sections of the Guidance to the United Kingdom Offshore Operators Asso 1
125
F O R M U L A T I O N OF G U I D A N C E NOTES
22. For simple amendments the proposal is the latest methods of calculation for fatigue
usually sent without any back-up material but life have an anticipated life of less than that
for an amendment such as that for the fatigue required by the Guidance Notes, ie less than 20
section of the Guidance Notes, a full technical years. The resultant action will again have to
justification is also issued to give a clear be carefully considered but certainly in the
understanding of the background reasons for the first case will include surveys to ensure that
proposals. no significant deterioration has taken
taken as a means to inform third parties of in 26. It must be stressed that careful considera
tended actions and little else, thougji the tion will be given to each particular case and
relationship between the Department and industry that in all probability discussions will be held
is such that there is usually a very useful ex between the owner, the certifying authority and
change of views, and suggested modifications to the Department of Energy to agree an approach.
the original proposal are generally made as a
CONCLUSION
result of written comments and discussion, and a
better document is evolved. 27 • In conclusion, although there have been
considerable advancements in the problem of
APPLICATION OF NEW CRITERIA
fatigue and its assessment, the state of the art
24• The question of application of new Guidance is such that further advancements can still be
Notes always arises. There is no problem con made. There are continuing improvements in the
cerning installations that are still at the very understanding of loading resulting in fatigue
early design or conceptual, stage, but there can damage, the effect of profiling and post-weld
be problems with "existing" installations, ie heat treatment to mention a few. There is also,
those that have completed designs and are in the of course, the second phase of the United
process of construction and those that are Kingdom Offshore Steel Research Programme which
actually completed and operational. However the will, when completed, in all probability
Department always tries to minimise the amount necessitate further amendments to the Guidance
of retrospective work necessary to comply with Notes and re-assessment of the fatigue lives of
the latest requirements but where an item of offshore installations as a result of not only
major importance to the safety of the installa this and other research, but also the ever in
tion is concerned, then obviously retrospective creasing degree of knowledge and competence in
work will be necessary. The degree of retro this field.
spective work is carefully considered in each
case. REFERENCES
126
Discussion o n Papers 1 2a n d1 3
1000r
Endurance N : cycles
2
Fig. 1
B e n d i n g stress
across
diagonal
M M
M M
(b)
M (waif
C h o r d wall bending)
B r a c e wall
(C)
100
Thickness: mm
Fig. 2
reviews. It is c l e a r t h a t an e m p i r i c a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h i c k n e s s and f a t i g u e
strength exists. Additional tests indicate
t h a t t h e r e is a c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n r e s u l t s
c a r r i e d o u t in a i r a n d t h o s e c a r r i e d out w i t h
a c o r r o s i v e e n v i r o n m e n t s u c h as s e a w a t e r . (e)
(d)
W e c o n s i d e r t h e r e is a r e d u c t i o n b y a f a c t o r of
2 in the life of the j o i n t . F i g . 3. N o t c h s t r e s s e s and t h e i m p o r t a n c e of
It w a s f o u n d t h a t t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h o f weld profile
75 m m s p e c i m e n s s u b j e c t t o a l t e r n a t e l o a d s
was s u b s t a n t i a l l y improved w h e n the specimens
were stress relieved. However, this must be
c o n s i d e r e d in t h e light o f e v i d e n c e t h a t M R J. G. P A R K H O U S E , Atkins Research & Development
i n d i c a t e s t h a t an i m p r o v e m e n t i n t h e f a t i g u e F i g u r e 3 ( a ) , i l l u s t r a t i n g an e l b o w s u b j e c t e d
s t r e n g t h is o b t a i n e d b y s t r e s s r e l i e f o n l y to a b e n d i n g m o m e n t , s h o w s the s t r e s s d i s t r i
when the applied stress cycle after stress b u t i o n a c r o s s the d i a g o n a l . T h e v e r y h i g h stress
r e l i e f is w h o l l y o r p a r t i a l l y c o m p r e s s i v e . c o n c e n t r a t i o n in the n o t c h c a n b e g r e a t l y
T h e r e f o r e , if the benefit of stress relief r e d u c e d b y t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a f i l l e t , as
is t o b e c l a i m e d f o r w e l d e d j o i n t s it m u s t b e s h o w n in F i g . 3 ( b ) . A s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e
c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e r e l e v a n t h o t spot r a d i u s fillet can r e d u c e t h e s t r e s s to b e no
stress range for tubular joints incorporates a m o r e t h a n the n o m i n a l b e n d i n g s t r e s s . Fig. 3(c)
c o m p r e s s i v e c o m p o n e n t w h i c h can b e q u a n t i f i e d . s h o w s that the e l b o w r e s e m b l e s p a r t o f a
If t h i s c a n b e d o n e w e a r e t h e n g i v i n g brace-chord wall intersection. It is p o s s i b l e
c o n s i d e r a t i o n to the p o s s i b i l i t y that the stress that a p o o r l y m a d e u n g r o u n d fillet w e l d o f
r a n g e i n t h e load h i s t o r y m a y b e r e d u c e d f o r s e n s i b l e p r o p o r t i o n s , as d e p i c t e d in F i g . 3 ( d ) ,
fatigue assessment only to the tensile component m a y h a v e a l o n g e r f a t i g u e life t h a n a w e l d w i t h
plus half of the compressive component. a lean p r o f i l e but w i t h a g r o u n d toe (Fig. 3 ( e ) ) .
We are of the opinion that the main criterion T h e r e f o r e the e f f e c t of w e l d p r o f i l e s h o u l d
f o r i m p r o v i n g t h e l i f e w o u l d b e to r e m o v e a l l n o t be o v e r l o o k e d .
t h e w e l d t o e d e f e c t s and t h a t t h i s c a n o n l y b e
done by grinding. It m a y b e p o s s i b l e , s u b j e c t M R P. L. S T U A R T , British Petroleum
t o t h e a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f g r i n d i n g m e t h o d s and W h a t is the p l a n , if a n y , to s u m m a r i z e the d a t a
w o r k m a n s h i p , t h a t t h e f a t i g u e life m a y b e p r o d u c e d b y the p r o j e c t and to d r a w g e n e r a l
i m p r o v e d b y a f a c t o r o f u p o f 2. c o n c l u s i o n s and c o m p a r i s o n w i t h e x i s t i n g s t a t e
O t h e r a s p e c t s w h i c h r e l a t e to f a t i g u e w i l l o f the art and d e s i g n r u l e s ?
a l s o b e l o o k e d i n t o to e n a b l e m o r e c o m p l e t e What is t h e t i m e f r a m e for t h e p h a s e II
g u i d a n c e to be given r e g a r d i n g fatigue programme?
assessment of offshore installations.
128
D I S C U S S I O N O N PAPERS 1 2 A N D 1 3
T h e final d o c u m e n t w i l l b e d i s t r i b u t e d f o r t h e p h i l o s o p h y f o r BS 5 4 0 0 , f o r e n d u r a n c e s less
c o n s u l t a t i o n in t h e n o r m a l m a n n e r , b u t it w i l l t h a n 10? c y c l e s t h e s l o p e is m ; f o r h i g h e r
c o n t a i n o n l y p r o p o s a l s and m a y b e l i a b l e to e n d u r a n c e s it is (m + z ) . T h i s c h a n g e is t o
a l l o w f o r t h e fact that s t r e s s e s b e l o w t h e
change.
c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e f a t i g u e limit b e c o m e
DR N . M . I R V I N E , UKAEA, Culcheth damaging as a crack propagates and contemporary
T h e c o n s i d e r a b l e e x p a n s i o n in t u b u l a r joint values of AK increase. T h e p h i l o s o p h y is
f a t i g u e d a t a in r e c e n t y e a r s h a s e n a b l e d supported by calculations using fracture
r e a l i s t i c h o t spot f a t i g u e d e s i g n c u r v e s mechanics.
to b e d r a w n u p . T h e d a t a b a s e n o w i n c l u d e s a In f u t u r e w o r k it is s u g g e s t e d t h a t l a r g e
w i d e r a n g e o f joint g e o m e t r i e s a n d s i z e s and e n d u r a n c e s s h o u l d b e o b t a i n e d , a l b e i t at t h e
thus the effect of p l a t e thickness can be expense of using higher frequencies; notional
t a k e n into a c c o u n t . The effect of environment s e r v i c e lives a r e about 2 x 1 0 ^ c y c l e s w h e r e a s
is n o t t a k e n from t u b u l a r joint d a t a , as w h a t available data are for significantly shorter
l i t t l e is a v a i l a b l e w o u l d n o t b e s t a t i s t i c a l l y endurances. U s e of a higher frequency, say
significant. T h e r e f o r e p l a t e and f r a c t u r e 1 H z , m a y i n t r o d u c e an effect b u t i f t h i s is
m e c h a n i c s d a t a m u s t b e u s e d in a s s e s s m e n t u n d e r s t o o d , it m a y b e p o s s i b l e t o c a l i b r a t e i t .
of the likely effect of environment on
tubular joints fatigue p e r f o r m a n c e . T h i s is MR ANDERSON
not i d e a l , b u t t u b u l a r j o i n t f a t i g u e t e s t i n g T h e e f f e c t o f f r e q u e n c y w a s i n d i c a t e d in t h e
in s e a w a t e r w i t h c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n w i l l e a r l y p a r t o f t h e U K O S R P I p r o g r a m m e a n d is
b e c a r r i e d out u n d e r U K O S R P I I . T h e r e s u l t s d e s c r i b e d in P a p e r 5.
from t h i s w o r k w i l l b e m a d e a v a i l a b l e to t h e
D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y as s o o n as p o s s i b l e . M R C . C . J O H N S T O N E , Matthew Hall Engineering
In v i e w o f t h e p r o p o s a l s for m o d i f y i n g t h e
M R J. G. H I C K S , Consultant g u i d a n c e n o t e s that S-N c u r v e s s h o u l d b e d i f f e r
What is t h e s u m m a t i o n to b e u s e d in c a l c u l a t i n g ing f o r d i f f e r i n g w e l d t h i c k n e s s e s a n d t h a t
f a t i g u e d a m a g e b y M i n e r ' s r u l e in t h e r e v i s e d b e n e f i t s h o u l d b e a l l o w e d for s t r e s s r e l i e v e d
guidance notes? w e l d s , will stress relieving o f thick welds b e
If t h e p r o p o s e d r e v i s e d Q c u r v e h a s b e e n mandatory?
d i s c u s s e d w i t h A W S / A P I , w h y is t h e r e a
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e XX line and t h e Q line? M R PETRIE
It is n o t a n t i c i p a t e d at p r e s e n t t h a t s t r e s s
MR PETRIE r e l i e v i n g f o r f a t i g u e life p u r p o s e s s h o u l d b e
T h e D e p a r t m e n t h a s n o t f u l l y looked i n t o t h e mandatory. T h e a l l o w a n c e for s t r e s s r e l i e f w i l l
f i g u r e for M i n e r ' s s u m m a t i o n y e t . It w i l l b e b e g i v e n o n l y on c l e a r e v i d e n c e t h a t a f t e r
c o n s i d e r e d in t h e o v e r a l l r e a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e stress relieving the stress range moves from
fatigue guidance notes. A t p r e s e n t it is u n i t y . tensile to a tensile/compressive load. This
The Q curve has been discussed with AWS/API equates to the findings of the r e s e a r c h
w i t h a v i e w to h a v i n g t h e same c u r v e . We w i l l programme.
c o n t i n u e t o l i a i s e and in t i m e m a y b e a b l e to
a r r i v e at a c u r v e a c c e p t a b l e t o b o t h . D R R. J. S I M P S O N , UEG
If an i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y is u s e d t o c a r r y o u t
DR W. J. H A R R I S , London Centre for Marine tests on any corrosion fatigue samples, then
Technology, Imperial College of Science and t h e d e t r i m e n t a l effect o f c o r r o s i o n w i l l n o t
Technology b e f u l l y s e e n in t h e final r e s u l t . Frequencies
P r e s e n t l a r g e - s c a l e f a t i g u e p r o g r a m m e s on o f less t h a n 0.1 H z should be u s e d t o a c c o u n t
w e l d e d t u b u l a r j o i n t s all y i e l d e x t r e m e l y low for e f f e c t s o f long p e r i o d w a v e s t h a t o c c u r
S-N c u r v e s i n d i c a t i n g h i g h e f f e c t i v e v a l u e s o f on the North Sea.
K^. In this c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n r e g i m e ,
m e t a l l u r g i c a l f a c t o r s h a v e l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e on MR PARKHOUSE
e l e v a t i n g t h e S-N c u r v e s , i.e. c h a n g e o f S-N c u r v e s u n d o u b t e d l y h a v e a p l a c e in d e s i g n ,
m a t e r i a l s t r e s s r e l i e v i n g and so on is o f for t h e i r v e r y s i m p l i c i t y . They have served
little effect. Consequently for the next w e l l in t h e p a s t , and p r o v i d e d t h e y a r e
g e n e r a t i o n o f p l a t f o r m s , if a s u b s t a n t i a l ' u n d e r p i n n e d ' w i t h an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f f r a c t u r e
e l e v a t i o n o f f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h is to b e m e c h a n i c s t h e y s h o u l d b e u s e f u l as d e s i g n
achieved researches should be directed to g u i d e s in t h e f u t u r e . H o w e v e r , S-N c u r v e s
i n v e s t i g a t i n g n e w m e t h o d s o f d e s i g n and h a v e n o t h i n g to t e l l t h e e n g i n e e r a b o u t t h e
f a b r i c a t i o n , e.g. c a s t / e x t r u d e d n o d e s . residual strength of a cracked structure or o f
129
S U M M A R Y O F C U R R E N T DESIGN A N D F O R M U L A T I O N O F G U I D A N C E NOTES
(d) o t h e r w e l d i m p r o v e m e n t t e c h n i q u e s , in
M R C. J. A N T O N A K I S , Consultant
particular weld p r o f i l i n g , toe grinding
All d e s i g n e r s need to know the m e c h a n i s m of
and h a m m e r p e e n i n g
t h e i r d e s i g n s a n d u n d e r s t a n d w h y it w o r k s .
S-N c u r v e s a r e d e s i g n t o o l s o n l y . I hope (e) g e o m e t r y o f d e s i g n , in p a r t i c u l a r m e t h o d s
t h a t t h e n e x t s t a g e o f U K O S R P w i l l p a y as o f ring s t i f f e n i n g a p p l i e d to a T j o i n t
m u c h a t t e n t i o n t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g a s to t h e and K j o i n t s - w i t h o v e r l a p p i n g b r a c e s w h i c h
p r o d u c t i o n of design/review tools. a c h i e v e low s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s
(f) v a r i a b l e - a m p l i t u d e l o a d i n g of w i d e - b a n d
DR J. H . F R E E M A N , MATSU, Department of Energy
c h a r a c t e r as e x p e r i e n c e d in t h e N o r t h S e a .
Some o f the d a t a generated by U K O S R P I and the
r e l a t e d E C S C p r o j e c t s h a v e s h o w n t h e n e e d to
m o d i f y the f a t i g u e design curves for welded REFERENCES
t u b u l a r j o i n t s in o f f s h o r e i n s t a l l a t i o n s . They 1. D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y . Offshore installa
h a v e a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e d a s e r i o u s lack o f d a t a t i o n s : g u i d a n c e on d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n .
about some factors which affect the specification The p r o p o s e d n e w f a t i g u e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s
of the design curves. for steel w e l d e d j o i n t s in o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s .
U K O S R P 1 1 ^ is a p r o g r a m m e o f r e s e a r c h w h i c h Department o f Energy, London, 1981, Draft
t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y h a s p r o p o s e d to m e e t document PET 63/964/25.
these data requirements. The technical content 2 . British S t a n d a r d s I n s t i t u t i o n . Steel,
o f t h e p r o g r a m m e h a s r e s u l t e d from c o n s i d e r c o n c r e t e and c o m p o s i t e b r i d g e s . BSI,
a b l e d i s c u s s i o n s with r e s e a r c h e r s , the Depart L o n d o n , 1 9 7 8 - 8 0 , BS 5 4 0 0 .
m e n t ^ a d v i s e r s and the offshore industry. 3. D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y . UKOSRP - II. Depart
A n i n v i t a t i o n t o s u b s c r i b e to t h e p r o g r a m m e ment o f E n e r g y , 1 9 8 1 .
h a s b e e n m a d e t o t h e i n d u s t r y and it is p r o
130