Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Lecture 2
Fading Channels 1
Dr. Essam Sourour
Wireless fading channel
• The main difference between wireless and wired
communication systems is the medium of communications
• In wireless communications the signal is affected by the
environment, which makes the signal level change during
communications
• This signal change is due to the change in:
– The distance between the transmitter and receiver
– The obstacles between the transmitter and receiver
– The different signal paths (multipath) due to reflection, diffraction, or
scattering
• The signal change is usually random with higher probability to
be make the signal weak
2
Propagation paths and fading
• The radio wave can reach the receiver through many paths:
– Direct path: if there are no obstacles between transmitter (Tx) and
Receiver (Rx)
– Reflection: from buildings, cars, ground, etc.
– Scattering: from any rough surface with size << signal wave length.
Signal goes in all directions.
– Diffraction: from the edges of obstacles. Signal bend and change
direction.
• When the signal arrives at the receiver through many paths,
they may add constructively (which amplifies the signal) or
destructively ( which attenuates or fades the signal)
• The fading phenomena can be categorized as
– Long term fading (we cover this lecture)
– Short term fading (we cover next lecture)
3
Propagation paths and fading, cont.
4
Long term fading
• Long term fading is due to:
– Change of distance between transmitter and receiver
– Appearance or disappearance of obstacles between transmitter and
receiver (also known as shadowing)
– The receiver moves from outdoor to indoor, or vice versa
– The receiver goes behind an obstacle
• Long term fading is a slow signal variation, typically over more
than tens of seconds or minutes
• Long term fading is what decides if a location is covered by
the wireless signal or not
5
Short term fading
• Short term fading is due to reception of multipath at the
receiver from reflection, diffraction or scattering
• Reflection, diffraction and scattering attenuate the signal
amplitude and change its phase randomly
• Multipath may add constructively or destructively depending
on the phase of each received path
• The phase of each path changes quickly with any small motion
in the transmitter, reflector or receiver
– Small compared to wavelength =c/f (c=speed of light=3x108 m/s)
– For example if the signal carrier frequency f=1GHz, then =30 cm
– Hence, motion of about 30 cm changes the received signal level
6
Overall fading
• Long term and short
term fading occur
simultaneously
log10 Distance
7
Free‐space attenuation
• The simplest case is direct path from transmitter to receiver
• Line‐of‐sight (LOS) propagation without obstacles or reflections
• The received power at the receiver is given by:
2
Gt Gr
Pr Pt
4 d L
• Pr and Pt are the received and transmitted power, respectively
• is the wavelength = c/f, where f is the carrier frequency in Hz
and c is the speed of light = 3x108 m/s
• Gr and Gt are the receiver and transmitter antenna gains
• d is the distance between receiver and transmitter
• L is other losses if any (unrelated to propagation)
8
Free‐space attenuation, cont.
• We can re‐write the received signal in terms of distance in km
and frequency in MHz as follows:
2
c Gt Gr
Pr Pt
4 d f L
2
c Gt Gr
Pr Pt 6
4 d km 10 3
f MHz 10 L
• Usually the power is expressed in dB. Hence, the received
power in dB is given by
Pr ,dB Pt ,dB 32.44 20 log d km 20 log f MHz LdB Gt ,dB Gr ,dB dB
• The distance is in km and the frequency in MHz
• The term between parentheses is the free space path loss
9
Free‐space attenuation, cont.
• We can observe in the free space loss model that:
– The loss increases with distance at power 2, (20 log dkm)
– Hence, if the distance is doubled the loss increases by 6 dB
– The loss increases with frequency at power 2, (20 log fMHz)
– Hence, if the frequency is doubled the loss increases by 6 dB
• We will find later that in most cases, the losses increase with
distance and frequency, but not always at power 2
10
Two‐ray model
• Another interesting model is the two‐ray model
• The signal arrives at the receiver through two paths:
– LOS (line‐of‐sight) path
– One reflection path
• In this case we have:
2
ht hr G t G r
Pr Pt 2
d L
2
h h GG 4 ht hr
Pr Pt 2 t r 6 t r
where d
d km 10 L
11
Example 1
• Consider a system that operates at carrier frequency f=1Ghz.
The receiver and transmitter antenna gains are 5 dB and 10
dB, respectively. The receiver and transmitter antenna heights
are 1.8 and 30 m, respectively. The transmitted power is 1 W.
Ignore any other losses.
– If the distance between the transmitter and receiver is d=2 km, find
the received power in dB.
– Write a Matlab model that calculates the received power as a function
of distance from d=1km to d=100 km. Plot the received power in dB
versus the distance in log dkm
12
Example 1 solution
Solution:
Transmitted power in dB Pt,dB = 10 log 1= 0 dB
Free space:
Pr ,dB Pt ,dB 32.44 20 log d km 20 log f MHz LdB Gt ,dB Gr ,dB dB
0 32.44 20 log 2 20 log1000 10 5 83.46 dB
Two‐ray model:
Pr ,dB Pt ,dB 120 40 log d km 20 log ht 20 log hr LdB Gt ,dB Gr ,dB dB
0 120 40 log 2 20 log 30 20 log1.8 10 5 82.39 dB
13
Example 1 Matlab
-60
clear
Free Space
clc
Two-Ray
close all -80
Received in dB
PtW = 1;
-100
fMHz = 1000;
ht = 30;
hr = 1.8; -120
GtdB = 10;
GrdB = 5;
-140
LdB = 0;
dkm = (1:100) ;
%===================== -160
PtdB = 10*log10(PtW);
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
log distance in km
% Free Space Received Power
PrdB_FS = PtdB ‐( 32.44 + 20*log10(dkm) + 20*log10(fMHz) ) ‐ LdB + GtdB + GrdB ;
% Free Space Received Power
PrdB_2R = PtdB ‐( 120 + 40*log10(dkm) ‐ 20*log10(ht) ‐ 20*log10(hr) ) ‐ LdB + GtdB + GrdB ;
plot(log10(dkm) , PrdB_FS , 'r‐o');
hold;
plot(log10(dkm) , PrdB_2R , 'b‐‐.');
legend('Free Space', 'Two‐Ray');
grid;
xlabel('log distance in km', 'fontsize',16);
ylabel('Received in dB', 'fontsize',16);
14
Example 2
Consider a base station transmitting to a mobile station. The following
parameters are relate to this communication system:
• Distance between base station and mobile station: 8000 m
• Transmitter frequency: 1.5 GHz
• Base station transmitting power, Pt 10 W (10 dBW)
• Total system losses: 8 dB
• Mobile receiver noise figure Nf = 5 dB
• Mobile receiver antenna temperature T = 290 Ko
• Mobile receiver bandwidth Bw = 1.25 MHz
• Antenna gains are 8 dB and 0 dB for the base station and mobile station,
respectively.
• Antenna height at the base station and mobile station are 30 m and 3 m,
respectively.
Using the 2‐ray model calculate the received signal power at the mobile
receiver antenna and signal‐to‐noise ratio (SNR) of the received signal.
15
Example 2 solution
Pr ,dB Pt ,dB 120 40 log d km 20 log ht 20 log hr LdB Gt ,dB Gr ,dB dB
10 120 40 log 8 20 log 30 20 log 3 8 8 0 107 dB
16
Effect of earth curvature
• In the two‐ray model we assumed that the earth is flat.
• However, if the distance between the transmitter and receiver is
large the horizon may be blocked
• With earth curvature we have: d 2
d1 h2
d R Re h1
2 2 2
1 e
d12 2 Re h1 h12 h1
Re
d1 2 Re h1
d 2 2 Re h2 Re
• d1 and d2 are distances to horizon. If the distance between the Tx
and Rx, d > (d1+d2) the communication will be blocked
• If h1 = h2 = 30 m and Re=6400 km, we get d1=d2=19.6 km
• In this case, the maximum distance between Tx and Rx is 39.2 km
17
Effect of earth curvature, cont.
• Due to the refractive index of earth atmosphere, radio waves
can reach further than the actual visible horizon
• To simplify calculations d1
d2
h2
it is found that we can
assume the earth radius h1
Re Straight line
waves
is larger by a factor 4/3 Re
and use the straight line
d2
wave propagation d1
h2
model with effective h1 Curved waves
earth radius:
Reff = (4/3) Re d1 d2
h2
h1
d1 2 Reff h1
d 2 2 Reff h2
4
R eff Re , Re 6400 km
3
19
Propagation Path loss models
• The path loss is the term that is subtracted from the
transmitted power in dB
• Free space path loss:
Lp 32.44 20 log d km 20 log f MHz dB
• Two‐ray model path loss
Lp 120 40 log d km 20 log ht 20 log hr dB
• There are other known empirical models:
– Okumura/Hata
– COST‐231
– IMT‐2000
• Using the propagation model we predict and optimize
coverage, interference, handoff, Tx power adjustment and
antenna locations
20
Okumura/Hata model
• Okumura made extensive measurements in Japan to decide
the effect of several factors on propagation:
– Distance (from 1 to 20 km)
– Antenna heights (ht<200 m and hr<10 m)
– Carrier frequency (up to 1.5 GHz)
– Diffraction loss due to mountains
– Sea and lake areas
– Road slope
• Hata derived empirical formulas for the path loss using
Okumura’s curves
• Okumura/Hata model is used in many places with some
modifications and adjustments
21
Okumura/Hata model, cont.
• Typical urban (inside cities):
Lurban 69.55 26.16 log f Mhz 44.9 6.55log ht log d km 13.82 log ht a hr dB
– Where f is carrier frequency in MHz , d in km and hr and ht in m
– a(hr) is a correction factor that depends on the receive antenna height
as follows:
– For large cities:
8.29 log 1.54h 2 1.1 f 200 MHz
a hr
r
– For small and medium cities:
a hr 0.8 ( 1.1 log10 f 0.7 ) hr 1.56 log10 f
• Typical suburban: 2
f
Lsuburban Lurban 2 log 5.4 dB
28
22
Okumura/Hata model, cont.
• Rural area:
Lsuburban Lurban 4.78 log f 18.33log f 40.98 dB
2
• Repeating example 1 with Hata model for urban large city
-60
Free Space
Two-Ray
-80 Hata
-100
Received power in dB
-120
-140
-160
-180
-200
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
log distance in km
23
COST 231 extended Hata model
• The European Co‐Operative for Scientific and Technical
research formed a committee COST‐231 to extend Hata model
to 2 GHz
• L X Hata 46.33 44.9 6.55log ht log d km 33.9 log f Mhz a hr 13.82 log ht C
0 medium city and suburban areas
C
3 urban areas
• The limitations are:
– f from 1.5 GHz to 2GHz
– ht from 30 to 200m
– hr from 1 to 10 m
– d from 1 to 10 km
24
IMT‐2000 models
• The International Mobile Communication developed models for 3G
systems
• Indoor Office Environment:
n 2 n 1 0.46
Lindoor 37 30 log d 18.3 n dB
– d is the distance in m
– n is the number of floors in the path
– L can not be less than free space loss
• Outdoor to indoor and pedestrian environment:
• Vehicular environment:
26
Lognormal shadowing
• All previous models provide path loss given a set of
parameters
• However, it is observed that at different locations the path
loss is different even if the parameters (d, f, ht, hr, etc.) are
equal
• Hence, a random term X is added to all prediction models
given before (except free space).
• X (in dB) is found to be Gaussian (normal) distributed random
variable with zero mean and some standard deviation that
depends on the environment
• Typically, takes value from 8 to 12 dB. Total path loss is:
L p L model X dB
27
Lognormal shadowing, cont.
• Hence, the transmitter must add extra power as a “Fade
Margin” to make sure the service area is covered
28
Link budget and Link margin
• For any wireless link the transmitted power is enhanced by the antenna
gains and reduced by the path loss and other losses like antenna cables loss
• The receiver itself contains thermal noise due to the random motion of
electrons. Thermal noise power is given by k T B where
– k is the Boltzmann constant given by 1.38x10‐23 J/kelvin
– T is the temperature in degree kelvin
– B is the signal bandwidth in Hz
• The difference between the received signal and the noise power is called
the signal to noise ratio (SNR) in dB
• Also, the receiver RF amplifier adds more noise to the received signal which
depends on its noise figure Nf. The SNR of the previous step is reduced by
the factor Nf in dB
• The final SNR after subtracting the noise figure must be larger than the
target SNR by at least the fade margin and link margin
• Hence, the link margin is a safety margin that must be included to make
sure we have enough SNR at the receiver
29
Link budget and Link margin, cont.
30
Example
Given a flat rural environment with a path loss of 120 dB, a
frequency of 900 MHz, 8 dB transmit antenna gain and 0 dB
receive antenna gain, required SNR = 4 dB, antenna feed line loss
of 12 dB, other losses of 20 dB, a fade margin of 8 dB, noise
figure total of 6 dB, and a noise temperature of 290 K, find the
total transmit power required of the transmitter in watts for a
link margin of 8 dB. The signal BW is 9.6 kHz.
Solution:
Pr = Pt – 120 – 12 – 20 + 8 + 0 = Pt – 144 dB
Pn = 10 log (k T B) = ‐164.15 dB
SNRrx = (Pt – 144) + 164.15 – 6 = Pt + 14.15
(Pt + 14.15) – 8 – 8 = 4 dB
Pt = 5.85 dB
31