Introduction

Prokaryotes (pro=before, karyo=nucleus): the most primitive forms of life; lack

membrane-bound organelles.
Eukaryotes: variety of membrane-bound organelles, complexity, a specialized method
of cell division (meiosis).
Heterotroph (other-feeder): obtains its energy from another organism.
Autotroph (self-feeder):
-makes its own food (converts energy from an inorganic source
-using one of two ways that are Photosynthesis and Chemosynthesis

Kingdom of Life:
-Robert Whitaker:-Plantae
-Animalia
-Fungi
-Prostista
-Monera
-Carl Woese:-Bacteria
-Eukaryota
-Archaea

II)Chemical component
-Cacbonhydrate (sugar):
+monosaccharides ((CH2O)n) 3=n<=7
+Glucose (C6H12O6): principle food compound of many cell. Breakdown realease
energy in form of ATP
+Poly:*glycogen in animal cells and (Both glycogen and starch are use to store
energy)
*starch in plant cells
*cellulose:�are composed of simple polysaccharides, smaller but more complex
chains of sugar molecules
�are often covalently linked to some proteins and to lipids
-Lypid:
+Fatty acid:They can be broken down to produce more than twice as much usable
energy as glucose.
They are stored in cytoplasm in form of droplets of triglyceride
molecule
They are the construction in cell membrance (photspholipids)
-Each photspholipids has a hydrophobic tail and a hydrophilic head
-Two such photspholipids films can combine tail to tail in water to
make a phospholipid sandwich, or lipid bilayer

-Protein:
+Amino Acids Are the subunits of Proteins
+The common amino acids all contain a carboxylic acid group and an amino group,
both linked to a single carbon atom
+They serve as subunits in the synthesis of proteins, which are long linear
polymers of amino acids joined head to tail by a peptide bond
+Although there are many different possible amino acids, only 20 are common in
proteins
+Amino acid has 4 form while only 1 of them is the actual active protein
-Linear form
-Alpha helix
-Beta sheet
-testiary structure (final folding 3d form): active protein form.
-DNA and RNA
+Nucleotides Are the Subunits of DNA and RNA.
+In nucleotides one of several different Nitrogen-containing ring compounds is
linked to a five-carbon sugar (either ribose or deoxyribose) that carries a
phosphate group.
 +Those based on sugar ribose are known as RNA and contain the four bases A, U, G,
and C.
+Those based on deoxyribose are known as DNA and contain the four bases A, T, G,
and C.
+Nucleotides can act as carriers of chemical energy
Viroids are naked pieces of RNA that lack cytoplasm, membranes, etc.
Prokaryotic DNA : a circular chromosome (contained in an area as nucleoid).
Eukaryotic DNA (linear structures associated with histone proteins contained within
nucleus.

Component of Cell:
-Cell membrance:
+Function:
�Regulates the movement of materials into and out of the cell;
�Facilitates electrical signaling between cells.
�Defines the boundaries of organelles
�Provides a matrix upon which complex chemical reactions can occur.
�Functions as a semi-permeable barrier
+The heads of glycolipids, integral proteins: to function as cellular
identification system.
Beyond the Cell Membrane: The Extracellular Matrix
+The spaces between cells: filled by polysaccharides and proteins (collagen and
proteoglycans).
+The proteins provide tensile strength and elasticity while the polysaccharides
form a hydrated gel that expands to fill the extracellular space
-Cell Wall:
�Bacteria have cell walls containing peptidoglycan.
�Fungi and many protists have cell walls ( not contain cellulose), rather a variety
of chemicals (Chitin for fungi).
�Plant cells have a variety of chemicals incorporated in their cell walls:
?Cellulose, most common chemical in the plant primary cell wall.
?Lignin and other chemicals embedded in secondary cell walls
-Cell Junction
+In Animal:
?Tight junctions: form a tight seal between adjacent cells (merged cell membranes)
?Gap junctions: allow communication between cells.
?Desmosome junctions: anchors cells together, allowing the tissue to be stretched
without tearing
+In plant:unique class of communicating junction known as plasmodesmata
-The Nucleus:
Only eukaryotes have a nucleus
Generally, one nucleus per cell
�Chromosomes - Usually in the form of chromatin - Contains genetic information -
Composed of DNA - Thicken for cellular division - Set number per species (i.e. 23
pairs for human)
�Nuclear membrane - Surrounds nucleus - Composed of two layers - Numerous openings
for nuclear traffic
�Nucleolus - Spherical shape - Visible when cell is not dividing - Contains RNA for
protein manufacture
�Nuclear Pore
- regulate the passage of molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm
- permit some to pass through the membrane, but not others.
-Cytoplasm:
The cytoplasm: the material between the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope.

-Cytoskeleton, maintaining the shape of the cell, anchoring organelles, moving the
cell and controlling internal movement of structures:
+Microtubule
+Microfilament
 +Intermediate Fiber

Valcuoles and vesicles:

�Vacuoles are single-membrane organelles.
�Many organisms will use vacuoles as storage areas.
�Vesicles are much smaller than vacuoles and function in transporting materials
both within and to the outside of the cell.
Function of Valcuoles:
�Isolating materials (harmful or a threat)
�Containing waste products and/or small molecules
�Maintaining internal hydrostatic pressure and pH
�Exporting or destructing of unwanted substances (misfolded protein)
�Playing a major role in autophagy, maintaining a balance between biogenesis
(production) and degradation (or turnover) of many substances.
�Supporting structures of plant cells

-Ribosome:
1.Each cell contains thousands
2.Miniature 'protein factories'
3.Composes 25% of cell's mass
4.Stationary type: embedded in rough endoplasmic reticulum
5.Mobile type: injects proteins directly into cytoplasm

-Endoplasmic reticulum:
�Rough endoplasmic reticulum (Rough ER): connects to the nuclear envelope
�Smooth ER; lacks the ribosomes, involved in transport and a variety of other
functions.

-Golgi Apartus:
The Golgi apparatus (GA), (Golgi body/Golgi complex): found universally in both
plant and animal cells.
The number of Golgi bodies: varies according to its function.
Function:
�the distribution and shipping department for the cell's chemical products.
�modifies proteins and lipids that have been built in the ER
�prepares them for export outside or to other locations in the cell
Each Golgi stack has two distinct ends, or faces:
�cis face: substances enter from the ER (near ER)
�trans face: substances exit from GA (near the plasma membrane)

-Centriole (only in animal)

Located together near the nucleus in the centrosome,
Serves as an organizing center for microtubules
Each centriole is made of nine bundles of microtubules (three per bundle) arranged
in a ring.
Play a notable role in cell division. During interphase, the centrioles and other
components are duplicated.

-Lysosome
Serve as digestion compartments for cellular materials that have exceeded their
lifetime
Recycle the cell's organic material in a process known as autophagy.
Break down cellular waste products

-Mitochondria
�Rod-shaped organelles - the power generators of the cell, converting oxygen and
nutrients into ATP.
?Aerobic respiration (need oxygen)
?Anaerobic respiration (absence of oxygen), a process much less efficient than
aerobic respiration.

-Chloroplasts:
�The photosynthesis, is carried out in specialized organelles known as
chloroplasts.
The stroma contains chloroplast DNA, special ribosomes and RNAs.
�Plant cells are special:
?Chloroplasts, which create energy via photosynthesis,
?Mitochondria, which generate energy through respiration

-Peroxisomes:
Peroxisomes contain a variety of enzymes, to rid the cell of toxic substances
�Peroxisomes self-replicate.
�Peroxisomes do not have their own internal DNA molecules.
�The organelle import needed protein to reach a point where fission takes place,
resulting in two daughter peroxisomes.

Cell movement:
-Internal cell movement:
+Actin filaments move by interacting with myosin
+Motor proteins are a class of molecular motors that are able to move along the
surface of a suitable substrate.They are powered by ATP
+The myosin combines with and splits ATP, thus binding to actin and changing the
configuration to pull the actin filament forward.
-External cell movement:
+Cilia and Flagea:
*Cilia are tiny hairs along the outside of the cell membrane which can push the
cell along
*Flagella are much larger hairs which can move back and forth to propel the cell.
*Both cilia and flagella have the same general structure; they are composed of
microtubules.
*Cilia are short, usually numerous, hairlike projections that can move in an
undulating fashion
*Flagella are longer, usually fewer in number, projections that move in whip-like
fashion
+Pseudopodia:
*Pseudopod literally translates as "fake foot," but pseudopodia are not
organelles or even true structures.
*They are just extensions of the cytoplasm toward which the rest of the cytoplasm
tends to flow.
-Transport in and out:
+Cell membranes act as barriers to most, but not all, molecules.
+Cell membranes are differentially permeable barriers separating the inner
cellular environment from the outer cellular environment.
+Water potential is the tendency of water to move from an area of higher
concentration to one of lower concentration.
+Diffusion is the net movement of a substance (liquid or gas) from an area of
higher concentration to one of lower concentration.
+The majority of the molecules move from higher to lower concentration
+Water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen are among the few simple molecules that can
cross the cell membrane by diffusion
+Hypertonic solutions are those in which more solute (and hence lower water
potential) is present.
+Hypotonic solutions are those with less solute (again read as higher water
potential).
+Isotonic solutions have equal concentrations of substances. Water potentials are
thus equal, the net flow is zero, the amount of water in and out is 0.
=> All of the above is for passive transport (this is a note dont learnt by heart
it)
 +Active transport (require energy in form of ATP):
Carrier Assisted transport:
+Na-K pump:
*Na+ is maintained at low concentrations inside the cell and K+ is at higher
concentrations.The reverse is the case on the outside of cell
*How ever to reset this to the starting point, up to 1/3 of the ATP used to reset
the Na-K pump
+Type of transport molecule:
*Uniport transports one solute at a time.
*Symport transports the solute and a cotransported solute at the same time in the
same direction
*Antiport transports the solute in (or out) and the co-transported solute the
opposite direction. (only consume 1 time of ATP)
+The Gluscose carrier:
-See paint in the desktop
+Vesicle mediated:
*Exocytosis is the term applied when transport is out of the cell.
*Endocytosis is the case when a molecule causes the cell membrane to bulge inward,
forming a vesicle.
*Phagocytosis is the type of endocytosis where an entire cell is engulfed.
*Pinocytosis is when the external fluid is engulfed.
*Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when the material to be transported binds to
certain specific molecules in the membrane.

The Cell Cycle:

-See picture in desktop
-Interphase occupies about 90% of the cell cycle and is a period of synthesis and
growth
-Cytokinesis is the process where one cell splits off from its sister cell.
-Beginning after cytokinesis, the daughter cells are quite small and low on
ATP.They acquire ATP and increase in size during the G1 phase
-DNA Synthesis (replication of the original DNA) which occurs during the S phase.
-For prokaryotes: binary fission
-For Eukaryotes: Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis:
2n->2n, 1->2 cells
Some term:
The kinetochore is the point where microtubules of the spindle apparatus attach.
Replicated chromosomes consist of two molecules of DNA known as chromatids.
The area where both chromatids are in contact with each other is known as the
centromere.
Animal cells (except for a group of worms known as nematodes) have a centriole.
Cells that contain centrioles also have a series of smaller microtubules, the
aster, that extend from the centrioles to the cell membrane.
The aster is thought to serve as a brace for the functioning of the spindle fibers
Prophase:
-Prophase is the first stage of mitosis proper. Chromatin condensesthe nuclear
envelope dissolves
-centrioles (if present) divide and migrate,
-kinetochores and kinetochore fibers form, and the spindle forms.
Prometaphase:
-chromosomes become free to interact with the forming spindle.
-Microtubule assembly from the centrosomes is random and dynamic
-Because of the random nature of these events,the kinetochores of chromatid pairs
are initially associated with different numbers of microtubules, and the forces
acting upon each chromosome are unbalanced.
-Gradually, a balance of forces is established and the chromosomes become aligned
at the equator.
Metaphase:
-Metaphase is the most stable period of mitosis
-The metaphase spindle consists of two major groups of microtubules: + those
connecting the chromatids to the poles
+ those
extending from each pole toward the other.
-If a single chromatid becomes detached from the spindle, it sends a signal that
tells the other chromosomes not to start anaphase without it.
AnaPhase:
-The chromosomes move as a �V� with the kinetochores
-In anaphase A the microtubules holding the chromosomes shorten, pulling the
chromosomes to the spindle poles.
-Compared to other forms of cell motility, the movement of chromosomes at anaphase
is extremely slow, less than 1 �m per minute.
Telophase:
-Telophase is when the chromosomes reach the poles of their respective spindles.
-This stage sees the reversal of many of the events of prophase
-Each progeny nucleus now contains one complete copy of the genome from the father
and one copy from the mother
Cytokinesis:
-During the last stages of telophase, the cell itself divides.
-Cytokinesis is the process of splitting the daughter cells apart. Whereas Mitosis
is jut the division
-In animal cells, a cleavage furrow made of actin and its motor protein myosin II
constricts the middle of the cell
-In plants, a structure called the phragmoplast forms at the equator of the
spindles where it directs the formation of a new cell wall.

Meiosis: 2n->n, 1 cell -> 4 cell. (only happen in germline cell (gamestes)
Diploid -> Halfploid.
Term:+Polyploid: Organisms/cells with more than two sets of chromosomes.
+Chromosomes that carry the same genes are termed homologous
chromosomes.Organisms (normally) receive one set of homologous chromosomes from
each parent.
Only one Interphase before Prophase 1: 2n don -> 2n k�p
-The meiosis being restricted to the gonads
-Mitosis is usually brief process/ meiosis is often extended (can last for months
or even years).
-Most of this is occupied by a lengthy prophase of meiosis I (prophase I).
Prophase 1:
-Prophase I has a unique event:the pairing of homologous chromosomes.Synapsis is
the process of linking of the replicated homologous chromosomes.The resulting
chromosome is forming a thick (4-strand) structure
-Crossing-over may occur at this point:
+During crossing-over: chromatids break and may be reattached to a different
homologous chromosome.
-Events of Prophase I (except for synapsis and crossing over) are similar to those
in Prophase of mitosis
Prometaphase 1: 2 line in the equator
Anaphase 1:
-The tetrads separate, and are drawn to opposite poles
-The centromeres remain intact
Telophase 1:
-one set of (replicated) chromosomes is in each "cell".
-Depending on species, new nuclear envelopes may or may not form.
-Some animal cells may have division of the centrioles during this phase.

Meiosis 2:
-During Prophase II, nuclear envelopes (if they formed during Telophase I)
dissolve, and spindle fibers reform.
-All else is as in Prophase of mitosis.
+Metaphase II: spindles moving chromosomes into equatorial area, attaching to the
centromeres.
+Anaphase II: the centromeres split, the former chromatids are segregated into
opposite sides of the cell.
+Telophase II is identical to Telophase of mitosis.
1 Oogenesis-> 1 ovum + 3 polarbodies
1 Spermatogenesis-> 4 gamettes