Experiment # 2

Study Of Different Types Of Construction Material

Significance:
1) The materials science and engineering serves as ground for all technology branches such
as electronics, energy, communication, environment, and healthy engineering.
2) Construction materials are the most widely used materials and their usage is the largest in
tonnage in the world.
3) The focus of our study is on modern construction materials including concrete, steel,
wood, bituminous materials as well as polymers and fibrous composites.

Construction Material:
The materials used for the construction of any building is called as
construction material. There are many different kind of materials which are used for
construction. In Pakistan , there are some materials which are commonly used for
construction. Example cement, sand, bricks etc.

AGGREGATE:
Aggregates are inert materials mixed with a binding materials like
cement, lime or mud in preparation of mortar. Depending on size of particles the aggregates
are classified into two types.

1) FINE AGGREGATE:
Particles of fine aggregates pass through 4.75mm mesh and are
entirely retained on 0.15mm mesh. Most commonly used fine aggregates are sand and
crushed stones.
2) COARSE AGGEGATE:
Aggregates the size of whose particles is bigger than 4.75mm are
known as coarse aggregate. Most commonly aggregates are used stone ballast and brick ballast.

CONCRETE:
Concrete is a composite material composed mainly of water, aggregate,
and cement. Usually there are additives and reinforcements included to achieve the desired
physical properties of the finished material. When these ingredients are mixed together, they
form a fluid mass that is easily molded into shape. Over time, the cement forms a hard matrix
which binds the rest of the ingredients together into a durable stone-like material with many
uses.

(2) QUALITIES OF A CONCRETE

Qualities of a good concrete are following as:
1) Strength :
Good concrete should be able to withstand the stresses that it is subjected to. It
is quite strong in compression but weak in tension.
2) Density :
The concrete should be well compacted so that there are no voids or hollows
left. It should weight 30,000 kg/cu meters.
3) Resistance :
When used in floors and in the construction of roads the concrete should be
able to withstand abrasive forces well.

TYPES OF CONCRETE:

1) Lime Concrete:
It is a mixture of lime mortar and coarse aggregate and should satisfy
the requirements of IS 241-1974.Course aggregate used in lime concrete shall be either
natural stone ballast or brick ballast or cinder aggregate.
2) Cement Concrete:
It is a composite material where in a paste of cement , made with
water, on solidification binds firmly together the various particles of inert material like
sand and stone ballast. The inert material is called aggregate.

Introduction to Cement
Cement refers to material which acts as a binding substance. In civil engineering cement is
used to bind structural members for construction of buildings, pavements, bridges, tunnels,
roads and highways etc. cement is commonly used for normal construction work, is known as
Ordinary Portland Cement.

Composition of cement

Compound Formula

Calcium oxide (lime) Ca0

Silicon dioxide (silica) SiO2

Aluminum oxide (alumina) Al2O3

Iron oxide Fe2O3

 Water H2O

Sulphate SO3

Process of Making Cement

There are two process of making cement which are following as :

1) DRY ROCESS:
In the dry process, each raw material is proportioned to meet a desired
chemical composition and fed to either a rotating ball mill or vertical roller mill. The
raw materials are dried with waste process gases.
2) WET PROCESS:
In the wet process, each raw material is proportioned to meet a desired
chemical composition and fed to a rotating ball mill with water. The raw materials are
ground to a size where the majority of the materials are less than 75 microns.

PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

1) Soundness:
When referring to Portland cement, "soundness" refers to the ability of a
hardened cement paste to retain its volume after setting without delayed
expansion. This expansion is caused by excessive amounts of free lime (CaO) or
magnesia (MgO).
2) Fineness:
Fineness, or particle size of Portland cement affects Hydration rate and thus
the rate of strength gain. The smaller the particle size, the greater the surface area-
to-volume ratio, and thus, the more area available for water-cement interaction per
unit volume.
 Process of cement making

Introduction to Bricks
Bricks are blocks of tempered clay molded to suitable shape and
size while it is still in plastic condition, dried in the sun and burnt, if desired so as to make
them strong, hard and durable. The bricks are very old Civil engineering material which were
utilized in many historical buildings of the Roman Empire and also in the Chinese
Civilization burnt bricks and Sun dried bricks were utilized to construct the Great Wall of
China (210 B.C.).

Types of bricks

There are four types of bricks which are following as:

First Class Bricks

1) Made of good earth which is free from saline deposits and are sand molded.
2) Burnt thoroughly without being vitrified and have deep red, cherry and copper color.
3) Regular and uniform in shape and size with sharp and square edges and parallel faces.
4) Must be homogeneous in texture and emit a clear ringing sound on being struck
together.

Second Class Bricks

1) They shall be well burnt or slightly over burnt.

2) They must give clear ringing sound when struck.
3) The may have slight irregularities in size, shape and color.
4) They may have slight chips, flaws or surface crack but must be free from lime or
kankar.
5) The minimum crushing strength of second class brick should be 70 kg per sq. c

Third Class Bricks

1) These bricks are slightly under burnt or over burnt.

 2) They are not uniform in shape, size and edges.
3) They shall not observe water more than 25% of their own dry weight after 24
hours, immersion in cold water.
4) They have some signs of efflorescence.

Over burnt Bricks

1) These over burnt bricks that being near the fire in the kiln get fused and lose their
shape.
2) Used for construction inferior structures
3) Used as aggregate for concrete.

Over burnt Bricks

Properties of Good Bricks

1. Color:

The color of good brick should be uniform. It may deep red, cherry or copper
colored.

2. Shape:

Bricks should be uniform in shape with sharp straight right angled edges.

3. Size:

Size of the bricks should be standard as prescribed by Indian standards. [19cm x 9cm
x 9cm] (11)
Introduction to Sand
It consists of small grains of silica and is formed by the disintegration of rocks caused by
weather. Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and
mineral particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand can
also refer to a textural class of soil or soil type; i.e. a soil containing more than 85% sand-
sized particles.

River Sands

Qualities of Sand:

1. Should not contain impurities like Silt, Clay and salts. These impurities can affect
physical and chemical properties.
2. Free from organic matter.
3. Coarse and well graded angular grains in suitable proportions.
4. Grains should be hard, strong and durable.

Types of Sand

1) Pit or Quarry Sand :

Sharp and angular grains found in soil as deposits. It is generally
free of organic matter and impurities like clay. Overall quality of quarry sand is very
good.

2) River Sand :
 Found on banks and beds of rivers. Washing and filtering is required to get
rid of impurities.

3) Sea Sand:

Found as rounded brown grains at sea shores. It requires extensive washing to

get rid of sea salts.

Bulking Of Sand:
Bulking of sand is a phenomenon in which volume of sand increases due
to wetness. It occurs because of sands ability to incorporate moisture. For instance, volume of
sand increases by 20-30% with addition of 5-8% moisture content. It happens due to the
formation of a thin film of water around sand grains. This thin film interlocks a considerable
amount of air between itself and the sand particle. This interlocking and entrapping of air
molecules increases the volume of sand more than it is expected and hence called ‘bulking of
sand’.

Sands in Pakistan:

There are three types of sands in Pakistan which are following as:
1. Ravi sand
2. Chenab sand
3. Lawerance sand

Ravi sand Chenab sand Lawrence sand

Introduction To Wood
The hard substance that makes up the stems and branches of trees and shrubs is called
wood. The hard fibrous substance consisting basically of xylem that makes up the greater
part of the stems, branches, and roots of trees or shrubs beneath the bark and is found to a
limited extent in herbaceous plants.
Types of wood

1) Hard wood:
The wood is comparatively heavier and is darker in colour.

OAK:

Oak is the most widely used hardwood. There are more than 60 species of oak grown in
the U.S., which can be separated into two basic varieties; white and red. The red variety is
also known as black oak.

2) Soft wood:
It is lighter in weight and colour.

PINE:

Pine is a softwood which grows in most areas of the Northern Hemisphere. There are
more than 100 species worldwide.

Hard Wood Soft Wood

Qualities of Wood

1. Oak is one of the most sacred trees. It carries the energy of kingship and wise rule,
personal sovereignty, authority, power and protection.
2. Walnut teaches us clarity and focus, using our mental gifts wisely and how to best use
our intelligence.
3. Olive offers insight, inspiration, and aids communication.
 Difference between soft and hard wood

Bituminous:
Bituminous coal or black coal is a relatively soft coal containing a tarlike
substance called bitumen. It is of higher quality than lignite coal but of poorer quality than
anthracite. Formation is usually the result of high pressure being exerted on lignite.

Characteristics:
Characteristics are following as
1) Bituminous coal contains moisture up to about 17 percent. Its fixed carbon content can
range up to about 85 percent, with ash content up to 12 percent by weight.
2) Bituminous coal commonly contains the mineral pyrite.
3) Bituminous coal lights on fire easily and can produce excessive smoke and soot if
improperly burned.

Manufacture Of Bituminous:

1) course aggregate are dried by heating;

2) An intermediate mix is formed by coating the course aggregate with hot bitumen.
3) wet sand is mixed with the intermediate mix obtained in step 2.

Bituminous
Applications of Bituminous :

1) Hydraulics & erosion control Catchment areas, basins

2) Dam groutings
3) Dam linings, protection
4) Dyke protection
5) Ditch linings
6) Drainage gutters, structures.

Bituminous Installation

Asphalt:
It is also known as bitumen is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-
solid form of petroleum. It may be found in natural deposits or may be a refined product;
it is a substance classed as a pitch.

Composition:

The components of asphalt are classified into four classes of compounds:

1) saturates, saturated hydrocarbons, the % saturates correlates with softening point of the
material
2) Naphthene aromatics, consisting of partially hydrogenated polycyclic aromatic
compounds.
3) Polar aromatics, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and carboxylic acids
4) Asphaltenes, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and heterocyclic compounds
Uses:

1) Asphalt is used to make Japan black, a lacquer known especially for its use on iron and
steel.
2) Asphalt also is used in paint and marker inks by some graffiti supply companies to
increase the weather resistance and permanence of the paint and/or ink.
3) It is used to make the color much darker.
4) Asphalt is also used to seal some alkaline batteries during the manufacturing process.

Stones:

The hard solid non-metallic mineral matter of which rock is made, especially as a
building material. Stones are used in construction. There are many types of stones some are
heavy and some are lighter. Every type have different properties. In past stones were
commonly used but now they are replaced by bricks but in some areas stones are still
common for construction purposes.

Types of Building Stone:

Building stone, also called dimension stone, derives from one of three naturally occurring
rock types:

Igneous:

Hard and non-porous rock formed from the slow or quick cooling of molten magma. The best
example is granite.

Sedimentary:

Soft and fairly porous rock formed from deposits of eroded pre-existing rock
that settled in layers mostly on sea beds, and became compacted. The best examples are
sandstone and limestone.

Metamorphic:

Hard and non-porous rock formed from pre-existing rock that has been altered
by intense heat or pressure. The best examples are marble and slate.
 Granite Slate

Uses:

1) Millions of tones of crushed rock are needed annually for road base, paving, ready-mixed
concrete and asphalt.
2) Basalt is quarried and crushed as "Blue Metal" which is used as a road-base, and in
reinforced concrete as aggregate.
3) Although wood, straw and mud is used for houses in some parts of the world, most
buildings are preferred to be built of stones.
4) Material for foundation and walling of buildings, dams, bridges, etc.

House and wall made up of stones

Properties:

1) Resistance to mechanical fixing:

It is important for determining the mode of fixing and

the dimension of façade cladding. The mechanical anchoring system must resist the panels
weight and wind loads.

2) Heat conductivity and capacity :

 The conductivity can be used to evaluate the heat (or
cold) transport through a wall or a floor. The heat capacity of the stone is important to
consider in relation to heating of houses (e.g. heated floors).

3) Reflectance :

The “reflectance” or opposite the “heat absorbance” of the stone is also an

aspect to consider for a façade or a floor, which faces sunlight, in order to avoid over-heating.

Stones

Comments:

Civil engineering materials are very useful in construction. Without these

materials we are not able to construct a buidings. In these days these materials are very
important and its very interesting for me.
 Experiment # 3

Determination Of Dimensions Of Bricks

ASTM Designation C67

Significance:
Bricks should be of standard size and shape They should be of good quality so that they can
easily be burnt to core and its weight should be such that it can conveniently lift up and place
it with one hand. Some principles are following as:

1. The length of brick should be twice of the width

2. Common size of brick in Pakistan is 9 x 41/4 x 23/4 in.
3. If the volume of brick is known the number of bricks present in any brick can easily be
obtained.

Apparatus:

1. Ruler :
1-ft ruler can be used for the measurements of bricks. There are many other
apparatus also by which measurements can be obtained e.g gauge, steel ruler or caliper.
2. Dry Bricks:
Measure the length , breadth and height of the dry bricks carefully. The color
, shape and size of the bricks should be correct according to the conditions.

Procedure:

1. Measure the length of bricks properly. Atleast take two times so that it is confirmed.
Take reading from top , bottom , right face and left face. After that take their average and
write in the table.
2. Measure the width of the bricks and record the four readings accurately.
3. Measure the height of the bricks and take for readings properly. Take their average.
Observations And Calculations:

Sample Length (L) Width (W) Height (H) Volume

in avg in avg in avg In3

First 1.
class
2.

Secon 3.
d class
4.

Third 5.
class
6.

Average length Average Average height

width

PRECAUTIONS

1. Take all the measurements carefully to the nearest 1/32 in.

2. Measure all the dimensions along both beds and along both faces from the midpoints of
the edges bounding the ends
3. Take the average of all the individual dimensions

Comments:

By knowing the dimensions of bricks we are able to know that how many bricks
are using in a building.
 Experiment # 5

Determination Of Efflorescence Of Bricks

ASTM Designation C67

Significance:
Efflorescence is the loss of water of crystallization from a hydrated or solvated salt to
the atmosphere on exposure to air. Due to efflorescence brick’s surface become white. Bricks
showing more efflorescence is not good for construction material. It harms the plaster and
paints. white color appears due to presences of salts, some salts are given as

1. Heavily efflorescence (deposition more than 50% )

2. Moderate efflorescence ( deposition is 10-50% )
3. Slight efflorescence (deposition not more than 10% )

Efflorescence Bricks

Apparatus:
1. Container:
The container should not provide depth of water less than 1 inch and it
should not give soluble salts when water are dipped in water.
2. Drying Oven :
The bricks are bricks are placed in drying oven. It should have maintained
temperature according to the given conditions.

Drying Oven
Procedure:
1. Take corrosion resistance tray or container that will not provide soluble salts while in
contact with distilled water and bricks.
2. The tray should not provide less than 1 inch depth of water.
3. Suitable apparatus shall be provided for constant level of water.
4. They should kept in water for 7 days after that keep them in drying room.
5. The temperature of drying room is 75+15oF.
6. After that put bricks in drying oven whose maintained temperature is between 230 to
2390F.
7. Calculate the weight unit per area by formula
Wa = nWd / Aa1 + Aa2

Wa = weight per unit area

n = number of faces

Wd = dry weight

Aa1 = area (length x height) of finished face

Aa2 = area (length x height) of back face

Precautions:
1. When bricks are placed in distilled water give space of 1 inch between them.
2. Bricks should be placed in distilled water for 7 days.
3. Put bricks in drying oven for 24 hours.
 Observations and Calculations:
Sample Type Weight per unit Description Efflorescence
area
(Kg)

1. First class

2. Second class

3. Third class

Comments:
By this experiment we know that the deposition of heavily efflorescence is
more than 50%, deposition of moderate efflorescence is 10-50% and deposition of slight
efflorescence is less than 10%.
 Experiment # 7

Determination of Fineness of Cement

ASTM Designation C184

Significance:
The fineness of cement affects the rate of hydration. Hydration means
chemical reaction between cement and water. Greater fineness increases the surface available
for hydration, causing greater early strength and rapid generating heat. This experiment is for
the determination of cement whose grain size is larger than mesh size. Sieve 100 is used.

Apparatus:
1. Sieve:
Sieve100 is used for the fineness test of cement. It is a pan of steel having 150-
200mm diameter and 40-100 mm depth.
2. Weight balance:
It can measure up to 1gram. It is an apparatus used to measure any
quantity in grams.
3. Brush:
A brush is required for cleaning the sieve properly.
4. Tray:
During fineness a tray is placed under sieve to collect cement.

Sieve Weight Balance Brush

Procedure:
1. Clean the sieve with the help of brush so that the particles are removed.
2. Attach the pan under the sieve 100, now place 50 grams of cement in the sieve and cover
it with lid. Shake the pan for 3 minutes.
3. Weight the residue left on the sieve after sieving and calculate the fineness by the formula
:
Fineness of cement = 100 – (WR /Wi x 100)

WR = Weight retained on sieve

Wi = Initial weight of sample

4. Repeat the procedure for the next sample of cement.

5. Source is cement bag. Different cements are selected for the fineness test.

Best way Cement Maple leaf cement

Precautions:
1. While performing the experiment switch off the fans.
2. Clean the sieve properly from the bottom so that no particle is left behind.
3. Cement should be in dry condition.
4. Shake the pan properly for 3-4 minutes.
Weight of cement Sieve Shaker Retained weight

Observations and Calculations:

Sample Initial weight Retained weight Fineness of
Wi WR cement

Gm Gm %age

1.

2.

3.

4.

Comments:

_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
 Experiment # 12

Determination of Fineness Modulus of Sand

ASTM Designation C136-05

Significance:
The Fineness modulus is an empirical figure obtained by adding the total percentage of the
sample of an aggregate retained on each of a specified series of sieves, and dividing the sum
by 100. The fineness modulus experiment is useful for the determination of size of sand
particles. The information obtained by experiment are following as:

1. Fineness modulus tells weather the sand particles are fine or coarse.
2. It indicates the surface are :
Surface area = 1 / Fineness modulus
3. Large value of fineness modulus preferred for fine aggregate.
4. For good quality of aggregate the fineness of sand should be in between 2.3 – 3.1.

Apparatus:
1. Sieve :
The set of sieves is required for the performance of experiment. Sieve number 4,
8, 16, 30, 50, 100 are selected.
2. Weight Balance :
It is used for the measurement of weight. It’s least count is 0.1 gram.
3. Oven :
Oven should have maintained temperature.

Sieves
Procedure:
1. Take the sample of Chenab sand and calculate its weight with the help of weight balance
which is 300 grams.
2. Now arrange the sieves in ascending order 4, 8, 16, 30, 50,100 and attach the pan under
sieve 100.
3. Place the sieves in the mechanical apparatus for the shaking of sieves. It will take 3-4
minutes. Add sand and switch on the apparatus.
4. The apparatus rotates the sieves in clockwise and anticlockwise direction.
5. After 5 minutes remove the lid, first take sieve 4 and take the retained weight.
6. Now one by one take sieve 4, 8, 16, 30 and so on. Take the readings.
7. Calculate the percentage by the formula:

Fineness modulus= (%age retained on standard sieves)

100

Sands of different rivers

Functions of Sieve Analysis:

Sieve analysis on coarse and fine aggregate is performed in

order to check their gradation. This gradation gives us an indirect measure about the
workability and average particle size.

Set of Sieves:

The set of sieves along with their ASTM Grading requirements, used for fine aggregate can
be categorized as

Precautions:
1. Clean the sieve properly with the help of brush so that extra particles are removed.
2. Place the sieves in ascending order.
3. The sample of sand should be dry.
Observations and calculations:
1. Chenab Sand:

Sieve Retained weight %age Retained Cumulative %age %age passing

WR retained

No. gm gm gm

16

30

50

100

Pan

Fineness modulus =

Chenab Sand Chenab River

2. Lawrence Sand :

Sieve Retained weight %age Retained Cumulative %age %age passing

WR retained

No. gm gm gm

16

30

50

100

Pan

Fineness of sand =

Lawrence sand
3. Ravi Sand :

Sieve Retained weight %age Retained Cumulative %age passing

WR %age retained
No. gm gm gm

16

30

50

100

Pan

Fineness of sand =

Comments:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________
 Experiment # 11

Determination of Fineness Modulus of the Coarse

ASTM Designation C-316-05

Significance:

1. This test method is used to determine the fineness modulus of the given fine grained
aggregates.
2. Fineness modulus tells us directly whether the material is well graded or gap graded.
3. Fineness modulus gives us an overall idea whether the material is fine or coarse.
4. It also indicates the surface area of the particles.
5. 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 ∞ 1 .
Fineness of modulus

6. Lower the surface area of the aggregate, the required amount of fresh cement paste to
cover the aggregate particles will be less and thus less water is required.

Apparatus:

1. Standard set of sieves:

Sieves of different sizes is required for fineness modulus
experiment.

2. Sieve shaker:
Sieve shaker machine is used for shaking of the aggregate.

Set of sieves Sieve shaker

Sieve Analysis:
1. It is the operation of dividing the aggregate into various fractions, each consisting
of particles of same size.
2. It is the operation of determination the particle size distribution of the given
Specimen.
3. The standard approach is to designate the sieve sizes have nominal aperture sizes in
mm or μm (micron).
 Log scale
Set of Sieves:
The set of sieves used for the process of sieve analysis can be categorized as:

Coarse aggregate

Procedure:

1. Take 2 kg of the oven dried sample (Margala and Sargodha crush). The sample should
be perfectly dry because if there is some moisture content present then the particles will
stick together and will not pass through the sieves.
2. Temperature of the oven = 110 ± 5 °C
3. Place the set of standard and non-standard sieves one above another with the smallest
aperture opening at the bottom.
 4. The pan is placed at the bottom-most position. This experiment can be performed
manually or with the aid of a machine called "Sieve Shaker".
5. Time elapsed for the sieving process is 3-5 minutes.
6. Weigh the mass retained on each sieve and calculates the percentage passing through
each sieve.

Margala crush Sargodha crush

Observation & Calculation:

1. Margala Crush :

Sieve size Mass retained %age Cumulative %age Cumulative %age

(in) (kg) passing retained passing

1’’

3/4 ‘’

1/2 ‘’

3/8 ‘’

4 ‘’

Pan

F.M. = ______
 2. Sargodha Crush :

Sieve size Mass retained %age Cumulative Cumulative

(in) (kg) passing %age retained %age passing

1’’

3/4 ‘’

1/2 ‘’

3/8 ‘’

4 ‘’

Pan

F.M. = ______

Comments:

________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
 Experiment # 6

Determination of Compressive Strength Of Bricks

ASTM Designation C67

Significance:
1. Compressive strength of bricks depends upon the clay composition and amount of voids
present in bricks.
2. Compressive strength of first class bricks is greater than second class bricks.

Apparatus:
1. Ruler :
To measure the length and width of the bricks
2. Compressive Testing Machine :
Machine in which brick’s compressive strength is
obtained.
3. Plaster of Paris Powder :
It is mixed with water to form a paste and used for capping of
bricks.

Capping:
1. First the bricks are dried properly.
2. Make the paste of plaster of paris with accurate proportion of water.
3. Apply the paste on the two surfaces of bricks. (front and back faces)
4. The capping should fill all the spaces on the surface.
5. Capping should not exceed more than 2mm.

Procedure:
1. First take the first class brick which is divided into two parts.
2. Place it in the compressive testing machine by arranging the steel plates in the
machine. Place the brick exactly in the centre of the plates.
3. After placing the half brick, turn on the machine and focus on the reading.
4. Compressive strength of brick will be obtained in Psi.
5. Repeat the same procedure for second and third class bricks.
6. Formula for compressive strength :

Compressive strength (C) = P

A
C = compressive strength of brick (in Psi , Ib/in2 )
P = maximum load indicated on machine
A = average of the gross area of upper and lower bearing surfaces of brick.
Precautions:
1. Measure the dimensions of brick accurately.
2. Two parallel plane capping of bricks should be smooth.
3. The brick should be placed exactly in the centre of the machine.
4. The load should be applied at the uniform speed.

Observations and calculations:

Sample Face (A1) Face (A2) Average Load Compressive
area (p) strength

L W Area L W Area in2 Psi

In in in2 in In in2
First
Class

Second
Class

Third
Class

Comments:
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
 Experiment # 4

Determination Of Water Absorption Of Bricks.

ASTM Designation C67

Significance:
1. This test is undertaken to determine the porosity of pavers and gives an indication of the
amount of moisture that a brick or paver is likely to absorb over a period of time.
2. The amount of water absorbed by a brick can be used as a simple method of obtaining
an indication to which a product will resist salt attack and other problems caused by the
entry of water into the product such as efflorescence.
3. First class bricks water absorption percentage is till 15%, second class bricks is till 15-
20% and third class bricks is more than 20%.

Apparatus:
1. Bricks:
First, second and third class bricks are required for the test.
2. Weight Balance:
The weight of bricks is taken with the help of weight balance.
3. Drying Oven:
Bricks are dried in the drying oven.
4. Container:
The bricks are placed in the container filled with water.

Procedure:
1. Fill the container with water so that the bricks are completely dipped in the water.
2. Place all the first , second and third class bricks in the container properly for 7 days.
3. After 7 days take the bricks and weight them, it is called as saturated weight (Ws).
4. Note the weight properly.
5. Place the bricks in the oven for 24 hours.
6. Now take the bricks and weight the bricks, it is called dry weight (Wd).
7. Apply the formula :
Absorption = Ws - Wd X 100

Wd
 Where:

Wd = Dry weight of the bricks.

Ws = Saturated weight of the bricks.

Precautions:
1. The bricks should be free from cracks, free lime and other impurities.
2. Clean the bricks with brush to remove the particles that are attached on the surface.
3. Place the bricks vertically in the container.
4. Clean the bricks with cloth when removed from water.
5. Note the weight accurately.

Observations And Calculations:

Sample Dry Weight Saturated Weight Water Absorption
(W d) (W s)
gm gm %tage
First class

Second
class

Third class

Comments:
By this experiment we knows about bricks absorption that if someone said that
how will you prove that the brick is 1st class, 2nd class or 3rd class.
 Experiment # 9

Specific Gravity (Relative Density) And Water Absorption Test For

Aggregates.
ASTM Designation: C127& C128

Significance:
1. In this test method we will determine the relative density (i.e. specific gravity) and the
water absorption of the coarse aggregates.
2. It is used for the calculation of the volume occupied by the aggregates in various mixes
and generally it ranges from 2.5 to 3.
3. Though higher specific gravity of aggregate is considered as an indication of its judge
the suitability on this basis alone without finding other mechanical properties like
aggregate abrasion value etc.
4. Water absorption is a measure of porosity of aggregates and its resistance to frost action.
5. Higher water absorption means more pores hence aggregate will be the considered as
weak.
6. Water absorption value ranges from 0.1 – 2.0% for aggregate normally used in roads
surfaces.
7. Aggregates with water absorption up to 4.0% are acceptable in base coarse .

Saturated Surface Dry (S.S.D.) Condition:

It is the condition related with the
aggregate particles in which the permeable pores of the aggregate particles are filled with
water but without free water on the surface of the particles.
Oven Dry Density:
It is the mass of the oven dried aggregate per unit volume of the
aggregate particles. The term volume includes the volume of the permeable and the
impermeable pores.
Oven Dried Specific Gravity:
It is the ratio of the oven dried density of the aggregate to
the density of the gas free distilled water at a standard temperature.

Saturated Surface Dry Specific Gravity:

It is the ratio of the saturated surface dry
density of the aggregate to the density of the gas free distilled water at a standard
temperature.
Apparent Density:
It is the mass per unit volume of the impermeable portion of the
aggregate particles.

Apparent Specific Gravity:

It is the ratio of the apparent density of the aggregate to the
density of the gas free distilled water at a standard temperature.
Types Of Crush Available In Pakistan:
1. Sargodha Crush
2. Margalla Crush
3. Sakhi Sarwar Crush

Apparatus:
1. Weight Balance :
It is used to measure the weight of the aggregate.
2. Sample container:
Container or any pan is required for putting the aggregate in it.
3. Water tank :
In water tank aggregates are added for taking weight in water.
4. Oven :
Drying oven is required for putting aggregate in it for the determination of the
dried oven weight.

Procedure:
1. The sample of the aggregate is immersed in water for 24hrs to essentially fill all the
pores.
2. Remove the test sample from the water and roll it in a large absorbent cloth until all
visible films of water are removed.
3. Wipe the larger particles individually. A moving stream of air is permitted to assist in
the drying operation.
4. Take care to avoid evaporation of water from aggregate pores during the surface-drying
operation.
5. Determine the mass of the test sample in the saturated surface-dry condition.
6. Record this and all subsequent masses to the nearest 0.5 g or 0.05 % of the sample mass,
whichever is greater.
7. In order to calculate the volume of the aggregate,immediately place the saturated-
surface-dry test sample in the sample container and determine its apparent mass in water
at 23 ±2°C.
8. The difference between the mass in air and the mass when the sample is immersed in
water equals the mass of water displaced by the sample. This mass of water equals the
volume of water displaced because:
ρ water = M water /V water
M water = V water ρ water = 1gm/cm3
V water = V aggregate
9. Dry the test sample in the oven to constant mass at a temperature of 110 °C, cool in air
at room temperature 1 to 3h and determine the mass in order to calculate the oven
specific gravity of the specimen.
Observations And Calculations:
Name of aggregate =
Weight of oven dried aggregate in air, A (kg) =
Weight of saturated surface dry (SSD) aggregate in air, B (kg) =
Weight of saturated aggregate in water, C (kg) =
Oven Dried Bulk Specific Gravity, SD = A / (B – C) =
Saturated Surface Dry Bulk Specific Gravity, Ss = B / (B – C) =
Water Absorption, W.A. = [(B – A) / A] x 100 =

Comments:
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 Experiment #11

Determination Of Flakiness And Elongation Index For Given Coarse

Aggregate

Significance:
1. Flakiness Index is the percentage by weight of particles in it, whose least dimension
(i.e. thickness) is less than three-fifths of its mean dimension.
2. Elongation Index is the percentage by weight of particles in it, whose largest
dimension (i.e. length) is greater than one and four-fifths times its mean dimension.
3. Flaky and elongated particles may have adverse effects on concrete and bituminous
mix.
4. For determination of flakiness index of coarse aggregate, where the size of the coarse
aggregate are larger than 6.3mm .
5. Maximum permitted elongation index 35, 40 or 45 % for aggregate sizes 2 ½” -2” ,1
½ “- ¾” , 1/2” – 3/8”.

Flaky Particles:
The particles whose least dimension is less than 0.6 times the mean size
dimensions.

Elongated Particles:

The particles whose greatest dimension is greater than 1.8 times the
mean size dimension.

Flakiness Index:

The percentage by weight of flaky particles present in a given test

sample.

Shapes Of Particles:

1. Rounded (river gravel)

2. Flaky (laminated rock)
3. Elongated
4. Angular( crushed rock)
Apparatus:

1. Thickness/Flakiness Index Gauge

2. Length/Elongation Index Gauge
3. Aggregate sample to be tested

Procedure:

1. The aggregates are then arranged in the into a number of closely limited particle size
groups -stored orted on the test sieves into a number of closely limited particle size
groups – 2 ½’’ – 2’’, 1 ½’’ – ¾’’ & ½’’ – 3/8’’
2. Each group (fraction) is weighed and tested for thickness on appropriate opening of the
thickness gauge by passing each particle through slot of specified thickness along least
dimension.
3. The weight of particles passing the thickness gauge is recorded for each fraction. This is
the weight of flaky particles.
4. The flakiness index is calculated by expressing the weight of flaky particles as a
percentage of total weight of the sample.

Precautions:

1. While placing different fractions on the table, place them some distance apart so that
no two fractions may get mixed.
2. Be careful while selecting the opening of the flakiness and elongation gauges for any
particular fraction.
3. Be careful while selecting the opening of the flakiness and elongation gauges for any
particular fraction

Elongated Particles:

These are the particles having length considerably larger than the
other two dimensions and it is the particle whose greater dimension is 1.8 times its mean size.
Limit of elongated particles in the mixes is 45%. Thus, if the elongated particles are greater
than 45%, then the aggregate is considered undesirable for the intended to use .x
Elongation Index:

It is the percentage by weight of elongated particles in a sample. The

Elongated index is calculated by expressing the weight of Elongated particles as percentage
of total weight of the sample.

Obervations And Calculations:

Calculations of flakiness particles:

Sieve size Sieve size Weight %age Weight of Individual Weighted

Passing Retained retained retained flaky flakiness flakiness
(in) (in) (gm) (%) particles index index
(gm) (%) (%)
2 1½

1½ 1

1 ¾

¾ ½

½ 3/8

3/8 ¼

¼ pan

Σ=
Calculation Of Enlongation Particles:

Sieve size Sieve size Weight %age Weight of Individual Weighted

Passing Retained retained retained elongation elongation elongation
(in) (in) (gm) (%) particles index index
(gm) (%) (%)
2 1½

1½ 1

1 ¾

¾ ½

½ 3/8

3/8 ¼

¼ pan

Σ=

Coments:
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