1.

0 Obejctive

1. To obtain a general understanding of how different materials and cross sections behave
under tensile loading.

2. To determine the stress-strain relationship and compare mechanical/material properties

of various materials and cross section

3. To obtain the mechanical properties: the modulus of elasticity, the yield stress, ultimate
stress, the fracture stress and the ductility ratio.

2.0 Theory

Mechanical testing is important to evaluate the fundamental properties of engineering

materials such as its modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio, ultimate strength, yield strength,
fracture strength, resilience, toughness, percentage of reduction in area and elongation. As well
as in developing new materials and in controlling the quality of materials for use in design and
construction. We can found the engineering values by graphing the stress and strain values
from testing a number subjected to tension, compression, bending and torsion loading. In a
tensile test, ductile material will neck down through the plastic range before rupture while
brittle materials do not neck down significantly which is they will fail sharply and abruptly at
the maximum load because brittle materials do not exhibit much plasticity. When a specimen
is loaded so that the resultant force passes through the centroid of the specimen cross section,
the loading is called as axial and can be either tensile or compressive. The test measures force
and change of length of the specimen which are used to indicate that the stress and nominal
strain. The term nominal (or engineering) is used to indicate that the stress is based on the
original test specimen cross section area and the strain is based on the original gage length.
Stress can be defined as the force P per unit area A, while strain is defined as the ratio of change
in length to the actual length:

Stress, σ=P/A Strain, ε=L1-L0/L0

Young Modulus (Modulus of elasticity),E is the ratio of stress σ to strain ε can be determine
by:

E= σ/ ε
 Proportional limit is the value of engineering stress which the load is divided by the
initial cross sectional area at the point where the straight-line portion of the stress-strain curves
ends.Yield point is a point on the stress strain curve, after which there is significant increase in
strain with little or no increase in stress. The corresponding stress is called the yield strength
/stress of the material. Elastic limit is the value of stress on the stress-strain curve, after which
the material deforms plastically(maximum stress for which stress will be directly proportional
to strain).Ultimate strength is the highest value of apparent stress on the stress strain curve. It
also known as the tensile(or compressive) strength. Fracture strength is the value of stress at
the point of final fracture on the stress strain curve. Percentage of elongation is the measure of
the deformation at the point of final fracture. It can be determined by:%elongation= L1-
L0/L0*100.

Percent reduction of area is the measure of he fracture ductility and can be determined by:

%RA=A0 –Af /A

Where, A=the final cross-sectional area at the location, A= the initial cross-sectional
area.Ductility is the characteristic of a material where the material can undergo large plastic
deformation before fracture, especially in tension. Ductility of materials is measured by
ductility ratio.Ductility, µ=εu/εy where: εu=the ultimate strength ,εu=the yield strength.

Figure 2: Is a stress strain diagram for a ductile material

3.0 Apparatus

1.Universal Testing Machine

2.Three Test Specimen

3.Vernier Caliper

4.Steel Ruler
5.0 Results
Steel Force-Displacement Graph

Brass Force-Displacement Graph

Aluminium Force-Displacement Graph

Stress-Strain Graph

STRESS-STRAIN (STEEL)
Stress-Strain (Steel) 0.2% Offset

600
500
400
STRESS

300
200
100
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
STRAIN

STRESS-STRAIN (BRASS)
Stress-Strain (Brass) 0.2% Offset

600

500

400
STRESS

300

200

100

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
STRAIN

STRESS-STRAIN (ALUMINIUM)
Stress-Strain (Aluminium) 0.2% Offset

300

250

200
STRESS

150

100

50

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
STRAIN
Table 1 : Dimension of the appropriate specimen

Material Initial (unit : mm) Final (unit : mm)

𝐿𝑜 𝑑𝑜 𝐴𝑜 (𝑚𝑚2 ) 𝐿𝑓 𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑓 (𝑚𝑚2 )
Steel 71.40 6.70 35.26 77.00 4.35 14.56
Brass 72.45 7.10 34.59 74.70 6.60 34.21
Aluminium 72.45 6.70 35.26 77.80 4.40 15.21

Table 2 : Determine the following observation for the tested specimen

Tensile Steel

No Force (N) Elongation (mm) Stress (MPa) Strain

1 1906.96 0.27 54.08 3.78 × 10−3
2 3813.92 0.56 108.17 7.84 × 10−3
3 5720.88 0.82 162.25 11.48 × 10−3
4 7627.84 1.05 216.33 14.71 × 10−3
5 9534.80 1.27 270.41 17.79 × 10−3
6 11441.76 1.48 324.50 20.73 × 10−3
7 13348.72 1.69 378.58 23.67 × 10−3
8 15255.68 1.89 432.66 26.47 × 10−3
9 17162.64 2.08 486.75 29.13 × 10−3
10 19069.50 3.69 540.83 51.68 × 10−3

Tensile Brass

No Force (N) Elongation (mm) Stress (MPa) Strain

1 1675.05 0.20 48.43 2.76 × 10−3
2 3350.10 0.51 96.85 7.04 × 10−3
3 5025.15 0.81 145.28 11.18 × 10−3
4 6700.20 1.10 193.70 15.18 × 10−3
5 8375.25 1.38 242.13 19.05 × 10−3
6 10050.30 1.66 290.56 22.91 × 10−3
7 11725.35 1.95 338.98 26.92 × 10−3
8 13400.40 2.25 387.41 32.06 × 10−3
9 15075.45 2.72 435.83 37.54 × 10−3
10 16750.40 4.80 484.26 66.25 × 10−3
Tensile Aluminium

No Force (N) Elongation (mm) Stress (MPa) Strain

1 901.02 0.12 25.55 1.66 × 10−3
2 1802.03 0.27 51.11 3.73 × 10−3
3 2703.05 0.51 76.66 7.04 × 10−3
4 3604.07 0.74 102.21 10.21 × 10−3
5 4505.09 0.94 127.77 12.97 × 10−3
6 5406.10 1.14 153.32 15.73 × 10−3
7 6307.12 1.33 178.87 18.36 × 10−3
8 7208.14 1.51 204.43 20.84 × 10−3
9 8109.15 1.71 229.98 23.60 × 10−3
10 9010.16 3.89 255.53 53.69 × 10−3

Table 3 : Determine the following observation load for the tested specimen

Material Load at Elastic Load at Upper Load at Ultimate Load Breaking

Limit (N) Yield Point Lower Yield (N) Load (N)
(N) Point (N)
Steel 17162.64 11441.76 9534.80 19069.50 12132.80
Brass 15075.45 13400.40 13400.40 16750.40 16563.80
Aluminium 8109.15 4505.09 3604.07 9010.16 4925.97

Table 4 : Determine the following observation load for the tested specimen

Material Proportional Nominal Actual %Reduction Strain %Elongation Ductility

Limit Stress Fracture Fracture in Area
(MPa) Stress Stress
(MPa) (MPa)
Steel 486.75 344.10 833.30 58.71 51.68 7.27 1.77
×
10−3
Brass 435.83 478.86 484.18 1.10 66.25 3.11 1.76
×
10−3
Aluminium 229.98 139.70 323.86 56.86 53.69 7.38 2.28
×
10−3
Table 5 : Determine the % error of the tested specimen

Material Properties Modulus of 0.2% Offset Yield Stress Ultimate

Elasticity Yield Stress (MPa) Stress (MPa)
(GPa) (MPa)
Steel Experimental 167.10 486.75 324.50 540.83
Reference 180.00 500 415 540
% Difference 7.17 2.65 21.81 0.15
Brass Experimental 116.10 435.83 387.41 484.26
Reference 102 450 310 469
% Difference 13.82 3.15 24.97 3.15
Aluminium Experimental 90.38 229.98 127.77 255.53
Reference 70.00 221 152 300
% Difference 29.11 4.06 15.94 14.82
8.0 Reference

Mechanical Properties of Materials. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://mechanicalc.com/reference/mechanical-properties-of-materials

Brass Product Guide. (n.d.). Retrieved April 20, 2019, from http://alcobrametals.com/guides/brass

How to Calculate Young's Modulus. (n.d.). Retrieved April 20, 2019, from https://sciencing.com/how-
to-calculate-youngs-modulus-12751765.html

Llc. (n.d.). Yield Strength - Strength ( Mechanics ) of Materials. Retrieved April 20, 2019, from
https://www.engineersedge.com/material_science/yield_strength.html

Llc. (n.d.). Modulus of Elasticity Young's Modulus Strength for Metals - Iron and Steel. Retrieved from
https://www.engineersedge.com/manufacturing_spec/properties_of_metals_strength.html