~'""

., . . ~".'."-"'''''''~'';'';'-'''-o:&:..:'W..:.,...,...

~!...
I
J)W
\I

fj
,1
,I
f

Design and detailing af !.

structuraI cancrete using

strut -and -tie modeIs
':: ~c { ti

i
IJI..

. J. SchIaich, Professor Dr.Ing.

Universityaf Stuttgart, Germany

K. Schãfer, Professor Dr.Ing.

Universityaf Stuttgart, Germany

\7i:>ZGt? BoVNA~S/!.~ ;=7~

Reprinted from The Stxuctura1Engineerl\blume 69/No.6/19 ~~r'
 Paper: Sçblaich/Schãfer . i
J.

Paper
\\
Design and detailing af structural concrete
using strut-and-tie madels
J.Schlaich, Professor Dr. Ing.
University of Stuttgart. Germany

K. Schãfer, Professor Dr. Ing.

University of Stuttgart. Germany
I

Synopsis
1.
iC+~
So-ct1lled 'details' are as important for a structure's behaviour 1
)
and safety as the standard problems of design which are
covered in the Codes. A unified design concept which covers
~)} (~ '-J.
also the details consistent/y for ali types of concrete structure J..",-J.-hz
~ . 1-"-4 ~,,-J.
is described in this paper. lt is based on strut-and-tie models,
including the truss model for beoms as a special case. .
After the principies of the method and the modelling
process are explained, simplified rules are proposed for
, dimensioningali the individual members of the model and.
their nodes. Some exJ1mples show the application of the
method and demonstrate, also, its use for the improvement of
the conceptual design of detait$.
(a)
IntrodUctiOD
Ccnain pans of strUctures are designcd with almost cxaggcratcd ae<:uracy Fig /(0). D-re.gjons (shoded oreas) with non-/ineor slroin distribl/lion due
whileothcr pans are designcd using rules-of-thumb or judgment baseei on to geometrico! disconl;nut;es
pastcxpcriCl1CC. Howevcr; all pans of a structurc are of similar importance. ,
A unified design c:oncept, which is c:onsistcnt for a11types of structurc and
all thcir pans, must bc baseei on rcalistic physica1 modcls. Strut-and-tie
modc1s.a genera1isatioo of the wd1-known truss anafogy for beams. are

t-"-t
~
proposedhc:reas thc appropriate approach for designing strUcturaI'c:oncrcte.
whichincludes both reinforced and.prestresscd c:oncrete structures. ; -t
It was actuaI1yat the tum of the Iast century, when Riucr and Môrsch)
introduccd the truss anaIogy. 1bis mcthod was latcr refincd and expandcd H-),f
by Lconhardt.. Rüsch'. Kupf~, and others. until Thiir1imann's Ziirich
schoof. with Martil and Mudlcr'. acued its scientific basis for a rational t
application in tracing the c:onccpt back to the theory of plasticity.
CoIIinsand Mitchd1IOfurthcr c:onsidcrcd the deformations of the truss 1<-"-+
. ,
,. modcland dcrivcd a ratiQnaIdesign method fór shear and tomon.
--i
lo various applications, Bay. Franz, Leoohardt. Kupfcr and Thiirlimann
badsbownthat strut-aDd-tie modcIs c:ouIdbc uscfuIIy applied to deep bcams
I1) ~ p.
mrcorbcIs. From that point, the prescnt authors and othcr mcmbers of ---J...: t r-
" theInstitute for Concrcte Structures at 1he University of Stuttgart began
!bar cffons systematically to expand such modcIs to cntire structures and
"
ali struc:turesll.l2.
Thc mcthod had bcen explaincd aIreacly in some detail in the Amcrican
~
PC! Joumall. The interated readcr is refcrred to this paper as a basis of
lhe prc$CIIt C:OÍltributiOIL Here, the dcvdopmcnt of st1Ut-and-tie modcls
lIId thc dimCDSioDing of thc:ir SUUts. ties and nodes will bc rcpeatcd only
bricfIy. Coucanmg lhe design of nodes. some material which goes bcyond
rã. I is addcd.

~ 1\1
1'beD. lhe method is applicd to a fcw ncw cxamples. including some
comparison with test results. Some of the cxamples given show that the
1--)"
<
1InIt-lJld.tic method is useful not only in dimensioDing given mcmbers bur
11IoiDdcvdopiDg an adcqUate c:onceptual design for a critica1 detail.
L"J.
j --=-..J.<. J:;
Tbe Itract1lre's B- aud D-regioDS
TIIOIcrqioas of a Structurc, in which the Bcmoulli hypothesis of linear
, ltrIÍDdisIributioD is assumcd valid, wiII be referrcd to as B-regions (whcre
B8IDds for bc:8m or Bcrnoulh). Thc:ir internal forces or stressCScan bc
::: from lIIOIDents,sbear and axiaI forces anaIyscd by means of lhe
lJItem ofbcams. fnmes, plates. etc.. Ir uucrackccl, the stressCSare
CIIcaIItedIIIÜI&the bc:ading theory for linear dastic material. For cr3ckcd
. '= &betruss modcIsor lhe standard methods of Codes ;t.pply.
oC 88Ddard mcdaods are DO(applicable to lhe other regions and dc:taiIs
(b)
llIIUaart. __the Sttaindistributionis significandynon-linear.e.g.
.. - 'C.-odlo8ds.comers.bends~
tPIaI). Sucb '. . -and ~ disc:oDtinuities Ftg l(b). D-regions (shoded aretlS) wilh non-linMr $lroin distribul;on due
"__ .~' '. . l'eIiODs ~ bc callcd D-rcg!ons. whcrc D stands for lo $lalim! and/or geomelrim! disconlinuilies

Stnactuml Enifneer/Volume 69/No.6/19 March 1991

 Paper: Scblaich/Schãfer .i
J.

Paper
\\
Design and detailing af structural concrete
using strut-and-tie madels
J.Sch1aich, Professor Dr. Ing.
University of StuttgaIt. Gennany

K. Schãfer, Professor Dr. Ing.

University of Stuttgart. Gennany
I

Synopsis
So-ci1lled 'details' ore as important for a structure's behaviour 1
)1.
and Sllfety as the stantkzrd problems of design which are
covered in the Codes. A uniJied design concept which covers
i~~ J-h,-J.-hz~
~)} (~
. J- h~ ~h-4
'-J.
also the details consistent/y for ali types of concrete structure
is described in this paper. lt is based on strut-and-tie models,
including the truss model for beams as a special case. .
After the principies of the method and the modelling
process are explailled. simplified. rules are proposed for
. dimensioning ali the individual members of the model and.
their nodes. Some examples show the application of the
method and demonstrate. also. its use for the improvement of
the conceptual design of detailS.
(Q)
lntrodUctiOD
Cenain pans of strUctures are dcsigned with almost cxaggcratcd accuracy Fig I(a). D-re.sjons (shaded areas) with non-linear slrain distriblltion due
whileothcr partS are dcsigncd using rules-of-thumb or judgmcnt baseei on to geometrical discontinuties
pastcxperience. However; aUpartS of a str1JCturCare of similar importance.
A unified dcsign concept, which is consistcnt for ali typcs of structurc and
all thcir pans, must be baseei on rca1istic physica1 modc1s. Strut-and-tie
moclels,a geoeralisatioo of the wel1-mown truss anafogy for beams, are

t-h -t
~
proposedhere as me appropriatc approacb for dcsigning StrUcturaI'concrcte.
wbichincludes both reinforced and.prcstrcssed concrete structures. i ---t
It was actuaUy at the turD of the Iast ceDtury, whcn Riuer2 and Mõrsch)
introduccd the truss anaIogy. This method was latcr refincd and expandcd ~)I
-f
by Leonhardt', Rüsc:h', Kupf~, and others, until ThÜf1imann'S Zürich
scboof, with Martil and Mudlc:r', creatcd its scicntific basis for a rational t
application in tracing the concept back to the theory of plasticity.
+-h-+
. i
Co1linsand Mitchel1lOfurthcr considcrcd the deformations of the truss
I" mocldand derivcd a ratiQnaI dcsign method fór shear and torsion.
-i
lo various applic:ations, Bay, Franz, Leonhardt, Kupfcr and ThÜfIimann
badshownthat strut-aud-tie modds couId be uscfuIIy applied to deep beams
I1) ~ l'
amrcorbels. From that point. the p~ authors and othcr members of
" IbeInstitute for Concrete Structurcs at 1he University of Stuttgart began
---J.."~
. tbâr effons S)'Stematically to expand such modc1s to cntire strUctures and
alistruc:turesll.l2.
Thc method had been explaincd a.lready in some detail iR the American
PCl Joumal'. The intc:restcd readcr is referrcd to this paper as a basis of
lheJII'CSCIItcoÍ1tribution. Here, the devdopmcnt of squt-and-tie mode1s
aad thc dimensioning of their struts, ties and nodes will be repeatcd ooly
briefly.Couceruing me dcsign or nodes, some material which gocs bcyond
rã. I is addccL

~ 1\1
1ben. me method is applicd to a fcw DCWcxamples, including some
comparisonwith test results. Some' of the cxamples givcn show that the
1--)
IIM-ud-tie method is useful not ooly iRdimensioning givcn members but
11IoiR devdopüag an adeqUate coDceptual dcsign for a critica1 detail.
Lh.J
j
h
--=-..J.r. h
Tbe 1tnIc:tare's li- aad D-regioDS
ThaIe rqioas oCa struc:ture, iR which the Bemoulli hypothcsis of linear
lIrIiDdistributioa is assumcd valid, wiIl be referrcd to as B-regions (where
BlCIDdaCorbam or Bemoulh). Their iDtemaI Corces or strcsscs can be
derhed from lDOIDeDts.sbcar and axiaI Corces anaIyscd by means of the
~
lI8tIcI1 oCbQms. &ames. platcs, etc. Ir unc:racked, the strcsscs are
CIIcüIred UIIIICthe beuding theory Cor linear eIastic: material. For cracIccd
~
oC
lhe truss modc1sor the standard methoclsor Codes ;apply.
lt8IIdard metbods are DO(applicable to the other regions and dc:taiIs (b)
al&nlClurt. wb= the strain distn"bution is significantly non-linear, e.g.
_~.ed ~ Fig l(b). D-regions (shaded areos) wiJh non-linetlr srrain distribulion due
1<_.". '.' ftIioDs ~~ be ca1Icd
bends, openingsanclOtherdiscontinuitics
D-regions, where D stands for lo sratica/ and/or geomelrica/ disconlinuilies

~l Eniineer/Volume 69/No.G/19 March 1991

 ...
Paper: SchlaichlSchãfer

discontinuity, disturbance or detail. The interna1 fiow of forces ia D-regions

can be reasonably we1ldcscribed by strut-and-tie mode1s.
Not much accuracy is ncc:cssary in detcrmining the dividing sections
betwecn B- and D-regions. Thcse sections can be assumed to lie
.
r d-
path
r
.
r \
fi1]
_c
approximate1y in a distance h from the gcometrical discontinuity or the
concentrated load, where h is equa1 to the depth of the adjacent B-region
(F1g I). This assumption is justified by Saint-Venant's principiei.
dI1J
Principies or strut-aod.6e model design q~ q
In a strut-and-tie mode1 the struts represcnt concrete stress fields wit~ F 81 82
prevai1ing comprcssion in the direction of the strut. Accordingly, the ties 81 :: 82
(o) (bJ (cJ
DOrma11yreprescnt ooe or severallayers of tensile reinfor=nent. However,
mode1ties can occasiona1ly aIso stand for conaete tensile stress fie1ds. This
Fig 3. The load palh melhod. including a 'U-turn ': (a) lhe slruelure
is evident from models of practica1ly approved detai1s. the structuraI safety
and its loads: (b) lhe load palhs IhTOlIg" lhe SII1l~lure; (e) lhe
of which can bc explained oo1y if coocrete ties are assumed in places where
eorresponding slrul-cnd-lie model
DOreinforo:ment is provided. Typica1 cx.amples are slabs without stirrups
or bar ancbo~ without spiral or uansverse reinforo:ment.
If a suitabt'e~m~e1 of a D-region is knOWD,the forces of the struts and
1.0 1.0 1+0 1.0
ties will bc calculated, thcrcby satisfying equilibrium betwccn applied loads
and inner forces. The struts, ties and their nodes will bc dimensioned or
chccked to carry the inner forces, as described later.
I.' .1. I;"" I. I;""'1. "I
This method implies that the struaure is designed acx:ording to tbe lower
bound thcorem of the thcory of plasticity. However, since structural ~ J J ~ J ! ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ! }-q
materiais. in particuJar concrete, permit only limited plastic: deformatiODS,
the internal structural system (the strut-and-tie model) has to be'chosen
in a way that the deformatioo capacity is oot exceeded at any poinr:; before
the assumed state of stress is reached in the rest of the structure.
In highly stressed regions, this ductility rcquirement is fu1filledby adapting
the struts and ties of the mode1 to the direaioo and size of the internal
forces as they would appear from the theory of e1asticity.
lo norma1ly or lightly stressed regions the direaion of the struts and ties )..~,.
in the mode1 may deviate considerably from the e1astic: pattem iViDiõút' "
exceeding the structure's duc:tility. Thc ties, and hence the reinfor=nent,
may be arrangcd according to praaica1 consideraàons. The structure adapts
itse1f to the assumed interÍW strUctwal system.
This method of orientating the strut-and-tie mode1 aIong the fora: paths
indicated by the thcory of e1asticity obviously neglects some uItimate load
capacity which could be utilised by apure applicatioo of the thcory of
plasticity. 00 the other band, it has the major advantage that the same
mode1'CaI1bc used for both the uItimate load and the serviceability chcck.
Ir, for some rea5On, the purpose of the analysis is 10fmd the actual uItimate
load, the model can easily bc adapted to this stage of loading by shifting
its struts and ties in order to increase the resistance of the strueture. In
~ case, however, the rotation capacity of the mode1 has to ~nsidered. J tF ítl u_~IC
~t-and-tie mode1ling obviously provides the struaural aDalyst with
o~ -Jo~
somei!~om of choice which can be used 10 aim-eíther at the safest or O"
at the Cheapest or at an otherwise optimised solution. Mode1ling therefore L ..I
rcquires some dcsign experieooe as does the c:boiceof a represcntative overall
statical system or of a rcàsonable fiDite dement neL\. "\~t"
Fig 4. E/aslie Slress Irajeclories, Jislribulion 01 elaslie stre:sses, and
The moddling process aIso covers much of what is DOrma11ycaIIed correspandingsll1ll-cnd-liemodel
detai1ing and thcrcfore requircs considerable knowledge about practicable
reinforccment layout; 00 the other band, it is just in this fie1d where strut-
and-tie models rcplace experience anã gucssworlc:by a more systematic and New strut-and-tie mode1s can be systematica1ly deve10ped by uaáng the
understandable designo flow of forces through the structure, using the 'Ioad path' method.
The stress diagrams of ali the forces applied to the D-region boundaIies
ModeIIiDg of iDclmdual D-regions are subdivided in such a way that the individual strcss rcsuItaDts on opposite
Beforemoddling of a D-regionbegins,ali the forces and reactions acting sides of the D-region corrcspond in magnitude and can be connec:ted by
00 the D-regiODmust be evalUated(Fig 2(a». The forces or suesses ia stream1ined 'Ioad paths' which do not cross each other (F'1g2(b». After
sections bounded by B-regionsare taken from B-regiODdesigne sketching the load paths smoothly c:urved and replacing them by polygons.
further struts and ties must be added for transVerse equ,ilibrium (F'1g2(G».
Obviously, in some cases the stress diagrams or the loadS are not completely
ba1anccd with the 10ad paths dcscribed; then the 10ad path for me rcnaining
q~ forces enters me structure and leavcs it after a U-tum 011me same side
(Fig 3).
I ' I DeveIopinga mode1of a D-regiOI1
ismuch simpliíJedütbe cIasticstresSeS '

J- oS_{ ~ and principal SUCSS diRctions are availablefrom an dastic FEM aDalysis.
I ,- \ ': The direction of struts can then be taken ia aa:ordance with the mean and
I \ "\~...
. main direction of principal comprcssivestrcsscs, or the more imponant
- - T T~ T 0\ struts and sections
ties can bc located at the centreof gravity of the strcss diagram
t of typical (F'1g4).
~

t
'

Ao ' B tA t tA
B Bt Wben mode1ling, ~e aqIcs bctwecD struts and tics. ia particuJar thase
,) o . with re1ative1yhigh forces, should be choscD~
a (b) (c) ia order .~.avoid incompatibility problems.,.,~ '*"f1
F"tg2. 'IM,Joad palh merhod: (a) lhe stl1lcture and its loads; (b) lhe load ;". .,- The resulting mode1s are q~which means that the
palhs through lhe stl1lcture; (e) lhe co"esponding strul-cnd-tie rnodel geomCUyof such a model is strictIy related to a particWãr 10adconfJ.gUIation

The Structural EngineeÍ'/Vo)ume 69/No,6/19 MatÇb 1991

 .....

Paper: SchlaichlSchãfer

+ = \
FI ;;!:O'3F F:FI+FZ

Fig 5. The comb~nalion of two models for the dapped beam is better than the individual models

whcre
i U 111111I1i 1111111 U 11p U Ii 1111111111111111111
p
F., is the force in strut or tie i
I I I I I; is the length of membcr i : ,I

1
f
I I I I e... is the mean strain of membcr i

I
I
}
I
\\ 1 I
J
I
I-- d:1
The contribution of the concrete strulS can most/y be omitted iDthe above
criterion.
I \ 1d:':: I I 1 Dimensioning the strulS. ties and nodes
I \ z I I I I Z
I \ Reinjorced and unreinforced ties'
II II I I
I \
li
1 I
I"
J~ Normally tie forces are carried by reinforcement. 115cross-scaiOD foUows
from the tie force in the ultimate limit state and the design yidd strength
of the sted.
For crack distribution the reinforcement shall be distributed ovcr the
tensile zone. Crack widths can be ana1ysed if the reinforced tie is considcred
as a prismatic reinforced bar with an effective concrete arca.
(a) Good (b) Bad
The tensile Strength of concrete should be ulilised for equilibrium forces
only if no progressive failure must be expected and ir local failure zones
Fig 6. The good model (a) Iuzsshorter ties Ihan the bad model (b) are assumed. Thereby restraint forces and microcracks have to be taken
into account even in 'uncracked' concrete. Funhcr. some positive experience
with similar details and loading should be availablc.

and canoot be used for othcr loads withoUI modificatioD. Thcrefore. the Concrete strurs or compression stress fields
govc:ming load combinatioDS have to be investigated. This disadvantage To covcr ali cases of compression stress lidds. three typical configurations
is DOta pccu1iarity 01 the strUt-and-âe method but is inhcrent to the nOD- are suffiaent:
linear matcdaI properties of cradced conaete.. (a) The fan-shaped Stress fidd (Fig 7(a» is an idealisation of a stress fidd
Accordingly, superposition oftwo models is possible only iCthe combined with D~ligible curvaturc. It does not devclop transverse stresses.
modd satisfies the requirements ODreasonable angles bcrween struts and (b) The bottle-shaped stress field (Fig 7(b». wilh its bulging stress
ties. By c:ombining two súople models it is sometimes possible to devdop trajectories. devdops considcrable transverse stresses: compression in the
muchbeUcrbut rachercomplicatcdmodels(F1gS). Insteadof invcstigating \ !..,'bottle Dcck and tensioD funher away. The transverse tension can cause
such a hyperstatic modd with tCpreseDt3tÍve stiffnesses of the struts and \,( longitudinal craclcs and initiate an carly failure. It is therefore oecessary
ties. it is oonaally more adequate to immediatdy aUot "tliêloads to the two - to reioforce the stress fidd in the transvcrse direction or to considcr the
simple models with an eye ODthe cxpec:ted stiffoess ratio of the individual transvcrse tensiOD when detcrmioing the failurc load of the strut. The
models. .. :' " transvcrse tension can be detcrtnined from a strut-and-tie modd of the stress
Doubts c:ould arise as to whethcr tlte correct mode1 has been chosen out fidd. Diagrams simplify its dimensioning (Fig 8).
of sevcral possible ooes (F1g6).10 sdecting the modd. it is hdpful to rea1ise (c) The prismatic or paralld stress fidd (F1g7(c» is a frequent special case
that loads try to use the path with the lcast forces and deformatioDS. Since of the preceding two stress fidds.
reinfon:cment ties are much more deformable than c:oncrete struts. the The fan-shaped and the bott/e-shaped stress fields are frequently found
modd with the leas(and shoIlest ties is the best. This simple criterioo for -in D-regiODSwhcre CODcentratedloads are introduced into a structurc and
optimising a modd may be formulated as foUows: sprcad out. The prismatic stress fidd is typical for B-regions.
J;Flre -=minimum The strength of the çoDcrete iDcompressioo stress ije1ds d~ds to a
I- considcrable extent 00 the multiaxial state of stress and 00 disturbances

UUIUU

1 I

\\\ tftJtI-O':gf~ ti ftt tff+'O'~f~ f tt ft ff H"O':i ~

I-a~ f-a--4
(a)
Lt (b)

Fig 7. The basic r.ompression fieltis: (a) the 'lan'; (b) lhe "bollle'; (e) lhe "prism'
(c)

Th~ ~tH h._l ~ :_" I""I " ~n/ll.'" 1::/11'1

\I.._J. 11'101
 I

Paper: SchlaichlSchãfer
. ...
~
.' !........
Pa Biaxil COIIIprf:ssion the strcss field. Skew aaeks are nOI expected if the theory of elastidty is
'200 fca in bottlf: nccIc closely followed during modelling. However, skew aac:ks mayalso be left
, " Cro:kCd. but with tI'cInsWfsf: over from a previoos loading case with a different strcss situation.
w=~ , ,,"
D/" '"""
/'
rcinfOtCf:momt (df:gmc w)
The inaease in strcngth due to 2- or 3-dimcnsional states of compressive
t. fCd (;$"7 in thf: bdly rcgion
'1' '" stresses may be taken into ac:count if the simultaneous1y acting transverse \
~/ r:;'b",'" - Uncrac:kCd.
ploinconcrdf: comprcssivc stresses are reliable.
\
// ~~" L~~ Before deciding on one of the given strength values, both transverse
",/ '"/
.
. ,,(S././
,-
C~~;!' _With aminf:mart
';>H-'- t Without l:-
'f'a-f
_ directions musl always be considered.

The nades
The nodes are in rcalily. regions wherc forccs are deviated over a ecnain
length and widlhs. The 'smeared' or 'continuous' nodes, where wide
concrete stress fields join eac:h other or with closely distributed reinfordng
1l bars, are not critical; it is sufficient to ensure safe anc:horage of the

o
1 2 3 ~ 5 6 7 8
/J=b/a

9
~b ".
~
~~
~
ii-: \

..:.
-; j
t);\,~
reinforc:ing bars in the smeared node and to catc:h the outermost..fibres of .,
the deviated eomprcssive stress field with reinforcement (Fig 9):
'On the other hand, where conccntrated forces are applied the deviation
,;.1'.:.

of forces is loc:allyconc:cntrated in 'singular' or 'conc:cntrated' nodes. Tbese

have to be carefully designed in order to balancc the oncoming forces of
:

(a) r, the struts and ties without exc:cssivedeformations resp. c:rac:ks.

~ 1''' X l.
,..

(~;; j-: ·
:"
T!ioiÍglI' numerous cases of differenl singular nodes exist, in mOStcases
rI!
Fi. 2 /z ~.' their forces balance eac:hOlha in the node region through direa c:ompressive
~
-A-
F=Pa.a.t
f:t- =- E
y
strCSSés-:-Ãfsõõond is essentially a load transfer via compressive stresses
whic:h are supponed by the ribs_of the stcel bar and by radial prcssure in
.1

benl bars. However. in many cases also conerete tcnsile stresses develop
,
.. )'
c\; : \
,,'I, \
" ,0,21 transverse 10 lhe model plane ('third direction').-. ,', "
The stress disrribution in singular nodes is mostly so complicated that
I \ I it cannol be analysed individual1y with bearable expcnditure. But experiencc
( \ shows that some types of node and detail are repeated again and again
I tT I
j1
.~._l
f--I a---l + L--1'31+a-!
in quite different structures and can be designed sa~ely by simp~fied rul~:~
(a) The geomctry of the node has to be tuned "w1th the applted forces.
Therefore reinforcement anchored in the node should be distributed over J'
,\

b
b I b a cenain height l!..with due regard 10 the widths of the oncoming strcss
fieK!s ane. the magmtude of their forces; funher, it should be adequately
. ;:
\
~ (e) disctibuted in the transverse direc:tion in order to keep traDSVersetcnsile I
strcsses low.
:Fig 8. Dimensioning pÚlne botlle-shaped stress fieltis: (a) diagrams (b) The average compicssive stresses in the node regioo boundaries have
giving Sllle pressure values Pa with regard to eraeking and erushing 01
plain unreinlorced eoncrete stress fieltis and yielding 01 transverse
to be checked to be less than . .-:) .
1.4=1'11:. in nodes where only compression struts meet, thos creating
.reinloreement; (b) geometry 01 the stress field; (e) model and
a 2- or 3-dimenSionalstate of compressivestressesin the .
'reinlorcement layout 01 stress field with transverse reinforcement
node region ~.! ",' '=
fc4=0'8fc. in nodes where tensile bars are anc:hored and an allo\vanc:e
in strength most be made for bond action
from cracks and reinforcement. For practical dimq1Sioningof ali kinds _c/'"~'. .J
of strcss-fields, the foBowingsimplified design strcngth values f:J are Suitable node region boundaries aI!d the corresponding compression str:sses
~roposed: . c:an easily be determined, as shown in the typic:al nodes in Figs 10-13.
As for ali nodes. a1sothe stresses of the oncoming struts have to be c:hec:ked
~ ~ =l-O lod for an undisturbed and uniaxial state of strcss as described earlier. L>,.>. f; ,: .~,~)
l ~=0'8fod for comprcssion fields with aaclcs parallel to the (c) Safe anc:horage of ties in the node has to be assurcd: minimum radii
; compressi9nstresses ,p,'
L':
. of bent bars and anc:horage lengths of bars are selec:ted foBowing lhe Code.
; ~=0'6fod for compression fields with skew aaclcs The anc:horage must be loc:ated within and 'behincP the node (FJgS 11 and
;"-here 13). The anchorage begins where the traDSVerse compression stress
(104 denotes the conaete compressive design strcngth for uniaxial trajectories mcet lhe bar and are deviated. The bar must extcnd to the other
comprcssion aa:ordiDg to the Code of Practicc. end of the node region. If this length is Icss than required by the Code,
the bar may be extended bcyond the. node region and introdllCC some of
if'he dcsign values givcn above for aaclced conaete are meant for struc:tural its forces from behind.
~Dc:rete, whose crack widths are limited in the usual manner. The values
ror c:racb:d c:oocretc sbaBaIso be applied for conc:retcwith tr.msYCrsetalsion NOOe Nl {Fig 10) is typic:al for a node of compression strDts in a comer.
lIelow
~. the c:xpected tcusile strcngth and ü tensile reinforc:cment is crossing . Two alternative node region boundaries are shown for the samc node, both

!
I,

11

(Q) - - (b) - - (e)

~tg 9. 'Smeared nodes' I and 'singularnodes' 2 ;n o D-reg;on;(o) model, (b) and (e) stressfiel tis ond nOOeregio~

The Structural Engineer/Volume 69/No.6/19 March 1991

 Paper: Schlaich/Schãfer

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leadiDg to lhe salDe RSUIts. 1bc node is safe, Ü :.~...and 0d.s.. I- I fel'JOvem the designo
P~JJ ~._"'4t'31 Node NS'(FJg li) appIics to the anchorage of tics far from thc edges, i.e.
Wotll""NJ(F'ag lO) is a combination of two nodcs NI. It is rcaJisâc and iDside thc structurc in the plane of the model. As for aU nodcs with tics,
thc anchorage lcngth must be chec:ked.
CODYeDiaItto choosC (loIarge CDough.
Node N6 (FJg 1I) is typic:al for cnd supports. 1be hc:ight li in deep beams
~..~;mr.2I1:Q"<OS-"J sin "p should be ch05CD
in order that the bearingPrcssure~d~'govcms thc node's design.
i" = 0-1Sh.s..O'2h.s..O-~1
~tltslq~~(F'ag lO)are typic:alfor loads or support forces applied
to the edge of a struc:turewitha choreiforce rwming paraIlelto this edge wherc h is the height of D-regionand I is the span of deep beam.
through the DOde.Normally, the concrete comprcssivcstRS5CS Single-laycrreinfon:cmcntshaUbe p1ac:cdDcarthe lowcr edgc, whcrc thc
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, The Structural Engineer/Volume 69/No.6/19 March 1991
 Paper: Schlaich/Schãf.

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t Fig J2. Node wilh devialion of reinforcemenl

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Frg J3. Trt!Jltmenl of IOCIIIpff!SSUTe in Iypiazl nodes N2 and N6. appliazble also 10 olher nodes

deviation forces are largcst. Chccks include Local pressures.oCIImay be tolcratcd up to

~-Võ.l/~~.'. ! C I .
'Octt=-l.s..-~s.. 3.3f.
Y. -a.. .
~Jg 11)is typicalin the tcDSionchord of beams or d~ beams.
1'hin. wd1~õut.cd bars sball be choscnas rcinfon:emcntfor de li and General rufe
thcy shaI1cmbrac:cde Ta. CoDcretcstresscsPc SOO.Sf wiIl rarely be 5ince singular nodes are bottlenccks of the stresscs. it c3n be assumcd that
dccisive.
an CDtire D-region is safe. ü the pressure undcr lhe most heavily loadcd
~ (FJg 11) iS a mixture of the nodes Nl and N6, and thcrcfore beariDg plate or anchor platc is 1css thaD 0,6 f.. and ü ali siguificant
maximúm compressiODstrcsscs bctwccn thosc of both node types are teDsile forces are resistcd by rcinfon:emcnt and furthcr ü sufficient
proposed.: dcvelopmcnt lcngths are providcd for the reiDfora:meDt.
Only if this rule does DO(lead to a primctory result. more SOJ)himc:a1cd
~.;.::>J
."" A. jp .
." .~.,.. analysis, as dcscribcd carIicr. is rcquircd.
Bcsides-; the 'iúIcs' for typicai node N6 apply.
AppliC2tiODS
MlR-A9(FJg 11) is composed of two nodes N8; chccks are aa:ordingly.
ODly a fcw applications of the sttut-and-tie method can be shown hcre;
1bis Dode is typical1y ovcr lhe support of coDtinuous beams md normaUy
many more can be found in refs. 1 and 12. .
aIso COYa'edby lhe Codc rulcs (c:heck the beam's c:roswcction for Mo N
8IId V, bcariDg pressure, anchoragc of chorei reiDforccmcut). <~ .

Wõi7~ 12) is c:heckcdvia thc admissible~us of thé bem bar. Corbcls are D-regions for wbich SUUt:and-ticmodcIs areapplicd successfuJly
In DOdcswith local prasure (a. < I, f'Jg 13), thc ttansvcrse tc:DSionin the for a loDgtime. For a chec:kof themcthod and the dt:sigDrules sM:n above,
third diRctiOD must be COYa'edby traDSVcrscrcinfora:mcnt dcsigDcd for a tcst spccimen wiIl be analyscd and thC results comparcd With the test
. 1 l-a. rcsu1ts. In ordcr to include also thc poCCDCjal
CODcretcfailurc in lhe chcclcs.
~
D T-4X'x C. ODeof thosc rarc test speciMeo~u is scIcctcd for wbich yidding of lhe main
de is Dot the obvious faDure critcriO"I1.
I
~ -...J Tbe Stnlctural Engineer/Volume 69/No.8/19 March 1991 --
"'\
~
 ~.
\ f,'Pap er: Sch1aich/Schãfer
~~
\ li

a-a
Taking a strut angle 8= 33° from a fim sketch ofthe model. the foUowing

.
J
. r t internal forces are derived for the recorded failure load Fu= 1'425 MN:
T=C. = F.ltan 8 = 2'19 MN
= 2'62 MN
r.T 1ZSlirrups_8
C:= F./sin 8
to 8x J Tie T:
101515 7.Sem ...
I
,...." I'.. .. II..
0.= TIA.= 359N/mrri2<f., = 452N/mm:
r+
'"
Nade I:
f~ I
, "
51irrup
11Iti. I
.. .. .......
..... ........
I._..... 0.1= ~_ 1'425 I

-... 6 Loops a. x a, - 0'30X 0'20 = 23'8N/mm2

- tF 11I25
.\

~
- a=87an J- IZlptcrtlZ
< ~a, xh' = 0'30
0.20 x 0'8 x 26'3 = 31'6N/mm1(localpressure)
la 03001200130 Transverse tension from local pressure is covered by loops and stirrups.
Anchorageand distributionof reinforc:cmenl ia the node regionis adequate.
, C. 2'62
o.. = -=-- = =.19'8N/mm1
.. a: x I 0'44 x 0,30

<0'81.: = 21'ON/mm1

Nade 2. The concrete stresses in this i>ure compression node (similar to

typical node N2) cannol be critical. I I

o, < I' I 1.:. '\

,
if the stresses in lhe adjacent stress fields are satisfactory.

SlrUIC:. The diagram for bottle-shaped stress fields (Fig 8) willbe used.
Reinforcementralio: vertical c.Jy= 0'08. horizontal "'. = 0'13.
For", = 0,08 the diagram predicts a ~inim.!1m.capacity
P. = 0.75 fc = 19'7N/mm1 :l' ',:'~
i
which almost exactly coincides wilh lhe pressure ~= 19'8N/mm1
determinecl
fornodeI in lheultimatecondition.Ind~ failed
in the tCSIafler yielding of lhe vertical reinforcement. The same width Q2
is necessary in the other botde neck of the stress field where it joins node
2. This det~rmines lhe geometry or node 2 and final1y that of the simple
mode!.
However. it must be pointed out lhat the strut angle 8 = 33° < 45°
indicates a rather poor orientation or lhe simple model at lhe elastic
5implifi<Zdmodd X R<Z1In<Zd rnod<Zl
behaviour. A refinecl mooel is given in Fig l4(c), right side. This model
immo:diately explains lhe forces in the yielding vertical stirrups (tie T~ and
leads to rcduced stresses and anchor forces in node I. which Iherefore c:annot
F
be critica!. The geomCtry and the checlcs for oode 2 are unchanged ir the

resultant '";ôt
strutsare C. orhigher
struts_tfu.1i
c; an~~is C!!nsidered.
in e simple model. Stresses in the diagooai

Deep beam
The deep beam tested by Leonl1ardt & Walther.c sbaU be evaluated using
the strut-and-tie method. Dimeosions and reinforcement layout are given
in Fig 15(a).
f. = 30'2 N/mm1 cooc:reteprism strength
11'/ = 428 N/mm1 yield strength of maio reioforcement
f", = 547 N/mm2 rupture sttength of main reioforcement
I The test specimen failed at a totalload F. = 119SkN aftcr rupture of lhe
principal reinforcement. .!.
For a fi~.Pm:.~mati_oo the model from FJg 4 wi11be used (Fig lS(b».
B;~ t=0'30
neglectiDi--tiie-d~ii" of bars near the support and the mesh
reinforcemeot. The lever arm of the chord is assumed to be DOImuch larger
than expected from the theory of elasticity:

"..- %= 0'72 / = l'04m

U. CorlJeJ:(a) lestetl sP«imen no.213; (b) crack pattem 'at When the' teosioo chord begin.s to yield,
13S01cN(Ile/Ulaüure); (e) simplij2J and reflned strut-and-tie
Id 01 intemallorces at lailure Ioad F. = 1'42SMN T1y = A. xJ., = 2'I4x42-S = 9I-6kN,
"

.. ...~.J :,.
the corresponding load amounts to
I
Iest $pCCÍmca n:presc:utiDg two symmctricaJ.eorbels was tested upside F. = 2x T.yX% = 2x91.6x 1.04 = 476 '.
(Fag l4(a». Thc crac:k pattcm depicts1iiüte we1l the intemal' flow J e 0-40. ......
. ~Ora::s (F"Jg14(b», condeased in tbe simp\ified model (F"Jg l4(c) lcCt side). This is already more than the ~ desip would predic:t,but onJy40'10
jIs mocIeI c:an easily be derived by tbe load. path method. However, the
. model geometJy is known onJy aftcr the nodes are dimensioned.
of the measurcd failure load. .
However, for an cxplanation of lhe recorded ultimate load. lhe model
-
...
 ..- . -- ~-

Paper: Schlaich/Sch

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--.....-

."s(J)
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Fig /5. Deep beam: (a) lesled spec;men W121.; (b) modelor;entaled
aI lhe Iheory of elast;city; (e) crack patlem from lesl; (d) model
(b) adjusled to lhe fa;lure mechanism

must be adapted to rhe real bebaviour (FJg lS(c» by shifting lhe compression VSeams M/;thopenings;n lhe M/eb(Fig 16)
chorei tÕrhe upper eud of the deep beam (FJg lS(d». If further the rupturc The trUSS modcl c1early shows where openings in the webs may bc placed,
sttength of the maio reinfon:aneut is introduced (Ta. = 117'1 kN) and if and how much reinforc:ement is nccc:ssary for a giveu reinforc:emeut layout.
also the mild steel mcsh reinforccment is talceu into account (assuming A chcck of concrete streSSCS ~ 0-6/.,J in the rell'"ining cross-secu"Onal .
0. = 340N/mm2. Tz. = S3'4kN). 94'10 of the real 'wtimatc: load is arca of the StrUts betweeu the ppening completes the safety chcck. It is
c:xplaincd. ne rcst can be auributed to,.Jri..E9'tnin ~~ns. . obvious that the st.aDdard 'shear designo in such cases is just nonsense.
, 1bis .example shows that. with strut-and-tie models. the real behaviour
. of cracked structures can be ana1ysedmucb better than by rhe theory of
IOpen;ngs ;n M/allsand slabs
dasticity and that considerable 'rcdistribution. is ~ble in deep bcams. In rJg 17(b), (c) the strut-and-tie models of waU regions with a rectangular
evcnhdcss. it is recommended not to depart too mucb from the theory
opening are giveu for the tWo cases of unirorm compression resp. tension,
~"c:rl~ with !'CSj)CCt
to c:raclcwidth in the serviceabi1ity limit swc. applied to opposite boundarics. If these waUs are considered as rhe upper
To complete the checlc of the tested deep bcam. also the compression
resp. lower layer of a slab with constaDt momc:nt (FJg 17(a). rhe two modds
Struts and the nodcs have to bc looked ato
revca1 as we1llhe nccessary reinforccment in the slab due to the opening.
SUut CI can casily bc chosen as a prismaâc SU'CSS fic1d deep euough DO(
to c:xcecd 0. =I..
FoDowiDgthe carlier description, the bcaring pressure 0.& I. in the
V Frame comer wilh dosing moment
Thc simple modd in rlg 18(a) is acccptable oll1y ü the dimensions of the
IUppOrtallows an ultimatc design load . column and bcam do not differ too much anel ü the wholc chord
= 2xO'IOxO'16xO'&x30'2 =0'773MN
Fe 2..4= 2 la OcA reinforc:ement is bent CClDtinnouslyarouDd tbe comer accxxdiDgto Fig 18(b).
If such a modd is applied aIso to the frame corn~ in F'Jg18(c)with
which is oll1y 6S 'lo of thc faüure load in the tcst. 1bis can be explained
diffcrcnt chord foRZST2t> 7;. not oll1yis the oricntation at the theory of
J by trausvcrsc compression in thc c:Onc:retedue to friction in the.bearing elasticity rather poor but also cquilibrium is DOmore poss1õlefor the
plates and to the reinforccmeu~ loops. These 100ps also provtde safe
individual reinforccment bars. as shown in rJg 18(d). .
anchorage over thc support. .
. CoI1Cr'Ctestrcsses in lhe support node boundary adjaccot to sttUt C, are
Instead, the dirrerence of chorei fon:es 4T = li TI. which is -
anchored within the depth of the girder. caDsfor horizontal tics TJ,
smaIler than OcAsince rhe n:infon:anent is very wel1distnõuted in rhe node
rcsion over a considerable height u. 1;TJ= 4T according to rlg 18(e).(f).

:;oThe Structural Engineer/Volume 69/No.6/19 March '99'

 .------

~aper: Sch1aichlSchãfer
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16. Betzms wilh smaU openings in lhe web: models and 't~ 'c, "
I
Inding reinlorcemenl
I1
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__J..!.. _J
~k-foundiztion T2 tC2
,e problem is given in F18 19(a). Following the load path method, the (e) (f)
applied to the foundation from above and below are subdivided
CODDcctedas shown in Figl9(b). The component F; representS that Fig /8. Frame eom:!f' with closing moment: (a), (b) model and
or the column 10ad w1rlch is divened to the left-hand side or the reinlorcemenr lor similar dimensions 01 column and betJm; (eJ, (dJ
ndation. while F2 and F. are divened to the other side. where the load bad model and reinlorcemenllor dissimilar dimensions 01 column and
~ = T (forming a U-turn) has to be arranged in between Fz and F. beam; (eJ, (/) good model and reinlorcemenllor dissimilar dimensions f
order to avoid a c:rossingof the load paths. The mode! is easily completed of column and beam
the horizoDtal compression and tension chords Co and To. Their
° .um force amounts to

C. = T. = I=;cot 6.. r. = 0-5 Fi cot 62,

as can be secn from Fig 19(<:).

co1umi1compression forces 1=;.F2 and F. are distributed a1so in the
- 'etSe dircctiOD over the width of the foundation and thereby acate Since the tensiOD force T in the column reinforc:ement is c:arried to the
tension. 7j. T2. T.. e.g. bonom of the fOundatiODand combines there with the load ~ of FJ

r.~°-,--'-r-r-°--r-°, ~.
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(d) (e)

m-m Loops
Fig .20. Hole fOOlings: (a) model for a fool;ng w;th rough jo;nts;
(b) model for a fool;ng .wilh smooth jo;nts; (e) simplijied model for
lhe wa/Is in horizonlal projeclion and eorresponding reinforcement
"
..-?j
I J.J TJ These legs can be avoidcd and the longitudinal reinforc:ement can be
~
-~, evenly distributcd over the whole foundation width if, in accordance with
6H
'2 Fig. 19(e), the additional U'aDSVer5etc:nsion

(c) TJ = 0'5 fJ{ cot'.

is ~ covercd by rt:inforc:ement. Loops would be necessary in this case
." 19. BIocJcfoundal;on: (a) lI1youl and applied forces; (b), for the anchorage of the column reinforc:ement T near the bottom of the
~ SlI'III-4UUl-t;e modeJs; (d) corresponding re;nforcemenl; (e) model foundation. .
'éWlhe distribulion of lhe horizonllll forces A H and combined AR tcusile forces havc to be covered by reinfora:ment. 1be reinforc:ement
'On:emenl if lhá model á applied for To must be eX1endcdto the left end of the foundation and the
U'aDSVer5e rcinforc:ementfor TI' T:z-TJand T.over the whole width. No
hooksare nec:essary for betteranchorageofhorizoDWbars ir approJãmatdy
tbe widtha of thc.column, its contribution to the tensi1ediord To tWo-thirdsof the neccssary anchorage ~ of the Code is provided
'behind' the nodes of the model.
AlI - FJcot 6J,
The compressionstrut Co nec:dsno speáal dicck, ir the compression
be anaqcd within this width as we1l,e.g. by horizontallegs of the node immediatelybelow the column is assumeddeep enough (seetypical
RÍlÚon;cment(F1g19(d». . node m, Fig 10).

O Structural Englneêr/Volump. r;o/'/\Jn r:./10 U h 1001

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L .1per: Schlaich/Schãfer

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Fig 21. Ú1YOUIof a cable bridge for pedeslrians in 5111ugart
171-1

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o I t
4
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I "I rT--j
IJ ~.
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t
OKmi ~~.? I . .=t=I--:- -=.i
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I /1 / _..L-~
I I I ~ ~ I

I I (b)

+.~. '-+
I I
Caststul

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FIg 22. Rejected proposo/s for lhe anchorage of lhe cables in lhe
bridgedeck (delail A of Fig 21) . .
HoIe foolings
In FIgS2O(a)and (b) models are givcn for two cases. In the fU'Stcase. rough
(profiled) CODcretesurfaais are assumed for lhe joint of column and
fOUDdation ando ia lhe od1er. smooth surfaces wllic:h do DOtpermit aD
ÍIIcIined SUUt to c:ross~ioint ~.,.\ol ~"" ! ,": '}
Ifchejoint is rougtr/(Fag2O(a».1bc column de TisoYC:dapped via indiDcd
CIOIDpressioD C. with vCniCãl ties TI in lhe fooc:ing~Uereby horizontal
fOResare app1ied to the footing walIs WI ~ W2. whic:hmust be
transferred latera11yimo the side walIs. as e.g. shown in Fag 2Oíc)by a Vt:ry
SÍII1pIifõed
modd. The waUsWl and W2 em. ""'P-'iD8 ODthcir s1c:Ddcmess.
also be treated like shem beams followiDg the Code. The ties Tzl2 ia tíüs
lDOdd correspond to the horizontal tie T! in Fag 2O(a). Ucir forces can
be COveredby horizontal n:inforcement on both lhe inner and outcr sides
of lhe foundation side walIs. ir lhe modd is adjusted accordingly.
(e)
Fig 23. Anchorage of lhe cableforces (delail A Df Fig 21): (a) basic
model of lhe forces in lhe bridge deck and correspondingslress
dislribulion; (b) re/ined modeJ;(e) casl steeJcomponenlS and
reinforcement according 10 model (b) .
The vertical tie force r. is dc:viated.iato the lower 1ayer of n:inforceD1em
of the foundation 1i1cethe chord in a frame comer. It balances there with
the forces proceerling fcom the column.s compression chord.
Ue modd for dae foundation with smooth j~ (Fag 2O(b» leads to
approximatdy 1.7 times 1arger horizontal forces T! and an acktiÜonal
tensi1e force r. of similar magDitude ia lhe side wa1ls. Also d1e diagona1
compression forces õ.othe colWDJ1and wans are increased acc:ording1y.
1bese examples sbow the uscfulness of SUUt-and-âe modds DOtoo1y for
dimensioning but also for dae conceptual design of a struCtUrCor detail.
This will be shOWDmore dearly ia lhe next cxamp1e.
Detail Df a pedestrian bridge
Fag 21 gives an impression or a cab1ebridge ia Stuagan. which is suspeuded
from an cxisting building. We shal1 devdop a dcsign of the Dodes where
the cables ~ anchored aDd introduce thcir horizootal forces into the
concrete bridge dec".

The Structural Engineer/Volume 1i9/No.6/19 March 1991

 ..

Paper: SchlaichlSchãfe

Pre1iminary proposals for tbis detàiI using $Icei girdcrs embedded in the
conaete (Flg 22) were rejcaed after the strut-and-tie model (Fig 23(a»
showed how the c:ableforces could be iauoduced immediatdy without any
bending of embedded members and the associated high stresses and
deformations. The compression forces are applied dircctly in the direction
of the diagonal modd strUtS via profiled cast:.stcel components without
major disturbance of the thin conaete dec:k (Fig 23(c». Transverse
reinforcing bars, wdded to the cast stecl components, carry the tie forces
of the modelo The stress distribution is further improved by smearing the
nade A over a greatc:r Ic:ugth.as suggested by the rdincd model of Fig 23(b).
The cbec:k of the conaete compression stress applied by the cast $Icei
needs no further exp1anation.
Ir the cab1es are incIined ai a considerable angle ia order to suppon the
bridge dec:k, as is usuaUy the case, a banom fJange mUst be attached to
lhe $Icei member for vertical suppon of the dec:k.

Coaclusioas
Strut-and-tie models can be used for tracing the internal forces in
complicated details. Thcy are very helpful in the conceptual desiS!Lof a . .:;
de:ail, leadiag the designer intuitively to simple and souncHÕÍuti;)iis. ....
Strut-and-tie models are also a basis for thc quantitative chec:k of details
and whole structures. However, the method also rcquires some enginecring
knowledge and training to whicb tbis paper is intendcd to contribute with
a SUt1U1WY of principies and a few applications of the method.

Refereaces
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pp74-ISO
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/
ETH Zürich 1983(see further referencesthere)
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beams),BeridIlNo. 83, Institutfür Ba"motilrund KonsuuJction,ETH
Zürich, Jo1y 1978
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praaica1 mcthod for the designand detailingof structUralconc:rete),
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1983 .
14. Lconhardt; f., and WaIther, R.: 'WandartigC Trãger., (Dccp beams),
DAfStb. Heft No.178, Berlin, W. Emst &. Sobn, 1966
_1 yo:.__: '''IY_1 ,,,. _ ,__ ..,