Uncertainties and scale effects in

breaking wave loads on marine structures

Charlotte Obhrai
Associate professor
University of Stavanger
uis.no

9/14/2015

1
Small scale physical model tests
Common response

1) At prototype scale these loads are real due

to scale effects
Aeration effects

2) These events are so rare I don’t need to

worry about them

So do we believe the measurements???

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Froude scaling table

Froude number Fn

3
Entrained & trapped air

4
Entrained air

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BLENKINSOPP, C. & CHAPLIN, J. R. 2011 Void fraction measurements and scale effects in breaking
waves in fresh water and sea water. Coast. Engng 58 (5), 417–428.
FIELD WAVE IMPACT AT 09:06:45 ON 08.01.05
Illustrates influence of air entrapment

350
Pmax = 771kPa (77m head)
300 Duration of 'spike' ~ 65ms
(>20 times duration of
250 previous example)
200 PAU 6, 9.1m CD
Pressure (kPa)

PAU 5, 8.1m CD
PAU 4, 7.2m CD
150
PAU 3, 6.2m CD
PAU 2, 5.5m CD
100 PAU 1, 4.5m CD

50

0
Oscillations in phase over >4m elevation
-50
-75kPa (7.5m head)
-100
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Time (s)
FIELD WAVE IMPACT AT 09:06:45 ON 08.01.05
Aeration data indicates large volume of highly aerated
water which can behave in a similar way to a single air pocket

50

45 PAU 6, 9.1m CD
PAU 5, 8.1m CD
40 PAU 4, 7.2m CD
PAU 3, 6.2m CD
35 PAU 2, 5.5m CD
Voids Ratio (%)
PAU 1, 4.5m CD
30

25

20

15

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time (s)
Different types of wave impacts
Pmax=3.5MPa
Tr4=1.2ms
Amax=4.5g
2506031005

Pmax=340kPa
Tr4=48.2ms
Amax=6g
2506031001

Highly dependent
on wave shape
Partial Froude scaling

Braeunig, J.-P., Brosset, L., Dias, F. and Ghidaglia, J.-M., (2009). Phenomenological study of liquid impacts trough
2D compressible two fluid numerical simulations, Proceedings of 19th International Offshore and Polar Engineering
10
Conference, Japan.
SIMPLIFIED BAGNOLD 1D MODEL

ρl - the liquid of density

L – length of the water slug
x0 - Initially length of gas pocket
p0 - initial ullage pressure
U0 - the initial velocity of the piston
where p is the pressure in the pocket when its
length is x and γ=1.4 is the isentropic constant.
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥0 𝛾𝛾 𝑈𝑈0 𝑥𝑥
𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 2 = 𝑝𝑝0 define 𝑡𝑡 ∗ = 𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥 ∗ =
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥0 𝑥𝑥0
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥 ∗ 1 𝛾𝛾 𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿 𝑈𝑈0
2
𝐿𝐿
𝑆𝑆 ∗2 = ∗ −1 Define impact 𝑆𝑆 = 𝛾𝛾
−1
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥 number 𝑥𝑥0 𝑝𝑝0 11
 Sloshel test
Compared detailed wave impacts at two small
scales and found that the pressures scale λ

Also compared detailed wave impacts at two

large scales and found that the pressures scale λ

Only made comparisons between pressures

measured in the air pocket

BOGAERT, H., KAMINSKI, M. L., LÉONARD, S. & BROSSET, L. 2010

Sloshing and scaling: results from the Sloshel project. Proc.
20th International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference, 12

China, June 2010, pp. 88–97. ISOPE.

 𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝑝𝑝0
𝑝𝑝∗ =
𝑝𝑝0

𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝑝𝑝0 = 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

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Numerical computations of Bredmose(2015)

Numerical values of pmax

compared with the Bagnold–
Mitsuyasu scaling law and
the Froude scaling law.
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Variation of initial aeration

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Violent breaking wave impacts. Part 3. Effects of scale and aeration. / Bredmose, Henrik;
Bullock, G. N.; Hogg, A. J., Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 765, 2015, p. 82-113.
 The Bagnold–Mitsuyasu compression law

CUOMO, G., ALLSOP, W. & TAKAHASHI, S. 2010b Scaling wave 16

impact pressures on vertical walls. Coast. Engng 57, 604–609.
So the picture is clear - (as mud!)
 If a wave impacts a structure the there are a range of possible impact loads
depending on the amount of wave overturning.
 No air entrainment will give the highest peak loads but highly localised and
very short in duration
 Wave impacts with a trapped air pocket give large impusles and may represent
the most severe case.
 If you have trapped air then important to apply some type of Bagnold scaling
correction - however the 3 studys so far do not give consistent results and
have need to be validated by measured data at different scales.
 Entrained air has been shown to reduce peak loads in all cases although the
reduction is dependent on the type of impact.
 Real ocean waves will contain higher levels of entrained air due to bubble rise
times but not definitive advice on what levels to apply.
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Trapped air pockets – greater impulse

FZK ARRAY
Pmax=894kPa
Tr90=41.3ms
Amax=15.45g
2506031006

PAU ARRAY
Pmax=784kPa
Tr90=31.5ms
Amax=15.45g
2506031006
Damage of alderney breakwater

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Physical modelling of wave impacts - challenges

• Need to measure at very high frequency (~10kHz)

• Sensitive to wave shape – non repeatable
• Scale effects
• Rare events

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