Social stability

Social stability as one of the three dimensions of sustainable development began

to receive attention since the early years of the 21st century with the aim of improving

living conditions in the society (Nastaran et al. 2013). In rural areas, the purpose of

social stability is to help develop healthy living by providing the basic needs of the rural

community by considering the quality of life consistent with the quality of the

environment and based on economic systems in order to achieve the highest degree of

life satisfaction (Pourtaheri et al. 2012). Discussion on social stability has currently gone

beyond the issue of the population’s abandonment of urban residences, and the subject

of social stability now covers all dimensions of the social life and the needs of the rural

community such as educational facilities, health and treatment services, appropriate

accessibility to art and cultural facilities, and other facilities which are necessary in

people’s social life (Lyall&Tati, 2005). In general, achievement of social stability in rural

areas by improving its components and indicators as well as the factors influencing it

lays the foundation to develop the social capacities of rural residents and to enhance

the ability of the rural community to make optimal use of natural, social and economic

resources consistently with the objectives of sustainable development (Fatahi et al.,

2013).

Social stability serves as a link among different dimensions of sustainable

development (Colantanio 2009:4) and is the ultimate objective of sustainable

development. Economic and environmental developments are also of the objectives of

sustainable development and are the means to achieve social stability (Assefa and

Frostell, 2007). The main purpose of social stability is to provide the future generation
with equal or greater accessibility to social resources than the current generation (Mak

and Peacock, 2011). In 2000, the European Union in Lisbon initially defined social

stability as an integral part of development models, and social stability received special

attention (Samuelsson et al., 2004; Dixon et al., 2007).

Despite the discussions, the social dimension of sustainability has received scant

attention in comparison with the economic and environmental dimensions (Woodcraft,

2012). McKenzie associates this fact with the difficulty of quantitative measurement of

social stability. He believes the social stability dimension tends to concentrate on the

qualitative characteristics of human societies. Therefore, quantitative measurement of

economic and environmental dimensions of stability is easier and more feasible

(McKenzie, 2004).In general, social stability means moving toward a condition where all

people in the society are able to provide all their basic needs (achieving a rational level

of tranquility, living a meaningful, purposeful and passionate life, having fair and equal

accessibility to opportunities in health and education) (Salemi et al., 2011).In the

process of rural sustainable development, social instability plays a pivotal role in the

achievement of the objectives of rural development. Proof for this fact is that the

emergence of instability in its environmental dimensions lies in mismanagement; and

economic instability whose concrete representations are evident in inducing economic

instability, inequality, poverty and unemployment in rural communities is due to the lack

or neglect of social stability in rural areas. Hence, emphasis on social stability directs

attentions to its role and position in the process of rural sustainable development more

than ever (Pourtaheri et al., 2012).

 However, social stability is a difficult concept to implement, and instability in human

societies generally refers to stability along time. Therefore, this concept is not easy to measure

(Jomehpoor et al., 2013). If social stability is to turn from a general description into an ultimate

goal, it is necessary to define it in a clear, distinguishable, controllable and measurable way.

Hence, it is essential to design social stability indicators. The main indicators for measuring

social stability include population dynamism; empowerment; social cohesion and unity; health

and social security; quality of employment and income; quality of education, services, housing,

and environment; quality of information accessibility; community involvement; quality of

institutional-national structures; optimism about the future; satisfaction with the place of living

and place attachment; rates of crime and divorce; equality; compatibility; co-existence; social

accountability; hope for the future; sense of happiness; extroversion and social interaction;

social trust; fear of prevalence of social abnormalities; sense of deprivation; satisfaction with the

performance of institutions; satisfaction with the quantity of service accessibility; satisfaction

with the quality of service accessibility; place attachment; exhilaration in life; participation in

cultural and recreational activities; participation in religious activities;participation in local

activities; interpersonal trust; civil or institutional trust; and social justice (Salemi et al, 2011;

Hartmut, 1999; Teimouri et al., 2012; Pourtaheri et al, 2012; Pourtaheri et al., 2010; Fatahi et

al., 2013; Nastaran et al., 2013). In addition, the indicators of social stability also include social

networks, the right to choose one’s life and occupation, accessibility to equal opportunities,

democracy, social innovations, concrete basic needs, mental basic needs, concrete social

resources, mental social resources, equal concrete opportunities, equal mental opportunities,

cultural variety, cultural heritage, and equal accessibility to welfare (Weingaertner&Moberg,

2011; Osmann&Spangenberg, 2002; Glasson and Wood, 2009; Bramley et al., 2006;

Colantonio 2008b).
Political Stability

Muslim countries have been plagued by sixteen major wars, many coups,

political, religious and ethnic insurgency, and revolutions since World War II. Intense

political instability, economic and political repression, chronic unemployment could

trigger many Arab springs like revolutions in many OIC countries. Is political instability a

new phenomenon for Muslim world? The answer is obviously no. The importance of

political stability for greater human welfare has been repeatedly mentioned in the Holy

Quran and tradition of the Prophet (PBUH). Therefore, theoretical underpinnings of

political stability and growth lie in the Holy Quran and the Sunnah.

One of the brightest mind in early Islamic period, Ibn Khaldun (Khaldūn,

Rosenthal, & Dawood, 1969) states that political instability adversely affects economic

growth. He argues that political stability creates a favorable environment for business to

flourish, create employment opportunities and migration into the cities which increase

demand and stimulate economic growth. This could certainly be considered as one of

the first foundational theories of Islamic political economy.

Political instability is defined as the propensity of a government collapse (Alesina,

Özler, Roubini, & Swagel, 1996). This could be either because of conflicts or rampant

competition between various political parties. Also, the occurrence of a government

change increases the likelihood of subsequent changes. Political instability tends to be

persistent.

According to the political theories of Max Weber, political stability depends on the

government's legitimate use of physical force. Political instability is associated with the
concept of a failed state (Mommsen, 1992). Mancur Olson’s influential The Rise and

Decline of Nations stressed the importance of institutional and political factors in

explaining differences in rates of economic growth.

Economic Stability

Degree of peace for a nation is determined by upshots of all sociopolitical and

economic factors. Increased military expenditure is regarded as public expenditures to

make peace. However, most of developing countries are unable to make peace despite

of their long standing increased defense expenditures. Some studies show that

increased defense expenditure in developed nations has positive effects their economic

growth by the ways of increasing security, property rights, upgrading rule and

regulations (Suleiman and Aamer, 2003). Increased defense expenditure in Britain in

colonization era and USA in present globalization for war against terrorism has direct

and indirect advantages by exploiting resources from countries were their forces

employed. In the case of developing countries, increased defense expenditures is

justified by policy makers for keeping politician’s political power by the way of showing

to people that their nation has military power to fight neighborhood (Pakistan with India),

to become regional superpower(India in South Asia) and to suppress minority’s

independent war(Sri Lanka). But, they do not have sound sustained economic growth

for development. China’s rapid economic growth and development during last three

decades can be explained by peace, attained locally and externally. It has reduced

defense expenditure during last two decades and emphasizing that Taiwan problem will

be solved by negotiation not military power even Taiwan is as part of China. But
Pakistan and India’s leaderships have interested to solve border dispute by using

military power. Testing nuclear weapons in these two countries is based on their war

interest. In Sri Lankan case, Leadership emphasizes that 50 years ethnic conflict and

war has not been solved by federal political solution agreed in 1957 which empowers

political rights to minority and. Sri Lanka is increasing defense expenditures in the name

of “war against terrorism” like USA’s war in Middle East continuously since 1983. Many

African countries also suffering due to the internal and external conflicts and spending

much to war by ignoring economic growth and development (Marshall and Ted Robert ,

2001, 2003 and 2005).

Peace has direct and indirect effect on economic growth. Conflicts, violence and

war devastate the accessible physical and human resources and wipe out sociopolitical

institutions which contribute to economic growth positively. An economy which has more

violence and war loses the confidence of investors locally and internationally. Human

resources which is made by skilled workers has been migrated to abroad due to the

non- peace environment. Both human and physical capital is affected due to the war

and leads to downfall of output hence economic growth. Annual rate of capital

accumulation is affected due to the war. The countries which are spending much

resource to war unable to spend more expenditure to economic and social

infrastructures which are important sources for human and capital accumulation in

developing countries, Conflicts, violence and war in developing countries affect the long

run sources of economic growth. Physical and human capital accumulations are

predominant determinants of economic growth in new classical economic growth theory.

Sociopolitical instability due to the conflict or war in developing nations severely affects

physical and human capital accumulation on following manners.

Community based rehabilitation program

The theoretical conceptions and practices of Community Based Rehabilitation

are based on a number of assumptions and principles. According to FSCE (2000), the

primary principle of Community Based Rehabilitation model is encouraging participation

of persons with disabilities and their families as a key factor in the rehabilitation process.

FSCE (2000) argues that local participation is first needed because it allows

mobilization of local community for rehabilitation and development purposes. This

means that participation enables growth of local capacity, which develops out of

partnership between development agencies; community and disabled people

themselves (FSCE 2000). Accordingly, the assumption is that working with target

community instead of working for them is an essential strategy used in CBR model

(FSCE 2000). This shows that deciding and doing things for persons with disabilities

denies them the chance to learn and gain experience by making decisions.

According to O’Toole (1991), the key success of CBR is measured by active

participation of the community. Thus, the principles of ‘involvement’ refer to making as

many members of persons with disability as possible aware of their needs and

stimulating their desire to do something about the needs (FSCE 2000). Further, the

principle of ‘cooperation’ emphasises the need for collaboration of efforts between or

among as many members of a group of a community as possible in resolution of their

problems (FSCE 2000). In this regard, empowerment of persons with disabilities is very
crucial. An empowered disabled person or group of persons with disabilities may be

enough to bring to the attention of the community their needs and what should be done

about them (WHO 1996a).

The other assumption relates to the resources needed for the improvement activities of

persons with disabilities. The community mobilises and uses its own material, labour

and monetary resources. The most important resources for CBR activities are the local

community, which encompasses the people, the institutions, the materials and the

money, which enable CBR to function and grow. These include human resources

(persons with disabilities, parents, extended family, peers, professional people, religious

and business people), institutional resources such as local schools, health clinics,

vocational trainings and clubs and local natural resources, financial resources and other

services (FSCE 2000).