ForcedOscillator Path

Path Integral Approach to Single-Particle Motion
in Forced Harmonic Potential
Pimpimon Khumwong
Submitted in partial fulfilment of

the requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Physics

B.S.(Physics)
Fundamental Physics & Cosmology Research Unit

The Tah Poe Academia Institute for Theoretical Physics & Cosmology
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science
Naresuan University
March 2, 2006
May the whole of my life dedicated to
my father
my dream
and my country
Pimpimon Khumwong, 14 February 2006
To my father and mother, lords of my life.

Path Integral Approach to Single-Particle
Motion in Forced Harmonic Potential
Pimpimon Khumwong
The candidate has passed oral examination by members of examination panel.

This report has been accepted by the panel as partially fulfilment of the course 261493:
Independent Study.
.................................... Supervisor
Alongkorn Khudwilat, BS(Hons) MSc
.................................... Member
Dr. Chanun Sricheewin, BSc MPhil PhD
.................................... Member
Dr. Burin Gumjudpai, BS MSc PhD AMInstP FRAS
I
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Alongkorn, my supervisor, for his help and support. I thank
Burin for permission to use his computer, Chanun for helpful comments. I especially
thank Chakkrit for his suggestion in LATEX program. I also thank Doungkamol, Aris-
ara, Ratchada, Artit, my family, and all other members of The Tah Poe Academia
Institute for Theoretical Physics and Cosmology for their relentless encouragement.
II
Title: Path Integral Approach to Single-Particle Motion
in Forced Harmonic Potential
Candidate: Ms.Pimpimon Khumwong
Supervisor: Alongkorn Khudwilat
Degree: Bachelor of Science Programme in Physics
Academic Year: 2005
Abstract
In this work, we study the single-particle motion in the forced harmonic potential
by Feynman path integral method. The propagator is evaluated and analyzed. We
compare this result with the wave mechanical solution in case of the constant external
force. Our new method gives the same ground state eigenenergy and wave function
as the technique of the wave mechanics. This shows that the path integral method
corresponds to the wave mechanical technique.
III
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Expected Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.6 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.7 Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Introduction to path integrals 4

2.1 Events occurring in succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 The wave function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 The propagator of the quadratic Lagrangian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 The free-particle propagator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3 Green’s functions 15
4 The forced harmonic oscillator propagator 22

4.1 The classical action of the forced harmonic
oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2 The forced harmonic oscillator prefactor and propagator . . . . . . . 31
4.3 The constant forced harmonic oscillator
propagator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.4 The ground-state wave function and energy of the constant forced har-
monic oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
IV
4.5 Alternative method for calculating the ground-state wave function and
energy of the constant forced harmonic oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.6 Derivation of the wave functions and energies of the constant forced
harmonic oscillator from Schrödinger’s equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5 Conclusions 54
A Classical motion of constant forced harmonic oscillator 56
V
Chapter 1
Introduction
Mechanics explains motion of particles, it can be roughly divided into

1. Classical mechanics describes the particle motion in macroscopic scale based on
Newton’s three laws of motion.
2. Quantum mechanics describes the particle motion in microscopic scale based
on Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
In case of quantum mechanics, it can be classified into two different forms
2.1 Schrödinger’s wave mechanics
The quantum state of the system of interest is represented by wave function which
can be solved from Schrödinger equation.
2.2 Heisenberg’s matrix mechanics
The dynamical variables of the system are written in the from of matrix.
Both theories are based on Hamiltonian mechanics. After that, R.P. Feynman pro-
posed the third formulation of quantum mechanics based on Lagrangian mechanics.
He developed Dirac’s
³ idea which
´ suggested that transition amplitude < x2 , t2 |x1 , t1 >
i
R t2
corresponds to exp ~ t1 Ldt . This method is called Path Integrals.
1
1.1 Background
Path integral is the alternative method to describe the behavior of quantum system.
It is the most powerful in many fields of physics. Due to this reason, it is interesting
to apply this method to some simple systems and hoped that it can be developed in
the future works.
1.2 Objectives
1.2.1 To study the single-particle motion in the forced harmonic potential by path
integral method.
1.2.2 To calculate and analyze the single-particle propagator in the forced harmonic
potential.
1.3 Framework
This work focuses on the propagator of the single-particle moving in the forced
harmonic potential calculated by path integral method.
1.4 Expected Use

1.4.1 To attain knowledge and understanding in path integral.
1.4.2 To be able to calculate single-particle propagator in forced harmonic potential.
1.4.3 To apply the path integral method to other systems in the future work.
1.5 Tools
- Computer
- Textbooks on physics and mathematics
2
1.6 Procedure
1.6.1 Study path integral.
1.6.2 Study Green’s function.
1.6.3 Calculate single-particle propagator in forced harmonic potential.
1.6.4 Calculate wave function from propagator.
1.6.5 Make conclusion and comment.
1.7 Outcomes
We finally found that the ground-state wave functions and energies are the same either
evaluating by Path Integral method or by using Schrödinger’s equation in conventional
quantum mechanics.
3
Chapter 2
Introduction to path integrals
Consider the motion of the single particle in one dimension from (xa , ta ) to (xb , tb ).
In macroscopic scale the motion is described by classical mechanics which states that
the particle shall move along the path with minimum action as shown in Fig. 2.1.
The action is defined as Z t b
S[b, a] = L(x, ẋ, t)dt, (2.1)
ta
where
S is the action of the particle,
L(x, ẋ, t) is the Lagrangian of the system.
The particle moves in the way that minimizes the action S. This leads to the
Lagrange’s equation
d ³ ∂L ´ ∂L
− = 0. (2.2)
dt ∂ ẋ ∂x
The motion can be solved from equation (2.2).

The situation is completely different in quantum mechanics. There are many
possible paths from (xa , ta ) to (xb , tb ) as shown in Fig. 4.1.
The total amplitude of the particle K(b, a) to go from a to b can be found from
the sum of contribution of the amplitude φ[x(t)] from each path.
X
K(b, a) = φ[x(t)]. (2.3)
all possible path
The probability P (b, a) to go from the point xa at time ta to the point xb at tb is

the absolute square of the total amplitude
¯ ¯2
P (b, a) = ¯K(b, a)¯ . (2.4)
4
b b b
a
a a
a b
Figure 2.1: The single-particle path of motion according to classical mechanics from
(xa , ta ) to (xb , tb ).
Feynman conjectured that the contribution of a path has phase proportional to the
action S associated with each path
n o
φ[x(t)] = (Const.)exp (i/~)S[x(t)] . (2.5)
We shall write the sum over all paths in a less restrictive notation as
Z b n o
K(b, a) = exp (i/~)S[b, a] Dx(t) (2.6)
a
which we shall call a path integral and K(b, a) is sometimes called the propagator.
2.1 Events occurring in succession

From Fig. 2.3, the action from a to b can be separated into two parts as
S[b, a] = S[b, c] + S[c, a],
5
b
a b
Figure 2.2: The possible paths of the quantum mechanics from (xa , ta ) to (xb , tb ).
then the propagator becomes

Z b n o n o
K(b, a) = exp (i/~)S[b, c] exp (i/~)S[c, a] Dx(t)
a
Z Z b n oµ Z c n o ¶
= exp (i/~)S[b, c] exp (i/~)S[c, a] Dx(t)a→c dxc Dx(t)c→b
xc c a
Z Z b n o
= exp (i/~)S[b, c] K(c, a)Dx(t)c→b dxc
xc c
Z Z b n o
= exp (i/~)S[b, c] Dx(t)c→b K(c, a)dxc
Zx c c
K(b, a) = K(b, c)K(c, a)dxc . (2.7)

xc
The propagator for a particle going from a to b can be computed from the rules:
1. The propagator of motion from a to b is the sum over all possible values of xc
of amplitudes for the particle of motion from a to c and then from c to b.
2. The amplitude of motion from a to c and then to b is the propagator of motion
from a to c times the propagator of motion from c to b.
Thus we have the rule: Multiplying Amplitudes for events occurring in succession
in time gives the total amplitude.
6
b
a c b
Figure 2.3: The paths of motion of the particle from (xa , ta ) to (xb , tb ), where each
path passed (xc , tc )
We can continue this process until we have the time scale divided into N intervals.
The result is
Z Z Z
K(b, a) = ... K(b, N −1)K(N −1, N −2)...K(i+1, i)...K(1, a)dx1 dx2 ...dxN −1
x1 x2 xN −1
(2.8)
2.2 The wave function

From Fig. 2.1 where
K(xb , tb ; xa , ta ) is the probability amplitude of finding the particle at (xb , tb )
starting from (xa , ta ).
¯ ¯
¯K(xb , tb ; xa , ta )¯2 is the probability of finding the particle at (xb , tb ).
ψ(xb , tb ) is the probability amplitude of finding the particle at (xb , tb )
(we are not interested in the origin of the particle’s motion).
¯ ¯
¯ψ(xb , tb )¯2 is the probability of finding the particle at (xb , tb ).
So we can conclude that
K(xb , tb ; xa , ta ) = ψ(xb , tb ).
7
From Z ∞
K(xb , tb ; xa , ta ) = K(xb , tb ; xc , tc )K(xc , tc ; xa , ta )dxc . (2.9)
−∞
We can rewrite equation (2.9) as

Z ∞
ψ(xb , tb ) = K(xb , tb ; xc , tc )ψ(xc , tc )dxc . (2.10)
−∞
From equation (2.10), we can see that the wave function ψ(x, t) can be solved when
we know the propagator of the system.
¯ ®
In standard quantum mechanics, at time tc the state of system is ¯ψ(tc ) . Then
state at a new time tb is
¯ ® ¯ ®
¯ψ(tb ) = û(tb , tc )¯ψ(tc ) ,
where û(tb , tc ) is time evolution operator of the quantum state from time tc to tb .
¯ ® ¯
The wave function is generated by performing the inner product of ¯ψ(tb ) with xb ¯,
we get
¯ ®
ψ(xb , tb ) = xb ¯ψ(tb )
¯ ¯ ®
= xb ¯û(tb , tc )¯ψ(tc ) .
From the completeness relation

Z ∞ ¯ ® ¯
dx¯x x¯ = 1̂.
−∞
The wave function can be written as

Z ∞
¯ ¯ ® ¯ ®
¯
ψ(xb , tb ) = xb û(tb , tc ) dxc ¯xc xc ¯ψ(tc )
−∞
Z ∞
¯ ¯ ® ¯ ®
= xb ¯û(tb , tc )¯xc xc ¯ψ(tc ) dxc
Z−∞
∞ ¯ ¯ ®
ψ(xb , tb ) = xb ¯û(tb , tc )¯xc ψ(xc , tc )dxc . (2.11)
−∞
where
¯ ¯ ® ¯ ® ¯ ®
xb ¯û(tb , tc )¯xc is transition amplitude from state ¯xc to state ¯xb .
By comparing equation (2.10) with equation (2.11), finally we get
¯ ¯ ®
xb ¯û(tb , tc )¯xc = K(xb , tb ; xc , tc ), (2.12)
8
2.3 The propagator of the quadratic Lagrangian
The simplest path integrals are those of which all of the variables appear up to the
second degree in exponent. We shall call them Gaussian integrals. In quantum
mechanics this corresponds to a case in which the action S involves the path x(t) up
to and including the second power.
To illustrate how the method works in such a case, consider a particle whose
Lagrangian appear in quadratic form
L = a(t)ẋ2 + b(t)ẋx + c(t)x2 + d(t)ẋ + e(t)x + f (t). (2.13)
In classical mechanics, form of the action integral is

Z t2
S[x(t)] = L(x, ẋ, t)dt. (2.14)
t1
Therefore the particle’s action of the Lagrangian of equation (2.13) of particle moving
from (xa , ta ) to (xb , tb ) is written as
Z tb h i
S[x(t)] = a(t)ẋ2 + b(t)ẋx + c(t)x2 + d(t)ẋ + e(t)x + f (t) dt. (2.15)
ta
We can represent x(t) in terms of xcl (t) and a new variable y :
x(t) = xcl (t) + y(t),
where
xcl (t) is the classical path,
y(t) is the deviation from the classical path with the conditions that y(t) vanishes
at the two end points, y(ta ) = y(tb ) = 0.
That is to say, instead of defining a point on the path by its distance x(t) from
an arbitrary coordinate axis, we measure the deviation y(t) from the classical path
as shown in Fig. 2.4
9
Figure 2.4: The classical paths xcl (t) and some possible alternative path x(t) = xcl (t)+
y(t).
Substitute x(t) = xcl (t) + y(t) into equation (2.15)

Z tb h
S[x(t)] = a(t)(ẋcl + ẏ)2 + b(t)(ẋcl + ẏ)(xcl + y) + c(t)(xcl + y)2
ta
i
+d(t)(ẋcl + ẏ) + e(t)(xcl + y) + f (t) dt
Z tb h
= a(t)(ẋ2cl + 2ẋcl ẏ + ẏ 2 ) + b(t)(ẋcl xcl + xcl ẏ + ẋcl y + ẏy)
ta
i
+c(t)(x2cl + 2xcl y + y 2 ) + d(t)(ẋcl + ẏ) + e(t)(xcl + y) + f (t) dt
Z tb h i
= a(t)ẋ2cl + b(t)ẋcl xcl + c(t)x2cl + d(t)ẋcl + e(t)xcl + f (t) dt
ta
Z tb h
+ a(t)(2ẋcl ẏ + ẏ 2 ) + b(t)(ẋcl y + xcl ẏ + ẏy)
ta
i
2
+c(t)(2xcl y + y ) + d(t)ẏ + e(t)y dt
Z tb h
S[x(t)] = Scl + a(t)(2ẋcl ẏ + ẏ 2 ) + b(t)(ẋcl y + xcl ẏ + ẏy)
ta
i
2
+c(t)(2xcl y + y ) + d(t)ẏ + e(t)y dt, (2.16)
10
where
Z tb h i
Scl = a(t)ẋ2cl + b(t)ẋcl xcl + c(t)x2cl + d(t)ẋcl + e(t)xcl + f (t) dt.
ta
If all the term which contain y(t) as a linear factor are collected, the resulting
integral vanishes. This could be proved by actually carrying out the integration
(involving some integration by parts):
Z tb · Z tb Z tb ¸
a(t)ẋcl ẏdt = − a(t)ẍcl ydt + ȧ(t)ẋcl ydt (2.17)
ta ta ta
Z tb ·Z tb Z tb ¸
b(t)xcl ẏdt = − b(t)ẋcl ydt + ḃ(t)xcl ydt (2.18)
ta ta ta
Z tb Z tb
d(t)ẏdt =− ˙
y d(t)dt. (2.19)
ta ta
Substitute equations (2.17), (2.18) and (2.19) into (2.16), we obtain

Z tb h ³ ´
S[x(t)] = Scl + − 2a(t)ẍcl y + 2ȧ(t)ẋcl y + a(t)ẏ 2 + b(t)ẋcl y
ta
³ ´ i
˙
− b(t)ẋcl y + ḃ(t)xcl y + b(t)ẏy + 2c(t)xcl y + c(t)y 2 − d(t)y + e(t)y dt
Z tb h ³ ´
S[x(t)] = Scl + ˙ − e(t)
− y 2a(t)ẍcl + 2ȧ(t)ẋcl + ḃ(t)xcl − 2c(t)xcl + d(t)
ta
i
+a(t)ẏ + b(t)ẏy + c(t)y 2 dt.
2
(2.20)
From the classical Lagrangian equation of motion
d ³ ∂L ´ ∂L
− = 0,
dt ∂ ẋcl ∂xcl
d³ ´ ³ ´
2a(t)ẋcl + b(t)xcl + d(t) − b(t)ẋcl + 2c(t)xcl + e(t) = 0
³ dt ´ ³ ´
˙
2a(t)ẍcl + 2ȧ(t)ẋcl + b(t)ẋcl + ḃ(t)xcl + d(t) − b(t)ẋcl + 2c(t)xcl + e(t) = 0
˙ − e(t) = 0.
2a(t)ẍcl + 2ȧ(t)ẋcl + ḃ(t)xcl − 2c(t)xcl + d(t)
(2.21)
Then using equation (2.20) and the result of equation (2.21), the resulting action is
Z tb µ ¶
2 2
S[x(t)] = Scl + a(t)ẏ + b(t)ẏy + c(t)y dt. (2.22)
ta
11
Finally substitute equation (2.22) into the equation
Z b ni o
K(b, a) = exp S[x(t)] Dx(t).
a ~
Since the classical path is completely fixed, any variation in the alternative path
x(t) is equivalent to the associated variation in the difference y(t). Thus in a path
integral, the path differential Dx(t) can be replaced by Dy(t). Furthermore, the new
path variable y(t) is restricted to take the value 0 at both end-points. This substitu-
tion leads to a path integral independent of end-point positions, so the propagator in
this case can be written as
Z 0 ½ · Z tb ³ ´ ¸¾
i 2 2
K(b, a) = exp Scl + a(t)ẏ + b(t)ẏy + c(t)y dt Dy(t)
0 ~ ta
µ ¶Z 0 · Z tb ³ ´ ¸
i i 2 2
= exp Scl exp a(t)ẏ + b(t)ẏy + c(t)y dt Dy(t).
~ 0 ~ ta
Therefore µ ¶
i
K(b, a) = F (tb , ta )exp Scl , (2.23)
~
where · Z tb ³
Z 0
i ´ ¸
2 2
F (tb , ta ) = exp a(t)ẏ + b(t)ẏy + c(t)y dt Dy(t),
0 ~ ta
and F (tb , ta ) is so called prefactor.
2.4 The free-particle propagator

Consider a free particle which has Lagrangian
1
L = mẋ2 . (2.24)
2
The equation of motion can be found from Lagrange’s equation as follows
µ ¶
d ∂L ∂L
− = 0
dt ∂ ẋ ∂x
mẍ = 0
ẍ = 0. (2.25)
From equation (2.25), the solution is
xcl = Ct + C 0 , (2.26)
12
where C and C 0 are constants.
From Fig. (2.1) and the boundary conditions
xcl (ta ) = xa ,
xcl (tb ) = xb .
We obtain
xa = Cta + C 0 , (2.27)
xb = Ctb + C 0 . (2.28)
We can solve for C and C 0 easily, it yields

xb − xa
C = .
tb − ta
xa tb − xb ta
C0 = ,
tb − ta
substitute C and C 0 into equation (2.26), we get
µ ¶ µ ¶
xb − xa x a t b − xb t a
xcl = t+ , (2.29)
tb − ta tb − ta
and µ ¶
xb − xa
ẋcl = .
tb − ta
Therefore the action of the free particle can be evaluated as follows
Z tb
m 2
Scl = ẋcl dt.
ta 2
Integrating by part, we get

m³ ´
Scl = xcl (tb )ẋcl (tb ) − xcl (ta )ẋcl (ta ) (2.30)
2
inserting xcl , ẋcl into equation (2.30) therefore
m (xb − xa )2
Scl = . (2.31)
2 tb − ta
From the relation
Z ∞
K(xb , tb ; xa , ta ) = K(xb , tb ; xc , tc )K(xc , tc ; xa , ta )dxc ,
−∞
13
substituting the free particle propagator into the equation above, it becomes
½ ¾ Z ∞ ½· ¸¾
mi(xb − xa )2 mi (xb − xc )2 (xc − xa )2
F (tb , ta )exp = F(tb , tc )F(tc , ta ) exp + dxc .
2~(tb − ta ) −∞ 2~ (tb − tc ) (tc − ta )
We are interested in only F (tb , ta ), therefore we set xa = 0, xb = 0 for convenience

then
Z ∞ ( " #)
mi x2c x2c
F (tb , ta ) = F (tb , tc )F (tc , ta ) exp + dxc
−∞ 2~ (tb − tc ) (tc − ta )
Z ∞ ( "Ã ¶ #)
mi tb − ta
F (tb , ta ) = F (tb , tc )F (tc , ta ) exp x2c dxc .
−∞ 2~ (t b − tc )(t c − t a )
(2.32)
By performing Gaussian integral, it gives

Ã !1/2
2πi~ (tb − tc )(tc − ta )
F (tb , ta ) = F (tb , tc )F (tc , ta )
m (tb − ta )
s
F (tb , ta ) 2πi~ (tb − tc )(tc − ta )
=
F (tb , tc )F (tc , ta ) m (tb − ta )
s
2πi~
F (tb , ta ) m
(tb − tc ) 2πi~
m
(tc − ta )
= 2πi~
.
F (tb , tc )F (tc , ta ) m
(t b − ta )
By comparing the prefactor term by term, we conclude that

r
m
F (tb , ta ) = .
2πi~(tb − ta )
Therefore, the free particle propagator is

r ½ ¾
m mi (xb − xa )2
K(xb , tb ; xa , ta ) = exp . (2.33)
2πi~(tb − ta ) 2~ (tb − ta )
14
Chapter 3
Green’s functions
In general we can solve the inhomogeneous differential equation in many ways. For
instance, the method of undetermined coefficients and variation of parameters. In
this chapter, we turn our attention to another method so called Green’s function. It
can be useful in both classical physics and quantum mechanics. Suppose that we have
the equation
L̂y = f, (3.1)
where
L̂ is some linear ordinary differential operator,
f is a given function of x. Throwing aside questions of rigor, suppose now that L̂
possesses a complete orthonomal set of eigenfunctions φn (x) so that
L̂φn (x) = λn φn (x), (3.2)
for any function g(x), it can be expanded in term of φn (x) as follows
g(x) = c1 φ1 (x) + c2 φ2 (x) + ... + cn φn (x) + ...

X∞
g(x) = cn φn (x), (3.3)
n=1
where cn is an expansion coefficient.

We multiply equation (3.3) by φ∗m (x) and integrate with respect to x from −∞ to ∞,
15
so that
Z ∞ Z ∞ ∞
X
∗
φm (x)g(x)dx = cn φ∗m (x)φn (x)dx
−∞ −∞ n=1
∞
X Z ∞
= cn φ∗m (x)φn (x)dx
n=1 −∞
Z ∞ Z ∞
= c1 φ∗m (x)φ1 (x)dx + c2 φ∗m (x)φ2 (x)dx + ...
−∞ −∞
Z ∞ Z ∞
∗
+cm φm (x)φm (x)dx + ... + cn φ∗m (x)φn (x)dx + ...
−∞ −∞
R∞
From −∞
φ∗m (x)φn (x)dx = δmn , we conclude that
Z ∞
φ∗m (x)g(x)dx = cm . (3.4)
−∞
Under circumstance of equation (3.2), we write

∞
X
y(x) = αn φn (x), (3.5)
n=1
X∞
f (x) = βn φn (x). (3.6)
n=1
Substitute equations (3.5) and (3.6) into equation (3.1), we obtain

" ∞ # ∞
X X
L̂ αn φn (x) = βn φn (x)
n=1 n=1
X∞ X∞
αn L̂φn (x) = βn φn (x)
n=1 n=1
∞
X X∞
αn λn φn (x) = βn φn (x)
n=1 n=1
∞ ³
X ´
αn λn − βn φn (x) = 0
n=1
φn (x) 6= 0, so that
αn λn − βn = 0.
16
Thus
βn
αn =
. (3.7)
λn
If we now substitute equation (3.7) into equation (3.5), we obtain
∞
X βn
y(x) = φn (x). (3.8)
n=1
λn
We may rewrite equation (3.8) as

X∞ µZ ∞ ¶
1 ∗ 0 0 0
y(x) = φn (x )f (x )dx φn (x)
n=1
λ n −∞
Z ∞ µX ∞ ¶
1
y(x) = φn (x)φn (x ) f (x0 )dx0 .
∗ 0
−∞ n=1
λn
So Z ∞
y(x) = G(x, x0 )f (x0 )dx0 , (3.9)
−∞
where ∞
X φn (x)φ∗ (x0 )
0 n
G(x, x ) = . (3.10)
n=1
λn
This the Green’s function.
Thus we obtain a representation of the Green’s function in term of an infinite
eigenfunction expansion. Now we want to rewrite it in closed form.
An interesting way of viewing the Green’s function is to operate on G(x, x0 ) with L̂:
∞
X φn (x)φ∗ (x0 ) n
L̂G(x, x0 ) = L̂ .
n=1
λn
We use L̂φn (x) = λn φn (x), then

X∞
0 φn (x)φ∗n (x0 )
L̂G(x, x ) = L̂
n=1
λn
∞
X
= φn (x)φ∗n (x0 ) ≡ I(x, x0 ). (3.11)
n=1
For any function f (x) ;

Z ∞ ∞
X Z ∞
0 0 0
I(x, x )f (x )dx = φn (x) φ∗n (x0 )f (x0 )dx0 .
−∞ n=1 −∞
X∞
= βn φn (x), (3.12)
n=1
17
this equation may be written as
Z ∞
I(x, x0 )f (x0 )dx0 = f (x). (3.13)
−∞
The function I(x, x0 ) with this property is just the Dirac δ - function, δ(x − x0 ). Thus
the Green’s function can be obtained from the equation
L̂G(x, x0 ) = δ(x − x0 ). (3.14)
Let us consider the most general second - order linear differential operator
d2 d
L̂ ≡ f0 (t) 2
+ f1 (t) + f2 (t), (3.15)
dt dt
where f0 , f1 , and f2 are functions of t.
We want to find x(t) according to
L̂x(t) = F (t).
Let x1 (t) and x2 (t) be two linearly independent solutions to
L̂x(t) = 0.
We wish to solve
d2 G(t, t0 ) dG(t, t0 )
L̂G(t, t0 ) = f0 (t) + f1 (t) + f2 (t)G(t, t0 )
dt2 dt
= δ(t − t0 ). (3.16)
For t > t0 , we write

G(t, t0 ) = a1 x1 (t) + a2 x2 (t), (3.17)
and for t < t0 ,

G(t, t0 ) = b1 x1 (t) + b2 x2 (t). (3.18)
Now let us try to determine a1 , a2 , b1 , and b2 . At t = t0 , G(t, t0 ) must be continu-

ous; if it were not, dG/dt would contain a δ - function and therefore d2 G/dt2 would
contain the derivative of a δ - function. However on the right - hand side of equation
(3.16) there is just a δ - function, so we conclude that G(t, t0 ) is continuous at t = t0 ,
18
dG/dt will not be continuous at t = t0 , and from equation (3.16) we can determine
the value of
· ¸ · ¸
dG(t, t0 ) dG(t, t0 )
−
dt t=t0 +² dt t=t0 −²
by integrating both sides of equation (3.16) from t = t0 − ² to t = t0 + ².

On the right - hand side, the δ - function yields 1, so
Z t0 +² Z t0 +² Z t0 +²
d2 G(t, t0 ) dG(t, t0 )
f0 (t) 2
dt + f1 (t) dt + f2 (t)G(t, t0 )dt = 1.
t0 −² dt t0 −² dt t0 −²
Let us assume that f0 , f1 , and f2 are continuous throughout the region of definition
of the Green’s function. Since ² is very small, these functions vary negligibly in the
region of integration. We can replace them with their values at t = t0 :
Z t0 +² Z t0 +² Z t0 +²
0 d2 G(t, t0 ) dG(t, t0 )
f0 (t ) dt + f1 (t0 ) dt + f2 (t0 ) G(t, t0 )dt = 1.
t0 −² dt2 t0 −² dt t0 −²
Since G is continuous at t = t0 and the domain of integration can be made arbitrarily

small, the last term on the left-hand side of this equation vanishes. Performing the
remaining two integrals, we get
½· ¸ · ¸ ¾ n o
0 dG(t, t0 ) dG(t, t0 )
f0 (t ) − + f1 (t0 ) G(t0 + ², t0 ) − G(t0 − ², t0 ) = 1.
dt t=t0 +² dt t=t0 −²
Since G(t, t0 ) is continuous at t = t0 , the second term on the left - hand side vanishes.
We are left with
· ¸ · ¸
dG(t, t0 ) dG(t, t0 ) 1
− = . (3.19)
dt t=t0 +² dt t=t0 −² f0 (t0 )
Using this relation and the fact that G(t, t0 ) is continuous at t = t0 , we can obtain
useful information about the coefficients a1 , a2 , b1 , and b2 in equations (3.17) and
(3.18). From continuity at t = t0 , we get
a1 x1 (t0 ) + a2 x2 (t0 ) = b1 x1 (t0 ) + b2 x2 (t0 ),
while from equation (3.19), we obtain

1
a1 ẋ1 (t0 ) + a2 ẋ2 (t0 ) − [b1 ẋ1 (t0 ) + b2 ẋ2 (t0 )] = .
f0 (t0 )
19
Combining terms, we find the following set of equations for the differences (a1 − b1 )
and (a2 − b2 ) :
(a1 − b1 )x1 (t0 ) + (a2 − b2 )x2 (t0 ) = 0,

1
(a1 − b1 )ẋ1 (t0 ) + (a2 − b2 )ẋ2 (t0 ) = .
f0 (t0 )
The solutions are

x2 (t0 ) x1 (t0 )
a 1 − b1 = − , a2 − b2 = ,
f0 (t0 )W (t0 ) f0 (t0 )W (t0 )
W (t0 ) is the Wronskian of x1 and x2 , defined by
W (t0 ) = x1 (t0 )ẋ2 (t0 ) − ẋ1 (t0 )x2 (t0 )

¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯x1 (t0 ) x2 (t0 )¯
= ¯¯ ¯
0 0 ¯
¯ẋ1 (t ) ẋ2 (t )¯ .
In this determinant form, the Wronskian generalizes differential equations of any

order. Putting the above result into equations (3.17) and (3.18), we see that G(t, t0 )
may be written as
µ ¶
0 x1 (t)x2 (t0 ) − x2 (t)x1 (t0 )
G(t, t ) = b1 x1 (t) + b2 x2 (t) − , t > t0 (3.20)
f0 (t0 )W (t0 )
G(t, t0 ) = b1 x1 (t) + b2 x2 (t), t < t0 (3.21)
The two remaining constants, b1 and b2 , can now be chosen to satisfy the appropriate
boundary conditions. The form which the Green’s function finally takes is strongly
dependent on the type of boundary conditions involved. If the boundary conditions
are of the single point variety typical of classical mechanics, then we shall require
that b1 = 0 = b2 in equations (3.20) and (3.21). If we do this, the Green’s function is
given by
x1 (t)x2 (t0 ) − x2 (t)x1 (t0 )
G(t, t0 ) = − , (3.22)
f0 (t0 )W (t0 )
and the solution in term of the Green’s function is
Z t
x(t) = Ax1 (t) + Bx2 (t) + G(t, t0 )F (t0 )dt0 . (3.23)
t0
The term involving the integral vanishes at t = t0 and so does its derivative with
respect to t. Thus, when we apply the one - point boundary conditions, x(t0 ) = x0 ,
20
ẋ(t0 ) = ẋ0 , the constants A and B in equation (3.23) are determined just as though
the integral term were not present.
However if the boundary conditions are of the two - point type, say
x(t0 ) = x0 , x(t1 ) = x1 ,
then we write Z t1
x(t) = Ax1 (t) + Bx2 (t) + G(t, t0 )F (t0 )dt0 . (3.24)
t0
Then it would seem reasonable to choose b1 and b2 in equations (3.20) and (3.21) so
that G(t0 , t0 ) = 0 = G(t1 , t0 ) and therefore A and B of equation (3.24) are determined
by the boundary condition, just as if the integral term does not present.
21
Chapter 4
The forced harmonic oscillator

propagator
4.1 The classical action of the forced harmonic

oscillator
In this section we go back to study the single harmonic oscillator, but coupled linearly
to some external potential or disturbance. The Lagrangian for such a system is given
by
1 1
L = mẋ2 − mω 2 x2 + f(t)x, (4.1)
2 2
where f(t) is the external force exerting on the particle of mass m.
The equation of motion of this particle can be found from Lagrange’s equation, we
get
f(t)
ẍ + ω 2 x = . (4.2)
m
The general solution is x = xc + xp , where xc is the solution of the homogeneous
equation
ẍ + ω 2 x = 0. (4.3)
The solution is of the form
xc = A cos ωt + B sin ωt, (4.4)
22
where A and B are arbitrary constants.
The other solution, xp , is solved from the inhomogeneous equation
f (t)
ẍ + ω 2 x = .
m
By Green’s function method, xp can be written as
Z t2
f (t0 ) 0
xp (t) = G(t, t0 ) dt , (4.5)
t1 m
where G(t, t0 ) is the Green’s function.
From
µ ¶
0 x1 (t)x2 (t0 ) − x2 (t)x1 (t0 )
G(t, t ) = b1 x1 (t) + b2 x2 (t) − , t > t0 (4.6)
f0 (t0 )W (t0 )
G(t, t0 ) = b1 x1 (t) + b2 x2 (t), t < t0 , (4.7)
with the boundary conditions
G(ta , t0 ) = 0 = G(tb , t0 ), (4.8)
and where x1 and x2 satisfy the homogeneous equation mentioned in equation (4.4)
and W (t0 ) is the Wronskian defined by
¯ ¯
¯ 0 0 ¯
¯ x (t ) x2 (t ) ¯
W (t0 ) = ¯ 1 0 ¯
¯ ẋ1 (t ) ẋ2 (t0 ) ¯
¯ ¯
¯ 0 0 ¯
¯ cos ωt sin ωt ¯
= ¯ ¯
¯ −ω sin ωt0 ω cos ωt0 ¯
W (t0 ) = ω,
then
· ¸
0 (cos ωt)(sin ωt0 ) − (sin ωt)(cos ωt0 )
G(t, t ) = b1 cos ωt + b2 sin ωt − , t > t0
ω
G(t, t0 ) = b1 cos ωt + b2 sin ωt, t < t0 .
We obtain
1
G(t, t0 ) = b1 cos ωt + b2 sin ωt + sin ω(t − t0 ), t > t0 (4.9)
ω
G(t, t0 ) = b1 cos ωt + b2 sin ωt, t < t0 . (4.10)
23
b1 and b2 can be found from the boundary condition (4.8).
At t = ta ;
G(ta , t0 ) = b1 cos ωta + b2 sin ωta = 0 (4.11)
sin ωta
b1 = −b2 (4.12)
cos ωta
At t = tb ;
1
G(tb , t0 ) = b1 cos ωtb + b2 sin ωtb + sin ω(tb − t0 ) = 0. (4.13)
ω
Substituting equation (4.12) into equation (4.13), the result is
1 sin ω(tb − t0 ) cos ωta
b2 = − .
ω sin ω(tb − ta )
Substituting b2 back into equation (4.12), we get
1 sin ωta sin ω(tb − t0 )
b1 = .
When b1 and b2 are put in equations (4.9) and (4.10), the final forms of the Green’s
functions are
1 sin ω(tb − t0 ) 1
G(t, t0 ) = sin ω(ta − t) + sin ω(t − t0 ), t > t0 (4.14)
ω sin ω(tb − ta ) ω
0
1 sin ω(tb − t )
G(t, t0 ) = sin ω(ta − t), t < t0 . (4.15)
From equations (4.4) and (4.5)
Z tb
xcl (t) = Ax1 (t) + Bx2 (t) + G(t, t0 )F (t0 )dt0
ta
Z t Z tb
0 0 0
xcl (t) = A cos ωt + B sin ωt + G(t, t )F(t )dt + G(t, t0 )F (t0 )dt0 . (4.16)
ta t
Rt
Consider ta G(t, t0 )F (t0 )dt0 , it’s obvious that we have to choose G(t, t0 ) at t > t0
Z t Z t· ¸ 0
0 0 0 1 sin ω(tb − t0 ) 1 0 f (t ) 0
G(t, t )F (t )dt = sin ω(ta − t) + sin ω(t − t ) dt .
ta ta ω sin ω(tb − ta ) ω m
Z t Z Z t
0 0 0 1 sin ω(ta − t) t 0 0 0 1
G(t, t )F (t )dt = sin ω(tb − t )f (t )dt + sin ω(t − t0 )f (t0 )dt0 ,
ta mω sin ω(tb − ta ) ta mω ta
Rt
and the suitable Green’s function for t b G(t, t0 )F (t0 )dt0 is G(t, t0 ) at t < t0 , so
Z tb Z
0 0 0 1 sin ω(ta − t) tb
G(t, t )F (t )dt = sin ω(tb − t0 )f (t0 )dt0 .
t mω sin ω(tb − ta ) t
24
Finally we get
Z tb
1 sin ω(ta − t)
xcl (t) = A cos ωt + B sin ωt + sin ω(tb − t0 )f (t0 )dt0
mω sin ω(tb − ta ) ta
Z t
1
+ sin ω(t − t0 )f (t0 )dt0 . (4.17)
mω ta
We can find A, B from the two boundary conditions
xcl (ta ) = xa , xcl (tb ) = xb .
From equation (4.17), we obtain
xa = A cos ωta + B sin ωta (4.18)

xb = A cos ωtb + B sin ωtb . (4.19)
From Kramer’s rule, we can write

¯ ¯
¯ ¯
x
¯ a sin ωt a ¯
¯ ¯
¯ xb sin ωtb ¯ xa sin ωtb − xb sin ωta
A = ¯¯ ¯=
¯ (4.20)
¯ cos ωta sin ωta ¯ sin ω(tb − ta )
¯ ¯
¯ cos ωtb sin ωtb ¯
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯ cos ωta xa ¯
¯ ¯
¯ cos ωtb xb ¯ xb cos ωta − xa cos ωtb
B = ¯¯ ¯=
¯ . (4.21)
¯ cos ωta sin ωta ¯ sin ω(tb − ta )
¯ ¯
¯ cos ωtb sin ωtb ¯
Substituting A and B into equation (4.17), the result is

µ ¶ µ ¶
xa sin ωtb − xb sin ωta xb cos ωta − xa cos ωtb
xcl (t) = cos ωt + sin ωt
sin ω(tb − ta ) sin ω(tb − ta )
Z
1 sin ω(ta − t) tb
+ sin ω(tb − t0 )f (t0 )dt0
Z t
1
+ sin ω(t − t0 )f(t0 )dt0
mω ta
1 ³ ´
xcl (t) = xa sin ω(tb − t) + xb sin ω(t − ta )
sin ω(tb − ta )
" Z
+ sin ω(tb − t0 )f (t0 )dt0
Z t #
+ sin ω(t − t0 )f(t0 )dt0 . (4.22)
ta
25
The velocity can be obtained by differentiating xcl with respect to time t
ω ³ ´
ẋcl (t) = xb cos ω(t − ta ) − xa cos ω(tb − t)
sin ω(tb − ta )
Z
1 cos ω(ta − t) tb
− sin ω(tb − t0 )f (t0 )dt0
m sin ω(tb − ta ) ta
µZ t ¶
1 d 0 0 0
+ sin ω(t − t )f (t )dt . (4.23)
mω dt ta
We can differentiate the last term of equation (4.23) by applying Leibnitz’s rule for
differentiating an integral as follows;
If Z b(α)
I(α) = f (x, α)dx,
a(α)
then Z b
dI ∂f db da
= dx + f (b, α) − f (a, α) .
dα a ∂α dα dα
Let Z t
I(t) = sin ω(t − t0 )f (t0 )dt0 ,
ta
therefore Z t
dI
= ω cos ω(t − t0 )f (t0 )dt0 .
dt ta
Substituting our result into equation (4.23), it gives
ω ³ ´
ẋcl (t) = xb cos ω(t − ta ) − xa cos ω(tb − t)
sin ω(tb − ta )
Z
1 cos ω(ta − t) tb
Z
1 t
+ cos ω(t − t0 )f (t0 )dt0 . (4.24)
m ta
Now we are ready to calculate the classical action of the forced harmonic oscillator.
We begin with
Z tb µ ¶
1 2 1 2 2
Scl = mẋ − mω xcl + f (t)xcl dt
ta 2 cl 2
Z tb Z tb Z tb
1 2 1 2 2
Scl = mẋcl dt − mω xcl dt + f (t)xcl dt. (4.25)
ta 2 ta 2 ta
Consider the first term of equation (4.25). By performing integration by part, we get
Z tb µ ¯tb Z tb ¶
1 2 m ¯
mẋcl dt = xcl ẋcl ¯ − xcl ẍcl dt .
ta 2 2 ta ta
26
Equation (4.25) becomes
m ¯ tb m Z tb Z
m tb 2 2
Z tb
¯
Scl = xcl ẋcl ¯ − xcl ẍcl dt − ω xcl dt + f (t)xcl dt
2 ta 2 ta 2 ta ta
m ¯ tb m Z tb Z tb
¯ 2
= xcl ẋcl ¯ − xcl (ẍcl + ω xcl )dt + f (t)xcl dt
2 ta 2 ta ta
m ¯tb m Z tb f (t) Z tb
¯
= xcl ẋcl ¯ − xcl dt + f (t)xcl dt.
2 ta 2 ta m ta
Therefore
m³ ´ 1 Z tb
Scl = xcl (tb )ẋcl (tb ) − xcl (ta )ẋcl (ta ) + f (t)xcl (t)dt. (4.26)
2 2 ta
Replace xcl , ẋxl of equation (4.26) with those of equations (4.22) and (4.24)
½· ³ ´ x Z tb
m ω 2 b
Scl = xb cos ω(tb − ta ) − xb xa + cos ω(tb − t0 )f (t0 )dt0
2 sin ω(tb − ta ) m ta
Z ¸
xb cos ω(ta − tb ) tb 0 0 0
− sin ω(tb − t )f (t )dt
· ³ ´
ω 2
− xb xa − xa cos ω(tb − ta )
sin ω(tb − ta )
Z tb ¸¾
xa 0 0 0
− sin ω(tb − t )f (t )dt
½ · Z tb Z tb ¸
1
+ xa sin ω(tb − t)f (t)dt + xb sin ω(t − ta )f (t)dt
2 sin ω(tb − ta ) ta ta
Z tb Z tb
1 0 0 0
+ sin ω(tb − t )f (t )dt sin ω(ta − t)f (t)dt
2mω sin ω(tb − ta ) ta ta
Z tb Z t ¾
1 0 0 0
+ sin ω(t − t )f (t )f (t)dt dt
2mω ta ta
27
mω ³ ´³ ´
Scl = x2b + x2a cos ω(tb − ta )
2 sin ω(tb − ta )
mω ³ ´
− 2xb xa
Z tb
xa
+ sin ω(tb − t)f (t)dt
sin ω(tb − ta ) ta
Z
xb tb
+ cos ω(tb − t0 )f (t0 )dt0
2 ta
Z
xb cos ω(tb − ta ) tb
2 sin ω(tb − ta ) ta
Z tb
xb
+ sin ω(t − ta )f (t)dt
Z tb Z tb
1 0 0 0
+ sin ω(tb − t )f (t )dt sin ω(ta − t)f (t)dt
Z tb Z t
1
+ sin ω(t − t0 )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt. (4.27)
2mω ta ta
Sum over the 4th , 5th and 6th terms of equation (4.27) into a single term
Z Z
xb t b 0 0 0 xb cos ω(tb − ta ) tb
cos ω(tb − t )f (t )dt − sin ω(tb − t0 )f (t0 )dt0
2 ta 2 sin ω(tb − ta ) ta
Z tb
xb
Z tb
xb
= sin ω(tb − ta ) cos ω(tb − t0 ) − sin ω(tb − t0 ) cos ω(tb − ta )f (t0 )dt0
Z tb
xb
Z tb
xb
= sin ω(t0 − ta )f (t0 )dt0 . (4.28)
sin ω(tb − ta ) ta
28
Consider the last two terms
Z tb Z tb
1
sin ω(tb − t0 ) sin ω(ta − t)f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
Z tb Z t
1
+ sin ω(t − t0 )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
2mω ta ta
Z tb Z t
1
= sin ω(tb − t0 ) sin ω(ta − t)f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
Z tb Z tb
1
+ sin ω(tb − t0 ) sin ω(ta − t)f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
2mω sin ω(tb − ta ) ta t
Z tb Z t
1
+ sin ω(t − t0 )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt. (4.29)
2mω ta ta
The double integration of the second term of equation (4.29) can be rewritten by
changing the order of integration of the variables t and t0 and then interchanging the
identities of the variables t ↔ t0 , as
Z tb Z tb
ta t
Z tb Z t0
= sin ω(tb − t0 ) sin ω(ta − t)f (t0 )f (t)dtdt0
t t
Z atb Z at
= sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(ta − t0 )f (t)f (t0 )dt0 dt.
ta ta
Then equation (4.29) becomes

Z tb Z tb
1
Z tb Z t
1
+ sin ω(t − t0 )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
2mω ta ta
½ Z tb Z t ·
1
= sin ω(tb − t0 ) sin ω(ta − t)
¸ ¾
0 0 0 0
+ sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(ta − t ) + sin ω(t − t ) sin ω(tb − ta ) f (t )f (t)dt dt .
(4.30)
We expand the three terms of the integrand using formula

1h i
sin A sin B = cos(A − B) − cos(A + B) .
2
29
h i
sin ω(tb − t0 ) sin ω(ta − t) + sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(ta − t0 ) + sin ω(t − t0 ) sin ω(tb − ta )
1h
= cos ω(tb − t0 − ta + t) − cos ω(tb − t0 + ta − t)
2
+ cos ω(tb − t − ta + t0 ) − cos ω(tb − t + ta − t0 )
i
+ cos ω(t − t0 − tb + ta ) − cos ω(t − t0 + tb − ta )
= cos ω(t − t0 − tb + ta ) − cos ω(tb + ta − t0 − t).
From
1 1
cos A − cos B = 2 sin (A + B) sin (B − A)
2 2
therefore
cos ω(t − t0 − tb + ta ) − cos ω(tb + ta − t0 − t) = −2 sin ω(t0 − ta ) sin ω(tb − t).
Substituting this result into equation (4.30), we get

½ Z tb Z t ·
1
sin ω(tb − t0 ) sin ω(ta − t)
¸ ¾
0 0 0 0
+ sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(ta − t ) + sin ω(t − t ) sin ω(tb − ta ) f (t )f (t)dt dt
½ Z tb Z t ¾
1 0 0 0
=− sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(t − ta )f (t )f (t)dt dt .
mω sin ω(tb − ta ) ta ta
(4.31)
Finally, the classical action of the forced harmonic oscillator is

·³ ´³ ´
mω
Scl = cos ω(tb − ta ) x2b + x2a − 2xb xa
Z
2xa tb
mω ta
Z
2xb tb
mω ta
Z tb Z t ¸
2 0 0 0
− 2 2 sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(t − ta )f (t )f (t)dt dt . (4.32)
m ω ta ta
30
4.2 The forced harmonic oscillator prefactor and
propagator
From the relation
Z ∞
K(xb , tb ; xa , ta ) = K(xb , tb ; xc , tc )K(xc , tc ; xa , ta )dxc , (4.33)
−∞
and the classical action calculated in the last section, we have

( ·
mωi ³ ´
2 2
F (tb , ta )exp cos ω(tb − ta ) xb + xa − 2xb xa
2~ sin ω(tb − ta )
Z
2xa tb
mω ta
Z
2xb tb
mω ta
Z tb Z t ¸)
2
− 2 2 sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(t0 − ta )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
m ω ta ta
Z ∞ ( ·
mωi ³ ´
= F (tb , tc )exp cos ω(tb − tc ) x2b + x2c − 2xb xc
−∞ 2~ sin ω(tb − tc )
Z
2xc tb
mω tc
Z
2xb tb
+ sin ω(t − tc )f (t)dt
mω tc
Z tb Z t ¸)
2
− 2 2 sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(t0 − tc )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
m ω tc tc
( ·
mωi ³ ´
·F (tc , ta )exp cos ω(tc − ta ) x2c + x2a − 2xc xa
2~ sin ω(tc − ta )
Z
2xa tc
+ sin ω(tc − t)f (t)dt
mω ta
Z
2xc tc
mω ta
Z tc Z t ¸)
2
− 2 2 sin ω(tc − t) sin ω(t0 − ta )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt dxc
m ω ta ta
31
( ·
mωi
= F (tb , tc )F (tc , ta )exp cos ω(tb − tc )x2b
2~ sin ω(tb − tc )
Z
2xb tb
+ sin ω(t − tc )f (t)dt
mω tc
Z tb Z t ¸)
2
m ω tc tc
( ·
mωi
·exp cos ω(tc − ta )x2a
Z
2xa tc
+ sin ω(tc − t)f (t)dt
mω ta
Z tc Z t ¸)
2
− 2 2 sin ω(tc − t) sin ω(t0 − ta )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
m ω ta ta
Z ∞ ( ·
mωi
· exp cos ω(tb − tc )x2c − 2xb xc
−∞ 2~ sin ω(tb − tc )
Z ¸)
2xc tb
mω tc
( ·
mωi
·exp cos ω(tc − ta )x2c − 2xc xa
Z ¸)
2xc tc
+ sin ω(t − ta )f (t)dt dxc . (4.34)
mω ta
32
Since the prefactor F (tb , ta ) is independent of xa and xb so we can set xa = xb = 0
without altering the value of F (tb , ta ). Equation (4.34) then becomes
( · Z tb Z t ¸)
mωi 2
F (tb , ta )exp − 2 2 sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(t0 − ta )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
2~ sin ωT m ω ta ta
= F (tb , tc )F (tc , ta )
( · Z tb Z t ¸)
mωi 2
exp 0
2~ sin ωT m ω tc tc
( · Z tc Z t ¸)
mωi 2
exp 00
− 2 2 sin ω(tc − t) sin ω(t0 − ta )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
2~ sin ωT m ω ta ta
Z ∞ ( · Z tb ¸)
mωi 2x c
exp 0
cos ωT 0 x2c + sin ω(tb − t)f (t)dt
−∞ 2~ sin ωT mω tc
( · Z tc ¸)
mωi 2x c
exp cos ωT 00 x2c + sin ω(t − ta )f (t)dt dxc ,
2~ sin ωT 00 mω ta
= F (tb , tc )F (tc , ta )
( · Z tb Z t ¸)
mωi 2
exp − 2 2 sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(t0 − tc )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
2~ sin ωT 0 m ω tc tc
( · Z tc Z t ¸)
mωi 2
exp − 2 2 sin ω(tc − t) sin ω(t0 − ta )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
2~ sin ωT 00 m ω ta ta
Z ∞ ( · ¸
mωi sin ωT
exp 0 sin ωT 00
x2c
−∞ 2~ sin ωT
· Z tb Z tc ¸)
i 1 1
+xc sin ω(tb − t)f (t)dt + sin ω(t − ta )f (t)dt dxc ,
~ sin ωT 0 tc sin ωT 00 ta
(4.35)
where T = tb − ta , T 0 = tb − tc , and T 00 = tc − ta .
The integral of equation (4.35) is in the form of Gaussian integral.
From Z ∞ r ½ 2¾
n o π b
2
exp − ax + bx dx = exp ,
−∞ a 4a
when
mω sin ωT
a = 0 00
2i~· sin ωT ZsintbωT Z tc ¸
i 1 1
b = sin ω(tb − t)f (t)dt + sin ω(t − ta )f (t)dt .
~ sin ωT 0 tc sin ωT 00 ta
33
We get
( Z Z )
tb t
i
F (tb , ta )exp − sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(t0 − ta )f(t0 )f(t)dt0 dt
mω~ sin ωT ta ta
( · Z tb Z t
i 1
= F (tb , tc )F (tc , ta )exp − sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(t0 − tc )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
mω~ sin ωT 0 tc tc
Z tc Z t ¸)
1 0 0 0
+ sin ω(tc − t) sin ω(t − ta )f (t )f (t)dt dt
sin ωT 00 ta ta
r (· ¸
2πi~ sin ωT 0 sin ωT 00 i sin ωT 0 sin ωT 00
exp −
mω sin ωT 2mω~ sin ωT
· Z tb Z tb
1
2 sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(tb − t0 )f (t)f (t0 )dt0 dt
sin ωT 0 tc tc
Z tb Z tc
2
+ sin ω(tb − t)f (t)dt sin ω(t − ta )f (t)dt
sin ωT 0 sin ωT 00 tc ta
Z tc Z tc ¸)
1
+ 2 00
sin ω(t − ta ) sin ω(t0 − ta )f (t)f (t0 )dt0 dt
sin ωT ta ta
r
F (tb , ta ) 2πi~ sin ωT 0 mω 2πi~ sin ωT 00
=
F (tb , tc )F (tc , ta ) mω 2πi~ sin ωT mω
( Z tb Z t
i
exp − 0
sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(t0 − tc )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
mω~ sin ωT tc tc
Z tc Z t
i
− sin ω(tc − t) sin ω(t0 − ta )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
mω~ sin ωT 00 ta ta
Z tb Z t
i
+ sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(t0 − ta )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
mω~ sin ωT ta ta
Z tb Z tb
i sin ωT 00
− 0
sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(tb − t0 )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
2mω~ sin ωT sin ωT tc tc
Z tb Z tc
i
− sin ω(tb − t)f (t)dt sin ω(t − ta )f (t)dt
mω~ sin ωT tc ta
Z tc Z tc )
i sin ωT 0
− sin ω(t − ta ) sin ω(t0 − ta )f (t)f (t0 )dt0 dt .
2mω~ sin ωT sin ωT 00 ta ta
(4.36)
34
Combining the second and the sixth terms together, then interchanging the order
Rt Rt R t R t0
of integration of tac t c dt0 dt to tac ta dtdt0 and changing t0 ↔ t back again, we have
Z tc Z t
i
− sin ω(tc − t) sin ω(t0 − ta )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
mω~ sin ωT 00 ta ta
·µ Z tc Z t Z tc Z tc ¶µ ¶ ¸
i sin ωT 0 0 0 0
− + sin ω(t − ta ) sin ω(t − ta )f (t )f (t) dt dt
2mω~ sin ωT sin ωT 00 ta ta ta t
Z tc Z t ½
i
=− 2 sin ωT sin ω(tc − t)
2mω~ sin ωT sin ωT 00 ta ta
¾
+ sin ωT sin ω(t − ta ) + sin ωT sin ω(t − ta ) sin ω(t0 − ta )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
0 0
Z tc Z t
i
=− sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(t0 − ta )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt.
mω~ sin ωT ta ta
(4.37)
In a similar way the first and the fourth terms can be combined to give
Z tb Z t
i
− sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(t0 − tc )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
mω~ sin ωT 0 tc tc
Z tb Z t
i sin ωT 00
− 0
sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(tb − t0 )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
Z tb Z tb
i sin ωT 00
− sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(tb − t0 )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
2mω~ sin ωT sin ωT 0 tc t
Z tb Z t ½
i
=− 0
2 sin ωT sin ω(t0 − tc ) + sin ωT 00 sin ω(tb − t0 )
¾
+ sin ωT sin ω(tb − t ) sin ω(tb − t)f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
00 0
Z tb Z t
i
=− sin ω(t0 − ta ) sin ω(tb − t)f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt.
mω~ sin ωT tc tc
(4.38)
35
Then equation (4.36) becomes
r
F (tb , ta ) 2πi~ sin ωT 0 mω 2πi~ sin ωT 00
=
½ · Z tb Z t Z tc Z t Z tb Z t Z tb Z tc ¸
i
exp − + − +
mω~ sin ωT tc tc ta ta ta ta tc ta
¾
sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(t0 − ta )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
r
2πi~ sin ωT 0 mω 2πi~ sin ωT 00
=
mω 2πi~ sin ωT mω
½ · Z tb Z t Z tc Z t Z tb Z t ¸
i
exp − + −
mω~ sin ωT tc ta ta ta ta
¾ ta
sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(t0 − ta )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt
r
2πi~ sin ωT 0 mω 2πi~ sin ωT 00
=
mω 2πi~ sin ωT mω
½ · Z tb Z t Z tb Z t ¸
i
exp − −
mω~ sin ωT ta ta ta ta
¾
0 0 0
sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(t − ta )f (t )f (t)dt dt
r
F (tb , ta ) 2πi~ sin ωT 0 mω 2πi~ sin ωT00
= .
Therefore the prefactor is
r
mω
F (tb , ta ) = . (4.39)
2πi~ sin ωT
Finally, the forced harmonic oscillator propagator can be written in the form
r ( ·
mω mωi ³ ´
K(xb , tb ; xa , ta ) = exp cos ωT x2b + x2a − 2xb xa
2πi~ sin ωT 2~ sin ωT
Z
2xa tb
mω ta
Z
2xb tb
mω ta
Z tb Z t ¸)
2
− 2 2 sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(t0 − ta )f (t0 )f (t)dt0 dt ,
m ω ta ta
(4.40)
where T = tb − ta .
36
4.3 The constant forced harmonic oscillator
propagator
When the external force is constant f (t) = λ = constant, equation (4.40) becomes
r ( ·
mω mωi ³ ´
2λxa ¯tb
¯
+ cos ω(t b − t) ¯
mω 2 ta
2λxb ¯
¯tb
− cos ω(t − ta ) ¯
mω 2 ta
2 Z tb Z t
¸)
2λ
− 2 2 sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(t0 − ta )dt0 dt
m ω ta ta
r ( ·
mω mωi ³ ´
2λxa ³ ´
+ 1 − cos ω(t b − ta )
mω 2
2λxb ³ ´
− cos ω(t b − t a ) − 1
mω 2
Z tb Z t ¸)
2λ2
− 2 2 sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(t0 − ta )dt0 dt .
m ω ta ta
(4.41)
Consider the last term of equation (4.41)

Z tb Z t
2λ2
m ω ta ta
Z tb µZ t ¶
2λ2 0 0
=− 2 2 sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(t − ta )dt dt
m ω ta ta
Z tb µ ¯t ¶
2λ2 0 ¯
= 2 3 sin ω(tb − t) cos ω(t − ta )¯ dt
m ω ta ta
2 Z tb ³ ´
2λ
= 2 3 sin ω(tb − t) cos ω(t − ta ) − 1 dt
m ω ta
· Z tb Z tb ¸
2λ2
= 2 3 sin ω(tb − t) cos ω(t − ta )dt − sin ω(tb − t)dt .
mω ta ta
(4.42)
37
From
1h i
sin A cos B = sin(A − B) + sin(A + B)
2
1h i
sin ω(tb − t) cos ω(t − ta ) = sin ω(tb + ta − 2t) + sin ω(tb − ta ) ,
2
equation (4.42) can be rewritten as
Z tb Z t
2λ2
m ω ta ta
Z tb Z tb
λ2 λ2
= 2 3 sin ω(tb + ta − 2t)dt + 2 3 sin ω(tb − ta )dt
m ω ta m ω ta
Z tb
2λ2
− 2 3 sin ω(tb − t)dt
m ω ta
¯t=tb Z tb
λ2 ¯ λ2
= cos ω(tb + ta − 2t)¯ + 2 3 sin ω(tb − ta ) dt
2m2 ω 4 t=ta mω ta
2λ2 ¯t=tb
¯
− 2 4 cos ω(tb − t)¯
mω t=ta
λ 2 ³ ´ λ2 ³ ´
= cos ω(t a − t b ) − cos ω(t b − t a ) + tb − t a sin ω(tb − ta )
2m2 ω 4 m2 ω 3
2λ2 ³ ´
− 2 4 1 − cos ω(tb − ta )
mω
λ2 2λ2 ³ ´
= 2 3 (tb − ta ) sin ω(tb − ta ) − 2 4 1 − cos ω(tb − ta ) .
mω mω
38
r ( ·
mω mωi ³ ´
2 2
K(xb , tb ; xa , ta ) = exp cos ωT xb + xa − 2xb xa
2λxa ³ ´
+ 1 − cos ωT
mω 2
2λxb ³ ´
+ 1 − cos ωT
mω 2
λ2 ³ ´
+ 2 3 T sin ωT
mω )
2λ2 ³ ´¸
− 2 4 1 − cos ωT
mω
r ( · ¸
mω mωi ³ ´
2 2
= exp cos ωT xb + xa − 2xb xa
·³ ´¸
i λxa λxb λ2 ´³
+ + − 1 − cos ωT
~ sin ωT ω ω mω 3
· 2 ¸)
i λ
+ T .
2~ mω 2
Therefore the constant forced harmonic oscillator propagator when f (t) = λ is
r ( · ¸
mω mω ³ 2 ´
2 cos ωT 2xb xa
K(xb , tb ; xa , ta ) = exp − xb + xa −
2πi~ sin ωT 2~ i sin ωT i sin ωT
·µ ¶µ ¶¸
1 λxa λxb λ2 1 cos ωT
− + − −
~ ω ω mω 3 i sin ωT i sin ωT
· 2 ¸)
i λ
+ T .
2~ mω 2
(4.43)
4.4 The ground-state wave function and energy of

the constant forced harmonic oscillator
From
1 iωT ³ ´
i sin ωT = e 1 − e−2iωT
2
1 iωT ³ ´
cos ωT = e 1 + e−2iωT .
2
39
Substitute the relation above into equation (4.43), we obtain
µ ¶1/2 ³ ´−1/2 µ ¶
mω −2iωT iωT
K(xb , tb ; xa , ta ) = 1−e exp −
π~ 2
½ ·³ ´ −2iωT
¸
mω 2 2 1+e 4xb xa e−iωT
exp − xb + xa −
2~ 1 − e−2iωT 1 − e−2iωT
·µ ¶µ ¶¸
1 λxa λxb λ2 2e−iωT 1 + e−2iωT
− + − −
~ ω ω mω 3 1 − e−2iωT 1 − e−2iωT
µ 2 ¶)
i λ
+ T .
2~ mω 2
(4.44)
In case of Taylor’s series expansion of any function f (x) expansion about any center
x0
X∞
dn f (x0 ) (x − x0 )n
f (x) =
n=0
dxn n!
¡ ¢−1/2
consider 1 − e−2iωT in equation (4.44), we set x = e−2iωT .
¡ ¢−1/2
Power series of 1 − e−2iωT is as follows
f (x) = (1 − x)−1/2 f (0) = 1

1 1
f 0 (x) = (1 − x)−3/2 f 0 (0) =
2 2
1·3 1·3
f 00 (x) = (1 − x)−5/2 f 00 (0) = 2
22 2
1·3·5 1 ·3·5
f 000 (x) = (1 − x)−7/2 f 000 (0) =
23 23
1·3·5·7 1·3·5·7
f (4) (x) = (1 − x)−9/2 f (4) (0) =
24 24
1 1·3 1·3·5 3 1·3·5·7 4
(1 − x)−1/2 = 1 + x + 2 x2 + 3 x + x + ...
2 2 2! 2 3! 24 4!
So we can write
1 1·3 1 · 3 · 5 −6iωT 1 · 3 · 5 · 7 −8iωT
(1 − e−2iωT )−1/2 = 1 + e−2iωT + 2 e−4iωT + 3 e + e + ...
2 2 2! 2 3! 24 4!
(4.45)
40
³ ´−1
−2iωT
In the same manner, we expand 1 − e in equation (4.44)
(by setting x = e−2iωT ) as follows
f (x) = (1 − x)−1 f (0) = 1

0 −2
f (x) = (1 − x) f 0 (0) = 1
f 00 (x) = 2(1 − x)−3 f 00 (0) = 2
f 000 (x) = 6(1 − x)−4 f 000 (0) = 6
f (4) (x) = 24(1 − x)−5 f (4) (0) = 24
³ ´−1 2x2 6x3 24x4

1−x = 1+x+ + + + ...
2! 3! 4!
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + ... .
³ ´−1
1 − e−2iωT = 1 + e−2iωT + e−4iωT + e−6iωT + e−8iωT + ...
Therefore
µ ¶ ³ ´
1 + e−2iωT −2iωT −2iωT −4iωT −6iωT −8iωT
= 1 + e 1 + e + e + e + e + ... .
1 − e−2iωT
³ −iωT
´
Now we expand −4x b xa e
1−e −2iωT in the form of Taylor’s series as follows
µ ¶ ³ ´
−4xb xa e−iωT
= −4xb xa e−iωT 1 + e−2iωT + e−4iωT + e−6iωT + e−8iωT + ... .
1 − e−2iωT
Similarly
µ ¶ ³ ´
2e−iωT
= 2e−iωT 1 + e−2iωT + e−4iωT + e−6iωT + e−8iωT + ... .
1 − e−2iωT
41
µ ¶1/2 µ ¶
mω iωT
K(xb , tb ; xa , ta ) = exp −
π~ 2
µ ¶
1 −2iωT 1 · 3 −4iωT 1 · 3 · 5 −6iωT 1 · 3 · 5 · 7 −8iωT
1+ e + 2 e + 3 e + e + ...
2 2 2! 2 3! 24 4!
( ·
mω 2 ³ ´³ ´
exp − xb + x2a 1 + e−2iωT 1 + e−2iωT + e−4iωT + e−6iωT + ...
2~
³ ´³ ´¸
−iωT −2iωT −4iωT −6iωT −8iωT
− 4xb xa e 1+e +e +e +e + ...
·µ ¶¸
1 λxa λxb λ2
− + −
~ ω ω mω 3
· ³ ´
2e−iωT 1 + e−2iωT + e−4iωT + e−6iωT + e−8iωT + ...
³ ´³ ´¸
−2iωT −2iωT −4iωT −6iωT −8iωT
− 1+e 1+e +e +e +e + ...
)
i h λ2 T i
+
2~ mω 2
µ ¶1/2 µ ¶
mω iωT
= exp −
π~ 2
µ ¶
1 −2iωT 1 · 3 −4iωT 1 · 3 · 5 −6iωT 1 · 3 · 5 · 7 −8iωT
1+ e + 2 e + 3 e + e + ...
2 2 2! 2 3! 24 4!
( ½ ·³
mω 2 ´
2 −2iωT −4iωT −6iωT −8iωT
exp − xb + xa 1 + e +e +e +e + ...
2~
³ ´¸
−2iωT −4iωT −6iωT −8iωT
+ e +e +e +e + ...
³ ´¾
−iωT −3iωT −5iωT −7iωT
−4xb xa e +e +e +e + ...
·µ ¶¸
1 λxa λxb λ2
− + −
~ ω ω mω 3
·³ ´
2e−iωT + 2e−3iωT + 2e−5iωT + 2e−7iωT + 2e−9iωT + ...
½³ ´
− 1+e +e +e +e + ...
³ ´¾¸ µ 2 ¶)
i λT
+ e−2iωT + e−4iωT + e−6iωT + e−8iωT + ... +
2~ mω 2
42
µ ¶1/2 µ ¶
mω iωT
K(xb , tb ; xa , ta ) = exp −
π~ 2
µ ¶
1 −2iωT 1 · 3 −4iωT 1 · 3 · 5 −6iωT 1 · 3 · 5 · 7 −8iωT
1+ e + 2 e + 3 e + e + ...
2 2 2! 2 3! 24 4!
· ´¸
mω ³ 2 2
exp − x + xa
2~ b
·
mω ³ 2 ´³ ´
exp − xb + x2a e−2iωT + e−4iωT + e−6iωT + e−8iωT + ...
~
2mω ³ ´
+ xb xa e−iωT + e−3iωT + e−5iωT + e−7iωT + ...
~
µ ¶
2 λxa λxb λ2
− + −
~ ω ω mω 3
³ ´
−iωT −3iωT −5iωT −7iωT
e +e +e +e + ...
µ ¶
2 λxa λxb λ2
+ + −
~ ω ω mω 3
³ ´¸
e +e +e +e + ...
· µ ¶¸ · µ 2 ¶¸
1 λxa λxb λ2 i λT
exp + − 3
exp . (4.46)
~ ω ω mω 2~ mω 2
h ³ ´³ ´i
Consider exp − mω ~
x 2
b + x 2
a e−2iωT
+ e−4iωT
+ e −6iωT
+ e −8iωT
+ ... in equation
³ ´³ ´
(4.46), we set x = − mω ~
x2b +x2a e−2iωT +e−4iωT +e−6iωT +e−8iωT +... using Taylor’s
series expansion about x = 0,
x x2 x3 x4
e =1+x+ + + + ...
2! 3! 4!
Then
· ´¸
mω ³ 2 2
´³
exp − xb + xa e +e +e +e + ...
~
· ´¸
mω ³ 2 2
´³
=1+ − xb + xa e +e +e +e + ...
~
· ´¸2
1 mω ³ 2 2
´³
+ − xb + xa e +e +e +e + ...
2! ~
· ´¸3
1 mω ³ 2 2
´³
+ − xb + xa e +e +e +e + ...
3! ~
+... .
(4.47)
43
· ³ ´¸
2mω −iωT −3iωT −5iωT −7iωT
Then we expand exp ~
xb xa e +e +e +e + ... by the same
method with equation (4.47) as
· ³ ´¸
exp xb xa e +e +e +e + ...
~
· ³ ´¸
=1+ x b xa e +e +e +e + ...
~
· ³ ´¸2
1 2mω −iωT −3iωT −5iωT −7iωT
+ xb xa e +e +e +e + ...
2! ~
· ³ ´¸3
+ xb xa e +e +e +e + ...
3! ~
+...
(4.48)
· ³ ´³ ´¸
2 λxa λxb λ2 −iωT −3iωT −5iωT −7iωT
Consider exp − ~ ω
+ ω
− mω 3
e +e +e +e + ... , the result
of the expansion is
· µ ¶ ´¸
2 λxa λxb λ2 ³ −iωT −3iωT −5iωT −7iωT
exp − + − e +e +e +e + ...
~ ω ω mω 3
· µ ¶ ´¸
=1+ − + − e +e +e +e + ...
~ ω ω mω 3
· µ ¶ ´¸2
1 2 λxa λxb λ2 ³ −iωT −3iωT −5iωT −7iωT
+ − + − e +e +e +e + ...
2! ~ ω ω mω 3
· µ ¶ ´¸3
+ − + − e +e +e +e + ...
3! ~ ω ω mω 3
+...
(4.49)
44
· µ ¶³ ´¸
2 λxa λxb λ2 −2iωT −4iωT −6iωT −8iωT
Then we consider exp ~ ω
+ ω
− mω 3
e +e +e +e + ... ,
it yields
· µ ¶ ´¸
2 λxa λxb λ2 ³ −2iωT −4iωT −6iωT −8iωT
exp + − e +e +e +e + ...
~ ω ω mω 3
· µ ¶ ´¸
=1+ + − e +e +e +e + ...
~ ω ω mω 3
· µ ¶ ´¸2
1 2 λxa λxb λ2 ³ −2iωT −4iωT −6iωT −8iωT
+ + − e +e +e +e + ...
2! ~ ω ω mω 3
· µ ¶ ´¸3
+ + − e +e +e +e + ...
3! ~ ω ω mω 3
+...
(4.50)
45
Substitute the whole expansion results into equation (4.46), we obtain
µ ¶1/2 µ ¶
mω 1 −2iωT 1 · 3 −4iωT 1 · 3 · 5 −6iωT
K(xb , tb ; xa , ta ) = 1+ e + 2 e + 3 e + ...
π~ 2 2 2! 2 3!
· ´ 1 µ λx ¶ µ ¶¸
iωT mω ³ 2 2 a λxb λ2 i λ2 T
exp − − x + xa + + − +
2 2~ b ~ ω ω mω 3 2~ mω 2
½ · ´¸
mω ³ 2 2
´³
1+ − xb + xa e +e +e +e + ...
~
· ´¸2
1 mω ³ 2 2
´³
+ − xb + x a e +e +e +e + ...
2! ~
· ´¸3 ¾
1 mω ³ 2 2
´³
+ − xb + x a e +e +e +e + ... + ...
3! ~
½ · ³ ´i
1+ xb xa e +e +e +e + ...
~
· ³ ´¸2
+ xb xa e +e +e +e + ...
2! ~
· ³ ´¸3 ¾
+ xb xa e +e +e +e + ... + ...
3! ~
½ · µ ¶ ´¸
1+ − + − e +e +e +e + ...
~ ω ω mω 3
· µ ¶ ´¸2
+ − + − e +e +e +e + ...
2! ~ ω ω mω 3
· µ ¶ ´¸3
+ − + − e +e +e +e + ...
3! ~ ω ω mω 3
¾
+...
½ · µ ¶ ´¸
1+ + − e +e +e +e + ...
~ ω ω mω 3
· µ ¶ ´¸2
+ + − e +e +e +e + ...
2! ~ ω ω mω 3
· µ ¶ ´¸3
+ + − e +e +e +e + ...
3! ~ ω ω mω 3
¾
+... .
(4.51)
46
The propagator can be expanded in the form of wave functions and energies as
∞
X ¡ ¢
K(xb , tb ; xa , ta ) = φn (xb )φ∗n (xa )exp − iEn T /~ ,
n=0
where
φn (x) is the wave function.
En is the eigenenergy.
¡ ¢
For the term with n = 0, that is φ0 (xb )φ∗0 (xa )exp − iE0 T /~ .
¡ ¢
Collect all the terms that involve the factor exp iE0 T /~ , we have
µ ¶1/2 · ´ 1 µ λx ¶ µ ¶¸
mω iωT mω ³ 2 2 a λxb λ2 i λ2 T
exp − − x + xa + + − +
π~ 2 2~ b ~ ω ω mω 3 2~ mω 2
µ ¶1/4 · µ ¶¸
mω mω 2 λxb λ2
= exp − x − +
π~ 2~ b ~ω 2m~ω 3
µ ¶1/4 · µ ¶¸
mω mω 2 λxa λ2
exp − x − +
π~ 2~ a ~ω 2m~ω 3
· µ 2 ¶ ¸
i λT iωT
exp 2
−
2~ mω 2
µ ¶1/4 · ´¸
mω 1 ³ 2 4 2 2 2
= exp − m ω xb − 2λmω xb + λ
π~ 2m~ω 3
µ ¶1/4 · ´¸
mω 1 ³ 2 4 2 2 2
exp − m ω xa − 2λmω xa + λ
π~ 2m~ω 3
· µ ¶ ¸
i m~ω 3 − λ2
exp − T
~ 2mω 2
µ ¶1/4 " µ ¶2 #
mω 1
= exp − mω 2 xb − λ
π~ 2m~ω 3
µ ¶1/4 " µ ¶2 #
mω 1
exp − mω 2 xa − λ
π~ 2m~ω 3
· µ ¶ ¸
i ~ω λ2
exp − − T
~ 2 2mω 2
µ ¶1/4 " µ ¶2 #
mω mω λ
= exp − xb −
π~ 2~ mω 2
µ ¶1/4 " µ ¶2 #
mω mω λ
exp − xa −
π~ 2~ mω 2
· µ ¶ ¸
i ~ω λ2
exp − − T .
~ 2 2mω 2
47
Hence
µ ¶1/4 " µ ¶2 #
mω mω λ
φ0 (x) = exp − x−
π~ 2~ mω 2
~ω λ2
E0 = − .
2 2mω 2
4.5 Alternative method for calculating the ground-

state wave function and energy of the constant
forced harmonic oscillator
From
∞
X
K(xb , tb ; xa , ta ) = φn (xb )φ∗n (xa )e−iEn T /~
n=0
Let T = −iβ~ and substitute into the equation above, then
K(xb , xa ; T ) = K(xb , xa ; −iβ~)

= ρ(xb , xa ; β)
X∞
= φn (xb )φ∗n (xa )e−βEn
n=0
= φ0 (xb )φ∗0 (xa )e−βE0 + φ1 (xb )φ∗1 (xa )e−βE1 + φ2 (xb )φ∗2 (xa )e−βE2 + ...,
where E0 < E1 < E2 < ...

When β → ∞, the factors e−βE0 , e−βE1 , e−βE2 , ... decay to zero. Since we are interested
in the ground state and e−βE0 > e−βE1 > e−βE2 > ..., we keep only the first term of
the expansion. So ρ(xb , xa ; β) can be approximated to be
ρ(xb , xa ; β) ' φ0 (xb )φ∗0 (xa )e−βE0 .
48
From equation (4.44), we let T = −iβ~, that is
µ ¶1/2 µ ¶
mω β~ω
ρ(xb , xa ; β) = exp −
π~ 2
³ ´−1/2 ½ · ¸
−2β~ω mω ³ 2 ´
2 1+e
−2β~ω
4xb xa e−β~ω
1−e exp − xb + xa −
2~ 1 − e−2β~ω 1 − e−2β~ω
·µ ¶µ ¶¸
1 λxa λxb λ2 2e−β~ω 1 + e−2β~ω
− + − −
~ ω ω mω 3 1 − e−2β~ω 1 − e−2β~ω
¾
βλ2
+ . (4.52)
2mω 2
49
¡ β~ω
¢
Take β → ∞ and keep the term exp − 2
, equation (4.52) becomes
µ ¶1/2 · µ ¶ ¸
mω β~ω mω ¡ 2 2
¢ 1 λxa λxb λ2 βλ2
ρ(xb , xa ; β) ' exp − − x + xa + + − +
π~ 2 2~ b ~ ω ω mω 3 2mω 2
µ ¶1/4 · µ ¶¸
mω mω 2 λxb λ2
= exp − x − +
π~ 2~ b ~ω 2m~ω 3
µ ¶1/4 · µ ¶¸
mω mω 2 λxa λ2
exp − x − +
π~ 2~ a ~ω 2m~ω 3
· ¸
β~ω βλ2
exp − +
2 2mω 2
µ ¶1/4 · ´¸
mω 1 ³ 2 4 2 2 2
= exp − m ω xb − 2λmω xb + λ
π~ 2m~ω 3
µ ¶1/4 · ´¸
mω 1 ³ 2 4 2 2 2
exp − m ω xa − 2λmω xa + λ
π~ 2m~ω 3
· µ ¶¸
~ω λ2
exp − β −
2 2mω 2
µ ¶1/4 " #
mω 1 ³ 2 ´2
= exp − mω xb − λ
π~ 2m~ω 3
µ ¶1/4 " #
mω 1 ³ 2 ´2
exp − mω xa − λ
π~ 2m~ω 3
· µ ¶¸
~ω λ2
exp − β −
2 2mω 2
µ ¶1/4 " µ ¶2 #
mω mω λ
= exp − xb −
π~ 2~ mω 2
µ ¶1/4 " µ ¶2 #
mω mω λ
exp − xa −
π~ 2~ mω 2
· µ ¶¸
~ω λ2
exp − β − .
2 2mω 2
Hence
µ ¶1/4 " µ ¶2 #
mω mω λ
φ0 (x) = exp − x−
π~ 2~ mω 2
~ω λ2
E0 = − .
2 2mω 2
50
2
Figure 4.1: Position shift of the ground-state wave function when the external force
f (t) = λ = const. compared with no external force (λ = 0).
4.6 Derivation of the wave functions and energies

of the constant forced harmonic oscillator from
Schrödinger’s equation
When
1
V = mω 2 x2 − λx,
2
Schrödinger’s equation is
µ ¶
~2 d 2 φ 1 2 2
− + mω x − λx φ = Eφ. (4.53)
2m dx2 2
51
³ ´
1
Consider 2
mω 2 x2 − λx
" µ ¶2 µ ¶2 #
1 1 2xλ λ λ
mω 2 x2 − λx = mω 2 x2 − + −
2 2 mω 2 mω 2 mω 2
·µ ¶ ¸
1 2 2 2xλ λ2 λ2
= mω x − + − 2 4
2 mω 2 m2 ω 4 mω
"µ ¶2 #
1 λ λ2
= mω 2 x − −
2 mω 2 m2 ω 4
µ ¶2
1 2 2 1 2 λ λ2
mω x − λx = mω x − − . (4.54)
2 2 mω 2 2mω 2
Substitute equation (4.54) into equation (4.53), that is
" µ ¶2 #
~2 d2 φ 1 2 λ λ2
− + mω x − − φ = Eφ
2m dx2 2 mω 2 2mω 2
µ ¶2 µ ¶
~2 d 2 φ 1 2 λ λ2
− + mω x − φ = E+ φ.
2m dx2 2 mω 2 2mω 2
We set y = x − λ/mω 2 , then
µ ¶
~2 d2 φ 1 λ2
− + mω 2 y 2 φ = E+ φ. (4.55)
2m dy 2 2 2mω 2
This
³ is the Schrödinger’s
´ equation of the harmonic oscillator with energy
2 2
E + λ /2mω and wave functions are
" ¶2 #
³ mω ´1/4 ·³ λ ´³ mω ´1/2 ¸ mω
µ
λ
φn = (2n n!)−1/2 Hn x − exp − x− ,
π~ mω 2 ~ 2~ mω 2
(4.56)
where the function Hn are the Hermite polynomials
H0 (y) = 1
H1 (y) = 2y
H2 (y) = 4y 2 − 2
H3 (y) = 8y 3 − 12y
.
.
.
n dn h2 2
i
Hn (y) = (−1) exp(y ) n exp(−y ) .
dy
52
From the right-hand side of equation (4.55), we get
µ ¶
λ2 1
E+ = ~ω n +
2mω 2 2
µ ¶
1 λ2
En = ~ω n + − , n = 0, 1, 2, ...
2 2mω 2
For the ground state, we have

³ mω ´1/4 · ¸
mω ³ λ ´2
φ0 (x) = exp − x− ,
π~ 2~ mω 2
and
~ω λ2
E0 = − ,
2 2mω 2
as derived from the path integral method.
53
Chapter 5
Conclusions
In this work, we study the single-particle motion in the forced harmonic potential
using Feynman path integral method. The Lagrangian for such a system is given by
1 1
L = mẋ2 − mω 2 x2 + f(t)x,
2 2
where f(t) is the external force exerting on the particle of mass m. As the Lagrangian
has quadratic form, so the propagator of the system can be solved exactly as
³i ´
K(xb , tb ; xa , ta ) = F (tb , ta )exp Scl .
~
From Green’s function approach to the calculation, we obtain
·³ ´³ ´
mω 2 2
Scl = cos ωT xb + xa − 2xb xa
2 sin ωT
Z
2xa tb
mω ta
Z
2xb tb
mω ta
Z tb Z t ¸
2 0 0 0
− 2 2 sin ω(tb − t) sin ω(t − ta )f (t )f (t)dt dt ,
m ω ta ta
and r
mω
F (tb , ta ) =
2πi~ sin ωT
54
where T = tb −ta . In case of the constant forced harmonic oscillator, the propagator is
r ( · ¸
mω mω ³ 2 ´
2 cos ωT 2xb xa
K(xb , tb ; xa , ta ) = exp − xb + xa −
2πi~ sin ωT 2~ i sin ωT i sin ωT
·µ 2
¶µ ¶¸
1 λxa λxb λ 1 cos ωT
− + − −
~ ω ω mω 3 i sin ωT i sin ωT
µ 2 ¶)
i λ
+ T .
2~ mω 2
We expand the propagator for the ground-state energy eigenfunction and energy
eigenvalue as follows
µ ¶1/4 " µ ¶2 #
mω mω λ
φ0 (x) = exp − x−
π~ 2~ mω 2
~ω λ2
E0 = − .
2 2mω 2
We conclude that the energy eigenfunction and the energy eigenvalue are the same
as those obtained from Schrödinger’s equation.
55
Appendix A
Classical motion of constant forced

harmonic oscillator
From equation (4.22) when f (t0 ) = λ, we can write

1 h i
sin ω(tb − ta )
" Z
+ sin ω(tb − t0 )λdt0
Z t #
+ sin ω(t − t0 )λdt0
ta
1 h i
sin ω(tb − ta )
( · )
λ sin ω(ta − t) 1 ¯tb ¸ 1 ¯t
0 ¯ 0 ¯
+ cos ω(tb − t )¯ + cos ω(t − t )¯
mω sin ω(tb − ta ) ω ta ω ta
1 h i
= xa sin ω(tb − t) + xb sin ω(t − ta )
sin ω(tb − ta )
( )
λ sin ω(ta − t) h i h i
+ 1 − cos ω(tb − ta ) + 1 − cos ω(t − ta )
mω 2 sin ω(tb − ta )
56
1 h i
sin ω(tb − ta )
½h i
λ
+ sin ω(t a − t) − sin ω(t a − t) cos ω(tb − t a )
h i¾
+ sin ω(tb − ta ) − sin ω(tb − ta ) cos ω(t − ta )
1 h i
sin ω(tb − ta )
· ¸
λ
+ sin ω(ta − t) + sin ω(tb − ta ) + sin ω(t − tb )
1 h i
sin ω(tb − ta )
λ sin ω(ta − t) λ sin ω(t − tb ) λ
+ + +
mω sin ω(tb − ta ) mω sin ω(tb − ta ) mω 2
2 2
µ ¶
sin ω(tb − t) λ
= xa −
sin ω(tb − ta ) mω 2
µ ¶
sin ω(t − ta ) λ λ
+ xb − 2
+ . (A.1)
sin ω(tb − ta ) mω mω 2
³ ´ ³ ´
1 λ 1 λ
We set c1 = sin ω(tb −ta ) xa − mω2 and c2 = sin ω(tb −ta ) xb − mω2 , equation (A.1)
becomes
λ
xcl (t) = c1 sin ω(tb − t) + c2 sin ω(t − ta ) +
mω 2
³ ´ ³ ´ λ
= c1 sin ωtb cos ωt − cos ωta sin ωt + c2 sin ωt cos ωta − cos ωt sin ωta +
mω 2
λ
= (c2 − c1 ) sin ωt cos ωta + cos ωt(c1 sin ωtb − c2 sin ωta ) +
mω 2
λ
= C sin ωt + C 0 cos ωt + , (A.2)
mω 2
where C = (c2 − c1 ) cos ωta and C 0 = (c1 sin ωtb − c2 sin ωta ) .
We assume C = A cos φ, C 0 = A sin φ, then
λ λ
C sin ωt + C 0 cos ωt + 2
= A sin ωt cos φ + A cos ωt sin φ +
mω mω 2
λ
xcl (t) = A sin(ωt + φ) + (A.3)
mω 2
57
Bibliography
[1] R. Feynman and A.R.Hibbs, Quantum Mechanics and Path Integrals, Mc-
GrawHill (1995).
[2] F. Byron, Jr. and R. Fuller, Mathematics of Classical and Quantum Physics,
Dover (1992).
[3] R. Feynman, Leighton and Sands, The Feynman Lectures on Physics Volume 3,
Addison-Wesley (1965).
[4] R. Fowles and L. Cassiday, Analytical Mechanics, 7th ed., Thomson Brooks/Cole
(2005).
[5] S. Gasiorowicz, Quantum Physics, 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons (2003).
[6] W. Thummawong, A Study of a Single Particle Motion in the Harmonic Potential

by Path Integral Method, Skill Training and Professional Experience Report,
Department of Physics, Naresuan University (2004).
58

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Path Integral Approach to Single-Particle Motion

in Forced Harmonic Potential

Submitted in partial fulfilment of

Bachelor of Science in Physics

Fundamental Physics & Cosmology Research Unit

Pimpimon Khumwong, 14 February 2006

To my father and mother, lords of my life.

The candidate has passed oral examination by members of examination panel.

Candidate: Ms.Pimpimon Khumwong

Supervisor: Alongkorn Khudwilat

Degree: Bachelor of Science Programme in Physics

Academic Year: 2005

2 Introduction to path integrals 4

4 The forced harmonic oscillator propagator 22

A Classical motion of constant forced harmonic oscillator 56

Mechanics explains motion of particles, it can be roughly divided into

1.4 Expected Use

Introduction to path integrals

The motion can be solved from equation (2.2).

The probability P (b, a) to go from the point xa at time ta to the point xb at tb is

2.1 Events occurring in succession

S[b, a] = S[b, c] + S[c, a],

then the propagator becomes

K(b, a) = K(b, c)K(c, a)dxc . (2.7)

2.2 The wave function

We can rewrite equation (2.9) as

From the completeness relation

The wave function can be written as

L = a(t)ẋ2 + b(t)ẋx + c(t)x2 + d(t)ẋ + e(t)x + f (t). (2.13)

In classical mechanics, form of the action integral is

We can represent x(t) in terms of xcl (t) and a new variable y :

x(t) = xcl (t) + y(t),

Substitute x(t) = xcl (t) + y(t) into equation (2.15)

Substitute equations (2.17), (2.18) and (2.19) into (2.16), we obtain

From the classical Lagrangian equation of motion

2.4 The free-particle propagator

From equation (2.25), the solution is

We can solve for C and C 0 easily, it yields

Integrating by part, we get

We are interested in only F (tb , ta ), therefore we set xa = 0, xb = 0 for convenience

By performing Gaussian integral, it gives

By comparing the prefactor term by term, we conclude that

Therefore, the free particle propagator is

L̂φn (x) = λn φn (x), (3.2)

for any function g(x), it can be expanded in term of φn (x) as follows

g(x) = c1 φ1 (x) + c2 φ2 (x) + ... + cn φn (x) + ...

where cn is an expansion coefficient.

Under circumstance of equation (3.2), we write

Substitute equations (3.5) and (3.6) into equation (3.1), we obtain

We may rewrite equation (3.8) as

We use L̂φn (x) = λn φn (x), then

For any function f (x) ;

L̂G(x, x0 ) = δ(x − x0 ). (3.14)

Let x1 (t) and x2 (t) be two linearly independent solutions to

For t > t0 , we write

and for t < t0 ,

Now let us try to determine a1 , a2 , b1 , and b2 . At t = t0 , G(t, t0 ) must be continu-

by integrating both sides of equation (3.16) from t = t0 − ² to t = t0 + ².

Since G is continuous at t = t0 and the domain of integration can be made arbitrarily

a1 x1 (t0 ) + a2 x2 (t0 ) = b1 x1 (t0 ) + b2 x2 (t0 ),

while from equation (3.19), we obtain

(a1 − b1 )x1 (t0 ) + (a2 − b2 )x2 (t0 ) = 0,

The solutions are

W (t0 ) is the Wronskian of x1 and x2 , defined by