A​ ​Scientific​ ​Paper​ ​on​ ​Protein​ ​Content​ ​in​ ​Bread​ ​Flour,​ ​All-Purpose​ ​Flour,​ ​and​ ​Cake​ ​Flour,​ ​as​ ​the​

​Basis​ ​for
Gluten​ ​Development​ ​in​ ​Gluten​ ​Balls.

KALAW,​ ​Maria​ ​Noreena​ ​F.

AB-1L

Institute​ ​of​ ​Human​ ​Nutrition​ ​and​ ​Food,​ ​College​ ​of​ ​Human​ ​Ecology
University​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Philippines​ ​Los​ ​Banos

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Abstract
The main aim of this work has been the determination of the property of flour that resulted to the
distinguishable differences in bread flour, all-purpose flour, and cake flour. Based on the given standard
recipe, the three gluten balls were made with each of the three types of flour. These formulations were
evaluated while they were raw, and after they were baked in the oven, with the basis of the criteria on
weight,​ ​height,​ ​elasticity,​ ​appearance,​ ​texture,​ ​and​ ​structure.

The bread flour gluten ball resulted to the one greatest in terms of size and weight, followed by the
all-purpose gluten ball, and then, lastly, the cake flour gluten ball. This was made possible by the high
protein content, in which gluten development is dependent on, as it was observed that the higher the
protein content is, the more gluten will be developed . Thus, the bread flour is the most preferred flour to
be used in baking yeast-leavened breads, while the cake flour, the one with the lowest protein content, is
used​ ​in​ ​delicate,​ ​fine-textured​ ​cakes.

Introduction

Flour is the powdery substance obtained from the endosperm of cereal seeds or other foods containing
starch (Brown, 2011). Different types of flour are used in different recipes. The most abundantly used
flour in baking is that which is derived from wheat. Other flours are milled from rice, nuts, corn, root
crops, and other starchy foods. Some well-known market forms of flour are bread flour, all-purpose flour,
cake flour, whole-wheat flour, self-rising flour, pastry flour, etc. (Serraon-Claudio, et. al., 2014) In this
activity,​ ​the​ ​first​ ​three​ ​flours​ ​aforementioned​ ​were​ ​used​ ​by​ ​the​ ​students.

All-purpose flour is also called “plain flour”, as it is a mixture of hard and soft wheat. The name of
this flour shows that it is one of the most commonly used for general purpose. Bread flour is milled from
hard wheat, and is also known as hard or strong flour. From its name, bread flour is used in baking breads
that have yeast in them. Lastly, cake flour is flour milled from soft wheat, thus being called as soft flour.
It is velvety and fine-textured, making it an excellent flour used in baking fine-textured cakes and pastries
(Stradler,​ ​2017).

Depending​ ​on​ ​their​ ​unique​ ​characteristics,​ ​flours​ ​provide​ ​structure,​ ​texture,​ ​and​ ​flavor​ ​to​ ​food.

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In baking, these specific components of wheat flour contribute to the end product. One of these is gluten
development, which will be the focus of this paper. During the activity, the students performed a recipe
for gluten balls, wherein bread flour, cake flour, and all-purpose flour were used to form the balls, which
were then baked, and underwent observation. The students believe that bread flour will yield the largest
gluten ball out of the three flours, due to it being primarily used in baking yeast-leavened breads. This
hypothesis​ ​was​ ​tested​ ​in​ ​the​ ​laboratory.

The​ ​objectives​ ​of​ ​this​ ​activity​ ​were​ ​as​ ​follows:

- To​ ​define​ ​flour​ ​and​ ​its​ ​sources​ ​and​ ​market​ ​forms,
- To​ ​illustrate​ ​the​ ​mechanics​ ​of​ ​gluten​ ​formation,
- To​ ​know​ ​the​ ​purpose​ ​of​ ​gluten​ ​development,​ ​and​ ​enumerate​ ​the​ ​factors​ ​that​ ​affect​ ​it;​ ​and,
- To distinguish how the properties of bread flour, all-purpose flour, and cake flour, affect gluten
development.

Materials​ ​and​ ​Methods

In the formation of gluten balls, three types of flours were used - all-purpose flour, bread flour,
and​ ​cake​ ​flour.​ ​The​ ​three​ ​flours​ ​underwent​ ​the​ ​same​ ​procedure​ ​all​ ​throughout​ ​the​ ​recipe.

Hydration​ ​with​ ​Water

100 grams each of the three types of flours were measured through the use of a weighing scale, and
were each placed in individual metal mixing bowls. ¼ cup of cool, tap water was added to each of the
bowls, and were mixed until stiff doughs are formed. Using a rubber scraper, any remaining bits of dough
stuck at the sides of the bowl were incorporated into the dough, itself. The resulting mixtures were shaped
into​ ​balls,​ ​which​ ​were​ ​then​ ​allowed​ ​to​ ​rest​ ​for​ ​5​ ​minutes​ ​for​ ​hydration.

Kneading
To develop the gluten in the flours, the doughs were kneaded on a metal table with the use of bare
hands. A small amount of each of the three flours was used in order to keep the doughs from sticking on
the surface of the table. Kneading continued for approximately 15 minutes or until the doughs are
completely​ ​smooth​ ​and​ ​elastic.

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Washing​ ​the​ ​dough
In order to get rid of the starch and other components of the flour, the doughs were placed back into
the bowls and covered with cold, tap water, during which the oven was preheated to 400°F. After 5
minutes of soaking, they were kneaded under water, by pressing them on the palm of the hand and
squeezed hard, changing the water every once in a while. This was done until the water was clear, and the
dough turned into an elastic, grayish mass. During the process of kneading out the starch in the cake flour,
a strainer was used every time the water is chained, so as to retain all the gluten bits which might go down
the​ ​drain.

The volume was estimated by the diameter (cm) of the gluten balls. Excess water was drained, and
gluten balls were shaped into bubbles by folding air into them. The balls were then weighed in grams and
their​ ​heights​ ​were​ ​measured.

Baking​ ​the​ ​gluten​ ​balls

On an ungreased cookie sheet, each of the gluten balls were placed, and were placed in the 400°F
oven for 15 minutes, after which the temperature was lowered down to 300°F for 40 minutes more, until
balls​ ​were​ ​dry​ ​and​ ​crisp.

Recording​ ​the​ ​results

As they came out of the oven, each of the ball's’ height and weight were estimated, and observations
were​ ​recorded​ ​on​ ​Worksheet​ ​11.

Results​ ​and​ ​Discussion

The results of the gluten balls made each with bread flour, all-purpose flour, and cake flour were
recorded by the group based on the tables indicated in Worksheet 11. The group members’ observations
were​ ​similar​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​criteria​ ​presented.

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Table​ ​1.​ ​Comparison​ ​of​ ​Gluten​ ​Balls​ ​formed​ ​from​ ​Flours

Flour Weight​ ​(g) Height​ ​(cm) Elasticity Appearance

Raw Baked Raw Baked Raw Surface Interior

All-purpose 40 18 4.7 11.1 Elastic Crumbly Open

Bread 45 20 5.1 11.8 Most​ ​elastic Large​ ​part​ ​can​ ​be Open
peeled​ ​off

Cake 5 1 1.5 3.3 Elastic Very​ ​crumbly Porous

Figure​ ​1.​ ​Cake​ ​flour​ ​ball. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​Figure​ ​2.​ ​All-purpose​ ​flour​ ​ball.​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​Figure​ ​3.​ ​Bread​ ​flour​ ​ball.

In Table 1, it is indicated that the gluten ball made with bread flour (Figure 3) was the largest and
heaviest out of the three. It was also the most elastic. As the gluten balls were baked, the weight
decreased, yet the height increased. In terms of appearance, the all-purpose flour gluten ball was crumbly,
the cake flour gluten ball was very crumbly, and the bread flour gluten ball wasn’t crumbly, as a large part
of the outer layer can be easily peeled off. The all-purpose (Figure 2) and bread flour balls both had open
interiors,​ ​while​ ​the​ ​cake​ ​flour​ ​ball​ ​(Figure​ ​1)​ ​was​ ​porous.

Table​ ​2.​ ​Comparison​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Texture​ ​and​ ​Structure​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Baked​ ​Gluten​ ​Balls

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 Characteristic Bread​ ​Flour All-purpose​ ​Flour Cake​ ​Flour

Softness​ ​(sticky, Gummy,​ ​sticky Sticky,​ ​elastic Pliable,​ ​inelastic

gummy,​ ​pliable,​ ​elastic,
rubbery)

Structure​ ​(compact, open open porous

open,​ ​porous)

Figure​ ​4.​ ​All-purpose​ ​flour​ ​ball​ ​(top),​ ​Bread​ ​flour​ ​ball​ ​(bottom),​ ​and​ ​Cake​ ​flour​ ​ball​ ​(bottom​ ​right).

According to Table 2 and Figure 4, for the texture, the bread flour was gummy and sticky, the
all-purpose flour was sticky and elastic, and the cake flour was pliable and inelastic. In terms of structure,
the​ ​bread​ ​flour​ ​and​ ​all-purpose​ ​flour​ ​both​ ​had​ ​open​ ​structures,​ ​while​ ​the​ ​cake​ ​flour​ ​was​ ​porous.

The end results showed the visually-distinguishable differences among the three gluten balls
made​ ​each​ ​with​ ​bread​ ​flour,​ ​all-purpose​ ​flour,​ ​and​ ​cake​ ​flour.

Out of the three flours, the bread flour yielded the heaviest and largest gluten ball while it was
raw, as well as after baking. This is due to its unique characteristic of having a high protein content. Bread
flour contains 12-14% protein. The second heaviest and largest gluten ball is the one made with
all-purpose flour, which contains about 10-12% protein, and is a blend of soft and hard wheat. The

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lightest and smallest is the cake flour gluten ball which contains 7-8% protein. Cake flour is made from
soft​ ​wheat​ ​(Christensen,​ ​2009).

Gluten, as what was previously mentioned, plays a big role in the end result of baked products.
Gluten is dependent on the protein content of the flour used in baking. According to research, the flour
with the highest concentration of proteins that form gluten yields light, aerated baked products, and is
preferred in making yeast-leavened breads (Brown, 2011). When flour and water are mixed together, an
elastic network is formed. This is due to two main types of wheat proteins in flour - the gliadin and
glutenin, which form the gluten complex. Gliadin has a characteristic fluidity and stickiness. It acts as the
plasticizer for glutenin, which is elastic. Gliadins increase the dough’s viscosity, and decrease elasticity
contributed​ ​by​ ​the​ ​glutenin​ ​(Ortolan​ ​and​ ​Steel,​ ​2017).

In the activity, gluten development happened in two steps - hydration of the flour and kneading
the dough. Hydration is needed because plain, dry flour doesn’t contain gluten. Since bread flour contains
the most proteins, it absorbed the most water, because gliadin and glutenin absorbs water as much as that
of twice their weight. The two wheat proteins form the gluten complex. Gluten can be physically
separated from the starch, sugars, enzymes, and other water-soluble components of the flour by kneading
it under cold water. This left the students with three rubbery gluten balls. Kneading works by
mechanically stretching the dough in order to increase the strength of the gluten formed. During this
process, air bubbles are formed, and the dough becomes less sticky, and smoother. The steam build-up
holds​ ​the​ ​end​ ​shape​ ​and​ ​stability​ ​of​ ​the​ ​baked​ ​gluten​ ​balls​ ​ ​(Brown,​ ​2011).

Summary​ ​and​ ​Conclusion

After preparing the three gluten balls made with three different types of flour - all-purpose flour,
bread flour, and cake flour - observing the results of the activity, gathering the data needed, and
researching on the properties of flours used, it was discovered that the weight and height of the three
gluten balls, raw and baked, were dependent on the protein content of the flours used in making them. The
bread flour gluten ball, with the highest protein content, yielded the largest and heaviest, followed by the
all-purpose flour gluten ball, then the last being the cake flour gluten ball. Because of their individual
characteristics, and distinct effects on the end result of baked products, bread flour is preferably used in

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making yeast-leavened breads, all-purpose flour is used for general purpose, and cake flour is used for
making​ ​delicate,​ ​fine-textured​ ​cakes.

Some​ ​possible​ ​errors​ ​in​ ​the​ ​execution​ ​of​ ​the​ ​recipe​ ​are​ ​as​ ​follows:
- Gluten​ ​strands​ ​were​ ​broken​ ​during​ ​kneading,
- Some​ ​gluten​ ​bits​ ​were​ ​discarded​ ​when​ ​the​ ​water​ ​was​ ​drained,
- The gluten balls were placed on the baking tray too close to each other, which resulted to
the​ ​all-purpose​ ​flour​ ​ball​ ​and​ ​bread​ ​flour​ ​ball​ ​to​ ​attach​ ​with​ ​one​ ​another;​ ​and,
- Temperature​ ​of​ ​the​ ​oven​ ​was​ ​not​ ​properly​ ​controlled.

Regardless of the errors, the results of the activity were accurate if compared to previous studies about
flours​ ​and​ ​gluten​ ​development.

Literature​ ​Cited

Brown,​ ​A.​ ​(2011).​ ​Understanding​ ​food​ ​principles​ ​&​ ​preparation​ ​(4th​ ​Ed.).​ ​CA:​ ​Cengage​ ​Learning.
Christensen, E. (2009). What's the Difference? Cake Flour, Pastry Flour, All-Purpose Flour, and Bread
Flour. The Kitchn. Retrieved from
http://www.thekitchn.com/whats-the-difference-cake-flou-74565.
Ortolan, F. and Steel, C. J. (2017), Protein Characteristics that Affect the Quality of Vital Wheat Gluten to
be Used in Baking: A Review. COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND
FOOD​ ​SAFETY,​ ​16:​ ​369–381.​ ​doi:10.1111/1541-4337.12259
Serraon-Claudio, V., et. al. (2014). ​Basic foods for filipinos. Metro Manila: Merriam & Webster
Bookstore,​ ​Inc.
Stradler,​ ​L.​ ​(2017).​ ​Flour​ ​Types​ ​–​ ​Different​ ​Types​ ​of​ ​Flours​.​ ​What’s​ ​Cooking​ ​America.​ ​Retrieved​ ​from
https://whatscookingamerica.net/Bread/FlourTypes.htm.