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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT
Performance parameters estimation of Pockels
high-voltage sensors by means of numerical
optimization
Victor H. Aristizabal-Tique, Nicolás A. Gómez-Montoya, Hernán de J. Salazar-Escobar, Francisco J.
Vélez-Hoyos and Camilo A. Flórez-Velasquez
 Pockels cell arrangement, the applied electric field is normal
Abstract--In this paper, a method for performance parameters
estimation of Pockels high-voltage sensors by means of numerical
optimization is presented. The proposed method integrates a
theoretical model for simulation of Pockels sensors, and the
optimization algorithm Pattern Search to estimate the model
parameters in order to minimize the difference between the
experimental and theoretical peak-peak output voltage. Two
Pockels cells were built and tested for validation of the method,
where model parameters estimated by means of numerical
optimization were substituted in the theoretical model and
compared with the experimental data for the peak-peak output
voltage and output voltage in function of time, presenting a high
degree of agreement between them, showing that the
optimization resulted in a good solution.
Index Terms--Pockels effect, high voltage sensor, high voltage
techniques, optical sensor, power system measurements,
numerical optimization, optimization methods.
I. INTRODUCTION
O PTICAL voltage sensors for AC signal have been
investigated for many years, specially Pockels effect
sensors, and they have been widely addressed to electrical
power transmission and distribution systems. In contrast to
conventional voltage sensor, as capacitive voltage
transformers and inductive voltage transformers, optical
sensors and light transmission by means of optical fibers have
gained a great interest because of their electrical isolation,
elimination the electromagnetic interference, high precision
and accuracy, wide bandwidth from DC to GHz, compact size
and low cost [1]–[5].
The Pockels electro-optic effect produces linear changes in
the refractive index of the material induced by a moderate
electric field, generating birefringence. The Pockels effect in
an arrangement can be used in two modes. In a transverse
This work was supported in part by the Cooperativa de Colombia under
grant INV2158 and the Instituto Tecnologico Metropolitano. (Corresponding
author: Victor H. Aristizabal-Tique).
V. H. Aristizabal-Tique and F. J. Vélez-Hoyos are with the Facultad de
Ingeniería, Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, A.A. 50630 Medellín,
Colombia. (e-mail: fjvelezh@gmail.com; vharisti@yahoo.com).
N. A. Gómez-Montoya and H. de J. Salazar-Escobar are with the
Facultad de Ciencias, Instituto Tecnologico Metropolitano, Medellín,
Colombia (e-mail: nagomez2@unal.edu.co; hernansalazar@itm.edu.co).
C. A. Flórez-Velasquez is with the Facultad de Telecomunicaciones,
Universidad Santo Tomás, Medellín, Colombia (e-mail:
camilo.florez@ustamed.edu.co).
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to the direction of propagation of the incident light [6]–[11],
and in a longitudinal Pockels cell arrangement, the applied
field and the propagation direction are parallel [7], [12]–[14].
In this work, a method for performance parameters
estimation of Pockels high-voltage sensors using numerical
optimization is proposed. The use of such methodology is
illustrated, first, through the construction of two Pockels cells
with BGO (Bi4 Ge3 O12 ) crystal, where the transverse electro-
optical effect is exhibited, and later, the implementation of the
Pattern Search algorithm [15], [16], alongside the
experimental data of the peak-peak output voltage of the
sensors, to find the performance parameters of the Pockels
cells, such as losses, half-wave voltage and phase retardation
due to the quarter wave plate. Afterward, to validate this
methodology, the parameters found were substituted into the
theoretical output voltage in function of time, presenting a
high degree of agreement between them.
This paper is structured as follows. First, a theoretical
model is made, where the electro optical effect is taken into
account to find the output response of the system. Second, the
cost function, the constraints and the optimization process are
explained. Third, the experimental platform is sketched and
described. Thereafter, results and analysis are exhibited.
Finally, the paper is discussed and concluded.
II. THEORETICAL MODEL: ELECTRO OPTICAL EFFECT
Having that the polarizer is oriented at 900 with respect to
the analyzer, the transmittance, which is defined as the ratio
between the output and input light intensities and that is
shown in the setup of the Fig. 1, is given by [7], [17]:
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) 𝜋 𝛿(𝑡)
𝑇= = sin2 ( + ), (1)
𝐼𝑖𝑛 4 2
where 𝛿(𝑡) is the phase retardation between orthogonal
polarization components of the light beam induced by Pockels
crystal, and 𝜋⁄4 is the additional shift to the total phase
retardation due to the quarter wave plate introduced in the
experimental arrangement. The phase retardation can be
expressed in function of the applied voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑝 (𝑡) as: 𝛿(𝑡) =
𝑉𝑎𝑝 (𝑡)
𝜋 , where 𝑉𝜋 is the half-wave voltage and it is defined as
𝑉𝜋
the value of 𝑉𝑎𝑝 (𝑡) at which 𝛿 reaches the value of 𝜋.
For the transverse Pockels cell arrangement with a BGO
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crystal, as shown in Fig. 1 [7], [10]:
𝜆 𝑑
𝑉𝜋⊥ = , (2)
2𝑛03 𝑟41 𝐿
where 𝜆 is the free-space wavelength of the incident laser
beam, 𝑛0 is the ordinary refractive index of the crystal, 𝑟41 is
the Pockels coefficient, 𝐿 is the length of the crystal along the
propagation trajectory of the beam and 𝑑 is the height of the
crystal (separation of the electrodes).
The output voltage can be estimated taking into account the
equivalent system for the experimental setup shown in Fig. 3:
𝜋 𝜋 𝑉𝑎𝑝 (𝑡)
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) = 𝐺𝑆10−𝛼⁄10 𝑇(𝑡)𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉0 sin2 ( +
4 2 𝑉𝜋⊥
where 𝑉0 = 𝐺𝑆10−𝛼⁄10 𝑃𝑖𝑛 and 𝑃𝑖𝑛 is the power of the laser
diode given by the device enclosure screen; 𝑇(𝑡) takes into
account the loss due to the operation of the Polarizer-BGO
crystal-Analyzer system; 𝛼 takes into account the total losses
due to the devices insertion (prism, lens, plates, optical
connectors, etc.), the beam divergence and alignment, the
electro-optical and optical-electrical conversions, i.e., 𝛼 would
represents the insertion loss of the sensing cell; 𝑆 is the
photosensitivity of the photodiode given by the manufacturer
and 𝐺 is an additional gain applied to the signal output by
means of an instrumentation amplifier.
Note that 0 ≤ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) ≤ 𝑉0 , then, to alternate
symmetrically with respect to zero, i.e. − 𝑉0 ⁄2 ≤ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) ≤
𝑉0 ⁄2, an offset voltage is added. Finally, the theoretical output
voltage for our arrangement is defined as:
𝜋 𝜋 𝑉𝑎𝑝 (𝑡)
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑇ℎ (𝑡) = 𝑉0 sin2 ( + ) − 𝑉𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡 ,
4 2 𝑉𝜋⊥
where 𝑉𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡 = 𝑉0 ⁄2. It can also be shown that if 𝑉𝑎𝑝 (𝑡) =
𝐴0 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡), where 𝑓 is the frequency in 𝐻𝑧 and the 𝐴0
amplitude of the applied harmonic voltage to the Pockels Cell,
then, the peak-peak value of the output voltage is given by
𝜋 𝜋 𝐴0
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑇ℎ𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉0 [sin2 ( + ) − sin2 ( −
4 2 𝑉𝜋⊥
III. COST FUNCTION, CONSTRAINTS AND OPTIMIZATION
PROCESS
In this section, we redefine the theoretical output peak-peak
voltage as
𝜋 𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑃𝑃 𝜋 𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑃𝑃
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑇ℎ𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉0 [sin2 (𝜑 + ) − sin2 (𝜑 − )], (6)
4 𝑉𝜋⊥ 4 𝑉𝜋⊥
where 𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑃𝑃 = 2𝐴0. It can be observed that (6) is function of
𝑉0 , 𝜑, 𝑉𝜋⊥ and 𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑃𝑃 . The value of applied peak-peak voltage,
𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑃𝑃 , is driven by means of a variable transformer (variac)
and measured with a high voltage probe and oscilloscope (see
Fig. 2). The parameter 𝑉0 is function of 𝐺, 𝑆, 𝛼 and 𝑃𝑖𝑛 , but
𝐺, 𝑆 and 𝑃𝑖𝑛 are taken as known and they are defined in Table
), (3) 2, then 𝑉0 is only function of 𝛼 in this case. 𝛼 can be estimated
through
𝛼 = −10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [𝑉0 ⁄(𝐺𝑆𝑃𝑖𝑛 )]. (7)
Thus, the unknown parameters in the proposed model are
𝑉0 , 𝜑 and 𝑉𝜋⊥ . Here, we also want to estimate the phase
introduced by the compensation plate in the experimental
setup and verify that is approximately 𝜋⁄4, because it could
happen that a compensation plate designed for a different
wavelength to the light source is taken, as is the case in our
experiment where the compensation plate is designed for 633
nm and the laser diode emits at 660 nm, which could introduce
a slightly different phase of 𝜋⁄4.
These parameters are determined through model fitting
techniques using the experimental peak-peak values of output
voltage, 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑃𝑃 , which is measured at final of the setup
with the oscilloscope (see Figs. 2 and 3). The optimization
algorithm Pattern Search was used to estimate the model
parameters in order to minimize the difference between the
(4)
measured and modeled peak-peak output voltage [15], [16].
Therefore, the sum of squares of the difference between the
theoretical and experimental peak-peak output voltage is used
as cost function:
2
𝐶𝐹(X) = ∑𝑁 𝜈 𝜈
𝜈=1|𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑇ℎ𝑃𝑃 (X, 𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑃𝑃 ) − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑃𝑃 (𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑃𝑃 )| ,(8)
𝜋 𝜋 𝐴0
)]. (5) where 𝑁 is the number of values of peak-peak voltage applied
4 2 𝑉𝜋⊥
to Pockels cell in the experiment, and X is the vector of the
unknown parameters to estimate and it is defined as

X = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 } = {𝑉0 , 𝜑, 𝑉𝜋⊥ }. (9)

These three model parameters are physical quantities,

therefore, their values can be limited to values which are
physically feasible. Thus, a number of constraints are
introduced into the optimization process and each parameter is
constrained by simple upper and lower bounds. The bounds
and starting point are defined in Table 1.

TABLE I
B OUNDS AND STARTING POINTS FOR OPTIMIZATION PROCESS
Parameter Lower bound Upper bound Starting point
𝒙𝟏 0 100𝑚𝑎𝑥(𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑃𝑃 ) 𝑚𝑎𝑥(𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑃𝑃 )
Fig. 1. Transverse Pockels cell arrangement for measuring voltage by means 𝒙𝟐 𝜋⁄5 𝜋⁄3 𝜋⁄4
of the light intensity. In Fig., the orientation of the crystal is shown. 𝒙𝟑 𝑚𝑖𝑛(𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑃𝑃 ) 100𝑚𝑖𝑛(𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑃𝑃 ) 𝑚𝑖𝑛(𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑃𝑃 )

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output of the system. Finally, the analog outputs from the high
Finally, the optimization problem is defined as the voltage probe and buffer amplifier were plugged to an
minimization of 𝐶𝐹(X) defined in (8) respect to the vector X oscilloscope to visualize, measure and save the electrical
defined in (9), such that the bound constraints defined in Table signals.
1 are satisfied.
The proposed fitting procedure is based on the next five TABLE 2
PARAMETERS USED IN EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND THESE ARE TAKEN FOR
steps: THE THEORETICAL MODEL
1. Loading of the experimental data of 𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑃𝑃 and
𝑮 𝑺[𝒎𝑽/𝒎𝑾] 𝑷𝒊𝒏 [𝒎𝑾] 𝒇[𝑯𝒛]
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑃𝑃 .
15 3.5 × 108 0.35 60
2. Construction of the cost function 𝐶𝐹(X) from (8).
3. Set bounds and starting points from Table 1.
4. Set options and implement Pattern Search algorithm.
Here, the Pattern Search algorithm returns the values
of the vector X that lead to the minimal value of the
cost function 𝐶𝐹(X).
5. Display the fitted theoretical peak-peak value of the
output voltage calculated with the X found above,
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑇ℎ𝑃𝑃 , over experimental peak-peak value of the
output voltage, 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑃𝑃 .
Matlab code is available in Supplemental Material, available
online.

IV. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

The experimental setup and the sketch for transverse Fig. 2. Experimental setup for transverse configuration of the Pockels crystal.
configuration of the Pockels crystal in the voltage sensor are
shown in Figs. 2 and 3(a). In this configuration, a BGO
(Bi4 Ge3 O12 ) crystal of: length 20.30 mm, height 4.35 mm
(separation of the electrodes) and thickness 4.40 mm was
used, with an arrangement of its faces as shown in Fig. 1,
which in turn is located transversally and pressed between two
parallel plate electrodes and longitudinally between the two
crossed polarizers (Thorlabs LPVISE050-A designed for 633
nm) and a compensation plate (Thorlabs Quarter-Wave Plate
WPQ05ME-633 designed for 633 nm), as shown in Fig. 4. For
the BGO crystal has been reported that 𝑛0 is 2.097 to 2.410
and 𝑟41 is 0.96 to 0.33 𝑝𝑚⁄𝑉 for light of 632.8 to 305.4 𝑛𝑚,
respectively. Then, 𝑛0 and 𝑟41 are extrapolated by the
expressions of Sellmeier and the dispersion of the electro-
optic coefficient from [18]: 𝑛0 = 2.088 and 𝑟41 =
0.98 𝑝𝑚⁄𝑉 at 𝜆 = 660.0 𝑛𝑚.
Now, a sinusoidal AC voltage of approximately 0.4 kV to
6.0 kV in its peak-peak value at 60 Hz was applied to the
measuring system by means of a variac and a high voltage
transformer. A laser diode Thorlabs-S1FC660 of 660 nm was Fig. 3. (a) Sketch and (b) equivalent system of the experimental setup of the
sensor
used for illumination of the system (see the power value used
in the experiment in Table 2, that is given by the device
In this work, two Pockels cells were built and tested, where
enclosure screen). Multimode optical fiber Thorlabs-
the cell A is smaller than the cell B, but the same Pockels
FP1000ERT, with a core diameter of 1 mm, was used to
crystal was used in both configurations, as shown in Fig. 4.
receive and transmit from the Pockels cells. Power changes
These configurations are different because, first, the optical
were measured by a photodiode Hamamatsu-S8745-01
fiber connectors are arranged longitudinally between the two
alongside which was implemented the driver circuit given by
crossed polarizers and the compensation plate in the cell B,
the manufacturer (see the photosensitivity used in the
while in the cell A they are located transversally, Second, the
experiment in Table 2). An additional gain (see the gain used
length of the cell A is about half of the cell B. Therefore, it is
in the experiment in Table 2) by means of an instrumentation
expected that the losses are significantly different between the
amplifier Analog-Devices-AD627 alongside which a buffer
Pockels cells tested.
amplifier also was implemented for signal conditioning to

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Fig. 5. Convergence and the total function evaluations of the Pattern Search
algorithm used in this work for the Pockels cells (a) A and (b) B, where
Function Value is the value of the cost function, defined in (8), and Total
Function Evaluations is the number of times that is evaluated such function.

Fig. 4. Pockels Cells (a) A and (b) B used in the experimental setup.

V. THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Based on the previous sections, we calculated with (2) the
theoretical half-wave voltage for the transversal Pockels cells
arrangement 𝑉𝜋⊥𝑇ℎ = 7.9522 𝑘𝑉, and with (5) and (6) we can
deduce that the theoretical phase introduced by the
compensation plate is 𝜑 𝑇ℎ = 𝜋⁄4. In the optimization process
with the Pattern Search algorithm in the analysis of both cells,
the change in the cost function value was set at 1 × 10−4
(convergence tolerance). In Fig. 5, we can be observed that the
convergence behavior of the optimization algorithm in the
study of the two Pockels cells was similar, where the value of
the cost function changes smoothly after the iteration 10. In
the case of the Pockels cell A, the convergence tolerance was
met in the evaluation 984 of the cost function, while in the
case of the cell B was reached in the evaluation 955. Note also
that the fitted function for theoretical output peak-peak voltage
in Fig. 6(b) is better than the fitted function in Fig. 6(a),
because the minimum value of the cost function found in the
optimization was 106.593 (see Fig. 5) for the case of Fig. 6(b). Fig. 6. Theoretical output peak-peak voltage, defined in (6), based on the
estimated model parameters in (10) and (11) obtained from optimization, and
experimental output peak-peak voltage for the peak-peak AC voltage applied
to the Pockels cells (a) A and (b) B, respectively.

The vectors of model parameters obtained from the

optimization for the Pockels cells A and B were:

X𝐴 = {404.0700 𝑚𝑉, 0.7854, 8.1978 𝑘𝑉} (10)

X𝐵 = {111.0000 𝑚𝑉, 0.7854, 8.6142 𝑘𝑉} (11)

The previous parameters were substituted back into the

original theoretical model of output peak-peak voltage defined
in (6), and at the same time, it was compared with the
experimental output peak-peak voltage for the peak-peak AC
voltage applied to the Pockels cells, as shown in Fig. 6. Here,
a high degree of agreement between the measurement and

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modeled values can be observed, showing that the
optimization resulted in a good solution.
Fig. 7. Calculed function, defined in (4), based on the estimated model
parameters in (10) obtained from optimization and experimental output
voltage in function of time, when peak-peak AC voltages of (a) 6.000 kV and
(b) 0.440 kV are applied to the Pockels cell A.
Fig. 8. Calculed function, defined in (4), based on the estimated model
parameters in (11) obtained from optimization and experimental output
voltage in function of time, when peak-peak AC voltages of (a) 6.040 kV and
(b) 0.496 kV are applied to the Pockels cell B.
On the other hand, to validate the proposed methodology,
the model parameters also were substituted into the theoretical
output voltage in function of time defined in (4), and this was
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compared with the experimental output voltage captured in the
oscilloscope. Figs. 7 and 8 show the theoretical and
experimental output voltage in function of time for various
peak-peak AC voltage applied to the Pockels cells tested in
this work. Here also there is a high degree of agreement
between the measurement and modeled value of output
voltage in function of the time of the Pockels cells.
It can be observed that in Figs. 7 and 8, in special in Fig.
8(b), there is noise in the experimental curve and this is caused
by the signal-to-noise ratio is small, nevertheless, it is possible
to identify the behavior of the experimental signal and
compare it with the theoretical model.
Now, the model parameters in (10) and (11) obtained from
the optimization also were compared with theoretical values to
determine how well the optimization method works for
obtaining correct properties of the system. Only values for the
parameters 𝑥2 and 𝑥3 (phase introduced by the compensation
plate and half-wave voltage for the transversal Pockels cell
arrangement, respectively) were available. Then, the relative
errors can be calculated as
|𝜑𝑇ℎ −𝜑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 |
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟(𝜑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 ) = × 100% (12)
𝜑𝑇ℎ
|𝑉𝜋⊥𝑇ℎ −𝑉𝜋⊥𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 |
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟(𝑉𝜋⊥𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 ) = × 100%. (13)
𝑉𝜋⊥𝑇ℎ
Therefore, 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟(𝜑𝐴 ) ≈ 0%, 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟(𝜑𝐵 ) ≈ 0%,
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟(𝑉𝜋⊥𝐴 ) ≈ 3.0885% and 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟(𝑉𝜋⊥𝐵 ) ≈ 8.3247%.
Finally, we can estimate the insertion loss of the Pockels
cells A and B by means of (7). (10), (11) and Table 2: 𝛼𝑎 ≈
66.5777 𝑑𝐵𝑚 and 𝛼𝑏 ≈ 72.1890 𝑑𝐵𝑚.
VI. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
In this work, a method for performance parameters
estimation of Pockels high-voltage sensors by means of
numerical optimization is presented. The proposed method
integrates the simulation of Pockels sensors and the
optimization algorithm Pattern Search to estimate the model
parameters in order to minimize the difference between the
experimental and theoretical peak-peak output voltage.
The theoretical and estimated values of the model
parameters (phase introduced by the compensation plate, 𝜑,
and half-wave voltage, 𝑉𝜋⊥ , respectively), by means of
numerical optimization, agree well, nevertheless, we can
observe that the estimated values of half-wave voltage for the
Pockels cells tested are higher than theoretical values. This
can be caused by the assembly of the Pockels crystal because
it was pressed between two parallel plate electrodes, and this
could leave a thin air layer between the surfaces of the crystal
and the electrodes, which in turn increases the half-wave
voltage of the system [10]. The difference between 𝑉𝜋⊥𝑎 and
𝑉𝜋⊥𝑏 can be due to the signal-to-noise ratio is bigger in
Pockels cell of Fig. 4(a) than in Pockels cell B, thus,
generating greater error in the estimation of 𝑉𝜋⊥𝑏 .
For validation of the model parameters estimated by means
of numerical optimization, these were substituted in the
theoretical model and compared with the experimental data for
the peak-peak output voltage and output voltage in function of
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TIM.2019.2912590, IEEE
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time, presenting a high degree of agreement between them,
showing that the optimization resulted in a good solution.
These estimated parameters also allow calculation of
system loss of each cell tested, and in the cases under study,
the results show that the loss by beam divergence, which is
directly related to the length of the cell (see Fig. 4), is more
important than the loss due to device insertion, as the case of
the prisms in Fig. 4(a).
For future work, the proposed method in this paper can be
tested for higher values of voltage and other kinds of
numerical optimization algorithm, as the descent methods and
evolutionary methods among others, to analyze their
performance. On the other hand, this method can be applied to
other crystal like Lithium Niobate (LBO), Lithium tantalate
(LiTaO3) and Bismuth Silicon Oxide (BSO). The difference in
each case would be in the part of the cost function that
corresponds to the crystal behavior theoretical model.
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Victor H. Aristizabal-Tique obtained his B.S.
degree in Physical Engineering from National
University of Colombia in Medellin in 2004 and the
M.Sc. in Physics in 2008 from the same university.
He is currently doctoral student at Eafit University
and full-time Research-Professor at the Cooperative
University of Colombia, Medellín, Colombia. His
work has been focused on analytical and
computational modeling of the elastic waves in
seismic engineering and geophysical prospecting, and
electromagnetic waves in optical communications and sensing.
ORCID: 0000-0002-7880-58839
Nicolás A. Gómez-Montoya received his B.S. degree in Electrical
Engineering and and in M.Sc. in Physics from the National University of
Colombia, in 1998 and 2008, respectively. Since 2007 he has been with the
Faculty of Exact and Applied Sciences, Instituto Tecnologico Metropolitano,
Medellín, Colombia. His research interests include optical sensors, optical
fiber sensors and optical crystal based devices for current and voltage
measurement.
ORCID: 0000-0003-3874-8498
Hernán de J. Salazar-Escobar received his B.S. degree in Physics from the
University of Antioquia in 1991 and the M.Sc. in Applied Mathematics from
the Eafit University in 2007. He is currently with the Faculty of Exact and
Applied Sciences, Instituto Tecnologico Metropolitano, Medellín, Colombia.
His areas of interest are the wavelets and the electro optic sensors.
ORCID: 0000-0002-5040-6282
Francisco J. Vélez-Hoyos received his B.S. degree
in Physical Engineering from National University of
Colombia in Medellin in 2004 and the M.Sc. in
Physics in 2008 from the same university. He is
currently doctoral candidate at Eafit University and
full-time Research-Professor at the Cooperative
University of Colombia, Medellín, Colombia. His
work has been oriented to computational modeling in
applied optics, sensors and elastic waves on
nonclassical media.
ORCID: 0000-0002-4267-042X
Camilo A. Flórez-Velasquez received his B.S. degree in Electrical
Engineering from the National University of Colombia in 2000. He is
currently M.Sc. student at Instituto Tecnologico Metropolitano and since 2010
he has been with the Universidad Santo Tomás, Medellín, Colombia. His
research interests include radiofrequency, signal conditioning, conversion and
processing.
ORCID: 0000-0002-6357-9449