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FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
That branch of chemistry, which deals with the application of chemical principles in the
solution of problems that arise in connection with the administration of justice. It is chemistry
applied in the elucidation of legal problems. It is chemistry used in courts of law. Chemistry
belonging to the court of law.
PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
Are articles and materials which are found in connection with an investigation and which
aid in establishing the identity of the perpetrator of the circumstances under which the crime
was committed or which in general assist in the prosecution of the criminal. Encompasses any
and all objects that can establish that crime has been committed or can provide a link between a
crime and its victims or a crime and its perpetrator.
The forensic chemist plays an important role in the scientific criminal investigation. He
may be called upon to aid an investigation in:
ORDINARY WITNESS
State facts and may not express his opinions or conclusions. He may testify to
impressions of common experiments such as the speed of a vehicle, whether a voice was that
of a man, woman or child. Beyond this he is closely limited.
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EXPERT WITNESS
One who posses a special skill, be it in art, trade or science or one who has special
knowledge in waters not generally known to men or ordinary education and experiments. A
person skilled in some art, trade or science to the extent that he possesses information not
within the common knowledge of man.
EYE WITNESS
1. An ordinary witness can only state what is senses has perceived while an expert
witness may state what he has perceived and also give his opinions, deduction or
conclusion to his perception.
2. An ordinary witness may not be skilled on the line he his testifying while an expert
witness be skilled in the art, science or trade he is testifying.
3. An ordinary witness cannot testify on things or facts he has not perceived except
those provided for any law while an expert witness must testify on things which he
has seen giving his opinions, deductions or conclusion on the statements of facts.
STANDARD SPECIMEN
Are known specimens to compare with the questioned needed to aid in establishing a
suspect’s relationship to the crime under investigation.
1. Go Slowly
2. Be thorough
3. Take note consult others
4. Use imagination
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5. Avoid complicated theories
CHAPTER ONE
BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS
BLOOD
Has been called the circulating tissue of the body. It is refereed to as a highly complex
mixture of cells, enzymes, proteins, and inorganic substances. It is the red fluid of the blood
vessels. Blood is opaque. On the treatment with either, water or other reagents becomes
transparent lake color. It is finally alkaline. Normally pH is 7.35 – 7.45.
COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
1. (45%) formed elements or the solid materials consisting chiefly of cells namely:
a. Red Blood Cells or RBC (ERYTHROCYTES) around 4 – 5 millions of red cell per cc.
of blood.
b. White Blood Cells or WBC (LEUKOCYTES)
c. Blood Platelets (THROMBOCYTES)
2. (55%) PLASMA – The fluid or liquid portion of blood where the cells are suspended. It is
principally composed of:
a. Water ---- 90%
b. Solid ----- 10% ( largely protein in nature and consist of albumen, several globulin’s
and fibrinogen.
In the forensic aspect of blood identification, that is blood grouping, our discussion will
concentrate on the RBC and blood serum. Serum is pale yellowish liquid just like the plasma.
PLASMA
The yellowish fluid of blood in which numerous blood corpuscles are suspended. A
straw-yellow liquid formed when blood to which oxalate has been added to prevent clotting is
allowed to strand.
SERUM
A straw – yellow liquid formed when clotted blood is allowed to stand for sometime and
the clot contracts.
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1. where has to be searched for
2. Collection, preservation, packing and transportation of specimen suspected to
contain blood.
FLUID BLOOD:
Collect from:
1. PRELIMINARY TEST
Determine whether the stain contains blood or another substance. Determines whether
visible stains do or do not contain blood. It is used to demonstrate the presence of blood.
2. CONFIRMATORY TEST
Determines whether bloodstain really contains blood. Test that positively identifies
blood.
3. PRECIPITIN TEST
Determines whether blood is a human or non-human origin, and if non human, the
specific animal family from which it originated.
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5. Luminol Test
BENZIDINE TEST
An extremely sensitive test that can be applied to minute stain. For many years the most
commonly used preliminary test for blood. The Benzidine test never fails to detect blood even
when very old, decomposed stain with all shorts of contamination is examined. The positive
result is only indicative that the blood maybe present.
Limitation: Benzidine test is not a specific test for blood. Positive results maybe obtained
from substances as sputum, pus, nasal secretion, plant juices, formalin, clay, gun. The reaction
is weaker and produce faint coloration.
PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST
POSITIVE RESULT: Rose color develops or deep pink color or permanganate coor.
GUAIACUM TEST
A fairly delicate test showing the presence of fresh blood in a solution of 1:50,000
dilution. It may not react to very old stains.
REAGENTS: Fresh tincture of guaiac resin (Few lumps of this to 95% alcohol, then
filter) and 3% of hydrogen peroxide or few drops of turpentine.
PROCEDURE: Place a small piece of the stained fabric on porcelain dish. Soak with
fresh tincture of guaiac. Add a few drops of hydrogen peroxide.
LIMITATION: The test also reacts with salvia, pus, bile, milk, rust, iron salts, cheese,
gluten, potatoes, perspiration and other oxidizing substances.
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PROCEDURE: A small piece of the stained fabric on a filter paper. Add a drop of
leucomalachite green solution and after a few seconds add drop of 3% hydrogen peroxide.
PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN THE FOUR PRELIMINARY TEST FOR BLOOD (BENZIDINE TEST,
PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST, GUAIACUM TEST AND LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN TEST)
The peroxidase present in hemoglobin acts as carrier of oxygen from the hydrogen
peroxide to the active ingredients of the reagents (benzidine, guaiac, phenolphthalein and
leucomalachite) and produces the characteristic colored compounds by OXIDATION.
PEROXIDASE
Enzyme that accelerates the oxidation of several classes of organic compounds by peroxide.
HEMOGLOBIN
The red coloring matter of the red blood cells of the blood.
LUMINOUS TEST
An important presumptive identification test for blood. The reaction of luminol with blood
result in the production of light rather than color. By spraying luminol reagent onto a suspect
item, large areas can be quickly screened for the presence of bloodstains. The sprayed object
must be located in a darkened area while being viewed for the emission of light.
(LUMINESCENCE). Luminol test is extremely sensitive test. It is capable of detecting
bloodstains diluted up to 10,000X. Luminol is known to destroy many important blood factors
necessary for the forensic characterization of blood, so its use should be limited only to seeking
out blood invisible to the naked eye.
The actual proof that stain is blood consists of establishing the presense of the
characteristic of the red blood cells of the blood.
THE THREE CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR BLOOD (OR THE THREE TEST TO DETERMINE
IF STAIN IS REALLY BLOOD)
1. Microscopic Test
2. Microchemical Test
3. Spectroscope Test
MICROSCOPIC TEST
Useful fr the demonstration and mensuration of blood corpuscles for making the
distinction between mammalian, avian, piscine, and reptilian blood and for the investigation of
menstrual, lochial and nasal charges. In short it differentiates mammalian, avian, piscine and
reptilian blood.
MAMMALIAN RED BLOOD CELLS
Circular, biconcave disc without nucleus birds, fish and reptiles red blood cells larger,
oval and nucleated Amphibians-animal living on land breeding in water. Red blood cells are
larger than mammals, oval and nucleated.
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HAEMOCHROMOGEN CRYSTAL TEST OR TAKAYAMA TEST
One of the two popular microchemical test. A delicate test for the presence of
hemoglobin.
REAGENT: Takeyama reagent (3 cc. of 10% NaOH, 33 cc. pyridine, 3 cc. of saturated
glucose solution and diluted with 7 ml. of water.
SPECTROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
The almost delicate and reliable test for the determination of the presence of blood in
both old recent stains. tHis is performed by means of an optical instrument known as
SPECTROSCOPE.
PRECIPITIN TEST
Is the standard test used to determine whether the stain/blood is of human or animal
origin
REAGENT: Precipitin/antiserum
PROCEDURE: Scrape off blood stain if on hard material. Powder the scrapings and
exact with saline solution. if the stain is cloth, paper or similar material, cut a small portion and
then place in a test tube and add extract with saline solution. allow mixture to stand overnight.
Centrifuge to clean the solution. Dilute with saline solution. Layer an extract of the bloodstain on
top of the human antiserum/precipitin in a capillary tube.
POSITIVE RESULT: A white cloudy line or ring or band at the contact points of the fluid
that appears immediately or within one or two minutes.
LIMITATION OF PRECIPITIN TEST; The precipitin reacts not only with blood proteins
but also with other body proteins as those as saliva, semen, mucus and other body fluids.
BLOOD GROUPING TEST OF FRESH BLOOD (Direct Technique Method) USING THE A-B-
O SYSTEM
1. Group “O”
2. Group “A”
3. Group “B”
4. Group “AB”
AGGLUTINOGEN OR ANTIGEN
These are characteristic chemical structrs or “principles” that the found on the surface of
each red blood cells which stimulates the production of agglutinins or antibodies. There are two
different agglutinogens or antigens classified as AGGLUTINOGEN A OR ANTIGEN A AND
AGGLUTINOGEN B OR ANTIGEN B.
ANTIBODY OR AGGLUTININ
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These are properties or “principles” contained in the serum which cause agglutination or
clumping together of the red blood cells. They are antitoxic substances within the body which
reacts when confronted with a specific antigen to protect the system. There are two different
agglutinins classified as Anti-A and Anti-B. Agglutinins are demonstrable in about 50% of newly
born infants.
We have the four groups because of the presence of absence of two antigens A and B in
the RBC and two agglutinins Anti-A and Anti-B in the serum.
There are two agglutinogens in human red cells which defines three types of blood.
Namely: Type M, Type N, and Type MN, thus:
Knowledge of the gas of genetics will make it easier to understand the principle involved
in the inheritance of blood groups. The inheritance of blood groups are predetermined by the
presence and absence of two facts or GENES called Gene A and Gene B. Before we
understand the inheritance of blood groups following are definition of items:
1. GENES
2. PHENOTYPES
Term used to denote the expression of the inherited characteristic as found in the
individual. Actually the blood groups
3. GENOTYPES
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Are paired genes.
I. Questions of illegitimacy and relationships in may cause maybe solved by means of the
blood groups as determined by the agglutinogens A, B, M, and N.
CHAPTER TWO
SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAINS
PARTS OF SEMEN
1. seminal fluid
2. formed Elements Cellular
a. spermatozoa
b. epithelial cells
c. crystal and choline
1. Under clotting
2. Clothing
3. Skin
4. Air
5. Vagina
6. Rectal contains of the victim
7. Around the genitals
There are four examination for seminal stains or seminal fluid in the form of stains namely:
1. Physical Examination
2. Chemical Examination
a. Florence Test
b. Barberio’s Test
c. Acid-phospahtase Test
3. Microscopic Examination
4. Biological Examination
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6. Fluid semen should be placed in a test tube. It maybe preserved by a few drops of
10% solution of formalin during hot weather.
1. Nature of fabric
2. Age of stain
3. Condition to which the stain was exposed reaching the laboratory
4. Handling of the specimen
CHAPTER THREE
GUN POWDER AND OTHER EXPLOSIVES
In the investigation of crimes involving the use of firearms, three most important
problems may arise, the problems of:
1. Determination of whether or not a person fired a gun with bare hands within pertinent period
of time
2. Determination of the probable gunshot range, that is the distance the firearm was held from
the body of the victim at the time of discharge.
3. Determination of the approximate time of firing of the gun on the approximate date of last
discharge.
1. Black powder ( which is consist of or made of 15% of C, 10% of S and 75% of KNO 3 or
NaNO3. When block powder explode
2. Smokeless powder ( which consist of cellulose nitrate or glyceryl nitrate combined with
cellulose nitrate and some stabilizers. When exploded the following reaction occurs:
1. Paraffin test ( Test performed to extract the nitrates embedded in the skin.
2. Diphenylamine Test or DPA Test ( test that determines the presence and location
of nitrate chemical needed diphenylamine reagent . procedure to be taken up in the
laboratory V.S. blue specks if nitrates are present.
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FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE INTERPRETATION OF DPA TEST RESULT:
1. Time of reaction
2. Number of blue specks
3. Location of specks
4. Character of specks
1. It is possible that the gunpowder particles may have been blown on the hand directly
from the barrel of the gun being fired by another person.
2. An attempt to shield the body by arising the hand in some instances result in the
implanting of powder particles on the hands of a person close to one firing a gun..
In the examination / determination of the approximate time of last discharge we need the
specimen firearm in the examination. The barrel is swabbed with cotton and the residues
examined under the microscope.
1. Rust
Formation of rust inside the barrel after a gun has been fired is a good
indication of the determination of the approximate time the gun has been
fired.
If a gun has not fired at all, no rust can be detected inside the barrel of the
gun.
If a gun has been fired, iron salts are formed and are found inside the barrel.
This iron salts are soon oxidized resulting in the formation of rust.
2. NITRATE
3. NITRATES
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2. Type and cal. Of ammunition
3. Wind velocity
4. Direction of firing
5. Distance of firing
6. Nature of firing
7. Humidity
EXPLOSIVES
Explosive
Are combustible materials containing within themselves all oxygen needed for their
combustion that burn but do not explode and function by producing gas that produces
explosion.
Explode or donate when they are heated or subjected to shock. They do not burn.
Sometimes thye do not even contain the elements necessary for combustion. The materials
themselves explode and the explosion results whether the are confined or not.
3. HIGH EXPLOSIVES
Explode under the nfluence of the shock of the explosion of primary explosive. They do
not function by burning, in fact not all of them can be ignited by a flame and in small
amount generally burn tranquilly and can be extinguished easily. If heated to a high
temperature by external heat or by their own combustion, they sometimes expode.
CHAPTER FOUR
HAIR AND TEXTILE FIBERS
Hair
PARTS OF HAIR
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1. Roots ( portion embedded in the skin
2. Shaft ( portion above the surface of the skin. The most DISTINCTIVE part of the hair.
3. Tip ( sometimes termed point. The distal end of an uncut hair.
PARTS OF SHAFT
Certain hair has no medulla. Therefore hair can be classified into two categories namely:
HUMAN HAIR
Melanin ( brownish-black pigment in hair, skin, etc. it is the chemical responsible for the
color of the hair. Black and brown hair differs only to the amount of melanin.
8. Character of cuticle ( the size, the general shape and the irregularity of the scale
9. Character of cortex ( structural features are studied under the microscope.
Cortex is embedded with the pigment granules the impart hair with color. It is the color,
shape and distribution of these granules the provide the chemist with important points of
comparison between the hairs of the different individuals.
10. presence of dye in hair
Dye hair can be distinguished from natural hair. Under the microscope dyed hair has a
dull appearance and the color tone is constant, whereas natural hair is not and the individual
pigment granules stand more sharply.
THE MEDULLA
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The medulla and cortex are the most characteristic portion of the hair. Have more
distinguishing qualities, thus they yield the most reliable criteria in the diagnosis of hair.
Cuticle Medulla
Cortex
MEDULLARY INDEX or M.I ( is the relationship between the diameter of the medulla and the
diameter of the whole hair. Its determination is performed under a microscope with micrometer
eyepiece.
HUMAN
ANIMAL
DETERMINATION OF:
1. Characteristic by race
2. Characteristic by sex
3. The religion of the body from which the human hair has been removed
4. The approximate age of individuals
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MONGOLOID RACE:
1. hair contains dense pigment distributed more or evenly the Negroid race hair
2. cross section of the hair will around to oval in shape
3. hair is coarse and straight with very little variation in diameter along the shaft of the
hair
4. usually contains a heavy black medulla or core.
CAUCASIAN RACE:
1. Hair contains very fine to coarse pigment, and more evenly distributed than is found
in Negro or Mongolian.
2. Cross section will be oval to around in shape
3. Usually straight or wavy and not kinky
CHARACTERISTICS BY SEX
1. Male hair is generally larger in diameter, shorter in length, more wiry in texture than t
hat of a female
2. Male hair averages approximately 1 / 350 of an inch in diameter, female hair
averages approximately 1 / 450 of an inch in diameter.
THE REGION OF THE BODY FROM WHICH THE HUMAN HAIR HAS BEEN REMOVED:
1. Scalp hair ( they are more mature than any other kind of human hair
2. Beard Hair ( coarse, curved, very stiff, and often triangular in cross section
3. Hairs from eyebrow, eyelid, nose and ear-short, stubby, and have wide medulla.
Eyebrow and eyelashes are usually very short and has a sharp and has a sharp tip.
4. Trunk hair ( very in thickness along the shaft and are immature but are somewhat
similar to head hairs. They have fine, long tip ends.
5. Limb hair ( similar to trunk hairs but usually are not so long or so coarse and usually
contain less pigment.
6. Axillary Hair ( is fairly long unevenly distributed pigment. They vary considerably in
diameter along the shaft and have frequently a bleached appearance. It has an
irregular shape and structure. Looks like public hair but the ends are shaper and the
hair is not so curly.
7. Public hair-similar to axillary hair but are coarser, and do not appear bleached. More
wiry, have more constriction and twist and usually have continuous broad medulla.
Has many broken ends the clotting rubs.
Infant hairs are fine, short in length, have fine pigment and are rudimentary in chapter.
Children’s hair through adolescence is generally finer and more immature than and hair but
cannot be definitely differentiated with certainly.
If it is noted that the pigment is missing or starting to disappear in the hair, it can be
stated that the hair is from adult. It is common for a relatively young person to have prematurely
gray or white hair(head hair) but not body hairs.
The root of hair from an aged person may show a distinctive degeneration
TEXTILE FIBERS
1. Natural fiber
2. Synthetic or artificial fiber
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THREE SUBDIVISIONS OF NATURAL FIBERS:
1. Vegetable fibers ( made of CELLULOSE. Examples are seed. Stem barks or bast
fibers, leaf fibers, cotton, woody fibers, fruit or nut fibers.
2. Animal fibers ( made of PROTEIN. Examples are wool, silk, hair.
3. Mineral fiber ( example is asbestos
1. organic fiber
a. Cellulosic ( example rayon
b. Non-cellulosic ( examples nylon, casein fiber, resin fiber
2. Inorganic fiber
a. mineral fiber ( examples glass fiber wool, glass rock, and slag wools
b. metallic fiber ( examples finewire filament, steel wool, tinsel threads.
TEST FOR FIBERS:
DISCUSSION OF TEST
FLUORESCENCE TEST – frequently used to determine the general group to which a fiber
belongs. It is not reliable for positive identification of fiber.
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION – the fiber is placed on a slide teased and covered. In general
it is the most reliable and best means of identifying fibers.
1. Cotton – unicellular filament, flat, ribbon-like, twisted spirally to right or left on its axis; central
canal is uniform in diameter. Cell wall thick, covered by a thick, structureless, waxy cuticle.
Fibers taper gradually to a blunt or rounded point at one end.
2. Mercerized Cotton – straight, cylindrical with occasional twist; unevenly lustrous, smooth
except for occasional transverse fold or wrinkles; cuticle mostly lacking.
3. Linen – multicellular filament, straight and cylindrical, not twisted and flattened, tapering to a
sharp point. Cell walls thick, the lumen appearing as a narrow dark line in the center of the
fiber to appear jointed resembling bamboo.
4. Cultivated silk-smooth, cylinder, lustrous threads, usually single but often double, the twin
filament held together by an envelope of gum. More or less transparent, without definite
structure.
5. Wild silk-similar to cultivated silk but broader and less regular in outline. Marked by very fine
longitudinal striations with infrequent diagonal cross markings.
6. Artificial silk-cylindrical, lustrous, appearing like a glass rod.
7. Wool-easily distinguished by presence of flattened, overlapping epidermal scales not found
on silk or any of the vegetable fibers.
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CHEMICAL TEST
A. Staining Test – the fiber is stained with picric acid, Million’s reagent, stannic chloride or
iodine solution.
1. 10% NaOH
2. 5% oxalic acid
3. Half saturated oxalic acid
4. Concentrated sulfuric acid
5. Concentrated and dilute ammonium hydroxide
6. Concentrated nitric acid
CHAPTER FIVE
CHEMICAL ASPECTS OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
DOCUMENT
An original or official written or printed paper furnishing information or used as proof of
something else.
The essential materials in a document examination of any kind are the paper and ink or
pencil or writings. The examination of paper maybe necessary if we want to know the age of
the document, the presence of alterations, erasures and other forms of forgery.
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COMPOSITION OF PAPER
1. Fiber Composition
2. Sizing Material – to improve quality of paper
3. Loading Material – to add weight to the paper
EGYPTIAN PAPYRUS - one of the earliest substance used for writing. It is form the name
papyrus, that the word paper was derived.
FIBER COMPOSITION: practically all papers maybe classified form the standpoint of their
basic fiber composition into sets of fiber mixtures namely:
LOADING MATERIAL – added to paper to give weight. It partially fills the pores between the
fibers of the paper. Examples are calcium sulfate and barium sulfate.
1. Preliminary Examination
2. Physical test causing no perceptible change
3. Physical test causing a perceptible change
4. Chemical Test
The test deals with the appearance of the document and the following are observed:
WATERMARKS – it is a distinctive mark or design placed in the paper at the time of its
manufacture by a roll usually a dandy roll.
WIREMARKS – marks produced on paper by the flexible wire soldered to the surface of the
dandy roll that carries the watermark.
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PHYSICAL TEST CAUSING NO PERCEPTIBLE CHANGE
A test applied on paper without perceptibly changing or altering the original appearance
of the document.
OPACITY – the quality of paper that does not allow light to pass through or which prevents dark
objects from being seen through the paper.
This is done only if sufficient samples are available and if proper authorization from the
court is acquired this can be done.
CHEMICAL TEST - This test determines the fiber composition, the loading material and sizing
material used in the paper.
FIBER COMPOSITION – examination is purely microscopic and it determines the material used
and nature of processing.
LOADING MATERIALS – is determined by burning and ashing a portion of the paper and then
the ash examined.
SIZING MATERIAL – gelatin is extracted by boiling the paper in water and the solution treated
with tannic acid; rosin is extracted by heating the paper with 95% alcohol. The alcohol
evaporated and the residue treated with acetic anhydride and strong sulfuric acid; starch is
determined by addition of dilute iodine solution; case in is determined by addition Millon’s
reagent.
INK
Some of the most important questions that arise in the analysis of inks are:
1. Whether the ink is the same or like or different inking from ink on other parts of the same
documents or other document.
2. Whether two writings made with the same kind of ink were made with the identical ink, or
inks of different qualities or in different conditions.
3. Whether an ink is as old as purports to be
4. Whether documents of different dates or a succession of differently dated book entries
show the natural variations in ink writing or whether the conditions point to one
continuous writing at one time under identical conditions.
TYPES OF INK
1. Gallotannic ink or iron-nutgall ink – the type of ink where age maybe determined. Today
the most frequently used ink for making entries in record books and for business
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purposes. Gallotannic ink is made of a solution off iron salt and nutgall. This ink can
penetrate into the interstices of the fiber and not merely on the surface, thus making its
removal more difficult to accomplish.
2. Logwood ink – made of saturated solution of logwood to which very small amount of
potassium dichromate is added. Hydrochloric acid is added to prevent formation of
precipitate. Phenol is added as preservative. This ink is inexpensive and does not
corrode steel pen. Will not wash off the paper even fresh, flows freely.
3. Nigrosine Ink or Aniline Ink – made of coal tar product called nigrosine dissolved in
water. It easily smudge, affected by moisture, maybe washed off from the paper with
little difficulty. It is best determined by spectrographic method.
4. Carbon ink or Chinese ink or India Ink – the oldest ink material known. Made of carbon
in the form of lampblack. Does not penetrate deeply into the fibers of the paper so that it
may easily be washed off. Not affected by the usual ink testing reagents.
5. Colored writing ink – today, almost all colored inks are composed of synthetic aniline
dyestuffs dissolved in water. In certain colored inks ammonium vanadate is added to
render the writing more permanent.
6. Ball Point Pen ink – made of light fast dyes soluble in glycol type solvents as carbitol,
glycol or oleic acid. Paper Chromatography is the best way of determine this type of ink.
1. Physical Test
2. Chemical Test or Spot Test
3. Paper Chromatography Test
DISCUSSION OF TEST
1. Physical Test – applied to determine the color and presence of alterations, erasures,
destruction of sizes with the use of stereoscope, handlens or microscope.
2. Chemical Test – a simple test wherein different chemicals or reagents are applied on the
ink strokes and the chemical reactions or characteristic color reactions or other changes
in the ink is observed. Reagents used: 5% HCI, 10% oxalic acid, tartaric acid, 2%
NaOH, 10% NaOC1, C12, H2O, KCNS, water.
1. Age of Ink – no definite procedure which can be given for this determination except when
the color is black, because on the observation that within a few hours, the color of ink
writings becomes darker because the dye contain therein is influenced by the light of the
room, oxygen of the air, acidity or alkalinity of the paper.
There are several methods of determining the degree of oxidation of the ink writing and
apparently these methods depend upon:
1. Physical phenomena such a matching the color of the ink writing with the standard
colors of with itself over a period of time.
2. Chemical reaction that may reveal some information concerning the length of time the
ink has been on the paper.
2. Age of paper
a. through watermarks
b. in certain case from the composition of paper
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OTHER ASPECT OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
ILLEGIBLE WRITINGS – unnecessary writings that are not capable of being read usually made
on checks, birth certificate, passport and transcript of record.
1. Erasure – means removal of writing from the paper. Can be made chemically or
mechanically.
2. Obliteration – the obscuring of writing by superimposing ink, pencil or other marking
material.
3. Sympathetic Ink or Invisible ink – substances used for invisible writing.
4. Indented Writing – term applied to the partially visible depression appearing on a sheet of
paper underneath the one that the visible writing appears.
5. Writings on Carbon Paper – used sheets of carbon paper can be made readable.
6. Contact Writing – black paper may contain traces of ink because of previous contact with
some writings.
CHAPTER SIX
GLASS AND GLASS FRAGMENTS AND FRACTURES
GLASS
COMPOSITION OF GLASS
Glass is usually composed of oxides like SiO 2 (silica), B2O3 (boric oxide), phosphorus
pentoxide (P2O5). For commercial use silica is the most important oxide. It is the base of
commercial glasses. It is made of silica sand and other metallic oxides. Oxide is for fluxing,
durability and reduction of viscosity. Glass like window and plate that are made in mass
production is fairly uniform in composition. These may contain incidental impurities and the
presence of these substances in invaluable for the identification and comparison of glass by
spectrographic analysis. Glass has also presence of trace elements which maybe sufficient to
establish or negate the fact of a common source of two samples of glass.
1. Spectrographic analysis/test
2. X-ray diffraction analysis/test
3. Physical properties examination
4. Ultraviolet light examination
5. Polish marks examination
DISCUSSION OF TEST
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ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT EXAMINATION – determines the differences in the appearance of their
fluorescence thus indication of physical and chemical differences.
POLISH MARKS – optical glass and other fine glassware are usually polished. In the polishing
of glass fine marks are often left on the surface that can sometimes serve as a basis of
comparison.
Hit and run accidents represent a good percentage of crimes. If an automobile or any
vehicle for that matter is discovered in which fragments of the lens can be found, a comparison
maybe made with the fragments found at the scene of accident employing the methods of
analysis for glass.
HOW GLASS BREAKS (HOW GLASS FORMS CRACKS WHEN A BLOW OR PRESSURE IS
APPLIED ON ONE OF ITS SURFACE)
When the blow strikes the glass on one of its surface, the front for example. The glass
first bends a little owing to its elasticity. When the limit of elasticity if reached the glass breaks
along radial lines starting from the point where the destroying force is applied originating form
the opposite surface of the glass, because this is the portion or surface which is more subjected
to stretching by bending. The front surface is only pushed. While the radial fractures are taking
place the newly created glass triangle between the radial rays also bend away from the direction
of the destroying force. By this bending the glass is stretched along the front surface and when
the limit of elasticity is reached the glass breaks in concentric cracks. These originate on the
front of the glass because of stretching.
1. On one side of the hole numerous small flakes of glass will be found to have been blown
away giving the hole the appearance of a volcano crater. Such appearance indicates that
the bullet was fired from the opposite direction of the hole from which the flakes are missing.
If the shot was fired perpendicular to the window pane the flake marks are evenly distributed
around the hole.
2. If the shot was fired at an angle from the right, the left side will suffer more flaking than the
right.
3. Excessive flaking on the right side of a window pane would indicate a shot fired at an angle
from the left.
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BROKEN WINDOWS CAUSED BY FIST OR STONE or HURLING PROJECTILE
The direction of the blow in case a fist or stone smashed the window is quite difficult but
the principles of radial cracks and concentric cracks or fractures will apply.
3Rs Rule – “Stress lines on a radial crack will be at right angle to the rear side of the glass.”
The front side is referred to as the side that was struck.
RFC Rule – “Stress lines on a concentric crack will be at right angle to the front side” that is the
side from which the blow came, rather than the rear side.
PROCEDURE: Piece together as many as you can gather of the glass fragments as possible.
Select a triangular piece bounded by two radial cracks and one concentric crack. The triangular
piece must be adjacent to the point of impact, it this is not a available select a piece as close as
possible to the point of impact.
The problem of which one was fired first becomes important to determine who is the
aggressor. It will be found that the fractures caused by the first bullet will be complete,
especially the radial cracks, whereas the fractures from the second will be interrupted and end-
stopped at points where they intersect those from the first.
Laminated glass, which is now being used in automobiles, does not shatter when struck
sharply. Frequently the cracking of safety glass is not complete; the radial cracks do not extend
to the side of impact and the spiral cracks do not extend to the other side.
Casting material – is any material w/c can be changed from plastic or liquid state to the solid
condition is capable of use as casting material.
The following are the criteria on which the value of casting material is assessed.
1. Hastening – add one half teaspoonful of the table salt to the plaster.
2. retarding – add one part of a saturated solution of borax to ten part water to be
used in making the plaster.
3. Hardening – to give a cast a greater durability it can be place on a saturated solution
of sodium carbonate, and allowed to remain in the solution for
sometime. It is then removed and dried.
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TOOLS IMPRESSIONS MAY BE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO GENERAL CLASSES:
1. These produced by such instruments like an Axe-hammer, pliers and cutters which
touch the area only once in producing the impression.
a. Compression Marks – which produced by a single application of tool is the
area of contact, for example: the impression of a single blow of a hammer.
b. Friction Marks – which are series of scratches or striations produced by
pushing a tool across the surface such as those produced by cutters jimmy or
axe.
2. Those produced by such instrument like saw or file which is applied in a repeated
strokes over the same area.
Cost of Human Body it is important that the temperature of the negative material should
be below 110OF (43.3OC) a temperature higher than this will be uncomfortable if not injurious to
the subject.
Casting Materials
Cost of the human body is made by the use of Negocoll and Hominit or Celert.
Negroid race:
a. Hair is usually kinky with marked variations in the diameter along the shaft.
b. Contain heavy pigment distributed an eely.
c. A thin cross section of the hair is oval in shape.
CHAPTER SEVEN
METALLURGY (AS APPLIED TO CRIME DETECTION)
METALLURGY – the art of extracting and working on metals by the application of chemical and
physical knowledge.
1. Robbery
2. Theft
3. Hit and run
4. Bomb and explosion
5. Nail Examination
6. Counterfeit coins
7. Restoration of tampered serial numbers
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COUNTERFEIT COINS
COUNTERFEIT COINS – coins made to imitate the real thing and used for gain.
TWO KINDS OF COUNTERFEIT COINS:
CAST COINS – coins made in molds or coins made by casting method. An impression of
genuine coin is taken by use of plaster of Paris, clay, or bronze. The plaster molds bearing the
image of a good coin are filled within a low temperature alloy made with lead or tin. Sand molds
are used for high temperature metals such as copper or silver alloys. Cast coin has poor
imitation. It can be easily detected. The surface is usually pitted and uneven. The edges of
lettering and designs are rounded instead of sharp.
STRUCK COINS – made by striking or stamping method or these are coins made by means of
dies. Consists of making an impression of a coin on a metal blank by pressure. Stamping is
done by way of steel dies. Often well executed. Its detection is not easy since weight, specific
gravity, composition may all be good. Careful comparison of smaller details of the designs with
those of the genuine should be made.
ETCHING FLUID – fluid used to restore tampered serial numbers. Choice of etching fluid
depends on the structure of the metal bearing the original number.
ETCHING FLUIDS
1. For cast iron and cast steel – 10% sulfuric acid and potassium dichromate
2. For wrought iron and forged iron-Solution 1 : hydrochloric acid + water + cupric chloride +
alcohol and Solution 2:15% nitric acid
3. For aluminum-glycerin + hydrofluoric acid + nitric acid
4. For lead – 3 parts glacial acetic acid and one part water
5. For stainless steel – dilute sulfuric acid or 10% hydrochloric acid in alcohol for copper, brass,
silver, and other copper alloys-ferric chloride + hydrochloric acid + water
6. For Zinc – 10% sodium hydroxide
7. For Tin – 10% hydrochloric acid
8. For Silver – concentrated nitric acid
9. For Gold and Platinum – 3 parts hydrochloric acid and one part nitric acid
When a number or any mark is stamped on metal, the crystalline structure of the metal in the
neighborhood of the stamp is disturbed. This disturbance penetrates to an appreciable distance
into the substance of the metal, but not visible to the naked eye once the actual indentations
caused by the punch have been removed. When etching fluid are applied to this surface, the
disturbed or strained particles of the metal differ in the rate of solubility than those of the
undisturbed particles and this difference in solubility makes it possible in many cases, to restore
the number to such an extent that they can be read and photographed.
INTRODUCTION:
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determined that metal object leave traces on skin and clothing surfaces in characteristic
patterns with intensities proportional to the interaction of weight, friction, or duration of contact
with metal objects. The Trace Metal Detection Technique (TMDT) makes such metal trace
patterns visible when skin or clothing is treated with a test solution and then is illuminated by
ultra violet light. Examination by ultraviolet light of the metal trace patterns which appear as
fluorescent colors on the hands or clothing of the suspect allows a police officer to determine
whether a suspect has been in contact with certain metal objects, the type of metal or metals in
the objects, and also to infer what type of weapon or metal object was probably involved. The
patterns fluorescent colors can be analyzed with refference to the circumstances requiring the
use of TMDT and with other related information to provide an initial source of evidence. Physical
evidence obtained by the use of TMDT, however, should be use as an adjunct to complete
investigation.
The areas to be examined are selected in relation to the circumstances, the suspect
item (handgun, rifle, tools, bludgeon, etc.), and to the normal handling, use, possession, or
concealment of the suspect item. For example, if the suspect item is a handgun, in addition to
the hands those areas of clothing which may have been contact with the weapon and the skin
areas directly beneath should be examined. In the latter case, metal traces and patterns are
sometimes found to have penetrated clothing to the skin area beneath.
The area to be examined is completely coated with the TMDT test solution. a spray
container is generally the most suitable for this purpose. Whenever possible, the surface should
be in a vertical position while being sprayed to prevent the formation of puddles. Although the
TMDT test solution is nontoxic to skin surfaces, it should not be taken internally. Care should be
taken to avoid spraying the solution into the subject’s eyes. If spray does get into the eyes, the
subject should immediately flush his eyes with water for at least ten minutes and obtain medical
acid.
The test area is allowed to dry for a period of two or three minutes. The drying time of
hands can be shortened by swinging the arms. Sunlight, breeze, and hot air also shorten the
drying process. Th areas on clothing and other materials should be allowed to dry thoroughly
before examination.
The TMDT solution produces a light yellow fluorescent on those parts of the test are that
have not been in contact with metal object. This pale yellow flourescence provides a
background for metal trace patterns seen on parts of the test area that have been in contact
with metal objects. The metal trace patterns will give off fluorescent colors that are unique to
types of metal and appear as silhouettes against the light yellow fluorescent background of the
test area. Examples of fluorescent colors produced by various metals are: steel/iron (blackish
purple),. Brass/copper (purple), galvanized iron (bright yellow), aluminum (mottled dull yellow),
and lead (buff, flesh tone, or tannish). The officer first should identify the types of metal that
have been in contact with the test area by the fluorescent color that appear under the
illumination of the ultraviolet light. Essential to the officer’s ability to make this identification is his
knowledge and experience of what fluorescent colors are produced by metals such as steel,
brass, copper, lead, aluminum, tin chromium, iron nickel, silver and certain alloys that can be
contained in metal objects. After determining the presence of metal traces in the test area and
identifying the metals, the officer can next determine the pattern of the metal traces revealed by
the fluorescent colors. The location, size, and shape of metal traces on the hand from patterns
that are characteristic of the size and shape and the normal way in which weapons, tools and
other metal objects handled and used. The recognition of these patterns in conjunction with the
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determination of what metals left traces on the skin are the basis for identification of metal
objects. In this way the officer can ascertain if the pattern is pertinent to a suspect item to its
having been in the possession of a suspect.
The shape, size and weight of the metals object, the duration of contact, and the use of
the metal object all combine to produce the location and intensity of metal traces and their
patterns on the hands.
On holding a metal object, metal traces depend on the object’s shape and the size (more
or less) of the hand that comes in contact with the metal surface. The intensity is also
proportional tot he actions and forces involved in using a tol, striking blows with weapons, and
the recoil from the discharge of firearms. In addition, the intensity is incresed when the suspect
resists action to disarm him.
As noted earlier, metals leave characteristic traces on clothing surfaces. Therefore, the
suspect’s clothing should be examined by TMDT. In particular, the areas to be examined are:
gloves, hats, pocket, lining of coats, shirts, areas used for concealment, and other areas of
clothing where the suspect item may have been carried, concealed, or otherwise been in
contact. The spray is applied to the test areas placed in a vertical p[position whenever possible.
Clothing and other materials vary in their absorbency, therefore some of these test areas may
require a heavier application of spray or two or more spraying to produce the maximum
flourescence and appearance of metal traces and patterns. The maximum appearance is
obtained when a repeated spraying does not produce a brighter fluorescence that the previous
spraying and drying of the test area. Metal traces sometimes penetrate clothing to the skin
areas beneath. For example, metal traces may be found on the hands even though gloves have
been worn while metal objects have been handled. Skin areas directly beneath clothing areas
where metal traces have been found should be examined by TMDT. However, it should be
noted the plastic, leather and rubber materials are impervious to penetration of metal traces.
Because of their unique shape and use, handguns leave characteristic pattern and
distinct signatures on the hands that are specific to types, makes, models, and calibres of
these weapons.
The police officers, with knowledge and experience in identifying the characteristic patterns and
signatures on handguns by TMDT, can determine if a suspect has had a handgun in his
possession and the signature of the handgun by the following procedures.
The suspect’s hands are extended from the sides of the body with the palms in a vertical
position and the fingers and thumb separated and extended. The officer should make certain
that the entire surface of the front and back of the hands are covered by the spray.
EXAMINATION OF HANDS
The officer can next examine the suspect’s dry hands under ultraviolet light. He should
make a written record of the following observations and analysis of the suspect’s hand:
1. First, note and record the fluorescent colors of the metal traces that make up the
pattern for th purpose of identifying th metallic content of the gun.
2. Look for the appearance of metal traces (fluorescent colors differing from the light
yellow fluorescent color produced by TMDT test solution) on those parts of th hand
that come in contact with the gun: th index finger which rested on the trigger, the
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remaining fingers and thumb which enclosed the gun, the palm, and the degree of
protrusion of the gun into the area between and beyond the junction of the thumb
and index finger. (Extensive protrusion of metal traces beyond this area are made by
the overhang at the top of the back edge of the handles of automatics, which is
common to the design of this type of handgun.)
3. Look for any irregularities or distinguishing marks in the pattern which may have
been made by screws, protrusions, ornamentation’s, and other markings of the gun.
4. Look for interruptions in the pattern which may be due to nonmetal parts of the gun.
Compare these observations with the suspect handgun or, if it has not been
recovered, with a Catalog of Handgun “Signatures.” This comparison serves to
identify the signatures of the handgun or possession thereof by the suspect.
5. Take a photograph of the pattern produced on the suspect’s hand under illumination
by ultraviolet light.
6. If the suspect handgun has been recovered before the apprehension of the suspect
or shortly after his arrest (it has been found that detectable metal traces may be
found up to 38 – 48 hours after contact with metal objects), the pattern of the
handgun should be produced on a subject who has not recently handled a gun. The
patterns on the subject’s hands should be examined side-by-side under ultraviolet
light to determine whether or not the handgun has been in the possession of the
suspect. Photographs should be taken as evidence.
7. If the suspect handgun has not been recovered, the pattern on the suspect’s hand
should be compared with the photographs of handgun patterns entered in a Catalog
of Handgun “Signatures”. A photograph of the pattern on th subject’s hand should
also be taken and compared with those in the catalog to aid in the possible
identification of the type of gun the suspect has had in his position.
It has been noted earlier that handguns leave distinct pattern or “signatures” which are
specific to types, makes, models, and calibres of these weapons. It is important that police
officers develop a thorough knowledge and permanent record of these signatures. For this
purpose a catalog of signatures should be prepared of as many types, models, makes, and
calibres of specimen handgun that can possibly be obtained. The signatures of these handguns
can be produced on the hands of subjects and examined under ultraviolet light as described in
Section 3 above. A photograph of each signature is then entered ultraviolet light and the type,
make and model of the specimen handgun.
Some tools and other metal objects leave patterns that are characteristics of their
shape, normal handling and use (for example: pliers, wrenches, shears, scissors, etc.) while
other tools and metal objects may leave patterns that are similar because they are alike in
shape and diameter (for example: crowbars, pipes, metal bars, etc.). Accurate analysis and
determination of patterns on suspect’s hands depend upon relating the above factors to
circumstances, information, and evidence of the case upon the technician’s experience and skill
in using TMDT. Again, as an aid in obtaining such experience and skill, the technician should
prepare a catalog of patterns and metal traces produced by tools and other metal objects.
The hands of individual may have metal traces from contact with metal objects such as
handles, doorknobs, keys, etc. The intensities of the traces will be proportional to the force
and duration of contact with these metal objects. In some cases, the metal traces will be
faint because of momentary and light contact with the objects, but in other cases the traces
from no significant metal traces and distort the patterns of significant metal objects.
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DISASSEMBLY OR ASSEMBLY OF A HANDGUN
If the suspect has handled a handgun for these purposes, metal traces will be left on the
hands which do not form the pattern ordinarily produced by the weapon. However, if the
suspect held the weapon in the usual way for a period of time, the technician may be able
to detect the specific pattern left by the handgun. ( It should be noted that gun oils give off a
mother-of-pearl appearance under ultraviolet light.)
Some metal objects may leave metal traces and patterns that are similar but not
identical to the metal traces and patterns of the significant object. The officer should be
mindful of such potential “false positives” and learn to discriminate accordingly.
Exposure to water after contact with metal objects does not affect an examination of the
hands. Repeated hand washing with abrasive soap or rubbing with dirt after contact with
metals will reduce the amount of traces deposited on the skin in a deliberate attempt to
remove metal traces. However, it has been found that metal trace patterns may be found on
the hands up to 36-48 hours after when the suspect has followed a normal routine of daily
hand washings.
The maximum fluorescence brightness of metal m traces and patterns that can be
obtained in a TMDT examination depends not only upon the amount of metal that has been
deposited on a skin or clothing surface but also upon the following factors: (1) adequate
application and coverage of the TMDT test solution, (2) a strong source of ultraviolet
illumination, (3) exclusion of all other illumination from the test area, and (4) the proximity
of the ultraviolet light to the test area.
The successful use of TMDT in the field for checking on a suspect or screening a group
of individuals for previous possession of weapons or other significant metal objects depends on
whether the circumstances and conditions are suitable for such examination. The acquiescence
or subjugation of the subject must be obtained to perform the examination. Sources of
environmental light must be greatly reduced or eliminated in order to produce adequate
fluorescence by ultraviolet light. And, finally, field personnel must have sufficient experience and
skill to ascertained whether an individual has been contact with a weapon or significant metal
object and whether an individual should be held for further detailed examination by TMDT.
Studies should be carried out by police officers to determine the conditions and circumstances
that prevent or are conductive to valid use and result of TMDT in the field.
Another possible use of TMDT is the determination that a metal object has rested on
another, non-metal object. For example, a research experiment involving the successful
application of this use determined that (1) a pair of scissors no longer present had rested on the
paper lining in a drawer and (2) coins no longer present had rested on a paper document in the
bottom of a storage container. In the latter case, the duration of contact of the undisturbed coins
was sufficient to show which side of each coin had rested on the document. Since friction is not
involved, results depend of the weight and duration of the contact of the metal object with the
surface on which it rests. When consideration is given ot the use of TMDT for this type of
detection, the officer should conduct a test to determine if trace metal deposit can be produced
on the surface in question.
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PRECAUTIONS
Shortwave ultraviolet light in injurious to the eyes. Do not look directly into the light or
shine the light into an individual eyes. Protective goggles are commercially available that
prevent passage of shortwave ultraviolet but transmit thew visible fluorescent light which is not
injurious to the eyes.
FLUORESCENCE PHOTOGRAPHY
A. PHOTOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES
The black and white films used in fluorescence photography should have panchromatic
sensitivity and high speed. Eastman Kodak co., E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., GAF,
and Polaroid Corporation all manufacture film of this type.
C. COLOR FILMS
The advantages of using color films to record fluorescent metal trace patterns ar
obvious. The patterns are produced in fluorescent colors which are examined and
analyzed as such. Photographing the patterns with color film records their actual
appearance, whereas black and white films record the patterns, interruptions in the
patterns, and incomplete coverage by the TMDT solution as varying shades of gray as
easily as they can distinguish different colors.
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The advantages of using color films, however, are offset by their lower ASA/ISO
numbers, although some can be pushed to higher speed by special development to
allow shorter exposure times. Again, as in the case of black and white films, the beginner
should conduct tests to determine exposure using these films.
CHAPTER EIGHT
SOIL
(PETROGRAPHY AS APPLIED TO CRIME DETECTION)
PETROGRAPHY – branch of geology that deals with the systematic classification and
identification of rocks, rock forming minerals and soil. Also includes study of dust, dirt, safe
insulation, ceramics and other such materials, both natural and artificial.
TYPES OF SOIL
1. Alluvial Soil – formed from soil particles that were washed, blown, or moved by gravity to the
lowlands. Earth, sand, gravel, etc. deposited by moving water.
2. Colluvial Soil – formed from decomposition of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks,
the decomposed particles moved by gravity.
3. Sedentary Soil – inactive, not migratory soil.
1. Soil usually in form of mud is usually recovered from shoes, slippers, clothes, tires, tools and
furniture.
2. If found on the above the soil should remain in place and the whole submitted to the
laboratory.
3. Should be wrapped in a clean paper or filter paper and placed in a box.
4. Known soil samples should be taken at different places around the point of reference.
CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL
1. Primary Minerals
2. Clay Mineral
3. Organic Constituents
PRIMARY MINERALS – includes under composed rock fragments ranging from stone down
thru pebbles, sand and silt. Important minerals include quartz (silica), calcite (limestone,
CaCO3), feldspar (silicate of A1, Na, Ba, Ca, K) dolomite, mica.
CLAY MINERAL – a product of decomposition of primary minerals found in nearly all soils and
is the major constituents of most heavy soil. It imparts to soil cohesiveness and plasticity and
becomes hard and adherent on heating.
ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS – one of the most variable of all soil constituents and is of peculiar
importance in the identification of soil.
ANALYSIS OF SOIL – there are several methods of petrography analysis that are being use in
the laboratories to establish the identify of two or more samples of soil. There is no procedure
that is specially recommended. It all depends on the availability of the apparatus. The
DENSITY GRADIENT APPARATUS is a simple apparatus utilizing simple procedure in
determining the identity or non-identity of soil samples based on the density distribution. The
procedure is rapid, requiring a few hours of completion. It is sensitive to small changes in
composition.
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OTHER METHODS OF ANALYSIS FOR SOIL
X-ray diffraction, spectrographic analysis and thermal analysis are methods extensively used in
commercial and private laboratories as general procedure.
The value of soil as evidence depends wholly upon the fact that soils differ in various
characteristics over the surface of the earth. This difference makes it possible to establish the
identity or non-identity of two soil samples.
DUST AND DIRT – has been described as “matter in the wrong place”. The study of such piece
of evidence may often provide the investigator with clues as to the occupation or previous
whereabouts of a person under investigation.
CRIME (heavy dirt ) – when dust is mixed with the sweat and grease of the human body this is
formed.
COMPOSITION OF DUST
Whatever is the origin of dust and wherever it is found it always contain substances of
plant and animal origin and substances of mineral origin.
For purpose of criminal investigation, dust may well be classified from their source.
a. Dust Deposited from the Air −− Extremely fine dust particles present in the air
everywhere. More in thickly populated and industrial region. Settle very slowly and
ultimately deposited on any exposed surface. Its value in crime detection is
significant.
b. Road and Footpath Dust −− produced by the wear and tear of the road surface be
vehicular and pedestrian traffic together with particles of soil carried by the wind or
rain from adjoining regions.
c. Industrial Dust −− Industries ;like cement, button, powdered gypsum and plaster of
Paris factories, flour milling, paint pigment, involves industrial processes like
grinding, milling or beating for the purpose of producing finely powdered ultimate
products which in the process impart a pronounced local character to the dust on the
neighboring roads and buildings.
d. Occupation Dust −− Some of the fi8nely powdered material maybe found on the
clotting and foot wears of employees engaged in such industries. Aside from this for
example, coal miner will have coal dust on his clothes, bricklayer will yield brick duct,
sand and lime on his clothes.
From the forensic chemical point of view, the identification of occupational dust is of great
importance. In criminal investigation, the identification of the person through the articles of
clotting left in the scene of crime or in a vehicle may place him in an identifiable class and thus
to distinguish from the great majority of other persons. Such observation does not serve to
distinguish the wearer of the cloth from all other persons.
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COLLECTION AND SUBMISSION OF DUST AND DIRT SPECIMEN
1. Dust and dirt present in clotting or objects that can be readily transported should be
left in site. The whole article is packed in a clean box with proper protection and
hipped to the laboratory.
2. If the object is immovable or too big to submit as a specimen like sofa, piano,
dresses, the specimen maybe removed by mechanical means if present in large
quantity.
3. Dust on clotting maybe removed by the used of vacuum cleaner with paper bags
used in the dust sack to collect the dirt.
b. Note the proportion of the solid matters that remains in suspension and
proportion that settles rapidly.
CHAPTER NINE
ARSON
DEFINITION OF ARSON:
Arson is the willful and malicious burning of the house or house of another man.
Present laws on arson have extended the scope of the crime and covered all kinds of
buildings and structures even including personal property. Now the crime of arson
includes the burning of one’s own property.
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2. UNDER THE REVISED PENAL CODE
Arson is the destruction of property by fire and the extent of liability depends on:
3. ACCORDING TO WEBSTER:
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
1. Willfulness −− means intentional and implies that the act was done purposely and
intentionally.
2. Intent −− is the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves the will.
An essential element of crime, movie, motive is not.
3. Motive −− is the moving cause which includes the commission of a crime.
Something that leads or influence a person to do something.
4. Malice −− denotes hatred or will or a desire for revenge. Is the intent to do injury to
another.
1. A fire can only be considered as arson if all accidendetal and natural cuase of
fire can be eliminated.
The more burning of a building does not constitute the body of the crime.
5. Burning −− to constitute burning, there must be burning or charring, i.e. the fiber of
the wood must be destroyed, its identify change. It is not necessary that the building
be seriously damaged.
A mere smoking, scorching or discoloration of the wood is not sufficient.
1. origin of fire
2. motive
3. identification of prime suspect
4. identification of the fire setter
ORIGIN OF FIRE
The first step in recognizing arson is the exclusion of all accidental and natural causes of
fire.
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CAUSES OF FIRE
TELL TALE SIGNS −− signs that maybe obvious that the fireman will suspect arson
1. Burned building −− a type of building may indicate a set fire under some
circumstances.
2. Separate fire −− when two or more separate fires breaks out within a building the
fire is certainly suspicious.
3. Color of smoke −− when fire burn with little or no smoke but they are exception. The
observation of the smoke must be made at the fire since once the fire has assumed
a major proportion, the value of smoke is lost because the smoke will not indicate the
materials used by the arsonist.
a. White smoke appears before the water comes in contact with the fire
indicates humid materials burning. Examples: burning hay, vegetable
materials, phosphorus (with garlic odor)
b. Biting smoke; irritating the nose and throat and causing lacrymation and
coughing indicates presence of chlorine.
c. Grayish smoke or black smoke – indicates lack of air but if accompanied by
large flame it indicates petroleum and petroleum products and rubber, tar,
coal, turpentine.
d. Reddish brown smoke − indicates nitrocellulose, S, sulfuric acid. Nitric acid or
hydrochloric acid.
4. Color of flame − the color of the flame is a good indication oif the intensity of fire
and sometimes of the nature of the combustible substance present.
Ex. Burning alcohol-blue flame
Burning petroleum products – red flame
5. Size of fire −− rapid extension of the fire is indicative of the use of accelerants.
6. Direction of travel −− fire normally sweeps upward, the travel of fire is predictable
from a knowledge of the construction of the building.
7. Intensity −− the degree of heat given off by a fire and the color of its flame
oftentimes indicates that some accelerants has been added to the material normally
present in the building.
8. Location of flame −− investigator should not whether there is more than one
apparent point of origin and should try to estimate the approximate location of
turpentine, alcohol, kerosene, and gasoline.
9. Odors −− many accelerants emit characteristic odors especially liquid like
turpentine, alcohol, kerosene, and gasoline.
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POINT OF ORIGIN OF THE FIRE
In case of arson, point of origin of the fire is the area that the physical evidence of
criminal design is likely to be discovered. This maybe established by an examination of the
witness and by inspecting the debris at the fire scene or by both. The witness to be interrogated
is the discover of the fire and seconds the person who turned in the alarm and lastly any other
witness that can be found. Inspection of the crime scene must immediately be made to
determine the point of origin and possibly to establish the arsonist’s technique.
An arsonist may use the simplest method in a match and some papers or he may use an
elaborate means to start the fire. He may use mechanical method or chemical method to start
the fire.
1. Mechanical Method
a. Matches
b. Candles, cigarette
c. Mechanical devices a clock mechanism, animals tied to ignition device like
portable lamp or stove.
d. Electrical system
e. Heating appliances as heaters, sparkers
f. Explosives
2. Chemical Method
a. Hot water or ice bag used a receptacle for phosphorus and water ignition
device
b. Metallic sodium ignited by drops of water
c. Potassium chlorate, sugar and sulfuric acid
d. Chemical devices as termite bombs, phosphorus
INCENDIARY MATERIALS −− materials used to start a fire. They are combustible fuels.
MOTIVE
1. economic gain
2. concealment of crime
3. punitive measure
4. intimidation and economic disabling
5. pyromania
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FIRE ARE SET BY TWO TYPES OF SETTERS NAMELY:
The third basic line of inquiry pointed towards the identification of the criminal and his
accomplices if any. To accomplish this identification it is first necessary to develop what are
known as prime suspects among those having motives and opportunity to set the fire or pinpoint
a prime suspect in pyro fire studying the fire pattern.
Suspected fire setters with rational motivation are usually developed by a check of their
activities, questioning and background study. Friends, eyewitness and others who may posses
information about the fire are interviewed. The owner of the building, the occupants of the
premises affected by the fire and anyone who may profit by the fire are interrogated. The
following may serve the investigation:
The final basic line of inquiry to be pursued by a arson investigator concerns which one
of the prime suspects is the fire setter and who were his accomplices if any. This identification
result from the full development of leads, clues and traces.
The fire scene holds the key to the origin of any fire. A careful, methodical and toughly
search of the scene of a suspicious fire is a basic part of the initial investigation. The following
points must be given due attention:
1. the scene must be protected so that the evidence is not destroyed or removed either
by careless persons or the guilty party.
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2. Mechanics of search
3. Collection and preservation of physical evidence
4. Laboratory aids
1. two to three quarts of ash and shoot debris must be collected at the point of origin of a fire.
2. Specimen should be packed immediately in an airtight container.
a. Can use new clean paint cans with friction lids
b. Wide-mouths glass can be used provided they contain airtight lids
c. Leave an airspace in the container above the debris
3. Plastic polyethylene bags are not suitable for packaging.
4. Fluids found in open bottles or cans must be collected ans sealed
5. Thorough search of the scene should be undertaken for igniters
6. Collect clotting of the suspect / perpetrator and place in a separate airtight container
7. Freeze samples containing soil or vegetation.
F.GARCIA
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