CAR66 CONVERSION TRAINING

MODULE 11A
TURBINE AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS

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11.5 INSTRUMENTS/AVIONICS SYSTEM

11.5.1 INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS (ATA 31) (L1)

PITOT AND STATIC SOURCES

Aircraft pressure instruments (such as the pressure altimeter, VSI, ASI and Machmeter) require static and (for the ASI and
Machmeter) pitot pressure in order to function.

BASIC PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM

The pitot-static system of an aircraft is a system in which total pressure created by the forward motion of the aircraft and the
static pressure of the atmosphere surrounding it are sensed and measured in terms of speed, altitude and rate of change of
altitude (vertical speed). In other words, the system may be referred to as a manometric, or air data system. In its basic form
the system consists of a pitot-static tube, or probe, the three primary flight instruments-airspeed indicator, altimeter and
vertical speed indicator-and pipelines and drains, interconnected as shown diagrammatically in Fig. The complexity of a pitot-
static system depends primarily upon the type and size of aircraft, the number of locations at which primary flight instrument
data are required, and the types of instrument

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Air Data Instrumentation

Sensing of the total, or pitot pressure, and of the static pressure is effected by the probe, which is suitably located in
the airstream and transmits these pressures to the instruments. The probe is shown in its simplest and original form
to serve as the basis for understanding pitot and static pressure measurement. It consists of two forward-facing tubes
positioned parallel to each other and in a vertical plane. One of the tubes, the pitot tube, is open at its forward end to
receive the total air pressure resulting from the aircraft's forward movement, while the other, the static tube, is
closed at its forward end but has a series of small holes drilled circumferentially at a calculated distance from the
forward end through which the undisturbed air at prevailing atmospheric pressure is admitted. Pressures are
transmitted to the instruments through pipelines connected to each tube.

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STATIC PRESSURE
Static pressure is the ambient air pressure at a given point in the atmosphere. Considering an aircraft at rest in still-air
conditions, this ambient pressure acts equally on all points of the aircraft.

Figure below shows one method of measuring static pressure, using a static head. The head consists of a tube with its
forward end sealed and holes or slots cut into the side. The ideal situation is that the head always lies in line with the
direction of relative air flow and therefore the pressure sensed is independent of any increase of pressure caused by the
aircraft's speed through the air. A static head may be incorporated with the pitot head as shown in Figure 1-3.

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Static head

They are more commonly used in modern aircraft to detect static pressure. A static vent consists of a smooth plate with a
small hole in the middle. The plate is mounted flush with the aircraft skin at a point where the air flow is relatively
undisturbed by the airframe structure itself. This is to ensure that, as far as possible, the static pressure sensed at the vent
will be pure ambient pressure, which is free of errors caused by the presence of the aircraft or the speed of the aircraft
through the air. It is normal to mount two static vents, one on each side of the aircraft, thereby cancelling errors in the
sensed pressure caused by aircraft yaw or side slip; this process is called static balancing.

It is normal to incorporate an alternate static source into the static line plumbing. In the event that the static head or the
static vents become blocked the emergency static source can be selected by the pilot. This alternate source is located at
some sheltered position outside the pressure hull. The pressure sensed at this source is unlikely to represent accurately the
ambient air pressure, since it will almost certainly be influenced by the aircraft structure.

In some unpressurised aircraft an alternate static source is provided inside the cockpit. It should be noted that unless it is
otherwise stated in the flight manual for the aircraft, the static pressure sensed within the cockpit will be lower than the true
static pressure due to aerodynamic suction. The effect of this artificially low static pressure is that both the pressure
altimeter and the airspeed indicator will over-read with the emergency static source selected.

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PITOT PRESSURE

This may be defined as the additional pressure produced on a surface when a flowing fluid is brought to rest, or stagnation,
at the surface. Let us consider a probe placed in a fluid with its open end facing upstream as shown in Fig. When the fluid
flows at a certain velocity V over the probe it will be brought to rest at the nose and this point is known as the stagnation
point. If the fluid is an ideal one, i.e, is not viscous, then the total energy is equal to the sum of the potential energy, the
kinetic energy and pressure energy, and remains constant. In connection with a pitot probe however, the potential energy is
neglected thus leaving the sum of the remaining two terms as the constant. Now, in coming to rest at the stagnation point,
kinetic energy of the fluid is converted into pressure energy.

Pitot pressure.

PITOT-STATIC PROBES
As a result of aerodynamic 'cleaning up' of aircraft it became necessary for changes to be made in the design of pitot-static
probes in order to measure the pressures more accurately and without causing serious airflow disturbances around the
probes. A further requirement, and one which could not be met satisfactorily employing separate tubes, was the provision of
a heating system to prevent the tubes from icing up when flying in icing conditions. The required design changes resulted in
the arrangement shown in basic form in Fig.

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STATIC LINE
PITOT LINE

HEATER
CONNECTION

FORWARD

PITOT PROBE STATIC VENTS

Aircraft Pressure Head

The tubes are mounted concentrically, the pitot tube being inside the static tube, which also forms the casing. Static pressure
is admitted through either slots or small holes around the casing. The pressures are transmitted from their respective tubes
by means of metal pipes which may extend to the rear of the probe, or at right angles, depending on whether it is to be
mounted at the leading edge of a wing, under a wing, or at the side of a fuselage. Locations of probes will be covered in more
detail under the heading of 'Pressure Error'. A chamber is normally formed between the static slots or holes and the pipe
connection to smooth out any turbulent air flowing into the slots, which might occur when the complete probe is yawed.
before transmitting it to the instruments. The heating element is fitted around the pitot tube, or in some designs around the
inner circumference of the outer casing, and in such a position within the casing that the maximum heating effect is obtained
at the points where ice build-up is most likely to occur. The temperature/resistance characteristics of some elements are
such that the current consumption is automatically regulated according to the temperature conditions to which the probe is
exposed.

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ALTIMETER

Figure below shows schematically the working of a simple altimeter. The sensing element is the partially evacuated or
aneroid capsule, which is prevented from collapsing by the action of the leaf spring. Static pressure is fed into the otherwise
gas-tight case of the instrument from the static vent. As the aircraft climbs, static pressure decreases and the capsule
expands. The movement of the capsule is magnified by the mechanical linkage and a single needle rotates around the
instrument face.

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'Q' CODE FOR ALTIMETER SETTING

The setting of altimeters to the barometric pressures prevailing at various flight levels and airfields is part of flight operating
techniques, and is essential for maintaining adequate separation between aircraft, and terrain clearance during take-off and
landing. In order to make the settings a pilot is dependent on observed meteorological data which are requested and
transmitted from ground control centres. The requests and transmissions are adopted universally and form part of the ICAO
'Q' code of communication.

Three code letter groups are normally used in connection with altimeter settings, and are defined as follows:

QFE Setting the pressure prevailing at an airfield to make the altimeter read zero on landing and take-off.

QNE Setting the standard sea-level pressure of 1,013.25 mbar (29.92 in Hg) to make the altimeter read the airfield
elevation.

QNH Setting the pressure scale to make the altimeter read airfield height above sea-level on landing and take-off.

QNE
FLIGHT LEVEL

QNH
HEIGHT ABOVE
SEA LEVEL

QFE
HEIGHT ABOVE
AIRFIELD

STANDARD SETTING
1013.25 MILLIBARS
SEA LEVEL

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AIRSPEED INDICATORS

As previously discussed the pitot tube senses a pressure in flight which comprises the static pressure plus the dynamic
pressure. It is the dynamic pressure which is proportional to the aircraft's forward speed through the air.

The function of the airspeed indicator (ASI) is to isolate the dynamic pressure, and to use it to move the needle of the
instrument across a suitably calibrated scale. A simple ASI is illustrate schematically at Figure showing indicated airspeed in
knots, which is the most common unit of speed used. However, the ASI can be calibrated in kilometers per hour (KPH).

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AIRSPEED DEFINITIONS

INDICATED AIRSPEED

Logically indicated airspeed (IAS) is that which is shown on the face of the ASI.

CALIBRATED AIRSPEED (CAS)/RECTIFIED AIRSPEED (RAS)

IAS corrected for instrument error and position (pressure) error, using the correction table adjacent to the instrument or to
be found in the pilot's notes for the aircraft, gives calibrated airspeed (CAS). Calibrated airspeed is also known as rectified
airspeed (RAS).

Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)

CAS/RAS corrected for compressibility error gives equivalent airspeed (EAS).

TRUE AIRSPEED (TAS)

EAS corrected for density error gives true airspeed (TAS).

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VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

The Vertical Speed Indicators, also known as rate-of-climb indicators, are the third Indicators of the primary group of pitot-
static flight instruments, and are very sensitive differential pressure gauges, designed to indicate the rate of altitude change
from the change of static pressure alone. These indicators are used as the rate at which the static pressure changes', this
involves a time factor we have to introduce this into the measuring system as a pressure function. It is accomplished by using
a special air metering unit, and it is this which establishes the second pressure required.
An indicator consists basically of three main components, a capsule, an indicating element and a metering unit, all of which
are housed in a sealed case provided with a static pressure connection at the rear. The dial presentation is such that zero is at
the 9 o'clock position; thus the pointer is horizontal during straight and level flight and can move from this position to
indicate climb and descent in the correct sense. Certain types of indicator employ a linear scale, but in the majority of
applications indicators having a mechanism and scale calibrated to indicate the logarithm of the rate of pressure change are
preferred. The reason for this is that a logarithmic scale is more open near the zero mark and so provides for better
readability and for more accurate observation of variations from level flight conditions.

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THE GYROSCOPE AND ITS PROPERTIES:

As a mechanical device a gyroscope may be defined as a system containing a heavy metal wheel, or rotor, universally
mounted so that it has three degrees of freedom: (i) spinning freedom about an axis perpendicular through its centre (axis of
spin XX, ); (ii) tilting freedom about a horizontal axis at right angles to the spin axis (axis of tilt YY, ); and (iii) veering freedom
about a vertical axis perpendicular to both the spin and tilt axes (axis of veer ZZ, ).

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The three degrees of freedom are obtained by mounting the rotor in two concentrically pivoted rings, called inner and outer
gimbal rings. The whole assembly is known as the gimbal system of a free or space gyroscope. The gimbal system is mounted
in a frame as shown in Fig, so that in its normal operating position, all the axes are mutually at right angles to one another
and intersect at the centre of gravity of the rotor.

The system will not exhibit gyroscopic properties unless the rotor is spinning; for example, if a weight is hung on the inner
gimbal ring, it will merely displace the rings about axis YY, because there is no resistance to the weight. When the rotor is
made to spin at high speed the device then becomes a true gyroscope possessing two important fundamental properties:
gyroscopic inertia or rigidity, and precession. Both these properties depend on the principle of conservation of angular
momentum, which means that the angular momentum of a body about a given point remains constant unless some force is
applied to change it. Angular momentum is the product of the moment of inertia and angular velocity of a body referred to a
given point-the centre of gravity in the case of a gyroscope.

Precession Rigidity

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TYPES OF GYROS

The space gyro is a gyro which has two gimbals and has total freedom of movement about three axes, one of which is the
spin axis. This is an ideal gyro.

The tied gyro is a gyro with two gimbals having freedom of movement in three planes, but which is controlled by some
external force, is called a tied gyro. An example of a tied gyro is the directional gyroscopic indicator (DGI), where the spin
axis is constrained to remain within the aircraft's yawing plane.

The Earth gyro is a gyro with two gimbals having freedom of movement in three planes, but controlled by gravity, is called an
Earth gyro. An example of an Earth gyro is the artificial horizon, where the spin axis is constrained by gravity to remain Earth
vertical.

The rate gyro is a gyro with only one gimbal having freedom of movement about only two axes, one of which is the spin axis,
is called a rate gyro, and is designed to show rate of movement about the axis which is mutually at right angles to the two
axes of freedom. An example of a rate gyro is found in the turn and slip indicator, or the turn co-ordinator.

The rate integrating gyro is used in inertial navigation systems. As the aircraft turns about the sensitive axis of the rate gyro a
precession results and is used to generate an error signal, the magnitude of which signifies the rate at which the aircraft is
turning about the sensitive axis.

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Instruments that use either the rigidity or the precession of gyros are:

• Gyro Horizon Unit.

• Attitude Director Indicator.

• Standby Horizon Unit.

• Direction Indicator.

• Turn and Slip Indicator.

• Turn Coordinator.

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GYRO HORIZON UNIT

The Gyro Horizon Unit gives a representation of the aircraft’s pitch and roll attitudes relative to its vertical axis. For this it
uses a displacement gyroscope whose spin axis is vertical.

AIRCRAFT
SYMBOL

SPERRY HORIZON

6
6

BAR

3 3

ROLL
SCALE
ROLL
POINTER\

Indications of attitude are presented by the relative positions of two elements, one symbolizing the aircraft itself, the other
in the form of a bar stabilized by the gyroscope and symbolizing the natural horizon.

The gimbal system is so arranged so that the inner ring forms the rotor casing and is pivoted parallel to an aircraft’s lateral
axis (YY 1 ); the outer ring is pivoted at the front and rear ends of the instrument case, parallel to the longitudinal axis (ZZ 1 ).
R R R R

The element symbolizing the aircraft may either be rigidly fixed to the case, or it may be externally adjustable for setting a
particular pitch trim reference.

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ATTITUDE DIRECTOR INDICATOR

This unit performs the same functions as a Gyro Horizon unit; i.e. it establishes a stabilized reference about the pitch and roll
axes of an aircraft. Instead, however, of providing attitude displays by direct means, it is designed to be operated via a
synchro system, which produces and transmits attitude-related signals to the indicator. The synchro system includes a
attitude reference source and a computer linked into the aircraft’s navigational system to produce flight director signals for
the flight crew to follow to ensure the aircraft follows the required course.

FD GSL
2
F
1

S 2
RW
T Y
AT
TEST

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DIRECTION INDICATORS

This indicator was the first gyroscopic instrument to be introduced as a heading indicator, and although for most aircraft
currently in service it has been superseded by remote-indicating compass systems (see later). The instrument uses a
horizontal axis gyroscope and, being non-magnetic, is used in conjunction with a magnetic compass.

In its basic form, the outer ring of the gyro carries a circular card, graduated in degrees, and referenced against a lubber line
fixed to the gyro frame. When the rotor is spinning, the gimbal system and card are stabilized so that, by turning the frame,
the number of degrees through which it is turning may be read on the card.

HEADING
SCALE LUBBER
LINE

180 170

CAGING/SETTING
KNOB

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TURN & SLIP INDICATOR

This indicator contains two independent mechanisms:

1. A gyroscopically controlled pointer mechanism for the detection and indication of the rate at which an aircraft turns.
2. A mechanism for the detection and indication of slip/slide.

A gimbal ring and magnifying system, which moves the pointer in the correct sense over a scale calibrated in what is termed
“Standard Rates”, actuate the rate of turn pointer. Although they are not always marked on a scale, they are classified as
follows:
• Rate 1 - Turn Rate 180º per minute.

• Rate 2 - Turn Rate 360º per minute.

• Rate 3 - Turn Rate 540º per minute.

• Rate 4 - Turn Rate 720º per minute.

RATE OF TURN
INDICATOR

2 MIN

SLIP/SLIDE
RATE OF INDICATOR
TURN
2 MIN - 360º

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BANK INDICATION

In addition to the primary indication of turn rate, it is also necessary to have an indication that an aircraft is correctly banked
for the particular turn. A secondary indicating mechanism is therefore provided, which, depends for its operation on the
effect of gravitational and centrifugal forces. A method commonly used for bank indication is one utilizing a ball in a curved
liquid-filled glass tube.

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TURN COORDINATOR

The final instrument in this group is the turn coordinator. Basically, its mechanism is changed slightly from the turn and slip
indicator, so that it senses rotation about the longitudinal axis, (bank) as well as the vertical axis, (turn). This gives a more
accurate indication to the pilot, of the turning of the aircraft.

AIRCRAFT
SYMBOL

TURN COORDINATION

RATE OF
TURN L R
2 MIN
NO PITCH
INFORMATION
TURN
COORDINATOR

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HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR

This indicator derives its name from the fact that its display presents a pictorial plan of the aircraft’s situation in the
horizontal plane in the form of its heading, VOR/LOC deviation and other data relating to navigation.

The aircraft symbol is fixed at the center of the instrument and displays the heading of the aircraft in relation to a rotating
compass card and the VOR/LOC deviation bar (lateral bar). The selector knobs at the bottom corners of the instrument
permit the setting of desired magnetic heading and VOR course.

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COMPASS SYSTEMS

The compass has, since the earliest times, given information to travelers with regards to the direction to go. Mounting a
compass on a moving object, whether it was a vehicle, a ship or an aircraft poses certain problems. This includes how to
mount the compass without the, motion (maybe violent), upsetting the device.

Another problem that besets compasses is the fact that they usually point to magnetic north, which slowly moves, and not
true north, the difference between the two is something like 1,300-miles/2,000 km. This is of little concern if we are moving
slowly, on a boat, in the vicinity of the equator, but vital in an aircraft flying what is known as a 'Trans-polar route' from say,
New York to Tokyo. The effect this has on navigational charts is referred to as 'variation'.

GEOGRAPHICAL
NORTH POLE

MAGNETIC
NORTH POLE

11º W
VARIATION
0º E
17.5º E VARIATION
VARIATION

Difference between magnetic and true north

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DIRECT READING COMPASS

Direct-reading compasses have the following common principal features:

• Magnet system housed in a bowl.
• Liquid damping and liquid expansion compensation

The magnet system comprises an annular cobalt-steel magnet to which is attached a light-alloy card. The card is graduated
in increments of 10º, and referenced against a lubber line fixed to the interior of the bowl. The system is pendulously
suspended by an iridium-tipped pivot resting in a sapphire cup supported in a holder or stem.

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The bowl is of a plastic (diakon) and so moulded that it has a magnifying effect on the card and its graduations. It is filled
with a silicone fluid to prevent the card oscillating or overshooting after changes of heading. The fluid also provides the
system with certain buoyancy, thereby reducing the weight on the pivot and so diminishing the effects of friction and wear.

Changes in the volume of the fluid due to temperature changes, and their resulting effects on damping efficiency, are
compensated by a bellows type of expansion device secured to the rear of the bowl.

Compensation of the effects of deviation due to longitudinal and lateral components of aircraft magnetism is provided by
permanent magnet coefficient “B” and “C” corrector assemblies secured to the compass mounting plate. A small lamp is
also provided for illuminating the card.

B C

CO-EFFICIENT “B” CO-EFFICIENT “C”

ADJUSTMENT ADJUSTMENT

21 S 15 12

CO-EFFICIENT “A” LUBBER

ADJUSTMENT LINE

ELECTRICAL
CONNECTION
FOR LIGHTING

Standby compass indicator

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REMOTE READING COMPASS

A remote reading compass, is basically one in which an element detects an aircraft’s heading with respect to the horizontal
component of the earth’s magnetic field in terms of flux and induced changes in voltage. It then transmits these changes via
a synchronous/servo system to a heading indicator. There are two types of remote reading compass systems:

• The detector element monitors a directional gyro unit linked with a heading indicator.
• The detector element operates in conjunction with the platform of an inertial navigation system (INS).

DETECTOR UNIT (FLUX VALVE)

The detector unit detects the effect of the earth’s magnetic field as an electromagnetically induced voltage and controls the
heading indicator by means of a variable secondary output voltage signal. The construction of the element takes the form of
a three-spoked wheel, slit through the rim between the spokes so that they, and their section of rim, act as three individual
flux collectors.

LAMINATED
COLLECTOR A
HORNS A
AC POWER

EXCITER B
COIL

C B
SECONDARY
C
PICK-OFF
COILS

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The paths taken by the earth’s magnetic field through the spokes for different headings is shown at figure below:

PATH OF
EARTH’S
FIELD

A
A
B

B
C

B
B

C
A

The detector unit on its own is not very accurate by virtue of its limited pendulous suspension arrangement. Errors will occur
as a result of its tilting under the influence of acceleration forces, e.g. during speed changes on a constant heading and
during turns. It is necessary to incorporate within the system a means of monitoring the detector’s output. The horizontal
directional gyro is used to give the system short-term accuracy with the detector unit providing long-term accuracy.

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115v 400 Hz

B C

+ _+ _

N 3
33
0

6
W 3

A A
24

12

D D
F 21 15 F
S

VOR VOR

SLAVED

DG SYNC
VOR/ADF

Gyro Magnetic Compass System

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ANGLE OF ATTACK (AOA)

Apart from the main flight instruments, one item of information that the pilot needs to know at various stages of flight is the
angle of attack. Earlier aircraft had a range of devices that gave the pilot indication of an approaching stall, which was an
essential indicator but knowing the angle of attack has become an essential part of flying modern, larger aircraft.

The simplest forms of angle of attack indicators are the AOA probe and the stall vane. The probe contains slots on the leading
edge of the probe itself and, depending on the angle of attack; the air flowing through the different slots move a 'paddle'
which indicates the AOA electrically in the cockpit.

The stall vane is rather like a small weather vane mounted on the side of the aircraft. The vane follows the airflow, much like
the weather vane, but indicating, not pitch angle, but the angle of the airflow relative to the aircraft centerline. i.e. the angle
of attack.

A330

ANGLE
OF
ATTACK VANE ARM
AIRCRAFT ANGLE OF ATTACK
LONGITUDINAL TRANSDUCER
AXIS

∝
FLIGHT PATH

AIRFLOW

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STALL WARNING INDICATION

To maintain lift at low airspeed, the angle of attack is increased. When this angle is above a critical angle, the aircraft wings
will not produce enough lift to support the aircraft, which will begin to stall. Before this situation occurs, the aircraft will
shake heavily, this being a natural alert to the pilot.

If, however, the aircraft is configured for an approach (Wheels & Flaps down), the airspeed difference between the natural
warning and the actual stall is very small, so an alert must be generated before the stall occurs.

Modern performance aircraft use the output from an Angle of Attack probe, connected to a Stall Warning system. The stall
warning system also has other sensor inputs (Flap, Slat positions). Once the critical angle prior to actual stall is reached, the
stall warning system initiates a "Audio warning" and operates a "Stick Shaker", which actually shakes the control column.

28V DC
SUPPLY

ANGLE
OF
ATTACK

>17.5º

M
STICK
SHAKER

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