1.

0 ABSTRACT

Tensile tests are fundamental for understanding properties of material. The mechanical
properties of material can be observed through tensile test. It gives the characteristic of
tensile strength, yield strength, modulus of elasticity, ductility, resilience, and toughness.
These characteristics might useful for material testing reference. In this experiment, the
material of specimen is mild steel which being tested using tensile test machine. The result is
being calculated. The actual characteristics of the material was explained. The actual energy
was calculated to break the specimen. Other calculated properties included true fracture
strength, percent reduction of area, and percent elongation. The engineering stress is an
assumption that uses the initial area of the cross section, ignoring the effects of transverse
strain and the changing cross section. This assumption results in the drop of the engineering
stress-strain curve after the ultimate tensile strength, where necking occurs.
1.1 TABLE OF CONTENT

NO CONTENT PAGE

1. List of Figure 1

2. Introduction 2

2.1 Background 2

2.2 Objective 4

2.3 Problem Statement 4

3. Theory 5

4. Experimental Procedure 7

5. Result 15

6. Discussion 18

7. Conclusion 24

8. Reference 25
1.2 LIST OF TABLE

NO FIGURES PAGES

1 Figure 1.0: Abrasive Cut 7

2 Figure 2.0: Abrasive Cutter 7

3 Figure 3.0: Automatic Mounting Presser 8

4 Figure 4.0: Sample with Hot Mold 9

5 Figure 5.0: Phenolic Powder 9

6 Figure 6.0: Sample with Cold Mold 10

7 Figure 7.0: Grinder 11

8 Figure 8.0: Polisher 12

9 Figure 9.0: Etching 13

10 Figure 10: Optical Microscope 14

1.3 LIST OF FIGURES

NO FIGURES PAGES

1 Figure 1.0: Abrasive Cut 7

2 Figure 2.0: Abrasive Cutter 7

3 Figure 3.0: Automatic Mounting Presser 8

4 Figure 4.0: Sample with Hot Mold 9

5 Figure 5.0: Phenolic Powder 9

6 Figure 6.0: Sample with Cold Mold 10

7 Figure 7.0: Grinder 11

8 Figure 8.0: Polisher 12

9 Figure 9.0: Etching 13

10 Figure 10: Optical Microscope 14

2.0 INTRODUCTION

2.1 BACKGROUND

Uniaxial tensile test is known as a basic and universal engineering test to achieve material
parameters. These important parameters obtained from the standard tensile test testing are
useful for the selection of engineering materials for any application required. The tested
specimen is exposed by the increasing uniaxial force continuously while its change on
elongation is being observed. The tensile test measures the resistant of a material to the given
static load. By measuring the force required to elongate a specimen to breaking point, material
properties can be determined that will allow designers and quality managers to predict how
materials and products will behave in application. The following are some common examples
of how these loads might be applied: tensile, compressive and shear. These properties are
important in materials selections for mechanical design. The most important properties are the
mechanical properties, which is including ductility, hardness, strength, and toughness.

The mechanical properties of material that can be known from tensile test including:

 tensile strength
 yield strength
 modulus of elasticity
 ductility
 resilience
 toughness

Furthermore, the stress strain curve which is can be obtained from the measurement, which
allows one to compute the mechanical properties above. The tensile test is very important
because it tells the impact of load given to the material’s mechanical properties of a material.
These mechanical properties parameters would provide the basic data if the strength of a
material, in this experiment is metal.
2.2 OBJECTIVES

i. To determine the tensile properties subjected to tensile loading

ii. To identify the types of fracture surface under tensile loading
iii. To validate the data between experimental and theoretical values

2.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT

In the study of mechanics of material, the selection of engineering materials is very important
in application. However, the mechanical properties of specimen cannot be analyzing through
observation or calculation. In response to this problem, the mechanical properties of material
can be observed through tensile test. It gives the characteristic of tensile strength, yield strength,
modulus of elasticity, ductility, resilience, and toughness.
3.0 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

Tensile test is a method used to measure the strength of a material by giving a static load on
uniaxial direction of the specimen. Figure 1 show the scheme of tensile test.

Figure 1: Scheme Tensile Test

The specimen that being tested is given some force in two directions, which is in uniaxial
direction. The specimen would experience a stretch and an elongation until it fracture or break.
Moreover, the specimen size is standardized by some standard. For this experiment, the tensile
test specimen standard is ASTM E8/E8M-13: "Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of
Metallic Materials".

Figure 2: The Standard Specimen Dimension Tensile Test

From the ASTM standard, the dimensions of the specimen of tensile test is looks like Figure 2.
The diameter of specimen D, 6.02mm, the gauge length G, 40mm, and the radius R, 3.01mm.
Engineering stress is defined as the load divided by initial cross-sectional area of the specimen.
Thus, engineering stress is simply a normalizing of the load, and has little physical significance
when the actual area is difference from the original.

Figure 3: Engineering Stress of Specimen

Formula of engineering stress:

P
σ=
A

𝞼 is engineering stress

P is the external axial tensile load

A is the original cross-sectional area

Engineering strain is defined as the amount of deformation in the direction of the applied
force divided by the initial length of the material.

Figure 4: Engineering Strain of Specimen

Formula of engineering strain:

∇L Lf − LO
ε= =
LO LO
Ɛ is the engineering strain

𝐿0 is the original length of the specimen

𝐿𝑓 is the final length of the specimen.

An example of the engineering stress-strain curve for a typical engineering alloy is shown in
Figure 5. From it some very important properties can be determined. The elastic modulus, the
yield strength, the ultimate tensile strength, and the fracture strain are all clearly exhibited in
an accurately constructed stress strain curve.

Figure 5: Stress-Strain Curve

i. Yield Strength

Yield strength determine the stress of the material due to elastic limit. It is the maximum load
that obtained by the material when it is in between of elastic deformation and plastic
deformation.

ii. Tensile Strength

It is the maximum load that can be hold by the specimen before it experiencing necking
phenomenon. Necking happens when the gage of the specimen is starting to decrease. The
tensile strength happens in the plastic regime.
 iii. Modulus of Elasticity

Modulus of elasticity of young modulus is a measurement of resistant of the material due to

elastic deformation. It shows the stiffness of a material.

iv. Modulus of Resilience

It is the properties that shows maximum energy that can be absorbed by the material until the
elastic limit. It is the area below the elastic deformation of stress –strain curve.

v. Toughness

Toughness measures the energy that is needed for material to fracture. The emphasis of this
definition should be placed on the ability to absorb energy before fracture. Toughness of the
different materials is seen in the Fig. 6.

Figure 6: Toughness of Materials

4.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

i. Tensile test specimen was prepared.

ii. The initial dimension of the specimen such as diameter and gage length was
determined. A vernier caliper (Figure 7) was used to measure the parameter of the
specimen. An average value of the three measurements was taken.

Figure 7: Vernier Caliper

iii. The specimen was secured in the machine. The machine used is Gun Hamburg
(Universal Material Tester, 20kN). The machine shown in Figure 8. The hand crank
is used to apply an initial tensile load to the specimen

Figure 8: Gun Hamburg Machine (Tensile Test Machine)

iv. The required parameters were set on the control panel. The extension gauge was
adjusted to zero. The load gauge was adjusted to zero
v. The tensile test started.
vi. The load to the specimen was applied at a very slow rate. The extension reading
was recorded for every 0.01 mm until specimen is fractured. The load and
elongation was recorded for constant increments of elongation.
vii. The load was applied to the specimen until it fracture (as a safety precaution, stand
away from the loading area).
viii. The sample and note was monitored when the constriction begins. The force then
tended to decrease until the fracture of the specimen occurred.
ix. The tested fracture specimen was removed from gripping head. The fractured
specimen can be seen in Figure 9.

Figure 9: Fractured Specimen

x. The diameter of the specimen was measured and recorded at the fracture point.
xi. A technical report was written.
5.0 RESULTS
a. Draw the test sample with complete dimension

Figure 10: Specimen of Test

i. Diameter = 6.02 mm
ii. Original Length = 40 mm
iii. Type = Mild Steel

b. Tabulate the data

Table 1.0: Result of Tensile Test

Load (kN) Extension (m) Stress (kPa) Strain Area of rod (m²) Length of rod (m)
2.6 0.001 91228.07 2.50E-03 2.85E-05 0.04
5.9 0.002 207017.54 0.05 2.85E-05 0.04
9.7 0.003 340350.88 0.075 2.85E-05 0.04
12.5 0.004 438596.49 0.1 2.85E-05 0.04
13.5 0.005 473684.21 0.125 2.85E-05 0.04
14.5 0.006 508771.93 0.15 2.85E-05 0.04
15 0.007 526315.79 0.175 2.85E-05 0.04
15 0.008 526315.79 0.2 2.85E-05 0.04
15 0.009 526315.79 0.225 2.85E-05 0.04
15 0.01 526315.79 0.25 2.85E-05 0.04
15 0.011 526315.79 0.275 2.85E-05 0.04
15 0.012 526315.79 0.3 2.85E-05 0.04
15 0.013 526315.79 0.325 2.85E-05 0.04
15 0.014 526315.79 0.35 2.85E-05 0.04
14.5 0.015 508771.93 0.375 2.85E-05 0.04
 14.5 0.016 508771.93 0.4 2.85E-05 0.04
14.5 0.017 508771.93 0.425 2.85E-05 0.04
14.5 0.018 508771.93 0.45 2.85E-05 0.04
13.8 0.019 484210.53 0.475 2.85E-05 0.04
13.6 0.02 477192.98 0.5 2.85E-05 0.04
13.5 0.021 473684.21 0.525 2.85E-05 0.04
13.3 0.022 466666.67 0.55 2.85E-05 0.04
13.2 0.023 463157.89 0.575 2.85E-05 0.04
13.1 0.024 459649.12 0.6 2.85E-05 0.04
12.9 0.025 452631.58 0.625 2.85E-05 0.04
12.7 0.026 445614.04 0.65 2.85E-05 0.04
12.5 0.027 438596.49 0.675 2.85E-05 0.04
12.4 0.028 435087.72 0.7 2.85E-05 0.04
12.1 0.029 424561.4 0.725 2.85E-05 0.04
12 0.03 421052.63 0.75 2.85E-05 0.04
11.7 0.031 410526.32 0.775 2.85E-05 0.04
11.5 0.032 403508.77 0.8 2.85E-05 0.04
11.2 0.033 392982.46 0.825 2.85E-05 0.04
11 0.034 385964.91 0.85 2.85E-05 0.04
10.8 0.035 378947.37 0.875 2.85E-05 0.04
10.5 0.036 368421.05 0.9 2.85E-05 0.04
10.1 0.037 354385.96 0.925 2.85E-05 0.04
10 0.038 350877.19 0.95 2.85E-05 0.04
9.5 0.039 333333.33 0.975 2.85E-05 0.04
0 0.04 0 1 2.85E-05 0.04

The formula is applied to calculate Stress, Strain, Young Modulus and Area as below:

Force(kN)
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬, 𝛔 =
Area(m2 )

In which Area = πr 2

Tensile Extension (m)

𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧, 𝛆 =
Original Length (m)
 ∆Stress
𝐘𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐬, 𝐄 =
∆Strain

Sample Calculation:

2.6 kN
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬, 𝛔 = = 91228.07 kPa
0.00002846(m2 )

Area = πr 2 = (π)(3.01)x10−3 = 0.00002846m2

0.001 (m)
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧, 𝛆 = = 0.0025
0.04 (m)

91228.07kPa
𝐘𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐬, 𝐄 = = 36.49𝐺𝑃𝑎
0.0025

c. Plot a graph load vs extension and stress vs strain

Load VS Extension
16

14

12

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

Load (kN) Extension (m)

Figure 11: Graph of Load VS Extension

 Stress VS Strain
600000

500000

400000

300000

200000

100000

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

Stress (kPa) Strain

Figure 12: Graph of Stress VS Strain

d. Explain the actual characteristic of material being tested

The material being tested is Mild steel. Mild steel is the most widely used steel which is not
brittle and cheap in price. Mild steel is not readily tempered or hardened but possesses enough
strength. Mild steel is very strong due to the low amount of carbon it contains. In materials
science, strength is a complicated term. Mild steel has a high resistance to breakage. Mild steel,
as opposed to higher carbon steels, is quite malleable, even when cold. This means it has high
tensile and impact strength. Higher carbon steels usually shatter or crack under stress, while
mild steel bends or deforms.

Mild steel (iron containing a small percentage of carbon, strong and tough but not readily
tempered), also known as plain-carbon steel and low-carbon steel, is now the most common
form of steel because its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are
acceptable for many applications. Mild steel contains approximately 0.05–0.25% carbon
making it malleable and ductile.

Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and easy to form; surface hardness
can be increased through carburizing. In applications where large cross-sections are used to
minimize deflection, failure by yield is not a risk so low-carbon steels are the best choice, for
example as structural steel. Based on textbook of Mechanics of Material, he Young's modulus
is 210 GPa.

e. Calculate the actual energy needed to break the specimen

Strain energy is defined as the energy stored in a body due to deformation. The strain energy
per unit volume is known as strain energy density and the area under the stress-strain curve
towards the point of deformation. When the applied force is released, the whole system
returns to its original shape. It is usually denoted by U.

1
𝑼 = 2 𝑉𝜎𝜀 where,

V = Volume of the specimen

𝜎 = Stress
𝜀 = Strain
For this experiment:
V = 0.00002846m2 x 0.04m = 1.14E-6
1
𝑼= (1.14𝐸 − 6) ∗ (91228.07𝐸3) ∗ (0.0025) = 0.13𝐽
2
The actual energy needed to break the specimen is 0.13J.

Percentage Error:

Theoretical Value of Young’s Modulus: 210 GPa

Experimental Value of Young’s Modulus: 36.49 GPa

𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 𝑥100%
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

36.49𝐺𝑃𝑎 − 210𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 𝑥100% = −82.62%
210𝐺𝑃𝑎
KORANG, PERCENTAGE ERROR
DPT NEGATIVE. TIQA TK THU
DAH NAK PUSING TANG MNA.
KORANG BOLEH LETAK ATAU
TAK NAK PUN BOLEH. KALAU
KORANG LETAK, MAYBE
KORANG BOLEH ELABORATE
KENAPA DAPAT NEGATIVE.
THANKS..SORRY LAMBAT