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ENGINEERING
FOR POLLUTED
ENVIRONMENT
Lecture note 1
Postgraduate in Environmental Enginering
26 August 2008 1
Students are able to analyse, plan,
design, monitor and recommend
measures for remediation of
polluted environment.
26 August 2008 2
• Class lectures are given by
lecturer: week 1 - 7
• Mid test: week 8
• Case study is presented by
students: week 9 - 16
• Final assignment - proposal
for research or technical
design: week 9 - 16
• Final test: organised by Dept.
of Environ. Eng.
26 August 2008 3
Polluted environment means
environmental components such
as soil affected by a release of a
substance at a concentration
above the accepted
accepted limit for
such substance,
substance, bringing about
WHAT DOES
POLLUTED
malfunction of the environment.
environment.
E2VIRO2ME2T
MEA2?
MEA2 ?
26 August 2008 4
The term remediation (the Latin
suffix "remedium
"remedium" " meaning to
WHAT DOES clean or restore) actually refers
REMEDIATIO2 to clean polluted
polluted environments.
environments.
MEA2?
MEA2?
26 August 2008 5
Remediation means the
containment,
ontainment, removal,
mitigation
itigation,, or abatement of
pollution, a potential source of
pollution, or a substance which
poses a risk to human health or
WHAT DOES the environment, and includes
REMEDIATIO2
MEA2?
MEA2? but is not limited to the
reduction of pollution by
natural attenuation.
26 August 2008 6
2atural attenuation means a
decrease in concentration of a
substance in ground water
through operation of natural
physical or chemical processes,
including but not limited to
WHAT DOES
REMEDIATIO2
adsorption, absorption, dilution,
MEA2?
MEA2? phase transfer, oxidation,
organic complexation,
complexation,
biodegradation, dispersion and
diffusion.
26 August 2008 7
I. CO2TAI2ME2T
II. SEPARATIO2
III. DESTRUCTIO2
26 August 2008 8
Containment in addition to
collection and diversion
technologies are used at sites
where treatment technologies
cannot control the contaminants
to an acceptable level. These
I. CO2TAI2ME2T engineering controls include
technologies that contain or
capture the contaminants to
reduce or minimize releases. This
section discusses some of the
containment technologies.
26 August 2008 9
1. EXCAVATE A2D DISPOSE
• O2
O2--SITE LA2DFILL
I. CO2TAI2ME2T • OFF
OFF--SITE LA2DFILL
26 August 2008 10
Landfills are waste management
units, typically dug into the earth,
but including above ground units
that are not exposed on the sides
(i.e., not freestanding waste piles),
that accept waste for permanent
placement and disposal. While
I. CO2TAI2ME2T landfilling is a conventional
disposal technology, it has had its
share of recent innovations.
Landfills may be lined to contain
leachate, drained with a leachate
collection system, and capped.
26 August 2008 11
The cost of landfills can range
from medium to high at mining
and mineral processing sites
depending on the site conditions
that impact the design, including
low permeability cover, low
permeability liner, leachate
I. CO2TAI2ME2T collection, and leachate treatment.
The O&M costs of leachate
treatment or cap maintenance can
be significant. The effectiveness of
the landfill is dependent on the
design.
26 August 2008 12
A landfill that can isolate the
waste is effective. Should the cap
or liner be breached, however, the
effectiveness will be greatly
diminished. On-site landfills
should be designed to meet site
I. CO2TAI2ME2T specific cleanup goals and address
applicable regulatory
considerations.
26 August 2008 13
Introduction to Landfills
26 August 2008 14
The Modern Landfill
26 August 2008 15
26 August 2008 16
Leachate Collection System
Waste
Geomembrane Liner
Leachate
Clay Liner Coarse
Collection
Drainage
Pipe
Material
26 August 2008 17
Leachate Collection System
26 August 2008 18
Daily Cover
26 August 2008 19
Final Cover
26 August 2008 20
Stormwater Control
Direct surface water run-
off away from the
landfill
26 August 2008 21
Stormwater Management
26 August 2008 22
Leachate Treatment
26 August 2008 23
Gas Wells
26 August 2008 24
Gas Flares
26 August 2008 25
Final Landfill Use
26 August 2008 26
Landfill Processes
26 August 2008 27
Degradable particulate organic material
(Proteins Carbohydrates and Lipids)
Hydrolysis
Inert Soluble
Fermentation of
Valerate, Butyrate,
Anaerobic
Amino acids & & Propionate Oxidation of
Sugars LCFA
Anaerobic
Oxidation of
Anaerobic Pathway Acids
Acetate Hydrogen
Acetotrophic Hydrogenotrophic
methanogenesis methanogenesis
Methane
26 August 2008 28
26 August 2008 29
Stabilization Phases – Phase I: Initial
Adjustment
• Initial waste placement
• Preliminary moisture accumulation
• Initial subsidence
• Closure of landfill area
26 August 2008 30
Stabilization Phases – Phase II:
Transition
• Field capacity exceeded
• Leachate formed
• Electron acceptor shifts from oxygen to
nitrates to sulfates
• Trend toward reducing conditions
• Volatile acids appear
26 August 2008 31
Stabilization Phases – Phase III:Acid
Formation
• Volatile fatty acids predominate in leachate
• pH declines
• Substrate conversion occurs
26 August 2008 32
Stabilization Phases – Phase
IV:Methane Fermentation
• Methane and carbon dioxide production
• pH at minimum
• Nutrient consumption
• Precipitation of metals
• Leachate BOD/COD declines
26 August 2008 33
Stabilization Phases – Phase V:Final
Maturation
• Biological dormancy
• Nutrients limiting
• Gas production ceases
• Oxygen slowly reappears
• Humic substances produced
26 August 2008 34
Importance of Leachate Quality and
Quantity Determination
• Design leachate collection systems
• Design leachate treatment facilities
• Determine acceptability of offsite treatment
• Estimate offsite migration potential
26 August 2008 35
Factors Affecting Leachate Quality and
Quantity
• Particle size • Waste age
• Compaction • Landfill
• Waste composition design/operation
• Site Hydrology • Sampling procedures
• Cover Design • Interaction of leachate
with environment
26 August 2008 36
BOD/COD Ratio
• Relative biodegradability of leachate
• Present for as long as 100 years
• Tends to decline following onset of methane
formation
26 August 2008 37
Relative Biodegradability of Leachate
Bio-degradability BOD/COD
26 August 2008 38
Relative Biodegradability of Leachate
2ote that BOD/COD < 0.1
is:
•Toxic for BOD > 100 mg/L and COD > 500 mg/L
•Stable for BOD < 100 mg/L and COD < 500 mg/L
26 August 2008 40
pH
• Influence chemical and biological processes of
precipitation, redox, sorption, methanogenesis
• Controlled by volatile acids during acid phase
• After methanogenesis begins, controlled by
carbonates and ammonia
• Major factor in controlling metal solubility
26 August 2008 41
Heavy Metals
• May act as inhibitors of biological stabilization
process
• Water quality concerns
• No discernable chronological pattern
• Leachate concentration controlled by sulfide,
carbonate, chloride, and phosphate
26 August 2008 42
Leachate Treatment/Disposal
• On site
– biological
– chemical
– evaporative
– physical
• Off-site treatment
26 August 2008 43
Leachate Collection Systems
26 August 2008 44
Liner and LCS Design
26 August 2008 45
26 August 2008 46
Waste Containment Liners
Waste
Leachate collection
Protection geotextile
Geomembrane
26 August 2008 47
Liner Types
• Composite
– Soil (clay – 60 cm, 10-7cm/sec)
– Geosynthetic (1.5 mm)
– Geocomposite
• Double
26 August 2008 48
Single Composite Liner
26 August 2008 49
Double Geomembrane Liner
Geomembrane or GCL
26 August 2008 50
Double Liner with Bottom
Geocomposite
Composite
26 August 2008 51
Double Composite Liner
26 August 2008 52
Materials in Liner system ~ Clay Liner
Subgrade
26 August 2008 53
Mass Transport of Contaminants
through Landfill Clay Liners
26 August 2008 54
Solutes in saturated media can be transported
by three mechanisms
• Diffusion
• Advection
• Dispersion
26 August 2008 55
Diffusion
• Diffusion controlled mass transport occurs if
the concentration of a species is greater in
one location than an adjacent location
(concentration gradient)
• Fick’s second law
26 August 2008 56
Diffusion- Fick’s Second Law
∂c ∂ C 2
= Dd
Solution: ∂t ∂x 2
x
C ( x, t ) = Co erfc
2 D *t
C = the concentration at time t and distance x
Co = original concentration
x = distance
t = time
erfc = complimentary error function
D* = effective diffusion coefficient
26 August 2008 57
Advection and Dispersion
• Solute transport by advection and dispersion
requires flow of leachate to carry solutes
along with liquid flow
• Equations describing advection and dispersion
are more complicated than diffusion.
26 August 2008 58
Solution to Fick’s Law including Advection
and Dispersion
Co L − vxt v L L + v t
C= erfc + exp x erfc
x
2
2 DL t DL 2 DL t
26 August 2008 59
vx = average linear velocity can be calculated from Darcy’s law
K dh
vx =
ne dl
K = hydraulic conductivity
ne = effective porosity
dh/dl = hydraulic gradient
26 August 2008 60
Example
Assume landfill A contains Na+1 = 10,000 mg/l and Ca+2
= 5,000 mg/l and assume landfill B contains Fe+2 =
750 mg/l and Cr+3 = 600 mg/l. Landfill A has a 6 m
clay liner under the waste and landfill B has 3 m of
clay under the waste. Assuming diffusion is the only
process affecting solute transport, which of the four
species will break through the clay layer in either of
the landfills first? How long will that take?
26 August 2008 61
Given
Waste Waste
Clay 3m
Clay 6m
Land fill B
Land fill A
Given: Effective diffusion coefficients D*:
Species D* (m2/sec)
Na+1 1.33E-09
Ca+2 7.05E-10
Fe2+ 7.19E-10
Cr3+ 5.94E-10
26 August 2008 62
Solution
The erfc (z) function has non-zero values only at
z values less than 3. To solve this problem
assume times and calculate at edge of clay
layer for each case and keep changing the
time until z has a value of 3.
26 August 2008 63
Assume Time is 5 years
x
C ( x, t ) = Co erfc
2 D *t
Clay D*
Species layer (m) Conc (mg/l) (m2/sec) X/2((D*t)^0.5)
26 August 2008 64
Increase Time to 10 Years
26 August 2008 65
Increase Time to 12 Years
26 August 2008 66
Decrease Time to 11 Years
D*
Clay layer Concentratio (m2/se X/2((D*t)^0.
Species (m) n (mg/l) c) 5)
26 August 2008 67
Geomembrane
26 August 2008 70
Plants/Trees are provided
at landfill site!
26 August 2008 71
Drain design configurations
26 August 2008 72
Leachate Collection System with Sloped Subgrade
26 August 2008 73
Pipe Spacing
Hmax
Slope
Collection pipe
beta
b/2
26 August 2008 74
Spatial Distribution of Head (EPA Guidance)
q
H max
= cos β 2
tan β + i
- tan β
X 2
k
Where:
Hmax = maximum leachate head, L
X = distance between leachate collection pipes, L
β = angle of liner slope, dimensionless
qi = leachate impingement rate, LT-1
k = hydraulic conductivity of the leachate
collection layer material, LT-1
26 August 2008 75
Giroud’s Equation
tan β +4q / k
− tan β
2 i
Hmax
2cosβ
=
X
26 August 2008 76
Spacing Between Pipes Using a Geonet
2
qL
θ reqd =
4h max + 2Lsinα
θreqd = transmissivity of geonet, L2T-1
L = distance between collection pipes, L
hmax = maximum head on liner, L
q = infiltration from a 25 year 24 hour storm, LT-1
α = slope of drainage system, degrees
26 August 2008 77
Leachate Removal System
Waste
Geomembrane Liner
Leachate
Clay Liner Coarse
Collection
Drainage
Pipe
Material
26 August 2008 78
Pipe flow
Qin pipe = q b L
Where:
q = Infiltration rate, ft/sec
b = pipe spacing, ft
L = length of pipe, ft
26 August 2008 79
Pipe Diameter
• Assume pipe is flowing full
• Use Manning Equation
• check velocity is sufficient (>2 fps)
• Diameter is commercially available (not 3.2
in!)
26 August 2008 80
Leachate Collection – Double Liner
26 August 2008 81
Leachate Collection Pump
26 August 2008 82
Causes of Leachate Collection System
Failure
• Clogging due to particulate transport/chemical
precipitation
• Clogging due to biological material buildup
• Pipe breakage/slope change
26 August 2008 83
Biological Clogging
• Bacteria secret extra cellular polysaccharides
to form gelatinous matrix or biofilm
• Biofilm acts as a filter within filter, trapping
particles
26 August 2008 84
Chemical Precipitation
• Metals are mobilized in leachate
• Carbonates and sulfides present in anaerobic
environment lead to metal precipitation
• Little silts or other fines
• Primary threat during acidic phases
• Opening size critical factor
26 August 2008 85
Implications of LCS Failure
• Excess head on liner
• Increased risk associated with potential liner
failure
• Side seeps
• Reduced leachate output
• Landfill instability
26 August 2008 86
LCS Failure Contributors
• Carbonate in drainage rock/leachate
interaction
• Geotextile-wrapped collection pipes
• Slope change due to settling and compression
of subgrade
• Crushed pipe
26 August 2008 87
LCS Failure Contributors - Cont’d
• Overhandling of drainage material -
production of fines
• Creep/clogging of geonets
• Adverse leachate pH
• Change in partial pressure of CO2
26 August 2008 88
Clogging Prevention
• Proper filter design
– Use of safety factors
– Proper placement
• Proper selection of materials
26 August 2008 89
Landfill Closure Issues
26 August 2008 90
Closure Topics
• Caps
• Geotechnical Issues
• Stormwater Management
• Monitoring
• Post-closure care
26 August 2008 91
Final Cover – Water Movement
26 August 2008 92
Waste Containment Caps/Covers
Cover soil
Geosynthetic drainage
Geomembrane
Gas collection
Geotextile
Waste
26 August 2008 93
Many Alternative Caps
• Capillary barriers (sand and gravel become water barriers!)
Clay covers (historically the most used, likely the least
dependable)
• Composite covers with soil and vegetation
• Single-barrier covers (geomembrane or GCL) with soil and
erosion protection
• Exposed geomembrane covers
• Water-balance soil covers (with and without capillary breaks
26 August 2008 94
Exposed Geomembrane Covers
• Decreased
construction cost
• Decreased
maintenance
• No swales needed for
stormwater control
• Increased slope
stability
• Easy to inspect and
repair
26 August 2008 95
Exposed Geomembrane Covers - Concerns
• Wind uplift
• UV exposure
• Runoff
• Chaffing and other mechanical abrasion
• Penetrations
• Birds
26 August 2008 96
What impacts closure design and
construction?
• Settlement
• Leachate seeps
• LFG generation
• LFG vents
• Stormwater management
26 August 2008 97
Geotechnical Considerations
• Critical points
– soil/geosynthetic and geosynthetic/geosynthetic interfaces
– Slopes
• Analysis requires computer analysis
– Need geotechnical properties of landfill elements
• Increased moisture content can lead to instability
• Side slopes < 1:3 recommended, textured
geomembranes, proper drainage in cover, gas
collection
26 August 2008 98
Stormwater Management
26 August 2008 99
Stormwater Retention
• Florida Regulations -
– must collect and detain runoff from first 1” of
rainfall (for > 100 acres, 0.5” for < 100 acres)
– detain for 24 hrs.
Groundwater
Direction
Landfill
Landfill
Water Table
Confining Unit