A.
INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS SCIENCE AND
ENGINEERING
Introduction
 Material Science
o Involves determining the relationship
between the structures and properties of
materials
o A material scientist tries to determine the
relationship of material properties to the
response of the material
o For example, what is the relationship
between the pressure and temperature of
a material?
 Materials Engineering
o Study on the process of creating or
designing a new material based on an
existing material with similar properties
 Materials Engineer
o Tries to create a new material with the
desired properties based on an existing
material with similar properties
o For example, car window glasses
previously breaks into splinters causing
severe injury. To make the glass safer, the
glass is tempered by increasing its internal
stress such that when broken, will crumble
into granular chunks
 Microscopic vs. Macroscopic
 Microscopic structure is defined as the material
structure that can be seen with microscopes such
as
 Optical microscope
 Scanning electron microscope
 Atomic force microscope
 Macroscopic structure is defined as structures that
can be seen by unaided eye
 Structure of a Material
 The structure of a material usually relates to the
arrangement of its internal components.
 For example, materials are composed of atoms that
may have specific atomic configuration (e.g.
crystalline or noncrystalline)
 Properties of a Material
 Defined as the characteristic of a material that
differentiate it from other materials. It is
independent on its size and shape
 Material properties are grouped into six:
 Mechanical
 Mechanical properties relate deformation
to an applied load or force
 Electrical
 Electrical properties, such as electrical
conductivity and dielectric constant, the
stimulus is an electric field
 Thermal
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 Thermal behavior of solids can be
represented in terms of heat capacity and
thermal conductivity
 Optical
 Optical properties, the stimulus is
electromagnetic or light radiation
 Magnetic
 Magnetic properties demonstrate the
response of a material to the application of
a magnetic field.
 Deteriorative
 Deteriorative characteristics relate to the
chemical reactivity of materials.
 Four Components of Materials
 The structure of a material depends on how it is
made or processed while the performance of the
material depends on its properties. The four
components of a material are interrelated:
 Processing
 Structure
 Properties
 Performance
 For example, even though graphite and diamond
are made up of carbon atoms, they are processed
differently to produce a different material
 Why Study Materials?
 For the engineer and scientist, it is necessary to
study materials to enable to select the necessary
material for a specific purpose
 Usually there is a tradeoff between one
characteristic to another
 For example, a ductile material have limited
strength and vice versa. Therefore, as an engineer,
it is necessary not only to know the right
specifications but also the limitation induced by the
increased performance of the material
 Deterioration of material property is also
important. For example, if you have a beach house,
you need to determine if the roof of the house is
highly resistant to corrosive attack. Note that salt is
corrosive that can shorten the lifetime of your roof
 You need to have basic knowledge about the
economic consideration of creating or replacing
traditional materials
 For example, solar panels are very effective in
replacing electrical sources but they are very
expensive. Return of investment will usuall be
around 15 years.
 Buying expensive leather shoes might be cheaper in
the long run compared with buying cheaper
synthetic leather shoes
 The more familiar you are with the various
characteristics and structure–property
relationships, as well as processing techniques of
materials, the more proficient and confident you
will be to make judicious materials choices based
on these criteria.
 Classification of Materials
 Basic Classification
  Metals Glass bottles have the following
 Metals includes Cu, Fe, Al, Zn advantages:
 Metallic alloys includes small amounts of  Can able to store the carbon dioxide in
nonmetalllic materials such as carbon, the beverage for longer times
nitrogen and oxygen  Cheaper than Aluminum cans
 In terms of density, metals are denser than  The disadvantage is it can easily breaks
ceramics and polymers. and heavier than the other containers
 Polymers  Plastic bottles (Polymer)
 Polymers include the familiar plastic and  Plastic containers are relatively cheaper
rubber materials than aluminum cans but can only store the
 Chemically based on carbon, hydrogen carbon dioxide at shorter times
and other nonmetallic elements like  Aluminum cans (Metal)
oxygen, nitrogen and silicon  Aluminum cans are lighter and quickly
 Examples are cools. It can easily be recycled and can
 Polyethylene paint the surface. However, it is more
 Nylon expensive
 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)  Composites
 Polystyrene (Styrofoam)  Composite is composed of two (or more) individual
 Rubber materials, which come from either metals,
 Polymers usually have low densities ceramics, and polymers
 Not stiff nor as strong as ceramics and  Examples are:
metals  Fiberglass or Glass fiber reinforced polymer
 Ductile and pliable (GFRP)
 Inert and unreactive to most harsh  Composed of glass fibers in epoxy or
environment polyester
 One major drawback of polymers is its low  Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP)
melting temperature  Carbon fiber in epoxy or polyester. Better
 Ceramics than fiberglass but more expensive
 Ceramics are compounds between
metallic and nonmetallic elements
 They are most frequently oxides, nitrides,
and carbides B. THE STRUCTURE OF SOLIDS
 Examples includes:
 Porcelain  Atomic Structure
 Learning Objectives
 Glass
 Name the atomic model commonly used
 Tiles
 Describe quantum mechanical model that
 Alumina
relates to elecron energies
 Silica
 Briefly describe ionic, covalent, metallic,
 Ceramics are relatively stiff , strong and
hydrogen, and Van Der Waals bonds.
hard
 Note which materials exhibit each of these
 However, they are brittle and easy to bonding types.
fracture  Introduction
 Insulators and more resistant to heat and  Different materials exhibit different properties
harsh environment compared with metals  The major reason for these difference is in the way
and polymers the atoms or molecules inside the materials interact
 Advance Materials with each other
 Composites  Interaction of the microscopic structures will
 Semiconductors determine the macroscopic properties of the
 Biomaterials material

 Quantum Theory
 Knowledge Application  Wave – Particle Duality Model
 What are the Pros and Cons in the container of most  Most accepted structural model of the electron
carbonated drinks?  In this model, the electron sometime behaves
 There are 3 kinds of containers used in most like a wave and sometimes behave like a
carbonated drinks: particle but do not behave both partice and
 Glass bottles (Ceramics) wave at the same time

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  For example, electron behaves like a particle if
you touch an object. You can feel material since
it’s a particle. The electron becomes wavelike if
used on the operation of cathode ray tubes in
TVs
 Implication of Wave Particle Duality
 Since electrons sometimes behave in a
wavelike property, we can only determine
the most probable position an electron can
be at a given time
 Atomic Bonding in Solids
 Bonding forces and energies
 When 2 isolated atoms are at a distant
proximity with each other, attractive forces will
pull each other together
 However, at very close proximity, repulsive
force will be the dominant force that will keep
each other apart
 From classical physics, the total resultant force
is the sum of all the forces acting on the
particle. In this case, the resultant force is the
sum of the repulsive and attractive forces or
 F resultant = F repulsive + F attractive
 Therefore at the state of equilibrium, the
resultant force is zero.
 Bonding Energy
 Energy Eo required to separate 2 atoms to an
infinite or very long distance
 The bonding energy is dependent on the type
of atomic bondic the atoms have
 This implies that high bonding energies have
high melting point/temperature
 Solid substances are formed if there is high
bonding energy
 Gaseous State is favored for low bonding
energy
 PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS
 Ionic Bonds
 Type of chemical bond formed through
an electrostatic attraction between two
oppositely charged ions.
 Ionic bonds are formed between a cation ,
which is usually a metal, and an anion, which is
usually a nonmetal. Atoms of a metallic
element easily give up their valence electrons
to the nonmetallic atoms. In the process all the
atoms acquire stable or inert gas
configurations and they become ions
 Covalent Bonds
 Sharing of electrons between 2 atoms
 Two atoms that are covalently bonded will
each contribute at least one electron to the
bond, and the shared electrons may be
considered to belong to both atoms.
 Metallic Bonds
 Bond existing in metals wherein the electrons
are freely roaming on the metal
3
 Since the electrons are freely roaming, the
electrons can be stated as “electron clouds”
inside the materials
 Secondary Bond
 Secondary Bond or Van Der Waals
 Exists in every atoms and molecules
 Due to interaction between poles (positive and
negative) of molecules
 Hydrogen Bonds exists for molecules with
hydrogen atoms
 Effect of Bonds to properties
 Diamond have covalent bonds which are very
stable. This is the reason why diamonds are very
hard to fracture
 Metals are good conductors of electricity and heat
because the electrons can freely move from one
atom to another
 In contrast, ionic and covalent bonded materials are
insulators due to lack of freely moving electrons
 Knowledge Application - Volume Expansion of Water
upon Freezing
 The arrangement of water molecules in (a) solid ice,
and (b) liquid water.
 In solid ice, the oxygen molecule can combine with
2 other hydrogen atoms from nearby water
molecule. This forms a structure that is less dense
than that of liquid water wherein there is less
structure and thus, molecules can pack more
together
C. STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
 Learning Objectives
 Determine the difference between crystalline and
noncrystalline materials
 Determine the different crystal structures
 Derive the relationships between unit cell edge
length and atomic radius for face-centered cubic
and body-centered cubic crystal structures.
 Define isotropy and anisotropy with respect to
material properties
 Crystalline Materials
 A crystalline material is one in which the atoms are
situated in a repeating or periodic array over large
atomic distances
 All metals, many ceramic materials, and certain
polymers form crystalline structures under normal
solidification conditions
 Noncrystalline or amorphous materials have small
or no repeating structures
 Types of Crystal Structures
 Unit Cell
 Basic structural unit or building block of the
crystal structure and defines the crystal
structure by virtue of its geometry and the
atom positions within
 The Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure
  The atoms are located at the corners and
center of the cubes faces
 Structure of most metals
 Cu, Ag, Au, Al
 Unit cell edge length a with radius R for face-
centered cubic
 a = 2R√2 D. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
 For the FCC crystal structure, each corner atom
 Learning Objectives
is shared among eight unit cells, whereas a
face-centered atom belongs to only two.
Therefore, one-eighth of each of the eight
corner atoms and one-half of each of the six
face atoms, or a total of four whole atoms, may
be assigned to a given unit cell
 Terminology
 The Body-Centered Cubic Crystal System
 A cubic unit cell with atoms located at all eight
corners and a single atom at the cube center.
 Center and corner atoms touch one another
along cube diagonals, and unit cell length a and
atomic radius R are related through
 a = 4R/ √3
 The Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure
 The top and bottom faces of the unit cell
consist of six atoms that form regular hexagons
and surround a single atom in the center  Stress and Strain
 Another plane that provides three additional
atoms to the unit cell is situated between the
top and bottom planes
 The equivalent of six atoms is contained in each
unit cell; one-sixth of each of the 12 top and
bottom face corner atoms, one-half of each of
the 2 center face atoms, and all 3 midplane
interior atoms
 Single Crystals
 When the periodic and repeated arrangement
of atoms is perfect or extends throughout the
entirety of the specimen without interruption,
the result is a single crystal.
 Photograph of a garnet single crystal that was
found in Tongbei, Fujian Province, China
 Polycrystalline Materials
 Crystalline solids are composed of a collection
of many small crystals or grains
 Small crystallite nuclei
 Growth of crystallite
 Grains are formed
 Grains seen on microscope
 Anisotropy
 Associated with the change in the properties of the
material due to the variance of atomic or ionic
spacing with crystallographic direction
 Substances in which measured properties are
independent of the direction of measurement are
isotropic.
 For many polycrystalline materials, the
crystallographic orientations of the individual
grains are totally random. Under these
circumstances, even though each grain may be
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anisotropic, a specimen composed of the grain
aggregate behaves isotropically.
 Define stress and strain
 State Hooke’s law
 Define Poisson’s ratio
 What can we see on the stress-strain diagram
 Define toughness and hardness
 Stress - Force or load per unit area of cross-section
over which the force or load is acting.
 Strain - Elongation change in dimension per unit
length.
 Young’s modulus - The slope of the linear part of the
stress-strain curve in the elastic region, same as
modulus of elasticity.
 Shear modulus (G) - The slope of the linear part of
the shear stress-shear strain curve.
 Engineering Stress
𝑭
 𝝈=
𝑨𝒐
 F is defined as instantaneous load applied
perpendicular to the specimen cross
 section, in units of newtons (N)
 Ao is the original cross-sectional area before
any load is applied (m2 or in2)
 The units of engineering stress σ (referred to
subsequently as just stress) are megapascals,
MPa (SI) (where 1 MPa N/m2), and pounds
force per square inch, psi
 Engineering Strain
𝛥𝑙
 𝜀=
𝑙𝑜
 Δl is the change in length at some instant, as
referenced to the original length lo
 lo is the original length before any load is
applied
 Engineering strain ε (subsequently called just
strain) is unitless
 Shear Stress
𝐹
 𝜏=
𝐴0
 Shear Stress is computed as the ratio of the
pure shear force applied parallel to the upper
and lower faces, each of which has an area of
Ao
 Shear Strain
𝛥𝑙
 𝜀 = tan 𝜃 =
𝑙𝑜
  Defined as the tangent to the angle θ shown in
the figure
 Torsion
 Torsion is a variation of pure shear, wherein a
structural member is twisted in the manner
shown in the figure
 Torsional forces produce a rotational motion
about the longitudinal axis of one end of the
member relative to the other end
 Hooke’s Law


  E
 For most metals, stress and strain are
proportional to each other as described by
Hooke’s law. E is the constant of 
 Plastic Deformation
proportionality ( in Gpa or psi) . E is called
 For most metallic materials, elastic deformation
modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus
persists only to strains of about 0.005. As the
 This modulus may be thought of as stiffness, or
material is deformed beyond this point, the stress
a material’s resistance to elastic deformation.
is no longer proportional to strain and permanent,
The greater the modulus, the stiffer the
nonrecoverable, or plastic deformation occurs
material
 The transition from elastic to plastic is a gradual one
 Tool used to determine tensile stress and strain
for most metals; some curvature results at the
 A unidirectional force is applied to a specimen in
onset of plastic deformation, which increases more
the tensile test by means of the moveable
rapidly with rising stress
crosshead. The cross-head movement can be
 Typical stress– strain behavior for a metal showing
performed using screws or a hydraulic mechanism
elastic and plastic deformations, the proportional
 Elastic Deformation
limit P, and the yield strength as determined using
 Deformation in which the stress and strain are
the 0.002 strain offset method.
directly proportional is called elastic deformation
 Tangent or secant modulus
 If the elastic deformation is nonlinear as in the
case for polymers and concrete, the
tangenTangent modulus is taken as the slope of
the stress–strain curve at some specified level of
stress, while secant modulus represents the slope
of a secant drawn from the origin to some given
point of the stress-strain curve
 t to the line will be used 
 Tensile Properties
 Shear Modulus  Yielding

  G
 the stress level at which plastic deformation
begins

 Defined as the slope of the shear stress and shear  Proportional limit
strain  For metals that experience this gradual elastic–
 Elastic Properties of Materials plastic transition, the point of yielding may be
 Poisson’s Ratio determined as the initial departure from
𝜺 𝜺𝒚 linearity of the stress–strain curve
 𝝂=− 𝒙=−
𝜺𝒛 𝜺𝒛  Yield Strength
 Defined as the ratio of lateral and axial strains  The stress corresponding to the intersection of
 The figure shows the change in the cylindrical tube this line and the stress–strain curve as it bends
and how the strains and poisson’s equation can be over in the plastic region
applied  Tensile Strength
 When the force F is applied, the specimen will  The stress at the maximum on the engineering
elongate in the z direction and at the same time stress–strain curve
experience a reduction in diameter Δd  Typical engineering stress– strain behavior to
fracture, point F. The tensile strength TS is indicated
at point M. The circular insets represent the

5
 geometry of the deformed specimen at various  True Stress-Strain curve
points along the curve.  For some metals and alloys the region of the true
stress–strain curve from the onset of plastic
deformation to the point at which necking begins
may be approximated by
 𝝈𝒕 = 𝑲𝜺𝒏𝒕
 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝝈𝒕 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑲 + 𝒏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝜺𝒏𝒕
 In this expression, K and n are constants and
will depend on the condition of the material
(i.e., whether it has been plastically deformed,
heat treated, etc.). The parameter n is often
termed the strain hardening exponent and has
a value less than unity
 By plotting the log of stress-strain curve, you
will get the values for K and n

 Ductility
 It is a measure of the degree of plastic
deformation that has been sustained at
fracture. A material that experiences very little E. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
or no plastic deformation upon fracture is
 Learning Objectives
termed brittle.
 Define Ohm’s Law
 Toughness
 Define the capacitance of a material
 it is a measure of the ability of a material to
 Define resistivity
absorb energy up to fracture
 Ohm’s Law
 It is the area under the σ – ε curve up to the
 Tries to relate the relationship of the voltage V
point of fracture
(Volts) across the material to the current I
 For a material to be tough, it must display both
(amperes) and resistance R (ohms) of the material
strength and ductility
 Hardness
 Measure of a material’s resistance to localized
plastic deformation (e.g., a small dent or a
scratch)
 Quantitative hardness techniques have been
developed in which a small indenter is forced
into the surface of a material to be tested
 The depth or size of the resulting indentation is
measured, which in turn is related to a
hardness number
 The softer the material, the larger and deeper

is the indentation, and the lower the hardness  𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
index number  Resistivity ρ
 True Stress  Material property defined as
 Defined as the load F divided by the  𝜌=
𝑅𝐴
𝑙
instantaneous cross-sectional area Ai over
 where R is the resistance ;A cross sectional area
which deformation is occurring
𝐹 and l the length of the material where the current
 𝜎= flow
𝐴𝑖
 Electrical Conductivity σ
 True Strain  Defined as the reciprocal of resistivity ρ
 Defined as the natural logarithm of the final  𝝈=
𝟏
𝝆
length li divided by the original length lo
𝑙  Capacitance
 𝜀 = ln ( 𝑖 )  When a voltage V is applied across a capacitor, one
𝑙𝑜
 Relationship of Engineering and True Stress and Strain plate becomes positively charged, corresponding
 𝝈𝒕 = 𝝈𝒆 (𝟏 + 𝜺) electric field directed from the positive to the
 𝜺𝒕 = 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 + 𝜺) negative
 These equations will hold only on the onset of  𝑪=
𝑸
𝑽
necking

6
  Where Q is the charge stored in one plate and C is  Weak form of magnetic field that is produced when
the capacitance in units of farads an external field is applied
 Parallel Plate Capacitor  Attracts towards region with high magnetic field
 𝑪=𝜺
𝑨
 Like diamagnetic materials, paramagnetic materials
𝒍
 Where C is the capacitance, ε is the permittivity are considered nonmagnetic
constant of the dielectric material inserted  Diamagnetic and Paramagnetic Materials
between the 2 plates  The atomic dipole configuration for a diamagnetic
 Permittivity and dielectric constant material with and without a magnetic field. In the
 If there is no dielectric material between the plates, absence of an external field, no dipoles exist; in the
the parameter used εo is called the permittivity of presence of a field, dipoles are induced that are
free space/vacuum aligned opposite to the field direction
 If there is a dielectric material between the plates,  Atomic dipole configuration with and without an
the parameter used is the dielectric constant εr external magnetic field for a paramagnetic material
equal to
𝜀
 𝜀𝑟 =
𝜀𝑜

F. MAGNETIC PROPERTY OF MATERIALS


 Learning Objectives
 Define the basic concepts of magnetism
 Briefly explain the nature and source of
 Examples of Paramagnetic and Diamagnetic Materials
 Diamagnetism
 Paramagnetism
 Ferromagnetism
 Basic Concepts
 Magnetic Dipoles
 Magnetic dipoles may be thought of as small bar
magnets composed of north and south poles
instead of positive and negative electric charges.
 Magnetic Field
 Magnetic field lines of force around a current loop 
 Ferromagnetism
and a bar magnet
 Possession of permanent magnetism even without
the presence of external magnetic field
 Examples include ferrite, cobalt, nickel and some
rare earth metals such as gadolinium

G. OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

 Learning Objectives
 Briefly describe the fundamental response of
materials to electromagnetic radiation specifically
light
 Explain reflection and refraction

 Diamagnetism  Explain the difference between Fluorescence and
photoluminescence
 A very weak form of magnetism that is
 Basic Concepts
nonpermanent and persists only while an external
 Electromagnetic radiation
field is being applied
 Considered to be wave-like, consisting of electric
 Opposes magnetic fields and will go to regions with and magnetic field components that are
low magnetic fields perpendicular to each other and also to the
 Since the effect is very small, it can be considered direction of propagation
that diamagnetic materials are nonmagnetic
 Paramagnetism
7
  Reflectivity
 is defined as the fraction of the incident light
reflected at the interface
 Absorbance
 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 −𝛽𝑥
 Where It is the intensity of the transmitted light not
absorbed;Io is the intensity of light from the source
;β is the absorption coefficient and x is the distance
 traversed by the light from the surface
 Velocity of light  Transmission
 𝑐 = 𝜆𝜈  𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑜 (1 − 𝑅2 )𝑒 −𝛽𝑥
 Where c is the velocity of light (3x108 m/s, λ (in
meters) is the wavelength of light and ν (in hertz or
cycles per seconds)is the frequency of light
 Photons
 Quantized energy of light
 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
 Where E is the energy of the photon; h is the 
planck’s constant which has a value of 6.63 x 10-34
 Luminiscence
Js; f is the frequency of the photon
 In essence, light can be considered to have wave-  Phenomenon wherein the absorbed energy of the
particle duality. Light can behave as a wave material is reemitted as visible light. The interval
represented by electromagnetic radiation and as a between absorption of energy and reemission of
particle represented by photon light is less than 1 second
 Light interaction with solids
 Phosphorescence
 When light with intensity Io proceeds from one
medium to another, 3 process might happen:  The interval between absorption and reemission is
 Some of the light will be transmitted through greater than 1 second
the medium (T = It/Io)
 Some of the light will be reflected (R=Ir/Io)
 Some of the light will be absorbed (A= Ia/Io)
 𝑻+𝑨+𝑹=𝟏
 Where H. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
 T = It/Io fraction of light transmitted though  Learning Objectives
the medium  Define heat capacity and specific heat
 R=Ir/Io fraction of light reflected from the  Note the primary mechanism by which thermal
medium energy is assimilated in solid materials.
 A= Ia/Io fraction of light absorbed by the  Define thermal conductivity
medium  Heat Capacity
 Transparent materials  property that is indicative of a material’s ability to
 Materials that are capable of transmitting light with absorb heat from the external surroundings; it
relatively little absorption and reflection represents the amount of energy required to
 Translucent materials produce a unit temperature rise. In mathematical
 Light is scattered within the interior terms, the heat capacity C is expressed as follows:
𝛥𝑄
 Opaque  𝐶=
𝛥𝑇
 Materials that are impervious to the transmission of  Specific Heat
visible light  Where ΔQ is the energy required to change the
 Refraction temperature by ΔT
 Phenomenon wherein light that is transmitted into  Specific Heat
the interior of transparent materials experiences a  𝛥𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝛥𝑇
decrease in velocity, and, as a result, is bent at the  Where m is the mass of the substance
interface  c is the specific heat
 Index of Refraction n  Thermal Expansion
𝑐
 𝑛=  Most solid materials expand upon heating and
𝑣
 Ratio of the velocity in a vacuum c to the contract when cooled. The change in length with
velocity in the medium ν temperature for a solid material may be expressed
 Examples of Refraction as follows:
 Dispersion of light from glass prism 
𝛥𝑙
= 𝛼𝑙 𝛥𝑇
𝑙𝑜
 Rainbow

8
  Where αl is the linear coefficient of thermal
expansion
 Volume Coefficient of thermal expansion

𝛥𝑉
= 𝛼𝑣 𝛥𝑇
𝑉𝑂
 Where αv is the coefficient of volume
expansion. Usually αv is anisotropic but if
isotropic, its value is 3αl
 Thermal Conductivity
 Thermal conduction is a phenomenon by which
heat is transported from high to low-temperature
regions of a substance
 Thermal conductivity is the property that
characterizes the ability of a material to transfer
heat
 Steady State Heat Flow
T
q  k
 x
 Where q is the heat flux or heat flow per unit time
per unit area (area being taken as that
perpendicular to the flow direction). k is the
thermal conductivity, and ΔT is the temperature
gradient through the conducting medium
 Thermal Stress
 Stress induced in a body as a result of changes in
temperature.
 May lead to fracture or undesirable plastic
deformation
 The two prime sources of thermal stresses are
restrained thermal expansion (or contraction) and
temperature gradients established during heating
or cooling
 Thermal Shock
 The fracture of a body resulting from thermal
stresses induced by rapid temperature changes
 Because ceramic materials are brittle, they are
especially susceptible to this type of failure
I. DETERIORATIVE PROPERTY OF MATERIALS
 Learning Objectives
 To be able to explain how the familiar rust tends to
occur
 Corrosion in Metals
 Corrosion
 Material loss in metals due to dissolution
 destructive and unintentional attack of a
metal;
 it is electrochemical and ordinarily begins at
the surface
 Oxidation
 Formation of nonmetallic film or scale in metals
 lose of electrons in metal atoms
 𝑀 → 𝑀𝑛+ + 𝑛𝑒 −
 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠
9
 𝐹𝑒 → 𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2𝑒 −
 𝐴𝑙 → 𝐴𝑙 3+ + 3𝑒 −
 Anode
 Site where oxidation takes place
 Oxidation is also called anodic reaction
 Reduction
 Reaction in which the electrons from the
oxidized region is transferred and become
part of another chemical species
 Example of reduction is the formation of
hydrogen gas from hydrogen ions
 2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2
 Cathode
 Site of reduction
 Example of Oxidation-Reduction
 Corrosion of Zinc in Acid Solution
 In reduction and oxidation, the 2 terms are
each called half reactions. No net electrical
charge can be accumulated inside the material.
That is the total rate of oxidation is equal to the
total rate of reaction and all electrons
generated by oxidation must be consumed by
reduction

 (𝑎)𝑍𝑛 → 𝑍𝑛2+ + 2𝑒 −
 (𝑏)2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2
 Rusting of Iron in Water
 The first stage (1) is oxidation of Fe to Fe2+
(as Fe(OH)2)
 The second stage (2) is transformation of
Fe2+ to Fe3+ as Fe(OH)3 which is rust
1
 (1)𝐹𝑒 + 𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐹𝑒 2+ +
2
2𝑂𝐻 − → 𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)2
1
 (2)2𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)2 + 𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 →
2
2𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)3
 Consequence of oxidation
 The 2 most common consequence of
oxidation-reduction is the formation of
ions (such as Zn ions) and will go to the
corroding solution or
 The formation of insoluble compound
(such as rust)
 Degradation
 Used for polymers . Polymers may dissolve when
exposed to a liquid solvent, or they may absorb the
 solvent and swell. Electromagnetic radiation and
heat can cause deteriorations
J. STRUCTURE OF CERAMICS
 Learning Objectives
 Describe the Ceramic Structures
 Give Basic types of Ceramics
 Ceramic Structures
 For ionic bonded ceramics, the ceramics are
composed of cations and anions
 Cations are positively charged ions (metallic ions)
while anions are negatively charged ions
(nonmetallic ions)
 Examples include NaCl, MgO, FeO (rust)
 Silicate Ceramics
 Silicates are materials composed primarily of silicon
and oxygen, the two most abundant elements in
the earth’s crust
 Consequently, the bulk of soils, rocks, clays, and
sand come under the silicate classification
 Examples include Silica or Silicon Dioxide as well as
glasses (silica with CaO or Na2O)
 Carbon
 Carbon is considered ceramics due to its Zinc
Blende structure
 Diamond has a Zinc Blende Structure as shown
  Whiskers are very thin single crystals
 Graphite
 composed of layers of hexagonally arranged
carbon atoms
 Note that each atom is bonded to 3 coplanar
atoms such that it easily cleaves

10
K. STRUCTURE OF COMPOSITES
 Learning Objectives
 Identify and describe the three main divisions of
composites
 Composition
 Matrix Phase
 continuous and surrounds the dispersed phase
 Dispersed Phase
 Noncontinous phase that usually dictates the
property of the composite
 Classification
 Particle Reinforced Composites
 The particles are equiaxed. For example,
rounded dispersed particles
 Concrete
 Composed of cement (matrix), sand and
gravel (the particulates)
 Cermet
 Ceramic metal composite. Example
include cemented carbide which is
composed of Tungsten/Titanium Carbide
in a cobalt or nickel matrix
 Fiber Reinforced Composites
 The dispersed phase has a fiber geometry
 The fiber phase
 Important characteristic of materials
is that the smaller diameter fibers are
stronger than the bulk of the material
 Grouped into whiskers, fibers and
wires
that have extremely large length-to-
diameter ratios. They are very strong
but very expensive. Examples include
graphite and silicon carbide
 Fibers are either polycrystalline or
amorphous and have small diameters;
fibrous materials are generally either
polymers or ceramics. Examples
include glass and boron
 Fine wires have relatively large
diameters . Examples include steel,
molybdenum and tungsten. Used in
tires, casings and hoses
 Matrix Phase
 Binds the fibers together and only
serves as a medium for the applied
stress to be transmitted to the fibers
 Should be ductile
  Serves to protect the fiber from  HYDROCARBON MOLECULES
external damage due to mechanical  Many organic materials are hydrocarbons; that is,
abrasion or chemical reactions they are composed of hydrogen and carbon
 Polymer-matrix composites (PMCs)  Intramolecular bonds are covalent
consist of a polymer resin as the  Bonds maybe single,double or triple bonded
matrix, with fibers as the  Unsaturated molecules have double or triple bonds
reinforcement medium while saturated molecules have carbon atoms with
 Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer 4 single bonds connected to 4 other atoms
 Ethylene monomer
(GFRP) Composites
 Ethylene monomer gas as an example of
 Fiberglass is simply a composite
unsaturated molecule
consisting of glass fibers, either  Polyetheylene structure
continuous or discontinuous,  Polyethylene molecule showing its saturated
contained within a polymer structure
matrix  Macromolecules
 Carbon-Fiber Reinforced Composites  Within each molecule, the atoms are bound
 Carbon is a high-performance together by covalent interatomic bonds.
fiber material that is the most  For carbon chain polymers, the backbone of each
commonly used reinforcement in chain is a string of carbon atoms
advanced (i.e., nonfiberglass)  Monomers and Polymers
polymer-matrix composites  Monomer refers to the small molecule from which
 Structural Composites a polymer is synthesized
 Combination of homogenous and composite  Polymers refers to macromolecules formed from
materials many monomers
 A structural composite is normally composed  Examples of Polymeric Materials:
of both homogeneous and composite
Materials
 The properties of which depend not only on the
properties of the constituent materials but also
on the geometrical design of the various
structural elements. Laminar composites and
sandwich panels are two of the most common
structural composites
 Laminar composites
 composed of two-dimensional sheets or
panels that have a preferred high-strength
direction such as is found in wood and
continuous and aligned fiber-reinforced
plastics
 Examples include plywood and laminates 
 Some Common Hydrocarbon Groups
 Sandwich Panels
 Considered to be a class of structural
composites, are designed to be light-
weight beams or panels having relatively
high stiffness and strengths.
 Examples include roofs and walls of
buildings

L. STRUCTURE OF POLYMERS

 Learning Objectives
 Describe a typical polymer molecule in terms of its
chain structure and, in addition, how the molecule
may be generated from repeat units
 The four general types of polymer molecular
structures, 
 Thermosets and thermoplastic polymers

11
 MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
 Schematic representation of a single polymer chain
molecule that has numerous random kinks and coils
produced by chain bond rotations


 Where R denotes atom or side group other that
a Hydrogen atom
 R successive units are bound to alternate
carbon atoms
 Head to Head Configuration

 
 Four General Types of Polymers Structures R successive units are bound to adjacent
carbon atoms
 In most polymers, the head-to-tail
configuration predominates; often a polar
repulsion occurs between R groups for the
head-to-head configuration.
 Thermoplastic and Themosets
 Thermoplastic Polymers
 Soften when heated (and eventually liquefy)
and harden when cooled—processes that are
totally reversible and may be repeated
  Most linear polymers and those having some
Schematic representations of (a) linear, (b) branched structures with flexible chains are
branched, (c) crosslinked, and (d) network (three-
thermoplastic
dimensional) molecular structures. Circles
 Thermosetting Polymers
designate individual repeat units
 Linear Polymers  Network polymers. Become permanently hard
during their formation, and do not soften upon
 The repeat units are joined together end to end
heating
in single chains
 Branched Polymers
 Side-branch chains are connected to the main
ones
 Branches reduces the packing or density of M. ADVANCE MATERIALS
polymers
 Example High Density Polyethylene is linear  Learning Objectives
while Low Density PE is Branched  To be familiar with semiconductors
 Crosslinked Polymers  Energy Bands
 Adjacent linear chains are joined one to  Valence Bands
another at various positions by covalent bonds  Completely filled with electrons
 Network Polymers  Conduction Bands
 Multifunctional monomers forming three or  Empty Band
more active covalent bonds
 A polymer that is highly crosslinked may also be  Energy Band Gap
classified as a network polymer  Gap Between the valence band and the
 Molecular Configurations conduction band
 Head to Tail Configurations  Fermi Energy
 The energy corresponding to the highest filled
state at 0 K
12
 Different electron bands  n-Type Extrinsic Semiconduction
 Addition of a impurity atoms which has greater
number of valence electrons than the
semiconductor
 For example, by adding Phosporus P+5 which
can substitute for the Silicon atom contains an
additional electron that can serve go to the
 conduction band easily
 The various possible electron band structures in
solids at 0 K. a) The electron band structure found
in metals such as copper, in which there are
available electron states above and adjacent to
filled states, in the same band
 Semiconductivity
 b) The electron band structure of metals such as
magnesium, wherein there is an overlap of filled
and empty outer bands.

 c) The electron band structure characteristic of  The excess electron which is in the donor state
insulators; the filled valence band is separated (a) can easily jump to the conduction band (b)
from the empty conduction band by a relatively  P-type Semiconductor
large band gap (>2eV)  An opposite effect is produced by the addition
 d) The electron band structure found in the to silicon or germanium of trivalent
semiconductors, which is the same as for insulators substitutional impurities such as aluminum,
except that the band gap is relatively narrow (<2eV) boron, and gallium
 Process of conduction
 For example Boron3+ lacks an additional
 For metals, the band gap is relatively very small
electron as compared with Silicon, thus you can
such that only a very small amount of energy is consider the hole that is absent of electron be
required to transfer an electron from the valence positively charged
band to conduction band
 For insulators, the band gap is relatively large such
that you need an enormous amount of energy to
transfer an electron from valence band to
conduction band
 For semiconductors, the band gap is between
metals and insulators. When the energy applied is
less than the band gap, the valence electrons
cannot go to the conduction band such that no
conduction will occur 
 If the energy applied is greater than the band gap,  The acceptor state or hole in the energy band
valence electrons can transfer to conduction band gap will accept electron which will going to
and conduction can occur decrease the band gap
 Intrinsic Semiconduction  In summary, the use of impurities is to lower the
 Silicon and Germanium are the 2 most common energy band gap thereby controlling the way
semiconductors. Their band gap is 1.1 eV and 0.7eV conduction will occur
respectively.
 Intrinsic semiconductors are those in which the
electrical behavior is based on the electronic
structure inherent in the pure material
 Light emitting Diodes

 Extrinsic Semiconductor
 Virtually all commercial semiconductors are
extrinsic; that is, the electrical behavior is
determined by impurities, which, when present in
even minute concentrations, introduce excess
electrons or holes. For example, an impurity
concentration of one atom in 1012 is sufficient to
render silicon extrinsic at room temperature.
 Semiconductivity

13


 When you apply an external voltage to a diode the
excess electrons inside the negative type
semiconductor will recombine with the holes in the
positive type semiconductor . The excess energy
from the recombination will be transmitted as light
 Solar Panels
 Opposite of LED wherein the energy from the
sunlight is used to remove electrons (and create
holes) from the semiconductor and these electrons
will be used for producing current
N. PROCESSING AND PERFORMANCE OF MATERIALS
 Learning Objectives
 To understand and interpret phase diagrams
 To determine which alloy can be applicable for
certain applications
 To determine different methods of forming metals
 Microstructure of Steel
 A scanning electron micrograph showing the
microstructure of a plain carbon steel that contains
0.44 wt% C.
  Example of Binary Phase Diagram
 Basic Concepts
 Component
 Pure metals or compounds found in an alloy
 Phase
14
 A phase may be defined as a homogeneous
portion of a system that has uniform physical
and chemical characteristics
 Example of a phase

 The solubility of sugar in a sugar–water syrup
 Pressure-Temperature Phase Diagram for H20

 Intersection of the dashed horizontal line at 1 atm
pressure with the solid-liquid phase boundary point
2 corresponds to the melting point at this pressure
(T = 0oC ). Similarly, point 3, the point (T = 100oC)
 Binary Phase Diagram
 Binary phase diagrams are maps that represent the
relationships between temperature and the
compositions and quantities of phases at
equilibrium, which influence the microstructure of
an alloy
 Isomorphous Systems
 Systems wherein there is complete solubility
between 2 components
 Terminology
 Greek letters α, β etc.
 Used to denote solid phases in metallic alloys
 Liquidus
 Line boundary between liquid and solid – liquid
phases
 Solidus
 Line boundary between solid and solid – liquid
phases
 The copper–nickel phase diagram

 𝑆
 Portion of the copper–nickel phase diagram for
which compositions and phase amounts are
determined at point B.
  Processing of Metal Alloys
 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams
 Phases Present
 Locate the temperature–composition point on
the diagram and notes the phase(s) with which
the corresponding phase field is labeled.
 Determination of Phase Compositions
 If only one phase is present, the amount of
phase present is equal to the composition seen
in the phase diagram
 What is the phase composition at pt. A in the
Cu-Ni phase Diagram?
 Tie lines
 Horizontal lines that extend across the two-
phase region and terminate at the phase
boundary lines on either side
 How to compute for equilibrium concentrations
 To compute the equilibrium concentrations of the
two phases, the following procedure is used:
 A tie line is constructed across the two-phase
region at the temperature of the alloy.
 The intersections of the tie line and the phase
boundaries on either side are noted.
 Perpendiculars are dropped from these
intersections to the horizontal composition
axis, from which the composition of each of the
respective phases is read.
15
 Determination of Phase Amounts
 Lever Rule (inverse Lever Rule)
 May be employed to determine the relative
amounts or fractions of phases in any two-
phase region for a binary alloy if the
temperature and composition are known and if
equilibrium has been established.
 Let the overall alloy composition be located
along the tie line and denoted as and Co , and
mass fractions be represented by WL and Wα
for the respective phases. From the lever rule,
may be computed according to
 Weight fraction of liquid part
 𝑊𝐿 =
𝑆+𝑅
𝐶𝛼 −𝐶𝑂
 𝑊𝐿 =
𝐶𝛼 −𝐶𝐿
 Weight fraction of solid part
𝑅
 𝑊𝛼 =
𝑅+𝑆
𝐶𝑂 −𝐶𝐿
 𝑊𝛼 =
𝐶𝛼 −𝐶𝐿
 Iron – Carbon System

 Types of metal alloys
 Ferrous Alloys in which iron is the prime
constituent

 Steels
 Steels are iron–carbon alloys that may
contain appreciable concentrations of
other alloying elements; there are
thousands of alloys that have different
compositions and/or heat treatments.
 Low Carbon Steels
 contain less than about 0.25 wt% C
 Soft and Weak but ductile and tough
and least expensive
  Used in automobile panels, nails and  Forging
wires  Mechanically working or deforming a
 Medium Carbon Steels single piece of a normally hot metal; this
 The medium-carbon steels have may be accomplished by the application of
carbon concentrations between successive blows or by continuous
about 0.25 and 0.60 wt% squeezing
 These heat-treated alloys are stronger
than the low-carbon steels, but at a
sacrifice of ductility and toughness.
 Applications include railway wheels
and tracks, gears, crankshafts, and
other machine parts and high-
strength structural
 High Carbon Steels
 Normally having carbon contents
between 0.60 and 1.4 wt%
 These steels are utilized as cutting 
tools and dies for forming and shaping  Rolling
materials, as well as in knives, razors,  The most widely used deformation
hacksaw blades, springs, and high- process, consists of passing a piece of
strength wire metal between two rolls
 Stainless Steels
 highly resistant to corrosion (rusting)
in a variety of environments,
especially the ambient atmosphere
 Their predominant alloying element is
chromium; a concentration of at least
11 wt% Cr is required.
 Corrosion resistance may also be
enhanced by nickel and molybdenum
additions
 Cast Irons
 class of ferrous alloys with carbon
contents above 2.14 wt%
 Copper Alloys
 Brass 
 Zinc, as a substitutional impurity, is  Extrusion
the predominant alloying element  A bar of metal is forced through a die
 Bronze orifice by a compressive force that is
applied to a ram; the extruded piece that
 alloys of copper and several other
emerges has the desired shape and a
elements, including tin, aluminum,
reduced cross-sectional area. Extrusion
silicon, and nickel
products include rods and tubing that have
 These alloys are somewhat stronger
rather complicated cross-sectional
than the brasses, yet they still have a
geometries
high degree of corrosion resistance
 Fabrication of Metals


 Drawing
 The pulling of a metal piece through a die
 having a tapered bore by means of a
 Fabrication Techniques tensile force that is applied on the exit

16
 side. A reduction in cross section results, O. DEVELOPMENT OF MICROSTRUCTURE IN
with a corresponding increase in length IRON–CARBON ALLOYS

 Eutectic System
 Mixture of chemical compounds or elements that
have a single chemical composition that solidifies
at a lower temperature than any other
composition made up of the same ingredients
 The eutectic reaction is defined as follows
  Liquid ↔ α solid solution + β solid solution
 Casting  Eutectic isotherm – Temperature (horizontal tie
 Casting is a fabrication process whereby a line) in which the transformation from liquid to
totally molten metal is poured into a mold solid occur
cavity having the desired shape; upon  Iron – Carbon System
solidification, the metal assumes the
shape of the mold but experiences some
shrinkage
 Sand Casting
 With sand casting, probably the most
common method, ordinary sand is
used as the mold material. A two-
piece mold is formed by packing sand
around a pattern that has the shape of
the intended casting. Furthermore, a
gating system is usually incorporated 
 Eutectoid Reaction
into the mold to expedite the flow of
 One solid phase instead of a liquid transforms into
molten metal into the cavity and to
two other solid phases at a single temperature
minimize internal casting defects.
 δ solid solution ↔ α solid solution + β solid solution
Sand-cast parts include automotive
 eutectoid isotherm is the horizontal tie line that
cylinder blocks, fire hydrants, and
transforms one solid phase to 2 solid phases
large pipe fittings
 peritectic reaction
 Die Casting
 Upon heating, one solid phase transforms into a
 Liquid metal is forced into a mold
liquid phase and another solid phase
under pressure and at a relatively high
 δ solid solution + L ↔ ε solid solution
velocity, and allowed to solidify with
the pressure maintained. A two-piece
permanent steel mold or die is
 DEVELOPMENT OF MICROSTRUCTURE IN
employed; when clamped together,
IRON–CARBON ALLOYS
the two pieces form the desired
 Consider, for example, an alloy of eutectoid
shape. When complete solidification
composition (0.76 wt% C) as it is cooled from a
has been achieved, the die pieces are
temperature within the phase region,at 800 deg
opened and the cast piece is ejected.
C—that is, beginning at point a in Figure 9.26 and
 Investment Casting (Lost Wax)
moving down to point b
 The pattern is made from a wax or
plastic that has a low melting
temperature. Around the pattern is
poured a fluid slurry, which sets up to
form a solid mold or investment;
plaster of Paris is usually used. The
mold is then heated, such that the
pattern melts and is burned out,
leaving behind a mold cavity having
the desired shape.
 Used for jewelry and other materials
requiring high dimensional accuracy

17
  Pearlite = microstructure composed of  They also act as stress concentrators—for an isolated
alternating layer of α and cementite spherical pore, an applied tensile stress is amplified by a
 Called pearlite because it has the appearance factor of 2
of mother of pearl  Influence of porosity on Young’s Modulus
 The ferrite present in pearlite is called the
eutectoid ferrite
 Example 1
 Compute the mass fractions of α-ferrite and
cementite in pearlite
 Solution
 This problem asks that we compute the mass
fractions of α ferrite and cementite in pearlite.
The lever-rule expression for ferrite is


  Dependence of flexural strength on volume fraction
porosity
 Experimentally it has been shown that the flexural

 Similarly, for cementite strength decreases exponentially with volume
fraction porosity (P) as


 What is the carbon concentration of an iron–

carbon alloy for which the fraction of total  In this expression σ0 and n are experimental
cementite is 0.10? constants.
 This problem asks that we compute the carbon  Example
concentration of an iron-carbon alloy for which
the fraction of total cementite is 0.10.
Application of the lever yields

 Solution

 Given the flexural strengths at two different

P. POROSITY IN CERAMICS volume fraction porosities, we are asked to
determine the flexural strength for a
 Any residual porosity will have a deleterious influence nonporous material. If the natural logarithm is
on both the elastic properties and strength taken of both sides of the equation below
 For some ceramic materials the magnitude of the
modulus of elasticity E decreases with volume fraction
porosity P according to

 Solution(a)


 Where E0 is the modulus of elasticity of the nonporous
material
 Porosity is deleterious to the flexural strength for two
reasons:
 Pores reduce the cross-sectional area across which a
load is applied


18
  Solving for n and σ0 leads to n = 4.62 and  𝑁𝑣 = 𝑁 exp (−
𝑄𝑣
)
𝑘𝑇
σ0 = 126 MPa
 Where Nv is the equilibrium number of
 For the nonporous material, P = 0 . σfs for vacancies
P = 0 is 126 Mpa  N is the total number of atomic sites,
 Qv is the energy required for the formation of
a vacancy
 T is the absolute temperature
 k is the gas or Boltzmann’s constant. Equal to
 1.38 x 10-23 J/atom K, or 8.62 10-5 eV/atom K
 Solution(b)  Number-of-Vacancies Computation
 Now, we are asked for σfs at P = 0.10 for at a Specified Temperature
this same material  Calculate the equilibrium number of vacancies per
cubic meter for copper at 1000C.
 The energy for vacancy formation is 0.9 eV/atom;
the atomic weight and density (at 1000C) for copper
are 63.5 g/mol and 8.4 g/cm3
 First, determine the value of N, the number of
 atomic sites per cubic meter
 For copper, from its atomic weight Acu , its
density , and Avogadro’s number NA, according
to

 self-interstitial
Q. Vacancies  An atom from the crystal that is crowded into an
interstitial site, a small void space that under
 Problem Solving ordinary circumstances is not occupied
 Imperfections in Solids  In metals, a self-interstitial introduces relatively
large distortions in the surrounding lattice because
the atom is substantially larger than the interstitial
position in which it is situated.
 Consequently, the formation of this defect is not
highly probable, and it exists in very small
concentrations, which are significantly lower than
for vacancies
 IMPURITIES IN SOLIDS
 Alloy which impurity atoms have been added
  intentionally to impart specific characteristics to
 Point defect
the material
 VACANCIES
 Solute, solvent
 The simplest of the point defects is a vacancy, or
 Solvent represents the element or compound that
vacant lattice site, one normally occupied from
is present in the greatest amount; on occasion,
which an atom is missing
solvent atoms are also called host atoms
 VACANCIES
 Solute is used to denote an element or compound
 The equilibrium number of vacancies for a given
present in a minor concentration
quantity of material depends on and increases with
 Calculate the number of vacancies per cubic meter in
temperature according to
gold at 900 deg C. The energy for vacancy formation is

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 0.98 eV/atom. Furthermore, the density and atomic
weight for Au are 18.63 g/cm3 (at 900°C) and 196.9
g/mol, respectively.

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