A.

INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING  Processing

 Structure
Introduction  Properties
 Performance
 Material Science
 For example, even though graphite and diamond are
o Involves determining the relationship between
made up of carbon atoms, they are processed differently
the structures and properties of materials
to produce a different material
o A material scientist tries to determine the
 Why Study Materials?
relationship of material properties to the
 For the engineer and scientist, it is necessary to study
response of the material
materials to enable to select the necessary material for a
o For example, what is the relationship between
specific purpose
the pressure and temperature of a material?
 Usually there is a tradeoff between one characteristic to
 Materials Engineering
another
o Study on the process of creating or designing a
 For example, a ductile material have limited strength and
new material based on an existing material
vice versa. Therefore, as an engineer, it is necessary not
with similar properties
only to know the right specifications but also the
 Materials Engineer
limitation induced by the increased performance of the
o Tries to create a new material with the desired material
properties based on an existing material with
 Deterioration of material property is also important. For
similar properties
example, if you have a beach house, you need to
o For example, car window glasses previously
determine if the roof of the house is highly resistant to
breaks into splinters causing severe injury. To
corrosive attack. Note that salt is corrosive that can
make the glass safer, the glass is tempered by
shorten the lifetime of your roof
increasing its internal stress such that when
 You need to have basic knowledge about the economic
broken, will crumble into granular chunks
consideration of creating or replacing traditional
 Microscopic vs. Macroscopic
materials
 Microscopic structure is defined as the material  For example, solar panels are very effective in replacing
structure that can be seen with microscopes such as
electrical sources but they are very expensive. Return of
 Optical microscope investment will usuall be around 15 years.
 Scanning electron microscope
 Buying expensive leather shoes might be cheaper in the
 Atomic force microscope
long run compared with buying cheaper synthetic leather
 Macroscopic structure is defined as structures that can
shoes
be seen by unaided eye
 The more familiar you are with the various
 Structure of a Material
characteristics and structure–property relationships, as
 The structure of a material usually relates to the
well as processing techniques of materials, the more
arrangement of its internal components. proficient and confident you will be to make judicious
 For example, materials are composed of atoms that may
materials choices based on these criteria.
have specific atomic configuration (e.g. crystalline or  Classification of Materials
noncrystalline)
 Basic Classification
 Properties of a Material
 Metals
 Defined as the characteristic of a material that
 Metals includes Cu, Fe, Al, Zn
differentiate it from other materials. It is independent on
 Metallic alloys includes small amounts of
its size and shape
nonmetalllic materials such as carbon, nitrogen
 Material properties are grouped into six:
and oxygen
 Mechanical
 In terms of density, metals are denser than
 Mechanical properties relate deformation to an
ceramics and polymers.
applied load or force
 Polymers
 Electrical
 Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber
 Electrical properties, such as electrical
materials
conductivity and dielectric constant, the
 Chemically based on carbon, hydrogen and
stimulus is an electric field
other nonmetallic elements like oxygen,
 Thermal
nitrogen and silicon
 Thermal behavior of solids can be represented
 Examples are
in terms of heat capacity and thermal
 Polyethylene
conductivity
 Optical  Nylon
 Optical properties, the stimulus is  Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
electromagnetic or light radiation  Polystyrene (Styrofoam)
 Magnetic  Rubber
 Magnetic properties demonstrate the response  Polymers usually have low densities
of a material to the application of a magnetic  Not stiff nor as strong as ceramics and metals
field.  Ductile and pliable
 Deteriorative  Inert and unreactive to most harsh
 Deteriorative characteristics relate to the environment
chemical reactivity of materials.  One major drawback of polymers is its low
 Four Components of Materials melting temperature
 The structure of a material depends on how it is made or  Ceramics
processed while the performance of the material  Ceramics are compounds between metallic and
depends on its properties. The four components of a nonmetallic elements
material are interrelated:
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  They are most frequently oxides, nitrides, and  Most accepted structural model of the electron
carbides  In this model, the electron sometime behaves like a
 Examples includes: wave and sometimes behave like a particle but do
 Porcelain not behave both partice and wave at the same time
 Glass  For example, electron behaves like a particle if you
 Tiles touch an object. You can feel material since it’s a
 Alumina particle. The electron becomes wavelike if used on
 Silica the operation of cathode ray tubes in TVs
 Ceramics are relatively stiff , strong and hard  Implication of Wave Particle Duality
 However, they are brittle and easy to fracture  Since electrons sometimes behave in a
 Insulators and more resistant to heat and harsh wavelike property, we can only determine the
environment compared with metals and most probable position an electron can be at a
polymers given time
 Advance Materials  Atomic Bonding in Solids
 Composites  Bonding forces and energies
 Semiconductors  When 2 isolated atoms are at a distant proximity
 Biomaterials with each other, attractive forces will pull each other
 Knowledge Application together
 What are the Pros and Cons in the container of most  However, at very close proximity, repulsive force will
carbonated drinks? be the dominant force that will keep each other
 There are 3 kinds of containers used in most carbonated apart
drinks:  From classical physics, the total resultant force is the
 Glass bottles (Ceramics) sum of all the forces acting on the particle. In this
case, the resultant force is the sum of the repulsive
 Glass bottles have the following advantages:
and attractive forces or
 Can able to store the carbon dioxide in the
 F resultant = F repulsive + F attractive
beverage for longer times
 Therefore at the state of equilibrium, the resultant
 Cheaper than Aluminum cans
force is zero.
 The disadvantage is it can easily breaks and
 Bonding Energy
heavier than the other containers
 Energy Eo required to separate 2 atoms to an infinite
 Plastic bottles (Polymer)
or very long distance
 Plastic containers are relatively cheaper than  The bonding energy is dependent on the type of
aluminum cans but can only store the carbon atomic bondic the atoms have
dioxide at shorter times  This implies that high bonding energies have high
 Aluminum cans (Metal) melting point/temperature
 Aluminum cans are lighter and quickly cools. It  Solid substances are formed if there is high bonding
can easily be recycled and can paint the energy
surface. However, it is more expensive  Gaseous State is favored for low bonding energy
 Composites  PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS
 Composite is composed of two (or more) individual  Ionic Bonds
materials, which come from either metals, ceramics, and  Type of chemical bond formed through
polymers an electrostatic attraction between two oppositely
 Examples are: charged ions.
 Fiberglass or Glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP)  Ionic bonds are formed between a cation , which is
 Composed of glass fibers in epoxy or polyester usually a metal, and an anion, which is usually
 Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) a nonmetal. Atoms of a metallic element easily give
 Carbon fiber in epoxy or polyester. Better than up their valence electrons to the nonmetallic atoms.
fiberglass but more expensive In the process all the atoms acquire stable or inert
gas configurations and they become ions
B. THE STRUCTURE OF SOLIDS
 Covalent Bonds
 Atomic Structure  Sharing of electrons between 2 atoms
 Learning Objectives  Two atoms that are covalently bonded will each
 Name the atomic model commonly used contribute at least one electron to the bond, and the
 Describe quantum mechanical model that relates to shared electrons may be considered to belong to
elecron energies both atoms.
 Briefly describe ionic, covalent, metallic, hydrogen,  Metallic Bonds
and Van Der Waals bonds.  Bond existing in metals wherein the electrons are
 Note which materials exhibit each of these bonding freely roaming on the metal
types.  Since the electrons are freely roaming, the electrons
 Introduction can be stated as “electron clouds” inside the
 Different materials exhibit different properties materials
 The major reason for these difference is in the way the  Secondary Bond
atoms or molecules inside the materials interact with  Secondary Bond or Van Der Waals
each other  Exists in every atoms and molecules
 Interaction of the microscopic structures will determine  Due to interaction between poles (positive and
the macroscopic properties of the material negative) of molecules
 Hydrogen Bonds exists for molecules with hydrogen
 Quantum Theory atoms
 Wave – Particle Duality Model  Effect of Bonds to properties

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  Diamond have covalent bonds which are very stable. This
is the reason why diamonds are very hard to fracture
 Metals are good conductors of electricity and heat
because the electrons can freely move from one atom to
another
 In contrast, ionic and covalent bonded materials are
insulators due to lack of freely moving electrons
 Knowledge Application - Volume Expansion of Water upon
Freezing
 The arrangement of water molecules in (a) solid ice, and
(b) liquid water.
 In solid ice, the oxygen molecule can combine with 2 other
hydrogen atoms from nearby water molecule. This forms
a structure that is less dense than that of liquid water
wherein there is less structure and thus, molecules can
pack more together
C. STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
 Learning Objectives
 Determine the difference between crystalline and
noncrystalline materials
 Determine the different crystal structures
 Derive the relationships between unit cell edge length
and atomic radius for face-centered cubic and body-
centered cubic crystal structures.
 Define isotropy and anisotropy with respect to material
properties
 Crystalline Materials
 A crystalline material is one in which the atoms are
situated in a repeating or periodic array over large atomic
distances
 All metals, many ceramic materials, and certain polymers
form crystalline structures under normal solidification
conditions
 Noncrystalline or amorphous materials have small or no
repeating structures
 Types of Crystal Structures
 Unit Cell
 Basic structural unit or building block of the crystal
structure and defines the crystal structure by virtue
of its geometry and the atom positions within
 The Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure
 The atoms are located at the corners and center of
the cubes faces
 Structure of most metals
 Cu, Ag, Au, Al
 Unit cell edge length a with radius R for face-
centered cubic
 a = 2R√2
 For the FCC crystal structure, each corner atom is
shared among eight unit cells, whereas a face-
centered atom belongs to only two. Therefore, one-
eighth of each of the eight corner atoms and one-
half of each of the six face atoms, or a total of four
whole atoms, may be assigned to a given unit cell
 The Body-Centered Cubic Crystal System
 A cubic unit cell with atoms located at all eight
corners and a single atom at the cube center.
 Center and corner atoms touch one another along
cube diagonals, and unit cell length a and atomic
radius R are related through
 a = 4R/ √3
 The Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure
 The top and bottom faces of the unit cell consist of
six atoms that form regular hexagons and surround
a single atom in the center
 Another plane that provides three additional atoms
to the unit cell is situated between the top and
bottom planes
3
 The equivalent of six atoms is contained in each unit
cell; one-sixth of each of the 12 top and bottom face
corner atoms, one-half of each of the 2 center face
atoms, and all 3 midplane interior atoms
 Single Crystals
 When the periodic and repeated arrangement of
atoms is perfect or extends throughout the entirety
of the specimen without interruption, the result is a
single crystal.
 Photograph of a garnet single crystal that was found
in Tongbei, Fujian Province, China
 Polycrystalline Materials
 Crystalline solids are composed of a collection of
many small crystals or grains
 Small crystallite nuclei
 Growth of crystallite
 Grains are formed
 Grains seen on microscope
 Anisotropy
 Associated with the change in the properties of the
material due to the variance of atomic or ionic spacing
with crystallographic direction
 Substances in which measured properties are
independent of the direction of measurement are
isotropic.
 For many polycrystalline materials, the crystallographic
orientations of the individual grains are totally random.
Under these circumstances, even though each grain may
be anisotropic, a specimen composed of the grain
aggregate behaves isotropically.
D. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
 Learning Objectives
 Define stress and strain
 State Hooke’s law
 Define Poisson’s ratio
 What can we see on the stress-strain diagram
 Define toughness and hardness
 Terminology
 Stress - Force or load per unit area of cross-section over
which the force or load is acting.
 Strain - Elongation change in dimension per unit length.
 Young’s modulus - The slope of the linear part of the
stress-strain curve in the elastic region, same as modulus
of elasticity.
 Shear modulus (G) - The slope of the linear part of the
shear stress-shear strain curve.
 Stress and Strain
 Engineering Stress
 𝝈=
𝑭
𝑨𝒐
 F is defined as instantaneous load applied
perpendicular to the specimen cross
 section, in units of newtons (N)
 Ao is the original cross-sectional area before any load
is applied (m2 or in2)
 The units of engineering stress σ (referred to
subsequently as just stress) are megapascals, MPa
(SI) (where 1 MPa N/m2), and pounds force per
square inch, psi
 Engineering Strain
𝛥𝑙
 𝜀=
𝑙𝑜
 Δl is the change in length at some instant, as
referenced to the original length lo
 lo is the original length before any load is applied
 Engineering strain ε (subsequently called just strain)
is unitless
 Shear Stress
 𝐹
 𝜏=
𝐴0
 Shear Stress is computed as the ratio of the pure
shear force applied parallel to the upper and lower
faces, each of which has an area of Ao
 Shear Strain
𝛥𝑙
 𝜀 = tan 𝜃 =
𝑙𝑜
 Defined as the tangent to the angle θ shown in the
figure
 Torsion
 Torsion is a variation of pure shear, wherein a
structural member is twisted in the manner shown
in the figure
 Torsional forces produce a rotational motion about
the longitudinal axis of one end of the member 
relative to the other end  Plastic Deformation
 Hooke’s Law  For most metallic materials, elastic deformation persists

  E

 For most metals, stress and strain are proportional
to each other as described by Hooke’s law. E is the
constant of proportionality ( in Gpa or psi) . E is
called modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus
 This modulus may be thought of as stiffness, or a
material’s resistance to elastic deformation. The
greater the modulus, the stiffer the material
 Tool used to determine tensile stress and strain
 A unidirectional force is applied to a specimen in the
tensile test by means of the moveable crosshead. The
cross-head movement can be performed using screws or
a hydraulic mechanism
 Elastic Deformation
 Deformation in which the stress and strain are directly
proportional is called elastic deformation
 Tangent or secant modulus
 If the elastic deformation is nonlinear as in the case for
polymers and concrete, the Tangent modulus is taken as
the slope of the stress–strain curve at some specified
level of stress, while secant modulus represents the
slope of a secant drawn from the origin to some given
point of the stress-strain curve
 t to the line will be used
 Shear Modulus
only to strains of about 0.005. As the material is
deformed beyond this point, the stress is no longer
proportional to strain and permanent, nonrecoverable,
or plastic deformation occurs
 The transition from elastic to plastic is a gradual one for
most metals; some curvature results at the onset of
plastic deformation, which increases more rapidly with
rising stress
 Typical stress– strain behavior for a metal showing elastic
and plastic deformations, the proportional limit P, and
the yield strength as determined using the 0.002 strain
offset method.

 Tensile Properties
 Yielding
 the stress level at which plastic deformation begins
 Proportional limit
 For metals that experience this gradual elastic–
plastic transition, the point of yielding may be

  G
determined as the initial departure from linearity of
the stress–strain curve
 Yield Strength

 Defined as the slope of the shear stress and shear strain  The stress corresponding to the intersection of this
 Elastic Properties of Materials line and the stress–strain curve as it bends over in
 Poisson’s Ratio the plastic region
 𝝂=− 𝒙=−
𝜺 𝜺𝒚  Tensile Strength
𝜺𝒛 𝜺𝒛  The stress at the maximum on the engineering
 Defined as the ratio of lateral and axial strains stress–strain curve
 The figure shows the change in the cylindrical tube and  Typical engineering stress– strain behavior to fracture,
how the strains and poisson’s equation can be applied point F. The tensile strength TS is indicated at point M.
 When the force F is applied, the specimen will elongate The circular insets represent the geometry of the
in the z direction and at the same time experience a deformed specimen at various points along the curve.
reduction in diameter Δd

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 E. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

 Learning Objectives
 Define Ohm’s Law
 Define the capacitance of a material
 Define resistivity
 Ohm’s Law
 Tries to relate the relationship of the voltage V (Volts)
across the material to the current I (amperes) and
resistance R (ohms) of the material

 Ductility
 It is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation
that has been sustained at fracture. A material that
experiences very little or no plastic deformation
upon fracture is termed brittle.
 Toughness
 it is a measure of the ability of a material to absorb
energy up to fracture
 It is the area under the σ – ε curve up to the point of
fracture 
 For a material to be tough, it must display both  𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
strength and ductility  Resistivity ρ
 Hardness  Material property defined as
 Measure of a material’s resistance to localized  𝜌=
𝑅𝐴
𝑙
plastic deformation (e.g., a small dent or a scratch)
 where R is the resistance ;A cross sectional area and l the
 Quantitative hardness techniques have been
length of the material where the current flow
developed in which a small indenter is forced into
 Electrical Conductivity σ
the surface of a material to be tested
 Defined as the reciprocal of resistivity ρ
 The depth or size of the resulting indentation is 𝟏
measured, which in turn is related to a hardness  𝝈=
𝝆
number  Capacitance
 The softer the material, the larger and deeper is the  When a voltage V is applied across a capacitor, one plate
indentation, and the lower the hardness index becomes positively charged, corresponding electric field
number directed from the positive to the negative
 True Stress  𝑪=
𝑸
𝑽
 Defined as the load F divided by the instantaneous  Where Q is the charge stored in one plate and C is the
cross-sectional area Ai over which deformation is capacitance in units of farads
occurring  Parallel Plate Capacitor
𝐹
 𝜎= 𝑨
𝐴𝑖  𝑪=𝜺
𝒍
 Where C is the capacitance, ε is the permittivity constant
 True Strain of the dielectric material inserted between the 2 plates
 Defined as the natural logarithm of the final length li  Permittivity and dielectric constant
divided by the original length lo  If there is no dielectric material between the plates, the
𝑙
 𝜀 = ln ( 𝑖 ) parameter used εo is called the permittivity of free
𝑙𝑜
 Relationship of Engineering and True Stress and Strain space/vacuum
 𝝈𝒕 = 𝝈𝒆 (𝟏 + 𝜺)  If there is a dielectric material between the plates, the
 𝜺𝒕 = 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 + 𝜺) parameter used is the dielectric constant εr equal to
𝜀
 These equations will hold only on the onset of necking  𝜀𝑟 =
𝜀𝑜
 True Stress-Strain curve
 For some metals and alloys the region of the true stress– F. MAGNETIC PROPERTY OF MATERIALS
strain curve from the onset of plastic deformation to
the point at which necking begins may be approximated  Learning Objectives
by  Define the basic concepts of magnetism
 𝝈𝒕 = 𝑲𝜺𝒏𝒕  Briefly explain the nature and source of
 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝝈𝒕 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑲 + 𝒏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝜺𝒏𝒕  Diamagnetism
 In this expression, K and n are constants and will  Paramagnetism
depend on the condition of the material (i.e.,  Ferromagnetism
whether it has been plastically deformed, heat  Basic Concepts
treated, etc.). The parameter n is often termed the  Magnetic Dipoles
strain hardening exponent and has a value less than  Magnetic dipoles may be thought of as small bar magnets
unity composed of north and south poles instead of positive
 By plotting the log of stress-strain curve, you will and negative electric charges.
get the values for K and n  Magnetic Field

5
  Magnetic field lines of force around a current loop and a  Explain the difference between Fluorescence and
bar magnet photoluminescence
 Basic Concepts
 Electromagnetic radiation
 Considered to be wave-like, consisting of electric and
magnetic field components that are perpendicular to
each other and also to the direction of propagation


 Diamagnetism
 A very weak form of magnetism that is nonpermanent 
and persists only while an external field is being applied  Velocity of light
 Opposes magnetic fields and will go to regions with low  𝑐 = 𝜆𝜈
 Where c is the velocity of light (3x108 m/s, λ (in meters) is
magnetic fields
the wavelength of light and ν (in hertz or cycles per
 Since the effect is very small, it can be considered that
seconds)is the frequency of light
diamagnetic materials are nonmagnetic
 Photons
 Paramagnetism
 Quantized energy of light
 Weak form of magnetic field that is produced when an
 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
external field is applied
 Where E is the energy of the photon; h is the planck’s
 Attracts towards region with high magnetic field
constant which has a value of 6.63 x 10-34 Js; f is the
 Like diamagnetic materials, paramagnetic materials are
frequency of the photon
considered nonmagnetic
 In essence, light can be considered to have wave-particle
 Diamagnetic and Paramagnetic Materials
duality. Light can behave as a wave represented by
 The atomic dipole configuration for a diamagnetic
electromagnetic radiation and as a particle represented
material with and without a magnetic field. In the
by photon
absence of an external field, no dipoles exist; in the
 Light interaction with solids
presence of a field, dipoles are induced that are aligned
 When light with intensity Io proceeds from one medium
opposite to the field direction
to another, 3 process might happen:
 Atomic dipole configuration with and without an external
 Some of the light will be transmitted through the
magnetic field for a paramagnetic material
medium (T = It/Io)
 Some of the light will be reflected (R=Ir/Io)
 Some of the light will be absorbed (A= Ia/Io)
 𝑻+𝑨+𝑹=𝟏
 Where
 T = It/Io fraction of light transmitted though the
medium
 R=Ir/Io fraction of light reflected from the
medium
  A= Ia/Io fraction of light absorbed by the
medium
 Transparent materials
 Examples of Paramagnetic and Diamagnetic Materials  Materials that are capable of transmitting light with
relatively little absorption and reflection
 Translucent materials
 Light is scattered within the interior
 Opaque
 Materials that are impervious to the transmission of
visible light
 Refraction
 Phenomenon wherein light that is transmitted into the
interior of transparent materials experiences a decrease

 Ferromagnetism in velocity, and, as a result, is bent at the interface
 Possession of permanent magnetism even without the  Index of Refraction n
𝑐
presence of external magnetic field  𝑛=
𝑣
 Examples include ferrite, cobalt, nickel and some rare  Ratio of the velocity in a vacuum c to the velocity in
earth metals such as gadolinium the medium ν
 Examples of Refraction
G. OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS  Dispersion of light from glass prism
 Rainbow
 Learning Objectives
 Reflectivity
 Briefly describe the fundamental response of materials to
 is defined as the fraction of the incident light reflected
electromagnetic radiation specifically light
at the interface
 Explain reflection and refraction
 Absorbance
 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 −𝛽𝑥
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  Where It is the intensity of the transmitted light not
T
absorbed;Io is the intensity of light from the source ;β is
q  k
the absorption coefficient and x is the distance traversed
by the light from the surface  x
 Transmission  Where q is the heat flux or heat flow per unit time per
 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑜 (1 − 𝑅2 )𝑒 −𝛽𝑥 unit area (area being taken as that perpendicular to the
flow direction). k is the thermal conductivity, and ΔT is
the temperature gradient through the conducting
medium
 Thermal Stress
 Stress induced in a body as a result of changes in
temperature.
 May lead to fracture or undesirable plastic deformation
 The two prime sources of thermal stresses are restrained

thermal expansion (or contraction) and temperature
 Luminiscence gradients established during heating or cooling
 Thermal Shock
 Phenomenon wherein the absorbed energy of the  The fracture of a body resulting from thermal stresses
material is reemitted as visible light. The interval between induced by rapid temperature changes
absorption of energy and reemission of light is less than  Because ceramic materials are brittle, they are especially
1 second susceptible to this type of failure
 Phosphorescence I. DETERIORATIVE PROPERTY OF MATERIALS
 The interval between absorption and reemission is  Learning Objectives
greater than 1 second  To be able to explain how the familiar rust tends to occur
 Corrosion in Metals
H. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
 Corrosion
 Learning Objectives  Material loss in metals due to dissolution
 Define heat capacity and specific heat  destructive and unintentional attack of a metal;
 Note the primary mechanism by which thermal energy is  it is electrochemical and ordinarily begins at the
assimilated in solid materials. surface
 Define thermal conductivity  Oxidation
 Heat Capacity  Formation of nonmetallic film or scale in metals
 property that is indicative of a material’s ability to absorb  lose of electrons in metal atoms
heat from the external surroundings; it represents the  𝑀 → 𝑀𝑛+ + 𝑛𝑒 −
amount of energy required to produce a unit  𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠
temperature rise. In mathematical terms, the heat  𝐹𝑒 → 𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2𝑒 −
capacity C is expressed as follows:  𝐴𝑙 → 𝐴𝑙 3+ + 3𝑒 −
 𝐶=
𝛥𝑄  Anode
𝛥𝑇  Site where oxidation takes place
 Specific Heat
 Oxidation is also called anodic reaction
 Where ΔQ is the energy required to change the
 Reduction
temperature by ΔT
 Reaction in which the electrons from the
 Specific Heat
oxidized region is transferred and become part
 𝛥𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝛥𝑇
of another chemical species
 Where m is the mass of the substance
 c is the specific heat  Example of reduction is the formation of
 Thermal Expansion hydrogen gas from hydrogen ions
 Most solid materials expand upon heating and contract  2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2
when cooled. The change in length with temperature for
a solid material may be expressed as follows:  Cathode
𝛥𝑙  Site of reduction
 = 𝛼𝑙 𝛥𝑇
𝑙𝑜  Example of Oxidation-Reduction
 Where αl is the linear coefficient of thermal  Corrosion of Zinc in Acid Solution
expansion  In reduction and oxidation, the 2 terms are each
 Volume Coefficient of thermal expansion called half reactions. No net electrical charge can be
𝛥𝑉
 = 𝛼𝑣 𝛥𝑇 accumulated inside the material. That is the total
𝑉𝑂
 Where αv is the coefficient of volume expansion. rate of oxidation is equal to the total rate of reaction
Usually αv is anisotropic but if isotropic, its value is and all electrons generated by oxidation must be
3αl consumed by reduction
 Thermal Conductivity
 Thermal conduction is a phenomenon by which heat is
transported from high to low-temperature regions of a
substance
 Thermal conductivity is the property that characterizes
the ability of a material to transfer heat

 Steady State Heat Flow

7
  Note that each atom is bonded to 3 coplanar atoms
such that it easily cleaves


 (𝑎)𝑍𝑛 → 𝑍𝑛2+ + 2𝑒 −
 (𝑏)2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2

 Rusting of Iron in Water
 The first stage (1) is oxidation of Fe to Fe2+ (as K. STRUCTURE OF COMPOSITES
Fe(OH)2)
 The second stage (2) is transformation of Fe 2+  Learning Objectives
to Fe3+ as Fe(OH)3 which is rust  Identify and describe the three main divisions of
1 composites
 (1)𝐹𝑒 + 𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2𝑂𝐻 − →
2  Composition
𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)2  Matrix Phase
1
 (2)2𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)2 + 𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 →  continuous and surrounds the dispersed phase
2
2𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)3  Dispersed Phase
 Consequence of oxidation  Noncontinous phase that usually dictates the
 The 2 most common consequence of oxidation- property of the composite
reduction is the formation of ions (such as Zn  Classification
ions) and will go to the corroding solution or  Particle Reinforced Composites
 The formation of insoluble compound (such as  The particles are equiaxed. For example, rounded
rust) dispersed particles
 Degradation  Concrete
 Used for polymers . Polymers may dissolve when exposed  Composed of cement (matrix), sand and gravel
to a liquid solvent, or they may absorb the solvent and (the particulates)
swell. Electromagnetic radiation and heat can cause  Cermet
deteriorations  Ceramic metal composite. Example include
cemented carbide which is composed of
J. STRUCTURE OF CERAMICS Tungsten/Titanium Carbide in a cobalt or nickel
matrix
 Learning Objectives
 Fiber Reinforced Composites
 Describe the Ceramic Structures
 The dispersed phase has a fiber geometry
 Give Basic types of Ceramics
 Ceramic Structures  The fiber phase
 For ionic bonded ceramics, the ceramics are composed of  Important characteristic of materials is
cations and anions that the smaller diameter fibers are
 Cations are positively charged ions (metallic ions) while stronger than the bulk of the material
anions are negatively charged ions (nonmetallic ions)  Grouped into whiskers, fibers and wires
 Examples include NaCl, MgO, FeO (rust)  Whiskers are very thin single crystals that
 Silicate Ceramics have extremely large length-to-diameter
 Silicates are materials composed primarily of silicon and ratios. They are very strong but very
oxygen, the two most abundant elements in the earth’s expensive. Examples include graphite and
crust silicon carbide
 Consequently, the bulk of soils, rocks, clays, and sand  Fibers are either polycrystalline or
come under the silicate classification amorphous and have small diameters;
 Examples include Silica or Silicon Dioxide as well as fibrous materials are generally either
glasses (silica with CaO or Na2O) polymers or ceramics. Examples include
 Carbon glass and boron
 Carbon is considered ceramics due to its Zinc Blende  Fine wires have relatively large diameters.
structure Examples include steel, molybdenum and
 Diamond has a Zinc Blende Structure as shown tungsten. Used in tires, casings and hoses
 Matrix Phase
 Binds the fibers together and only serves
as a medium for the applied stress to be
transmitted to the fibers
 Should be ductile
 Serves to protect the fiber from external
damage due to mechanical abrasion or
chemical reactions
  Polymer-matrix composites (PMCs)
 Graphite consist of a polymer resin as the matrix,
 composed of layers of hexagonally arranged carbon with fibers as the reinforcement medium
atoms
8
  Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (GFRP)
Composites
 Fiberglass is simply a composite
consisting of glass fibers, either
continuous or discontinuous,
contained within a polymer matrix
 Carbon-Fiber Reinforced Composites
 Carbon is a high-performance fiber
material that is the most commonly
used reinforcement in advanced (i.e.,
nonfiberglass) polymer-matrix
composites
 Structural Composites
 Combination of homogenous and composite
materials
 A structural composite is normally composed of 
both homogeneous and composite Materials  Some Common Hydrocarbon Groups
 The properties of which depend not only on the
properties of the constituent materials but also on
the geometrical design of the various structural
elements. Laminar composites and sandwich panels
are two of the most common structural composites
 Laminar composites
 composed of two-dimensional sheets or panels
that have a preferred high-strength direction
such as is found in wood and continuous and
aligned fiber-reinforced plastics
 Examples include plywood and laminates
 Sandwich Panels
 Considered to be a class of structural
composites, are designed to be light-weight
beams or panels having relatively high stiffness
and strengths.
 Examples include roofs and walls of buildings

L. STRUCTURE OF POLYMERS

 Learning Objectives
 Describe a typical polymer molecule in terms of its chain  MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
structure and, in addition, how the molecule may be  Schematic representation of a single polymer chain
generated from repeat units molecule that has numerous random kinks and coils
 The four general types of polymer molecular structures, produced by chain bond rotations
 Thermosets and thermoplastic polymers
 HYDROCARBON MOLECULES
 Many organic materials are hydrocarbons; that is, they
are composed of hydrogen and carbon
 Intramolecular bonds are covalent
 Bonds maybe single,double or triple bonded
 Unsaturated molecules have double or triple bonds while
saturated molecules have carbon atoms with 4 single
bonds connected to 4 other atoms
 Ethylene monomer
 Ethylene monomer gas as an example of unsaturated
molecule
 Polyetheylene structure
 Polyethylene molecule showing its saturated structure
 Macromolecules
 Within each molecule, the atoms are bound together by
covalent interatomic bonds. 
 Four General Types of Polymers Structures
 For carbon chain polymers, the backbone of each chain is
a string of carbon atoms
 Monomers and Polymers
 Monomer refers to the small molecule from which a
polymer is synthesized
 Polymers refers to macromolecules formed from many
monomers
 Examples of Polymeric Materials:

9
  Network polymers. Become permanently hard
during their formation, and do not soften upon
heating

M. ADVANCE MATERIALS

 Learning Objectives
 To be familiar with semiconductors
 Energy Bands
 Valence Bands
 Completely filled with electrons
  Conduction Bands
 Schematic representations of (a) linear, (b) branched, (c)  Empty Band
crosslinked, and (d) network (three-dimensional)
molecular structures. Circles designate individual repeat  Energy Band Gap
units  Gap Between the valence band and the conduction
 Linear Polymers band
 The repeat units are joined together end to end in  Fermi Energy
single chains  The energy corresponding to the highest filled state
 Branched Polymers at 0 K
 Side-branch chains are connected to the main ones  Different electron bands
 Branches reduces the packing or density of polymers
 Example High Density Polyethylene is linear while
Low Density PE is Branched
 Crosslinked Polymers
 Adjacent linear chains are joined one to another at
various positions by covalent bonds
 Network Polymers
 Multifunctional monomers forming three or more

active covalent bonds  The various possible electron band structures in solids at
 A polymer that is highly crosslinked may also be 0 K. a) The electron band structure found in metals such
classified as a network polymer as copper, in which there are available electron states
 Molecular Configurations above and adjacent to filled states, in the same band
 Head to Tail Configurations  Semiconductivity
 b) The electron band structure of metals such as
magnesium, wherein there is an overlap of filled and
empty outer bands.
 c) The electron band structure characteristic of
insulators; the filled valence band is separated from the
 empty conduction band by a relatively large band gap
 Where R denotes atom or side group other that a (>2eV)
Hydrogen atom  d) The electron band structure found in the
 R successive units are bound to alternate carbon semiconductors, which is the same as for insulators
atoms except that the band gap is relatively narrow (<2eV)
 Head to Head Configuration  Process of conduction
 For metals, the band gap is relatively very small such that
only a very small amount of energy is required to transfer
an electron from the valence band to conduction band
 For insulators, the band gap is relatively large such that
you need an enormous amount of energy to transfer an
electron from valence band to conduction band
 For semiconductors, the band gap is between metals and
insulators. When the energy applied is less than the band

 R successive units are bound to adjacent carbon gap, the valence electrons cannot go to the conduction
atoms band such that no conduction will occur
 In most polymers, the head-to-tail configuration  If the energy applied is greater than the band gap,
predominates; often a polar repulsion occurs valence electrons can transfer to conduction band and
between R groups for the head-to-head conduction can occur
configuration.  Intrinsic Semiconduction
 Thermoplastic and Themosets  Silicon and Germanium are the 2 most common
 Thermoplastic Polymers semiconductors. Their band gap is 1.1 eV and 0.7eV
 Soften when heated (and eventually liquefy) and respectively.
harden when cooled—processes that are totally  Intrinsic semiconductors are those in which the electrical
reversible and may be repeated behavior is based on the electronic structure inherent in
 Most linear polymers and those having some the pure material
branched structures with flexible chains are  Extrinsic Semiconductor
thermoplastic  Virtually all commercial semiconductors are extrinsic;
 Thermosetting Polymers that is, the electrical behavior is determined by
impurities, which, when present in even minute
concentrations, introduce excess electrons or holes. For

10
 example, an impurity concentration of one atom in 1012
is sufficient to render silicon extrinsic at room
temperature.
 Semiconductivity
 n-Type Extrinsic Semiconduction
 Addition of a impurity atoms which has greater
number of valence electrons than the
semiconductor
 For example, by adding Phosporus P+5 which can
substitute for the Silicon atom contains an additional
electron that can serve go to the conduction band
easily

 The excess electron which is in the donor state (a)
can easily jump to the conduction band (b)
 P-type Semiconductor
 An opposite effect is produced by the addition to
silicon or germanium of trivalent substitutional
impurities such as aluminum, boron, and gallium
 For example Boron3+ lacks an additional electron as
compared with Silicon, thus you can consider the
hole that is absent of electron be positively charged

 The acceptor state or hole in the energy band gap
will accept electron which will going to decrease the
band gap
 In summary, the use of impurities is to lower the energy
band gap thereby controlling the way conduction will
occur
 Light emitting Diodes
11
 When you apply an external voltage to a diode the excess
electrons inside the negative type semiconductor will
recombine with the holes in the positive type
semiconductor . The excess energy from the
recombination will be transmitted as light
 Solar Panels
 Opposite of LED wherein the energy from the sunlight is
used to remove electrons (and create holes) from the
semiconductor and these electrons will be used for
producing current
N. PROCESSING AND PERFORMANCE OF MATERIALS
 Learning Objectives
 To understand and interpret phase diagrams
 To determine which alloy can be applicable for certain
applications
 To determine different methods of forming metals
 Microstructure of Steel
 A scanning electron micrograph showing the
microstructure of a plain carbon steel that contains 0.44
wt% C.

 Basic Concepts
 Component
 Pure metals or compounds found in an alloy
 Phase
 A phase may be defined as a homogeneous portion
of a system that has uniform physical and chemical
characteristics
 Example of a phase

 The solubility of sugar in a sugar–water syrup
 Pressure-Temperature Phase Diagram for H20

 Intersection of the dashed horizontal line at 1 atm
pressure with the solid-liquid phase boundary point 2
 corresponds to the melting point at this pressure (T = 0oC  Horizontal lines that extend across the two-phase
). Similarly, point 3, the point (T = 100oC) region and terminate at the phase boundary lines on
 Binary Phase Diagram either side
 Binary phase diagrams are maps that represent the  How to compute for equilibrium concentrations
relationships between temperature and the  To compute the equilibrium concentrations of the two
compositions and quantities of phases at equilibrium, phases, the following procedure is used:
which influence the microstructure of an alloy  A tie line is constructed across the two-phase region
 Isomorphous Systems at the temperature of the alloy.
 Systems wherein there is complete solubility  The intersections of the tie line and the phase
between 2 components boundaries on either side are noted.
 Terminology  Perpendiculars are dropped from these
 Greek letters α, β etc. intersections to the horizontal composition axis,
 Used to denote solid phases in metallic alloys from which the composition of each of the
 Liquidus respective phases is read.
 Line boundary between liquid and solid – liquid  Determination of Phase Amounts
phases  Lever Rule (inverse Lever Rule)
 Solidus  May be employed to determine the relative
 Line boundary between solid and solid – liquid amounts or fractions of phases in any two-phase
phases region for a binary alloy if the temperature and
 Example of Binary Phase Diagram composition are known and if equilibrium has been
 The copper–nickel phase diagram established.
 Let the overall alloy composition be located along
the tie line and denoted as and C o , and mass
fractions be represented by WL and Wα for the
respective phases. From the lever rule, may be
computed according to
 Weight fraction of liquid part
𝑆
 𝑊𝐿 =
𝑆+𝑅
𝐶𝛼 −𝐶𝑂
 𝑊𝐿 =
𝐶𝛼 −𝐶𝐿
 Weight fraction of solid part
𝑅
 𝑊𝛼 =
𝑅+𝑆
𝐶𝑂 −𝐶𝐿
 𝑊𝛼 =
𝐶𝛼 −𝐶𝐿
 Iron – Carbon System


 Portion of the copper–nickel phase diagram for which
compositions and phase amounts are determined at
point B.


 Processing of Metal Alloys
 Types of metal alloys
 Ferrous Alloys in which iron is the prime
constituent


 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams
 Phases Present
 Locate the temperature–composition point on the
diagram and notes the phase(s) with which the
corresponding phase field is labeled.
 Determination of Phase Compositions
 If only one phase is present, the amount of phase
present is equal to the composition seen in the 
phase diagram
 What is the phase composition at pt. A in the Cu-Ni
phase Diagram?  Steels
 Tie lines  Steels are iron–carbon alloys that may contain
appreciable concentrations of other alloying

12
 elements; there are thousands of alloys that accomplished by the application of successive
have different compositions and/or heat blows or by continuous squeezing
treatments.
 Low Carbon Steels
 contain less than about 0.25 wt% C
 Soft and Weak but ductile and tough and
least expensive
 Used in automobile panels, nails and wires
 Medium Carbon Steels
 The medium-carbon steels have carbon
concentrations between about 0.25 and
0.60 wt%
 These heat-treated alloys are stronger
than the low-carbon steels, but at a
sacrifice of ductility and toughness. 
 Applications include railway wheels and  Rolling
tracks, gears, crankshafts, and other  The most widely used deformation process,
machine parts and high-strength consists of passing a piece of metal between
structural two rolls
 High Carbon Steels
 Normally having carbon contents between
0.60 and 1.4 wt%
 These steels are utilized as cutting tools
and dies for forming and shaping
materials, as well as in knives, razors,
hacksaw blades, springs, and high-
strength wire
 Stainless Steels
 highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a
variety of environments, especially the
ambient atmosphere
 Their predominant alloying element is 
chromium; a concentration of at least 11  Extrusion
wt% Cr is required.  A bar of metal is forced through a die orifice by
 Corrosion resistance may also be a compressive force that is applied to a ram; the
enhanced by nickel and molybdenum extruded piece that emerges has the desired
additions shape and a reduced cross-sectional area.
 Cast Irons Extrusion products include rods and tubing that
have rather complicated cross-sectional
 class of ferrous alloys with carbon
geometries
contents above 2.14 wt%
 Copper Alloys
 Brass
 Zinc, as a substitutional impurity, is the
predominant alloying element
 Bronze
 alloys of copper and several other
elements, including tin, aluminum, silicon,

and nickel  Drawing
 These alloys are somewhat stronger than  The pulling of a metal piece through a die
the brasses, yet they still have a high having a tapered bore by means of a tensile
degree of corrosion resistance force that is applied on the exit side. A
 Fabrication of Metals reduction in cross section results, with a
corresponding increase in length


 Casting
 Casting is a fabrication process whereby a
totally molten metal is poured into a mold

 Fabrication Techniques cavity having the desired shape; upon
 Forging solidification, the metal assumes the shape of
 Mechanically working or deforming a single the mold but experiences some shrinkage
piece of a normally hot metal; this may be  Sand Casting

13
  With sand casting, probably the most  δ solid solution + L ↔ ε solid solution
common method, ordinary sand is used as
the mold material. A two-piece mold is
formed by packing sand around a pattern  DEVELOPMENT OF MICROSTRUCTURE IN
that has the shape of the intended casting. IRON–CARBON ALLOYS
Furthermore, a gating system is usually  Consider, for example, an alloy of eutectoid composition
incorporated into the mold to expedite (0.76 wt% C) as it is cooled from a temperature within the
the flow of molten metal into the cavity phase region,at 800 deg C—that is, beginning at point a
and to minimize internal casting defects. in Figure 9.26 and moving down to point b
Sand-cast parts include automotive
cylinder blocks, fire hydrants, and large
pipe fittings
 Die Casting
 Liquid metal is forced into a mold under
pressure and at a relatively high velocity,
and allowed to solidify with the pressure
maintained. A two-piece permanent steel
mold or die is employed; when clamped
together, the two pieces form the desired
shape. When complete solidification has
been achieved, the die pieces are opened
and the cast piece is ejected.
 Investment Casting (Lost Wax)
 The pattern is made from a wax or plastic
that has a low melting temperature. 
Around the pattern is poured a fluid slurry,  Pearlite = microstructure composed of alternating
which sets up to form a solid mold or layer of α and cementite
investment; plaster of Paris is usually  Called pearlite because it has the appearance of
used. The mold is then heated, such that mother of pearl
the pattern melts and is burned out,  The ferrite present in pearlite is called the eutectoid
leaving behind a mold cavity having the ferrite
desired shape.  Example 1
 Used for jewelry and other materials  Compute the mass fractions of α-ferrite and cementite in
requiring high dimensional accuracy pearlite
 Solution
O. DEVELOPMENT OF MICROSTRUCTURE IN  This problem asks that we compute the mass
IRON–CARBON ALLOYS fractions of α ferrite and cementite in pearlite. The
 Eutectic System lever-rule expression for ferrite is
 Mixture of chemical compounds or elements that have a
single chemical composition that solidifies at a lower
temperature than any other composition made up of
the same ingredients 
 The eutectic reaction is defined as follows
 Liquid ↔ α solid solution + β solid solution
 Eutectic isotherm – Temperature (horizontal tie line) in 
which the transformation from liquid to solid occur  Similarly, for cementite
 Iron – Carbon System


 What is the carbon concentration of an iron– carbon alloy
for which the fraction of total cementite is 0.10?
 This problem asks that we compute the carbon
concentration of an iron-carbon alloy for which the
fraction of total cementite is 0.10. Application of the
lever yields



 Eutectoid Reaction
 One solid phase instead of a liquid transforms into two
other solid phases at a single temperature
 δ solid solution ↔ α solid solution + β solid solution
 eutectoid isotherm is the horizontal tie line that P. POROSITY IN CERAMICS
transforms one solid phase to 2 solid phases
 Any residual porosity will have a deleterious influence on both
 peritectic reaction
the elastic properties and strength
 Upon heating, one solid phase transforms into a liquid
phase and another solid phase

14
 For some ceramic materials the magnitude of the modulus of  Solving for n and σ0 leads to n = 4.62 and σ0 =
elasticity E decreases with volume fraction porosity P 126 MPa
according to  For the nonporous material, P = 0 . σfs for P = 0
is 126 Mpa

 Where E0 is the modulus of elasticity of the nonporous material
 Porosity is deleterious to the flexural strength for two reasons:
 Pores reduce the cross-sectional area across which a load is
applied
 They also act as stress concentrators—for an isolated spherical 
pore, an applied tensile stress is amplified by a factor of 2  Solution(b)
 Influence of porosity on Young’s Modulus  Now, we are asked for σfs at P = 0.10 for this
same material

Q. Vacancies

 Problem Solving
  Imperfections in Solids
 Dependence of flexural strength on volume fraction porosity
 Experimentally it has been shown that the flexural
strength decreases exponentially with volume fraction
porosity (P) as


 In this expression σ0 and n are experimental constants.
 Example

 Point defect
 VACANCIES
 The simplest of the point defects is a vacancy, or vacant
lattice site, one normally occupied from which an atom is
missing
 VACANCIES
 The equilibrium number of vacancies for a given quantity
of material depends on and increases with temperature
according to
 𝑄
 𝑁𝑣 = 𝑁 exp (− 𝑣 )
𝑘𝑇
 Solution  Where Nv is the equilibrium number of vacancies
 N is the total number of atomic sites,
 Given the flexural strengths at two different volume  Qv is the energy required for the formation of a
fraction porosities, we are asked to determine the vacancy
flexural strength for a nonporous material. If the  T is the absolute temperature
natural logarithm is taken of both sides of the  k is the gas or Boltzmann’s constant. Equal to 1.38 x
equation below 10-23 J/atom K, or 8.62 10-5 eV/atom K
 Number-of-Vacancies Computation
at a Specified Temperature
 Calculate the equilibrium number of vacancies per cubic
 meter for copper at 1000C.
 Solution(a)  The energy for vacancy formation is 0.9 eV/atom; the
atomic weight and density (at 1000C) for copper are 63.5
g/mol and 8.4 g/cm3
 First, determine the value of N, the number of
atomic sites per cubic meter
 For copper, from its atomic weight Acu , its density ,
and Avogadro’s number NA, according to

15
 

 self-interstitial
 An atom from the crystal that is crowded into an
interstitial site, a small void space that under ordinary
circumstances is not occupied
 In metals, a self-interstitial introduces relatively large
distortions in the surrounding lattice because the atom is
substantially larger than the interstitial position in which
it is situated.
 Consequently, the formation of this defect is not highly
probable, and it exists in very small concentrations, which
are significantly lower than for vacancies
 IMPURITIES IN SOLIDS
 Alloy which impurity atoms have been added
 intentionally to impart specific characteristics to the
material
 Solute, solvent
 Solvent represents the element or compound that is
present in the greatest amount; on occasion, solvent
atoms are also called host atoms
 Solute is used to denote an element or compound present
in a minor concentration
 Calculate the number of vacancies per cubic meter in gold at
900 deg C. The energy for vacancy formation is 0.98 eV/atom.
Furthermore, the density and atomic weight for Au are 18.63
g/cm3 (at 900°C) and 196.9 g/mol, respectively.

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