Guidelines For Efficient Writing Guidelines For Efficient Writing

Writing Guidelines Ioana Mohor-Ivan
Guidelines for Efficient

Writing
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
Guidelines for efficient writing
• Present the reader with ideas worth considering;

• Organise and develop the main point logically and
emphatically;
• Be precise in lexical choice, and highly specific in
the supporting material;
• Present all the points clearly, with sentence and
paragraph elements arranged in a unified, coherent
fashion;
• Respect the conventions of grammar, spelling and
punctuation.
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Some additional guidelines

• The first sentence should be reasonably short (to
ease the readers into the material);
• Too many short/long sentences are likely to tire
readers;
• Sentences which are too long or complex should be
avoided;
• It is often appropriate to follow a sentence
containing a lot of information with a short one
that, while not duplicating the material, summarises
or clarifies it.
Which of the following punctuation marks are most

adequate as a separating device?
• It was a fine day, the sun was shining.

• It was a fine day. The sun was shining.
• It was a fine day – the sun was shining.
• It was a fine day; the sun was shining.
• It was a fine day: the sun was shining.
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HIERARCHY OF PUNCTUATION
• COMMA: brief, hardly perceptible pause;
if used with a conjunction (and, but, for),
it acquires the same weight as a semi-
colon.
• DASH: equivalent to a ‘strong comma’; it
is useful towards the end of a clause or
sentence when the writer wishes to
stress an additional and important point.
• BRACKETS/A PAIR OF DASHES: used

to isolate a thought or piece of
information that is worth including, but
is secondary to the main thrust of the
material. The pair of dashes is slightly
the weightier, but essentially they do
the same work.
• SEMI-COLON: its weight is halfway
between the comma and the full stop. It
should be used to separate two clauses
whose subject-matter is closely related.
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• COLON: whereas the semi-colon

denotes a pause between two related
clauses, the colon separates two that
are directly interlock (i.e. each is to an
extent dependent on the other for full
sense or impact.)
• FULL STOP: denotes a major pause,
therefore it should be used as sparingly
as possible (a profusion of full stops
prohibits flow.)
• THE QUESTION AND EXCLAMATION
MARKS: have the same weight as a full
stop, but are also specific signals.
There was no letter that day he

was pleased his wife was
worried.
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• There was no letter that day. He

was pleased, his wife worried.
• There was no letter. That day he
was pleased; his wife worried.
• There was no letter that day: he
was pleased his wife worried.
Suggestions for designing

paragraphs
• Each side of the paper (assuming A4 size) should
usually contain 2 or 3 paragraphs;
• Except for occasions when you wish to stress or
highlight something, each paragraphs should contain at
least 3 sentences;
• A good paragraph usually resembles a miniature essay:
it should be clearly set up, properly developed,
satisfyingly rounded off.
• First and last paragraphs should be fairly short.
• A paragraph should have unity and a nucleus (a sentence
to which all other material can be seen to gravitate.
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5
What is redundant in the following

examples?
• This new innovation • Throughout the whole chapter…
• At this moment in • The final incident with which the
time chapter ends …
• Whys and • These factors combined together
wherefores to produce …
• Unnecessary • It was no more than a mere
fripperies passing thought …
• Quite unique • But after a while, however, he
• Quite dead realised…
• He can do no more than just follow
blindly …
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In formal writing try to avoid:

• Useless or damaging qualifiers:
– incredible We thought this story incredible – very
convincing.
– fantastic ‘The Winslow Boy’, that fantastic update
of the problem play, …
– brilliant Defoe was a brilliant satirist …
– definitely Macbeth is definitely a tragic hero …
– no way/in no way No way is Macbeth not a tragic
hero …
– over the top Shakespeare goes way over the top here
– sincere A most sincere poem like …
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• Unnecessary complexity:
– The poet succeeds in creating an arresting
picture …
– Mozart manages to convince us …
– Einstein is trying to put over the point that
…
– …. embodies a representation of …
– … the way this is brought to realisation is …
– … promotes a general level of satisfaction …
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• Leaden lead-ins:
– It is interesting to note that …
– It may perhaps be said that …
– It is worthy of note that …
– We can safely say that …
– From certain points of view …
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• Redundant qualifiers:
– Quite evil
– Rather tragic
– Somewhat wicked
– Very true
– Completely and utterly defeated
– Extremely empty
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4 main types on non-fiction prose:

• Narration: recounts an event or series of events;
• Description: portrays an person, place or object;
• Exposition: explains and clarifies;
• Argumentation: convinces through a sequence of
reasoning.
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Additional guidelines in using

narration
• The emphasis in any narration is on what happened: A, then B, and then C,
etc. Events may be arranged in a strict time sequence, or their
chronology may be rearranged to emphasise a special episode.
• The 1st-person narration helps form an intimate, personal bond between
the writer and the audience (e.g. presenting autobiographical material, or
describing situations in which the writer was a participant or observer.)
• The 3rd-person narration is effective in highly objective writing, where
the emphasis is on the event itself rather than on its interpretation (e.g.
historical accounts, case-studies, reports).
• Within a narrative paragraph the topic sentence may be presented at
either its beginning or its end. If placed at the end, it should summarise
and re-emphasise the idea or feeling the writer wants to convey. It may
be omitted if enough supporting evidence is provided to support the
implied topic.
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Additional guidelines in using

description
• Any description should have a broader purpose as
revealed in the dominant impression the writer wants to
share with his/her audience.
• The dominant impression is conveyed by relying on
details that convey sense impressions (details of sight,
sound, taste, touch, smell). Any description may convey
several sense impressions, but one should be dominant.
• An effective description is often presented from a
particular vantage point. Developing detail from a
particular vantage point is known as spatial order.
Spatial development is an additional tool for achieving
emphasis that will serve the purpose of the description.
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Forms of exposition
• Definition: it presents the meaning of a term; it is used to
show the specific characteristics that give something its
identity, setting it apart from similar things.
• Exemplification: it explains or clarifies by providing
illustrations, examples and supporting details
• Comparison/contrast: it identifies similarities and
differences
• Analogy: it clarifies something unfamiliar by comparing it to
something familiar or easily understood.
• Classification: it is used to arrange or group a complex set
of ideas or items that share some common feature.
• Process analysis: it concentrates on how something is done;
it enumerates the major steps involved and provides proper
warnings if a particular order of steps is involved.
• Causal analysis: it reveals and discusses the reason for an
occurrence and the consequences of it.
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Argumentation
• It is the setting forth of reasons along with the conclusion
drawn from them.
• An argumentative essay usually employs inductive reasoning
(i.e. the presentation of observations, experience, facts,
statistics that make up the evidence for drawing a likely
conclusion.)
• In the writing process one moves backward: stating first
the conclusion (“What I believe”,) and then developing on its
basis (“Why I believe this”.)
• It resorts to:
– Generalisation
– Authority
– Positive support
– Specific evidence
– Cause and effect
– Alternatives
– Objectivity
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Introductions
• Purposes:
– Provide an interesting presentation of the thesis
statement
– Stimulate the reader’s interest in the topic
– Indicate clearly what the topic is so that the reader
may understand the point the paper is pursuing and how
it will be approached.
• Possible openings:
– A broad statement
– The thesis statement
– A statistics or fact
– A quotation
– An anecdote
– A scene-setter
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Conclusions
• Purposes:
– offer the audience a way of viewing the paper as a
whole;
– Ease the reader out of the paper;
– Enable the writer offer final affirmation of the thesis.
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• The most commonly employed means of

concluding are:
• the summary,
• the prediction,
• the question,
• the recommendation (s),
• the quotation.
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Model for the Analysis of Creative Works

• Introduction
Identify the work
Give a brief summary in one sentence
Provide background information that related to the thesis
Offer biographical facts about the author that relate to the specific
issues
Use quotations and paraphrases of authorities that establish the
scholarly traditions
Write a thesis sentence that establishes your particular views of the
literary work or any other art form
• Body
Provide an analysis divided according to such elements as imagery, theme,
character development, structure, symbolism, narration, language, etc.
• Conclusion
Keep a fundamental focus on the author of the work, not just the
elements of analysis as explained in the body
Offer a conclusion that explores the contributions of the writer in
concord with your thesis sentence
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Model for Argument and Persuasion Papers

• Introduction
In one sentence establish the problem or controversial issue that your
paper will examine
Summarize the issues
Define key terminology
Make concessions on some points of the argument
Use quotations and paraphrases of sources to build the controversial
nature of the subject
Provide background to establish a past/present relationship
Write a thesis to establish your position
• Body
Argue in defence on one side
Analyse the issues, both pro and con
Give evidence from the sources, including quotations as appropriate
• Conclusion
Expand your thesis into a conclusion that makes clear your position which
should be one that grows logically from your analysis and discussion of the
issues
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Model for a Comparative Study

• Introduction
Establish A
Establish B
Briefly compare the two
Introduce the central issue
Cite source materials on the subjects
Present your thesis
• Body (choose one)
Examine A / Compare A and B / Issue 1: Discuss A and B
Examine B / Contrast A and B / Issue 2: Discuss A and B
Compare and contrast A and B / Discuss the central issues / Issue 3: Discuss
A and B
• Conclusion
Discuss the significant issues
Write a conclusion that ranks one over the other, or
Write a conclusion that rates the respective wisdom of each side
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Content and structural

coherence
Section of paper: theme generation Section of paper: topic sentences
of paragraphs
Thematic (content) coherence Structural coherence
1. Introduction (general–specific) 1. Introduction: topic sentence of this paragraph
2. Theme taken from paragraph 1. captures theme of section.
3. Theme taken from paragraph 2. 2, 3, 4 & 5. Topic sentence captures theme of the
4. Theme generated because of development of paragraph. Connectors are used to link with
paragraph 3. previous paragraph.
5. Theme generated because of conclusion of 6. Topic sentence captures the conclusion.
paragraph 4.
6. Theme is the conclusion drawn at the end of the All the topic sentences should relate
argument put forward in this section. (conceptually) to the main topic.
Topic sentences are constructed to reflect a

summarised version of the theme of the
paragraph.
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Linking words and phrases

Function Transitional words and phrases
To add In addition; furthermore; moreover; and; again; equally important; similarly
To “prove” Because; for; since; for the same reason
To compare and Yet; while; whereas; in contrast; however; on the one hand… on the other hand;
contrast conversely; on the contrary; by comparison
To show Yet; still; nevertheless; in spite of; despite; of course
exception
To indicate time Immediately; thereafter; soon; finally; then
To repeat In brief; as I have noted
To emphasise Obviously; definitely; extremely; in fact; indeed; in any case; positively;

naturally; surprisingly; undeniably; unquestioningly; without reservation
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Linking words and phrases

Function Transitional words and phrases
To show First; firstly; secondly (etc.); and so forth; next; then; following this; at this time;
sequence at this point; after; before; previously; consequently; simultaneously
To give example For instance; for example; in another case; take the case of; to demonstrate; to
illustrate; as an example
To summarise or In brief; on the whole; summing up; to conclude; in conclusion; as I have shown;
conclude hence; therefore; as a result; on the whole; consequently
To show cause- Because; since; therefore; as a result; consequently; hence; thus; because of;
and-effect due to; as a result of
relationships
To show Although; even though; despite the fact that; notwithstanding the fact that;
adversative nevertheless; in spite of
position
To clarify In other words; that is
To intensify On the contrary; as a matter of fact; in fact
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2. Writing from sources:
quotation, paraphrase, summary, referencing
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Quotations
Used for:
• support (appeal to authority);
• to preserve vivid or technical language;
• to analyse or comment on the
quotation;
• to distance oneself from the quotation
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Direct/Indirect Quotations
• Samuel Butler said: “I do not mind
lying, but I hate inaccuracy.”
• Samuel Butler declared that “I do not
mind lying, but I hate inaccuracy.”
• “I do not mind lying,” said Samuel
Butler, “but I hate inaccuracy.”
• Samuel Butler declared that he did not
mind lying, but he hated inaccuracy.
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Punctuation Guidelines
• Periods and commas are placed inside the
quotation:
Hemingway believed that “what is moral is what you
feel good after and what is immoral is what you feel
bad after.”
• Semicolons, colons and dashes are placed
outside the quotation:
Hemingway believed that “what is moral is what you
feel good after and what is immoral is what you feel
bad after”; this also applies to Harry Morgan in To Have
and Have Not.
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• Question marks and exclamation points may be

placed either inside (if the quotation is itself a
question or exclamation) or outside the quotation
(if they belong to the framework sentence):
Freud’s writings occasionally reveal a remarkable lack of insight:
“The great question that has never been answered, and which I have not
been able to answer despite my thirty years of research into the
feminine soul, is: What does a woman want?”
Freud was demonstrating remarkably little insight when he wrote,
“What does a woman want?” citing his “thirty years of research into the
feminine soul”!
What did Freud mean when he asked, “What does a woman want”?
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17
Quoting inside quotations

• I draw the line at “forever.” (Muriel
Spark)
• Eternally enquiring and curious about
people and places, “I draw the line at
‘forever.’” (Victoria Glendinning)
• In her recent profile, Victoria
Glendinning emphasises Muriel Spark’s
search for variety: “Eternally enquiring
and curious about people and places, ‘I
draw the line at “forever.”’”
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Tailoring quotations
• Changing capital and small letters:
– Frost wrote that “good fences make good neighbours.”
– Frost wrote, “Good fences make good neighbours.”
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Using ellipses:
“It is not true that suffering ennobles the
character; happiness does that sometimes, but
suffering, for most part, makes me petty and
vindictive.” (W. S. Maugham)
Maugham does not believe that “suffering

ennobles the character; . . . suffering, for the
most part, makes men petty and vindictive.”
Maugham does not believe that “suffering

ennobles the character; happiness does that
sometimes . . . .”
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• Using brackets:
– To explain a vague word
– To replace a confusing phrase
– To suggest an antecedent
– To correct an error in a quotation
– To adjust a quotation to fit your own writing
A famous philosopher once argued that “what he

[man] lives for is thrills and excitement.”
One of Heywood’s Proverbes [sic] tells us that . .

.
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19
Writing citations
• First reference:
John Stuart Mill writes, “The opinion which is
attempted to suppress by authority may
possibly be true.”
In On Liberty, John Stuart Mill writes . . .
• Second reference:
Mill continues to point out that “all silencing of
discussion is an assumption of infallibility.”
In addition to his warnings about the dangers of
majority rule, which were cited earlier in the
discussion of public opinion, John Stuart Mill …
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Reporting verbs
Neutral Some degree Implied Attitude of the

attitude of uncertainty agreement original
points out alleges establishes refutes
argues speculates affirms discards
suggests postulates confirms stresses
indicates contends proves advocates
describes claims convinces proposes
observes asserts demonstrates urges
remarks shows contradicts
sustains challenges
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Paraphrase
• Literal paraphrase: a word-for-word
substitution, staying close to the
sentence structure of the original text.
• Free paraphrase: moves away from the
words and sentence structure of the
original text and presents ideas in the
paraphraser’s own style and idiom; it can
summarise repetitious parts of the
original, but it will present ideas in much
the same order.
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Methods for literal paraphrase

• changing vocabulary
• changing word-class
• changing word-order
• Example:
– Ancient Egypt collapsed in about 2180 BC. Studies conducted of the mud from
the River Nile showed that at this time the mountainous regions which feed
the Nile suffered from a prolonged drought. This would have had a devastating
effect on the ability of Egyptian society to feed itself. (original)
– Research into deposits of the Egyptian Nile indicate that a long dry period in
the mountains at the river’s source may have led to a lack of water for
irrigation around 2180BC, which was when the collapse of Egyptian society
began. (paraphrase)
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Summary
• A condensation of ideas or information provided by a
source.
• It does not include examples or repetitions.
• It is often used as part of a larger essay.
• Guidelines for writing a summary:
– Find the most important information that tells what the
paragraph or group of paragraphs is about.
– Use this information to write a topic sentence.
– Find 2 or 3 main ideas and important details that support
your topic sentence and show how they are related.
– Keep the ideas and facts in a logical order that expands on
your topic sentence.
– Combine several main ideas into a single sentence.
– Substitute a general term for lists of items or events.
– Do not include unimportant or minor details.
– Do not repeat information.
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Comparing paraphrase and summary

Paraphrase Summary
•Reports your understanding •Reports your understanding
to your reader to your reader
•Records a relatively short •Records a passage of any

passage length
•Records every point in the •Selects and condenses,
passage recording only the main ideas
•Records these points •Changes the order of ideas

consecutively when necessary
•Includes no interpretation •Explains and interprets
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Referencing
• Correct and consistent use of a standard referencing convention
is essential in producing a report, thesis or paper.
• Referencing a source involves two separate steps:

– indicating in the body of a piece of work that some material is not
entirely original, by providing a short 'identifier' for its source (a
reference in the text)
– listing, in a separate section of the work, the full details of the
source (in a list of references).
• Referencing in the text:

– Endnotes or footnotes;
– Parenthetical notes;
– Explanatory notes;
– Umbrella notes.
• Listing references:
– References
– Bibliography
– Annotated bibliography
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Which are the differences in the

following two referencing
styles?
Hemingway’s zest for life extended to women also. His wandering
heart seemed only to be exceeded by an even more appreciative eye.7
Hadley was aware of her husband’s flirtations and of his facility with
women.8 Yet, she had no idea that something was going on between
Hemingway and Pauline Pfeiffer, a fashion editor for Vogue magazine.9
She was also unaware that Hemingway delayed his return to Schruns
from a business trip to New York, in February 1926, so that he might
spend some more time with this “new and strange girl.”10
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__
7 Ernest Hemingway, A Moveable Feast (New York: Scribner’s, 1964), p. 102.
8 Alice Hunt Sokoloff, Hadley: The First Mrs. Hemingway (New York: Dodd,
Mead, 1973), p. 84.
9 Carlos Baker, Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story (New York: Scribner’s,
1969), p. 159.
10 Hemingway, op. cit., p. 210. Also Baker, op. cit., p. 165.
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Hemingway’s zest for life extended to women also. His

wandering heart seemed only to be exceeded by an even more
appreciative eye (Hemingway, 1964: 102). Hadley was aware of
her husband’s flirtations and of his facility with women
(Sokoloff, 1973: 84). Yet, she had no idea that something was
going on between Hemingway and Pauline Pfeiffer, a fashion
editor for Vogue magazine (Baker, 1969: 159). She was also
unaware that Hemingway delayed his return to Schruns from a
business trip to New York, in February 1926, so that he might
spend some more time with this “new and strange girl.”
(Hemingway, 1964: 210; Baker, 1969: 165)
References
Baker, C. (1969), Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story. New York:
Scribner’s.
Hemingway, E. (1964), A Moveable Feast. New York: Scribner’s.
Sokoloff, A. H. (1973), Hadley: The First Mrs. Hemingway. New York:
Dodd, Mead.
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Referencing systems
• There are a number of different referencing systems
used in academic writing. They broadly subdivide into:
– author-date systems;
– footnoting or endnoting systems (one variation: the Numbered

system, i.e. a numbered citation is inserted into the text
whenever a work is referred to. E.g. The notion of an invisible
college has been explored in the sciences[26].)
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24
Referencing Styles
• The Harvard Style: a generic term for any style which contains
author-date references in the text of the document, such as (Smith,
1999). There will also be a list of references at the end of the
document, arranged by authors' names and year of publication. There
is no official manual of the Harvard style: it is just a generic term for
the many styles which follow that format.
• The Chicago Manual of Style: the most widely consulted of all style
manuals, it includes provisions for footnote referencing, numbered
reference lists and author-date referencing. Its footnote referencing
system is widely used in the arts and humanities. Its author/date
referencing provisions are also widely used, and constitute one of the
many variants of the Harvard style.
• APA (American Psychological Association): is the standard style used
in Psychology, but it is also widely used in other disciplines, especially
in the Social Sciences. It is one of the many variants of the Harvard
style.
• MLA (Modern Language Association of America): is widely used in
the fields of modern literature and linguistics. MLA referencing uses
Harvard-style references in the text of the document, but without
the year of publication. It no longer has provisions for footnote
referencing.
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Harvard
• Harvard is a generic term for any style which contains author-
date references in the text of the document, such as (Smith
1999). There will also be a list of references at the end of the
document, arranged by authors' names and year of publication.
There is no official manual of the Harvard style: it is just a
generic term for the many styles which follow that format. A
reference in the text or reference consists of a name - e.g. one
or more surnames or the name of an organization - and a date,
e.g. "Smith (2005)", "(Wilson & Patel, 2007)" or "United Nations
(1948)".
• The list of references is sorted by name (including initials if
appropriate) and date. (Other systems may sort by the
numerical or alphabetic order of the references in the text.)
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References in the text

• There are two ways of citing references in the text:
• Author prominent
– This way gives prominence to the author by using the author’s surname
(family name) as part of your sentence with the date and the page number
in parentheses (round brackets).
• Direct quote example:
– Cowie (1996: 91) argues that ‘socialism rejected the liberal ideals of individualism
and competition’.
• Paraphrase example
– Cowie (1996) suggests that unlike capitalism, socialism promotes the good of the
whole before the good of the individual.
• Information prominent
– The other way of citing references gives prominence to the information,
with all the required referencing details in parentheses at the end of the
citation.
• Direct quote example:
– It has been argued that ‘socialism rejected the liberal ideals of individualism and
competition’ (Cowie, 1996: 91).
• Paraphrase example
– Unlike capitalism, socialism promotes the good of the whole before the good of the
individual (Cowie 1996).
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Page Numbers
• Page numbers should be used when you directly quote
material (word for word) from the original publication.
• Page numbers should also be provided for indirect
quotes and paraphrasing where the summarised material
appears in specific pages, chapters or sections.
– One page referred to: (Wells, 1992: 4)

– Pages that are not in sequence: (Smith, 1996: 1, 4 & 6)
– Pages that are in sequence: (Jones & Mackay, 1998:
25–26)
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Features of the reference list

• For a book, the following elements should be presented in this order:
• surname and initials of author(s)
• year of publication
• title of book (in italics)
• the edition, for example, 4th edn, if not the original publication
• place of publication
•publisher.
e.g. Shearman, D. & Sauer-Thompson, G. (1997) Green or Gone. Kent Town:

Wakefield Press.
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• For a journal article, the following elements should be

presented in this order:
• surname and initials of author(s)
• year of publication
• title of article in quotation marks
• title of journal or periodical in italics and maximal
capitalisation
• volume number where applicable
• issue number or other identifier where applicable, for
example, Winter
• page number(s) in-between which we find the article.
– e.g. Stove, R.J. (1999) ‘Xenophobia: the great local

content myth’, in Institute of Public Affairs Review, vol.
51, no. 1, pp. 14–16.
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• For an electronic resource, include:

• author and date
• title
• date viewed
• URL address or name of database.
– e.g.
– Kennedy, I. (2004) ‘An assessment strategy to help
forestall plagiarism problems’, in Studies in Learning,
Evaluation, Innovation and Development, vol. 1, no. 1.
Available at:
http://www.sleid.cqu.edu.au/viewissue.php?id=5
(Accessed: 7 October 2018)
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Arranging the reference list

1. The reference list is arranged in alphabetical order according to the author’s family name.
(Do not use numbers, letters or bullet points to begin each entry.)
2. Any reference that starts with a number (e.g. 7:30 Report) precedes the alphabetical listing
and is listed numerically.
3. Where there is more than one author of a publication, maintain the order of their names as
they appear on the title page of the publication, even if they are not in alphabetical order on
the title page.
4. If a reference has no author, list it alphabetically according to the sponsoring body, for
example, CSIRO or Education Queensland.
5. If there is no author or sponsoring body, list alphabetically according to the title. The whole
title of the resource must appear, but when listing alphabetically, ignore words such as, ‘The’,
‘A’, ‘An’ at the beginning of the reference’s title.
6. If there are two or more references by the same author, then list them in order of publication
date with the oldest work first.
7. If references by the same author have been published in the same year, then list them
alphabetically according to the title and add the letter ‘a’ after the first date, and ‘b’ after the
second date, and so on, (e.g. 1993a, 1993b, 1993c).
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Formats for referencing

• A complete book.
– Jones, P.J. (1980) Introduction to Algorithms. London: Methuen.
Jones, P.J., Smith, R. & Watson, E.P. (eds) (1988) Artificial Intelligence Reconsidered (2nd
edition). New York: Wiley.
• A chapter in an edited book.
– Hamza, K.A. (1988) ‘Vision Systems’, in Jones, P.J., Smith, R. & Watson, E.P. (eds), Artificial
Intelligence Reconsidered (2nd edition). New York: Wiley, pp. 12-34.
• An article in a journal.
– Carson, P.R. (1970) ‘An Approach to Intelligent Planning’, in Journal of Applied Artificial
Intelligence 38(3), pp. 4-11.
• An article from a bound volume of conference proceedings.
– Jones, P.J. (1983) ‘An Attempt to Construct a Knowledge-based Route Planner’, in
Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Transport Planning. Budapest: Hungarian
Transport Association, pp. 212-58.
• An article you have obtained which was read at conference whose proceedings
seem not to have been published.
– Jones, P.J., Richards, M., Zhao, C.H. & Reynolds, P.E. (1988) ‘The Use of BASIC in AI’, paper
read to the annual meeting of the Norwegian Association for Computer Education, August,
Oslo, Norway.
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Referencing Online Sources

• Some documents appear both in printed form and on the web, in which case
the printed form should treated as primary, although the URL can usefully be
given as additional information in the list of references, for example by adding a
note of the form "[online at URL, accessed FULL_DATE]".
• Where a work is only published on the web, if the author and date of
'publication' can be found then the author's name and the date can be used as a
reference in the text in the normal way. For example:
• Coxhead (2007) states that ...
• The entry in the list of references: Coxhead, P. (2007) ‘A Referencing Style Guide’.
Available at: http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/~pxc/refs/refs.html (Accessed: 2 Apr 2017).
• With web pages, it is often necessary to use the name of an organization instead
of the name of the author. Note that Wikipedia is not a primary source
(although often a good provider of references to original sources). Wikipedia
articles are mainly useful as overviews; see, for example:
• Wikipedia (2007), ‘Harvard referencing’. Available at:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Harvard_referencing (Accessed 2 Apr 2017).
• If the date of publication cannot be found, one possibility is to use the date on
which the URL was last visited.
58
29
Referencing TV programmes, videos,

motion pictures
• For a recording of a TV show, use the date the program was aired:
– A Current Affair (video recording) (18 January 2003). Australian
Consolidated Press, Sydney, Director, Megan James.
• For a video recording, use the date it was produced. Sometimes, you
will not be able to find the individual producer or director’s name –
make sure you at least indicate the company or organisation that
produced it.
– Babakiueria (video recording) (1991). Australian Broadcasting Commission,
Sydney.
• Even if you view a video copy of a film, indicate that it was produced as
a motion picture, and name the producer or director:
– The Dead Poet’s Society (motion picture) (1992). Fox Studios, Los Angeles,
Producer Peter Weir.
Filmography:
– Je vous trouve très beau (2006). Dir. Isabelle Mergault. France.
59
Abbreviations
• Footnotes and/or reference lists may contain the abbreviations Ibid. and/or op. cit.
• DEFINITIONS
– Ibid. (abbreviation for the Latin Ibidem, meaning "The same").
Refers to the same author and source (e.g., book, journal) in the immediately preceding
reference. May be followed by the page number, if the latter differs from the preceding
one.
– op. cit. (abbreviation for the Latin opus citatum, meaning "the work cited").
Refers to the reference listed earlier by the same author.
• Other:
– cf. = confer (compare)
– e.g. = exempli gratia (for example)
– ed. (edition, editor; plural: eds)
– et al. = et alii (and other authors)
– sq./sqq. = sequens (continues on the next page/s)
– i.e. = id est (that is)
– infra (see below)
– loc. cit. = loco citato (similar to op. cit., only used when the reference is made to the same
page)
– ms. = manuscriptum (manuscript; plural: mss.)
– passim (from place to place)
– supra (see above)
– vol. (volume/s)
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30
Power point presentations

• Appeal through: • Disliked if:
– Ability to build up – The presentation
more complex displays poor
pictures – by adding typographic layouts
in more detail on and odd colour
each slide in a combinations;
series. – lecturer simply
– clarity and legibility reads out the
Power-Point slides.
7 x 7 rule: use no more than seven words per line,

and seven lines per slide.
61
Handouts
• A summary version of the paper available as a hand-out during the talk.
• It helps listeners follow the presentation and grasp its overall structure.
• It may be helpful to reproduce copies of any of the key PowerPoint slides, but it
is unwise just to present them all in reduced size.
• Requirements:
– Must be readable;
– Must contain the title of the talk, the speaker’s name and institutional address, and
the date and place of delivery.
62
31
GOOD LUCK!
63
32

Guidelines For Efficient Writing Guidelines For Efficient Writing

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Writing Guidelines Ioana Mohor-Ivan

Guidelines for Efficient

Guidelines for efficient writing

• Present the reader with ideas worth considering;

Some additional guidelines

Which of the following punctuation marks are most

• It was a fine day, the sun was shining.

• BRACKETS/A PAIR OF DASHES: used

• COLON: whereas the semi-colon

There was no letter that day he

• There was no letter that day. He

Suggestions for designing

What is redundant in the following

In formal writing try to avoid:

4 main types on non-fiction prose:

Additional guidelines in using

Additional guidelines in using

• The most commonly employed means of

Model for the Analysis of Creative Works

Model for Argument and Persuasion Papers

Model for a Comparative Study

Content and structural

Topic sentences are constructed to reﬂect a

Linking words and phrases

To add In addition; furthermore; moreover; and; again; equally important; similarly

To “prove” Because; for; since; for the same reason

To repeat In brief; as I have noted

To emphasise Obviously; deﬁnitely; extremely; in fact; indeed; in any case; positively;

Linking words and phrases

2. Writing from sources:

quotation, paraphrase, summary, referencing

• Question marks and exclamation points may be

Quoting inside quotations

Maugham does not believe that “suffering

Maugham does not believe that “suffering

A famous philosopher once argued that “what he

One of Heywood’s Proverbes [sic] tells us that . .

Neutral Some degree Implied Attitude of the

argues speculates affirms discards

suggests postulates confirms stresses

indicates contends proves advocates

describes claims convinces proposes

observes asserts demonstrates urges

remarks shows contradicts

Methods for literal paraphrase

Comparing paraphrase and summary

•Records a relatively short •Records a passage of any

•Records these points •Changes the order of ideas

• Referencing a source involves two separate steps:

• Referencing in the text:

Which are the differences in the

Hemingway’s zest for life extended to women also. His

– footnoting or endnoting systems (one variation: the Numbered

References in the text

– One page referred to: (Wells, 1992: 4)

Features of the reference list

e.g. Shearman, D. & Sauer-Thompson, G. (1997) Green or Gone. Kent Town:

• For a journal article, the following elements should be

– e.g. Stove, R.J. (1999) ‘Xenophobia: the great local

• For an electronic resource, include:

Arranging the reference list

Formats for referencing