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The average time spent on each unit of product during its life cycle.
• In mass and batch production the T2 and T3 terms can be spread over a large
number of units.
Recognition of need involves the realization by someone that a problem exists for
which some corrective action should be taken e.g. defect in current machine
design
Definition of problem involves a through specifications of the item to be designed.
This specifications includes physical and fundamental characteristics, cost, quality
and operating performance.
Synthesis and analysis are closely related and highly iterative in design process
This iterative process is repeated until the design has been optimized within the
constrained imposed on the designer
The philosophy, functionality and uniqueness are all determined during synthesis.
The major financial commitments to turn conceived product into reality are made
during synthesis.
Information generated during synthesis phase is qualitative and hard to capture by
computer system.
The end goal of synthesis is a conceptual design
Evaluation is concerned with measuring the design against the specifications
established in problem definition phase.
This evaluation often requires fabrication and testing of a prototype model to
assess performance, quality, reliability and other criteria.
Presentation includes documentation of design by means of drawing , material
specifications, assembly list and so on.
Geometric Modeling
Figure 6 Dashed lines to show rear edges of part Hidden line removal
Engineering Analysis
The analysis may involve stress strain calculations, heat transfer computations,
or use of dynamic behaviour of the system being designed.
The computer can be used to aid in this analysis work.
Two important examples of this type are:
1. Analysis of mass properties
2. Finite element analysis
1. Analysis of mass properties:
For solid object: surface area , weight , volume, centre of gravity, and moment
of inertia.
For a plane surface (or c/s of solid object) the corresponding computations
may include the perimeter, area, and inertia properties.
2. Finite element analysis:
With this technique the object is divided into large number of finite elements
(usually triangular or rectangular in shapes) which form an interconnecting
network of concentrated nodes.
By using a computer with significant computer capabilities, the entire object
can be analyzed for stress-strain, heat transfer and other characteristics by
calculating the behaviour of each node.
By determining the interrelating behavior of all the nodes in the system, the
behavior of the entire object can be assessed
Design Review and Analysis
Semi automatic dimensioning and tolerancing routines which assign size
specifications to surfaces indicated by the user help to reduce the possibility of
the dimensioning errors.
The designer can zoom in on part design details and magnify the image on
graphics screen for close scrutiny
A procedure called layering is often helpful in design review. E.g. a good
application of layering involves overlaying the geometric image of the final
shape of the machined part on the top of the image if the rough casting.
This ensures that sufficient material is available on the casting to accomplish
the final machined dimensions.
Another related procedure for design review is interference checking. This
involves the analysis of an assembled structure in which there is a risk that the
components of the assembly may occupy the same space.
Syllabus
Hardware configuration of a CAD system
Display devices like raster scan devices, plasma panels, liquid crystal displays.
Types of images like halftone, grayscale, colour
Memory requirements for raster scan graphics terminal
Concept of pointing and positioning.
Design Workstation
CAD system would include the following hardware components
One or more workstations. These would consist of
A graphics terminal
Operator input devices
One or more plotters and other output devices
Central Processing unit (CPU)
Secondary storage
Stroke Writing
• It uses an electron beam which operates like a pencil to create a line image on
the CRT screen.
• The image is constructed out of straight segments
• Each line can be drawn on the screen by directing the beam to move from one
point on the screen to the next, where each point is defined by its x and y
coordinates.
• Although the procedure results in images composed of only straight lines,
smooth curves can be approximated by making the connecting line segments
short enough.
Raster scan
• In this viewing screen is divided into a large number of discrete phosphor
picture elements, called pixels.
• The number of pixels in the raster display might be range from 256 X 256 (a
total of 65,000 points) to 1024 X 1024 (a total of 10,00,000 points)
• Each pixel on the screen can be made to glow with a different brightness.
• Color screens provide for the pixels to have different colors as well as
brightness
Application Program
Transformations
• 2-D Transformations
• 3-D Transformations
Two-dimensional Transformations
• To locate a point in a two-axis Cartesian system, the x and y coordinates are
specified.
• These coordinate can be treated together as a 1 x 2 matrix : (x, y), e.g. the
matrix (1,4) would be interpreted to be point which is 1 unit from the origin in
the x-direction and 4 units from the origin in the y-direction.
• This method of representation can be extended further to define a line as a
2 x 2 matrix by giving x and y coordinates of the two end points of the line.
The notation would be,
Translation
• Translation involves moving the element from one location to another
x‟= x + m, y‟ = y + n
Where,
• This would produce an alternation in the size of the element by the factor m in
the x-direction and by the factor n in the y direction
• It also repositions the element
• If the scaling factor is <1 , it is moved closer to origin
• If the scaling factor is >1 , it is moved farther from the origin
Rotation
In this transformation, the points of an object are rotated about the origin by an
angle θ
For a positive angle, this rotation is in the counter clockwise direction
This accomplishes rotation of the object by the same angle, but it also moves
the object. In matrix notation the procedure will be as follows:
(x‟, y‟) = (x, y) R
Where
Example : Translation
Consider the line defined by,
Suppose the line to be translate in space by 2 units in x direction and 3 units in the y
direction.
Example : Scaling
• Apply scaling factor of 2 to the line
Example : Rotation
Rotate the line about origin by 30°
3 Dimensional Transformation
• Transformations by matrix methods can be extended to three dimensional
space.
Translation
• The translation matrix for a point defined in three dimensional matrix would
be, T = (m, n, p)
And would be applied by adding increments m, n and p to the respective
coordinates of each of the points defining the three-dimensional geometry
elements
Scaling
The scaling transformation is given by,
Concatenation
Examples
• A line is defined in 2 D space by its end points (1,2) and (6,4). Express this in
matrix notation and perform the following transformation in succession on this
line
1. Rotate the line by 90° about the origin
2. Scale the line by a factor of 0.5 (Dec/Jan 04/05, 8 Marks)
• A square of side 30 units has its coordinates A(10,10), B(40,10), C(40,40) and
D(10,40),
Perform the following transformation in succession and show it on graph
paper
1. Rotate about origin 20° anticlockwise
2. Scale it by factor 1.5
3. Perform the above sequence of transformation by concatenation
(May/June 04, 18 Marks)
Homogeneous representation
• In order to concatenate the transformations matrices, all transformation
matrices should be multiplicative type.
• However, the translation matrix is vector additive while all other are matrix
multiplications.
• It is desirable , to express all geometric transformations in form that ,they can
be concatenated by matrix multiplication only.
• In homogeneous representation, an n-dimensional space is
mapped into (n+1) dimensional space.
• Thus a 2 dimensional point [x, y] is represented with the homogeneous
coordinate triple (xh,yh,h)
Where,
• Thus , a general homogeneous coordinates can also be written as (h.x, h.y, h).
• For two-dimensional geometric transformations, homogeneous parameter h to
be any nonzero value.
• Thus , there is an infinite number of equivalent homogeneous representations
for each coordinate point (x, y)
• A convenient choice is simply to set h=1.
• Each two-dimensional position is then represented with coordinates (x, y, 1)
• This facilitates the computer graphics operations where the concatenation of
multiple transformations can be easily carried out.
• The translation matrix in multiplication form can be given as,
Syllabus
Preparing an application model by Boolean operations
Primitive instancing
Boundary representations
CSG (Constructive Solid Geometry )
Wire frame modeling and solid modeling
Sweep representations
Cell decomposition
Boolean operations
• Boolean operations are used to make more complicated shapes by combining
simpler shapes
• 3 types of operations are possible:
1. union („U‟) or “join”
2. intersection („∩‟)
3. difference („-‟) or “subtract”
Primitive Instancing
• In primitive instancing modeling approach, primitives are simple 3D solid
shapes, which form the base for creating a solid model
• These primitives are parameterized by geometric as well as physical
properties.
• The solid model of any object can be created with different combinations of
these primitives.
• e.g. one primitive object may be a regular pyramid with a user defined number
of faces meeting at the apex.
• A parameterized primitive may be thought of as defining family of parts
whose members vary in few parameters, an important CAD concept known as
group technology.
• Primitive instancing is often used for relatively complex objects, such as gears
, bolts, that are tedious to define in terms of Boolean combinations of simpler
objects.
• e.g. A gear may be parameterized by its diameter or no. of teeths.
• Primitive instancing is based on the concept of families of objects or parts
• All parts having same topology but different dimensions are grouped into
family
• Each individual part in the family is called a primitive instance.
• e.g. a cylinder is represented by diameter(D) and height (h)
• Each primitive instancing is defined by specific (D) and (H)
• A number of such cylinder primitive instancing creates a family of cylinders
• A group of such families can define a solid
Boundary representations (B-rep)
• Boundary representations or b-reps describe the solid object in terms of its
boundaries, that is the vertices, edges and faces.
• In this model, face is bounded by edges and each edge is bounded by vertices.
• The entities which constitute a B-rep model are:
Surface Face
B – Rep Model
An Edge-Based Model
Faces:
f1 e1 e4 e5
f2 e2 e6 e4
f3 e3 e5 e6
f4 e3 e2 e1
v4
e6 Edges:
e4 e1 v1 v2
e5 v3 e2 v2 v3
e3 v3 v1
e3 e2 e4 v2 v4
e5 v1 v4
v1 v2 e6 v3 v4
e1
Vertices:
v1 x1 y1 z1
v2 x2 y2 z2
v3 x3 y3 z3
v4 x4 y4 z4
v5 x5 y5 z5
v6 x6 y6 z6
Construction of a Wrench
Wireframe ambiguity:
Is this object (a), (b) or (c) ?
Solid modeling
• An improvement in the wire frame modeling, both in terms of realism to the
user and definition to the computer.
• In this models are displayed with less risk of misinterpretation
• When color are added the picture becomes realistic one.
• The solid modeling has wide range of applications other than CAD and
manufacturing.
• These includes color illustrations in magazines and technical publications,
animation in movies and training simulators
2. Non linear
3. Hybrid
Cell Decomposition
• An object can be modelled by decomposing its volume into smaller volume of
cells which are mutually continuous and do not penetrate into each other.
• The shape in this need not be a cube nor they should be identical.
• It can be seen that some cells are partly outside the boundary, while some of them
are partly inside the boundary
• This is approximate representation of an object.
• In such a case , a smaller hole or cavity gets neglected if the size of cavity is
smaller of the cells or other than squares in this scheme.
• The need for portability of the geometric model among different hardware
platforms has led to the development of device independent graphics
• Simultaneously standards for exchange of drawing data base among software
packages have been developed to facilitate integration of design and
manufacturing operations
• The heart of any CAD model is the component database.
• This includes the graphics entities like points, lines, arcs etc. and coordinate
points which define the location of these entities
• This geometric data is used in all downstream applications of CAD, which
include finite element modeling and analysis, process planning, estimation,
CNC programming, Robot programming, programming of CMM, MRP
systems
To achieve high level of integration between CAD, analysis and
manufacturing operations, the database must contain:
• Shapes of the components ( based on 3-D wire frame or solid model )
• Bill of materials (BOM), of the assembly which the components are used.
• Materials of the components
• The manufacturing, test and assembly procedures to carried out to produce a
component so that it is capable of functioning as per requirements of design
In designing data structure for CAD database the following factors to be
considered:
• The data must be neutral
• The data structure must be user friendly
• The data base must be portable
Features of GKS
The feature of Graphics Kernel system include
1. Device independent: The does not assume that any of the input or output
devices have particular features or restrictions
2. Text/ annotations : All text or clarification are in a neutral languages like
English
3. Display management: A complete set of display management functions, cursor
control and other features are provided.
4. Graphics Functions: Graphics functions are provided in 2D or 3D
GKS Implementation in a CAD W/S
DATA EXCHANGE
• The need for exchanging modeling data is directly motivated by the need to
integrate and automate the design and mfg. processes to obtain max. benefits
from CAD/CAM.
• The component database can be used in downstream applications like FEA,
Process planning, Robot programming, MRP, C. N. C. programming.
• There should be tie between the two or more systems to form an application
that shares common data.
• Data exchange files are neutral files. Following are two types of neutral files:
MIT (T) Page 44
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING CAD/CAM/CAE
1. DXF (Data Exchange File)
2. IGES file (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification )
DXF (Data Exchange File)
• DXF files are std. ASCII text files, which can be easily translated to the
formats of other CAD systems
• The DXF facility is available in several drafting packages.
• In case of Auto CAD , the data regarding the created drawing may require to
view , modify or plotting.
• Also data can be used for analysis purpose like FEA
• In case of Auto CAD , a drawing interchange file (DXF) can be generated
from the existing drawing by means of DXFOUT command.
• On the other hand a drawing interchange file can be converted into Auto CAD
drawing by means of DXFIN command
• The general structure of DXF file is as follows:
HEADER Section : general information of drawing
TABLE Section :
Linetype (LTYPE) table
Layer table
Text style (STYLE) table
User coordinate system (UCS) table
View port configuration file (VPORT) table
BLOCKS Section
ENTITIES Section
END OF FILE
IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification )
• It is standard exchange format developed for communicating product data
among dissimilar CAD/CAM systems.
• It has been used for two purposes:
– Transfer of data within dissimilar systems
– Digital communication between company and its suppliers, customers
i.e. IGES enable data transfer from one CAD system to another
• The software which translates data from CAD system to IGES is known as
preprocessor
• The software which translates data from IGES data to a CAD system is known
as postprocessor
Flag section
Start section
Global section
Terminate section
• Start section contains comments that can be used to describe the drawing,
identify its source, comment on its format an so on.
• Global section includes information that describes global characteristics of the
IGES file, such as name of the file, the system that created the file, units of
measures, and precision
• Directory entry section describes the entities in the drawing. This section
contains attributes such as color, line style. Also provides an index to the
entities in the file
• Parameter data section contains data to describe each entity, such as point
coordinates, coefficients of curve and surface equations, text characters and
other attributes.
• Terminate section
IGES Limitations
• IGES is complex and wordy
• These files are about five times larger than an equivalent product file
• Several entities required for specialized CAD applications are not available in
IGES file
• It does not convey the extensive product information needed in the design and
mfg. cycle.
STEP
CHAPTER 8. ROBOTICS
Definition
A robot is a programmable , multi function manipulator deigned to move
material, parts, tools or special devices through variable programmed motion
for the performance of a variety of tasks
An industrial robot is a general purpose , programmable machine processing
certain anthropomorphic characteristics
What are the parts of a robot?
• Manipulator
• Pedestal
• Controller
• End Effectors
• Power Source
Manipulator (Mimics the human arm)
• Base
• Appendages
o Shoulder
o Arm
o Grippers
Pedestal (Human waist)
• Supports the manipulator.
• Acts as a counterbalance.
Controller (The brain)
• Issues instructions to the robot.
• Controls peripheral devices.
• Interfaces with robot.
• Interfaces with humans.
End Effectors (The hand)
• Spray paint attachments
• Welding attachments
• Vacuum heads
• Hands
• Grippers
Power Source (The food)
• Electric
• Pneumatic
• Hydraulic
ROBOT PHYSICAL CONFIGURATION
1. Cartesian configuration 2. Cylindrical configuration
3. Polar configuration 4. Joint-arm configuration
Cartesian Configuration
Robots with Cartesian configurations consist of links connected by linear
joints (L). Gantry robots are Cartesian robots (LLL).
Cartesian Robots
It consists of three orthogonal slides.
Three slides are parallel to x, y and z axes of the Cartesian coordinate system
Commonly used for:
pick and place work
assembly operations
handling machine tools
Advantages:
ability to do straight line insertions into furnaces.
easy computation and programming.
most rigid structure for given length.
Disadvantages:
requires large operating volume.
exposed guiding surfaces require covering in corrosive or dusty environments.
can only reach front of itself
Cylindrical Configuration
Robots with cylindrical configuration have one rotary ( R) joint at the base and
linear (L) joints succeeded to connect the links.
Cylindrical Robots
In this, the robot body is a vertical column that swivels about vertical axis
The arm consist of several orthogonal slides which allow the arm to be moved
up and down and in or out w.r.t. to body
Commonly used for:
handling at die-casting machines
assembly operations
handling machine tools
spot welding
Advantages:
can reach all around itself
rotational axis easy to seal
relatively easy programming
rigid enough to handle heavy loads through large working space
good access into cavities and machine openings
Disadvantages:
linear axes is hard to seal
won‟t reach around obstacles
exposed drives are difficult to cover from dust and liquids
Spherical/Polar Robots
A robot with 1 prismatic joint and 2 rotary joints – the axes consistent with a polar
coordinate system.
Commonly used for:
• handling at die casting or fettling
machines
• handling machine tools
• arc/spot welding
Advantages:
large working envelope.
two rotary drives are easily sealed against liquids/dust.
Disadvantages:
complex coordinates more difficult to visualize, control, and program.
exposed linear drive.
low accuracy
Joint-arm Configuration
Grippers
Grippers are generally used to grasp and hold an object and place it at a
desired location.
mechanical grippers
vacuum or suction cups
magnetic grippers
adhesive grippers
hooks, scoops, and so forth
Tools
At times, a robot is required to manipulate a tool to perform an operation on a
workpiece. In such applications the end- effecter is a tool itself
spot-welding tools
arc-welding tools
spray-painting nozzles
rotating spindles for drilling
rotating spindles for grinding
3. Repeatability:
It is the ability of the robot to position the end effector to the previously
positioned location.
It depends on the stability of the control system and is affected by temperature,
load etc.
Speed of movement
The speed with which the robot can manipulate the end effector ranges up to a
maximum of about 1.5 m/s
The speed is determined depends of factors like weight of the object being
moved, the distance moved, and the precision required.
Heavy objects can not be moved as fast as light objects because of inertia
problem
Objects must be moved slowly when high positional accuracy is required
Weight carrying capacity
It covers wide range
At higher end, there are robots which can lift up to 500 kgs to 1000 kgs.
At lower end, there are robots which can be used for 0.75 to 1.5 kgs.
Types of drive system
Basic components of NC
1. Program of Instructions
The program of instructions is the detailed step by step commands that direct
the processing equipment
Commands refer to position of spindle w. r. t. worktable on which the part is
fixtured
More advanced instructions include selection of spindle speeds, cutting tools
etc.
The common medium used for coding of program is 1- in. wide punched tape.
Some recently used are punched cards, magnetic tape cassettes and floppy
diskettes
2. Machine Control Unit (MOU)
MCU consists of the electronics control and hardware that read and interpret
program of instruction and convert it into mechanical actions of the machine
tool or other processing equipment.
The tape reader has an electromechanical device used to read and wind the
tape
The data buffer then interprets the program of instructions and also stores the
instructions in logical blocks of information
From here signals are sent to through the signal output channels which are
connected to the servomotor and other controls in the machine tools.
Feedback signals are provided for ensuring proper execution of the given
instructions
The sequence control coordinates the activities of the other elements of the
control unit
3. Processing Equipment
It is the component that performs useful work
The machine tool consists of worktable and spindle to hold tools, motors and
controls necessary to drive them.
NC Procedure
1. Process planning
2. Part programming
3. Tape preparation
4. Tape verification
5. Production
Process Planning
The engineering drawing of the workpart must be interpreted in terms of the
manufacturing processes to be used
It consists of preparation of route sheet
Part Programming
A part programmer plans for the portions of the job to be accomplished by NC
The part programmers are responsible for planning the sequence of operations
to be performed by NC
There are two ways to program for NC
Manual part programming
Computer-assisted part programming
Manual part programming
In this, the machining instructions are prepared on a form called a part
program manuscript
The manuscript is a listing of the relative cutter/ work piece positions which
must be followed to machine the part.
Computer assisted part programming
In this , much of the tedious computational work required in manual part
programming is transferred to the computer.
This is particularly appropriate for complex work piece geometries and jobs
with many machining steps
It also saves part programming time
Tape Preparation
A punched tape is prepared from the part programmer‟s NC process plan
In manual part programming, the punched tape is prepared from the part
program manuscript or a typewriter like device equipped with tape punching
capability
In Computer assisted part programming, the computer interprets the list of part
programming instructions, performs the necessary calculations to covert this
into detailed set of machine tool commands, and then controls a tape punched
device to prepare tape for specific NC machine
To check the accuracy of punched tape some methods are used
Sometimes the tape is checked by running it through a computer program
which plots the various tool movements (or table movements) on paper. In this
major errors can be discovered
The “Acid Test” of the tape involves trying it on the machine tool to make the
part.
A foam or plastic material is sometimes used for this purpose.
Production
This involves ordering the raw workparts, specifying and preparing the tooling
and any special fixturing that may be required.
The Operator‟s function is to load the workpart in the machine and establish
the starting position of the cutting tool relative to the workpiece.
MIT (T) Page 59
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING CAD/CAM/CAE
The NC system then takes over and machines the part according to the
instructions on tape.
NC coordinate system
In order to plan positions and movement of cutting tool relative to the workpiece,
a standard system is developed to specify relative positions.
NC Systems
There are three types of motion control used in Numerical control
1. Point to point
2. Straight cut
3. Contouring
Point to point NC
Point to point (PTP) is also called a positioning system.
In PTP, the objective of the machine control unit is to move the cutting tool to
a predefined location
The speed or path by which this movements is accomplished is not important
in point to point NC
Once the tool reaches the desired location , the machining operation is
performed at that position
Example of this system is NC drill press.
Positioning system are the simplest machine tool control systems.
This system is least expensive of the three types
MIT (T) Page 61
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING CAD/CAM/CAE
Straight-cut NC
Straight cut control systems are capable of moving the cutting tool parallel to
one of the major axis at a controlled rate suitable for machining
It is appropriate for performing milling operations on work pieces of
rectangular shape.
Angular cut would not be possible.
An NC tool capable of straight cur movements is also capable of point to point
movements
Contouring NC
(Continuous path NC )
Contouring is most complex, the most flexible and most expensive type of
machine tool control.
It is capable of performing both PTP and straight cut operations
In addition, it can control more than one axis movement of the machine tool.
The path of the cutter is continuously controlled to generate desired geometry
of the machine tool.
Turing and milling are common examples
Applications
• Milling
• Drilling and related processes
• Boring
• Turning
• Grinding
• Sawing
Other applications
• Press working machine tools
• Welding machines
• Inspection machines
• Automatic drafting
• Assembly machines
• Tube bending
• Flame cutting
• Plasma arc cutting
• Laser beam processes
• Cloth cutting
• Automatic riveting
NC machines are suitable for
1. Parts are processed frequently and in small lot sizes
2. The part geometry is complex
3. Many operations must be performed on the part in its processing
4. Much metal needs to be removed
Programming Formats
• Fixed block format
Point X Y
On On
On tape On tape
drawing drawing
1 5 005 5 005
2 5 005 45 045
3 55 055 25 025
4 100 1 100 1
Program
Program
Word address Format
N001 G00 G71 G90 M06 EOB
N002 X50 Y12 EOB
N003 M00 EOB
N004 X30 Y35 EOB
N005 M00 EOB
N006 X12 Y55 EOB
N007 M00 EOB
N008 X120 Y120 EOB
N009 M30
M00 Program stop. Program may be initiated by the operator by pushing a
button
Program
Word address Format
• Three holes to be drilled
• The depth of hole is 10 mm
• Z=00 at the surface of the
workpiece
• The cutting tool is positioned
above the workpiece surface
• In the component , it is assumed that the pocket is through and hence only
outside is to be machined as a finish cut of the pocket
• The tool to be used is a 20 mm diameter slot drill .
• If an end mill is to be used the program should be modified with a hole to be
drilled at B first before the end mill is used
• The setting is done with point A as reference (0,0,0)
N001 G92 X0 Y0 Z0 EOB
Absolute presetting at A
N002 G90 G94 EOB
Absolute programming
N003 G00 X25.00 Y25.00 Z2.00 EOB
• Part programming for the part shown in the figure using cutter radius
compensation is given below:
• Programmed cutter diameter is 0 mm i.e. programming is done as per the part
drawing
• Diameter of the cutter available = 28 mm
• The difference in radius (0-28)/2 = -14 mm is stored in the memory for cutter
radius compensation under address D 01.
Program
Word address Format
N001 G71 G94 EOB
N002 G00 X-20.00 Y-20.00 Z20.00 EOB
N003 G01 Z-5.00 EOB
N004 G01 G41 D01 X20.00 Y85.00 F400 S1000 M03 EOB
N005 G01 X60.00 Y115.00 EOB
N006 G02 X75.00 Y100.00 I0.00 J-15.00 EOB
N007 G01 X105.00 EOB
N008 G02 X130.00 Y115.00 I15.00 J0.00 EOB
N009 G01 X120.00 Y85.00 EOB
N010 G01 X130.00 Y55.00 EOB
N011 G01 X110.00 EOB
N012 G01 X80.00 Y20.00 EOB
N013 G01 X35.00 Y55.00 EOB
N014 G01 X20.00 Y85.00 EOB
N015 G00 G40 X0.00 Y0.00 EOB
N016 M02 EOB
Program
Word address Format
APT Example
Write a Programme for the following component it is required to write the
Programme for finishing cut
Cutter geometry
APT Example
PARTNO/SAMPLEJOB 1
MACHIN/MILLING 1
CLPRINT
P0 = POINT/0,-20, 0
P1 = POINT/0, 0, 0
P2= POINT/150.0, 0, 0
P3= POINT/150.0, 0, 0
P4 = POINT/ 100.0, 50.0, 0
P5 = POINT/ 100.0, 100.0, 0
P6 = POINT/50, 100.0, 0
P7 = POINT/50.0, 50.0, 0
P8 = POINT/0, 50.0, 0
L1 = LINE/ P1,P2
L2 = LINE/ P2,P3
L3 = LINE/ P3,P4
L4 = LINE/ P4,P5
L5 = LINE/ P5,P6
L6 = LINE/ P6,P7
L7 = LINE/ P7,P8
L8 = LINE/ P8,P1
PL1= PLANE/P1,P2,P8
CUTTER/10.0
SPINDL/500
FEDRAT/80
COOLNT/ON
FROM/P0
GO/TO, L1,TO, PL1, TO, L8
GORGT/L1,PAST,L2
GOUP/L2,PAST,L3
GOLFT/L3,TO,L4
GOUP/L4,PAST,L5
GOLFT/L5,PAST,L6
GODOWN/L6,TO,L7
GOLFT/L7,PAST,L8
GODWON/L8,PAST,L1
RAPID
GOTO/P0
COOLNT/OFF
FINI
APT Example
PARTNO
MACHIN/ABM,8
UNITS/MM
CLPRINT
SETPT =POINT/0,0,0
P1 = POINT/50,25,0
P2 = POINT/150,25,0
P3 = POINT/150, 40, 0
P4 = POINT/130,50,0
P5 = POINT/50,100,0
L1 = LINE/P1, P2
L2 = LINE/P2, P3
L3 = LINE/P3, P4
C1=CIRCLE/80,100,30
L5 = LINE/P1, LEFT, TANTO.C1
L4 = LINE/P4,RIGHT, TANTO, C1
PL1 = PLANE/P1,P2,P5
CUTTER/10
FEDRAT/0.1, MMPR
REMARK/SET, SPINDL,1000,RPM
INTOL/0.01
OUTTOL/0.01
FROM/SETPT
GO/TO, L1,PL1,TO,L5
SPINDL/ON
COOLNT/ON
GORGT/L1,PAST,L2
GOLFT/L2,PAST,L3
GOLFT/L3,TO,L4
GORGT/L4,TANTO,C1
GOFWD/C1, TANTO,L5
GOFWD/L5,PAST,L1
SPINDL/OFF
COOLNT/OFF
APT Example
• Post processor ID=MACHIN/NC,1
• Feed rate = 100mm/min
Cutter geometry
Function of CNC
1. Machine tool control
• This involves conversion of part program instruction into machine tool
motions through the computer system and servo system.
• The CNC system is capable to incorporate variety of control features into soft
wired controller unit.
• A few functions such as circular interpolation can be accomplished efficiently
on a hard wired NC system than on a computer.
• Hybrid CNC Controller
• It is a combination of the hardwired logic circuit and soft wired computer.
• The logic circuit is aimed to perform functions such as circular interpolation
and feed rate generation which they do best.
• The computer performs the remaining control functions which are out of the
scope of the logic circuit.
•
Straight CNC Controller
• The controller uses a computer to perform to perform all NC functions
2. In-Process Compensation
a. This involves dynamic correction of the tool motions for change s
or errors which occur during processing. E.g.
b. Adjustments for errors sensed by in-process inspection probes and
gauges.
c. Recomputation of axis positions when the inspection probe is used to
locate the datum reference on a work part.
d. Offset adjustments for tool radius and length
e. Computations of predicted tool life and selection of alternative tooling
when indicated.
• The computer calls the part program instructions from bulk storage and
sends them to the individual machines as the need arises.
• It also receives data back from the machines
• This two way information flow occurs in real time, which means that
each machine‟s request for instructions must satisfied instantaneously.
• Depending upon no. of machines and computational requirements that
are imposed on the computer, it is sometimes necessary to use of
satellites computers.
• Each satellite computer controls several machines
• Groups of part program instructions are received from the central
computer and stored in buffers.
• Feedback data from the machines are also stored in the satellite‟s
buffer before being collected at the central computer
Two types of DNC
1. Behind The Tape Reader (BTR) System
• In this the computer is directly linked to the regular NC controller unit.
• In this arrangement the tape reader is replaced by telecommunication lines to
the DNC Computer.
• Except for the source of command instructions , the operation of the system is
similar to conventional NC.
• The controller unit uses two temporary storage buffers to receive blocks of
instructions from the DNC computer and convert them into machine actions
• While one buffer is receiving a block of a data , the other is providing control
instructions to the machine tool.
2. Special Machine Control Unit
• In this NC controller is replaced by a special MCU and forms a link between
computer and machine tool.
• The special MCU achieves a superior balance between accuracy of machining
and faster material removal rate.
• This unit is soft wired so more flexibility can be achieved and alterations can
be made easily.
• It is much difficult to make changes in the regular NC controller because
rewiring is required.
Functions of DNC
1. NC without punched tape
• One of the original objectives in DNC was to eliminate the use of punched
tape.
• Relatively unreliable tape reader
• The fragile nature of paper tape
ADVANTAGES OF DNC
• Elimination of punched tape & tape reader.
• Convenient storage of NC part program in computer file.
• Program stored as CLFILE (Cutter path data).
• Reporting of shop performance.
• Establishes a frame work for the evaluation of future computer automated
factory.
D D
L L M M
Grindin
L L M M G g G
Assembl
L L y G G
A A
Receiving and A A G G
Shipping
Figure 1 PROCESS-TYPE LAYOUT
Figure 2 shows a production of equivalent capacity, but with machines
arranged into cells.
Each cell is organized to specialize in the manufacture of a particular part
family.
Figure 2 GT LAYOUT
Grouping part into part families
Visual inspection
Production flow analysis
Parts classification and coding system.
Visual inspection
It is simplest and cheapest method
It involves classification of parts into families by looking at either the physical
parts or photographs and arranging them into similar grouping.
This method is considered to be least accurate of three.
Production flow analysis
It is a method of identifying part families and associated machine tool
grouping by analyzing the route sheets for parts produced in a given shop.
It groups together the parts that have similar operation sequences and machine
routings.
The major drawback of this system is that it does not consider the actual flow
of material
Parts classification and coding
It involves an examination of the individual design and/or mfg attributes of
actual part.
The attributes of the part are uniquely identified by means of a code no.
This classification and coding may be carried out on the entire list of active
parts in the firm or a sampling process may be used to establish the part
families.
Parts classification and coding system divide themselves into one of three
categories
MIT (T) Page 93
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING CAD/CAM/CAE
1. System based on part design attributes
2. System based on part manufacturing attributes
3. System based on both design and manufacturing attributes.
Design and manufacturing attributes
OPTIZ SYSTEM
MICLASS System
(Metal Institute Classification System)
The MICLASS system was developed to help automate and standardize a
number of design, production and management functions. These includes :
Standardization of engineering drawings
Retrieval of drawing according to classification number.
Standardization of process routings
Automated process planning
Selection of parts for processing on particular groups of machine tools.
Machine tool investment analysis.
Benefits
Product design benefits: 10 % reduction in no. of drawings can be expected
through standardization with GT
Tooling and setup: GT tends to promote standardization of several areas of
mfg.
Material handling: GT machine layout lend themselves to efficient flow of
materials through shop.
Production and inventory control
Employee satisfaction
Process planning procedures.
Benefits of CAPP
Process rationalization
Increased productivity of process planners.
Reduced turnaround time.