School Reform For Positive Behaviour Support Through Collaborative Learning: Utilising Lesson Study For A Learning Community

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School reform for positive behaviour support through collaborative learning:

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DOI: 10.1080/0305764X.2014.988684
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School reform for positive behaviour

support through collaborative learning:
utilising lesson study for a learning
community
a b c d
Eisuke Saito , Miki Watanabe , Robyn Gillies , Ikuo Someya ,
e f e
Takashi Nagashima , Masaaki Sato & Masatsugu Murase
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Institute of Education, Singapore
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Library and Academic Information Center, Tokyo Metropolitan
University, Japan
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School of Education, The University of Queensland, Brisbane,
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The Board of Education, Ushiku City, Japan
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Azabu Institute of Education, Tokyo, Japan
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Freelance Consultant, Fuji City, Japan
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Cambridge Journal of Education, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0305764X.2014.988684
School reform for positive behaviour support through

collaborative learning: utilising lesson study for a learning
community
Eisuke Saitoa*, Miki Watanabeb, Robyn Gilliesc, Ikuo Someyad,
Takashi Nagashimae, Masaaki Satof and Masatsugu Murasee
a
Curriculum, Teaching & Learning Academic Group, National Institute of Education,
Singapore; bLibrary and Academic Information Center, Tokyo Metropolitan University,

Japan; cSchool of Education, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia; dThe Board
of Education, Ushiku City, Japan; eAzabu Institute of Education, Tokyo, Japan; fFreelance
Consultant, Fuji City, Japan
(Received 19 September 2013; accepted 7 November 2014)
Recent research has emphasised educating children about positive behaviours to

overcome delinquency issues, but there is little clarification of what factors lead
to positive behaviours. This study analyses factors that led to children’s positive
behaviours at a junior high school in Japan, which experienced a dramatic
turnaround after implementing school reform using Lesson Study for Learning
Community (LSLC). In this study, the results of a mixed-methods analysis show
that if children receive psychological support they are likely to psychologically
support others and, similarly, those who receive concrete help tend to offer
concrete help to others. To foster learning cultures in which this happens, it is
critical to engage the entire school in appropriate changes: for example, teachers’
positive attitudes towards children and learning are important factors encouraging
children to support others.
Keywords: positive behaviours; school reform; lesson study for learning
community; delinquency
1. Introduction
1.1. School reform for turning around problematic schools
Schools throughout the world must find ways to respond to the problems of student
violence and delinquent behaviour, and school-wide reform could be an effective
solution. Previous research has identified a number of factors that are important for
successful reform. These include: leadership with a focus on teaching and learning in
classrooms (Bishop, 2011; Day, 2011; Fullan, 2005; Leithwood, Harris, & Strauss,
2010; Senge, 2006); restructuring daily administrative chores to create more time for
professional work (Bishop, 2011; Leithwood et al., 2010; Sato & Sato, 2003); a
vision for reform (Senge, 2006) which is shared by the whole school (Day, 2011;
Leithwood et al., 2010; Sergiovanni, 1994); daily monitoring of the progress of
reform (Bishop, 2011; Fullan, 2005; Leithwood et al., 2010); gaining teachers’ trust
in the reform (Day, 2011; Drysdale, Goode, & Gurr, 2009; Leithwood et al., 2010;
*Email: eisuke.saito@nie.edu.sg
© 2015 University of Cambridge, Faculty of Education

2 E. Saito et al.
Sergiovanni, 1994); developing a culture of dialogues among teachers (Dempster &

MacBeath, 2009; Senge, 2006; Southworth, 2011); mutual observation of practices
(Barth, 1990; Darling-Hammond, 1998; Fullan, 2007; Joyce & Showers, 2002;
Leithwood et al., 2010; Wrigley, 2003); and organisational learning (Hargreaves &
Fink, 2003; Lai, McNaughton, Timperley, & Hsiao, 2009; McIntyre & Kyle, 2006).
However, these factors are related to teachers only, even though the ultimate
goals of school reform are children’s wellbeing and learning. In fact, a concept
related to school reform is ‘school improvement’, generally defined as continuous
efforts to change the learning conditions in one or more schools with the purpose of
accomplishing educational goals more effectively or a strategy for educational
change to enhance student outcomes and strengthen the school’s capacity for manag-
ing change (Hopkins, 1996). Another related concept is ‘school turnaround’, which
is distinctively different in that it focuses on generating transformative changes in

consistently underperforming schools; this is in contrast to school improvement,
which can be applicable to larger bodies of schools in general (Leithwood et al.,
2010). In that sense, positive behaviour support (PBS), an intervention that aims to
replace pupils’ problematic behaviours with appropriate ones by building a positive
and supportive culture in schools (Lassen, Steele, & Sailor, 2006; Marlowe, 2013;
Patrick, Ryan, & Kaplan, 2007; Stiglbauer, Gnambs, Gamsjäger, & Batinic, 2013),
can be considered as a part of school turnaround. However, school turnaround is a
broader concept, not necessarily confined to children’s behaviour. Further, there is a
possibility that efforts initially geared toward turnaround can be – and possibly need
to be – continued to further improve the situation even after the turnaround period.
The case presented in this study is a school that implemented such reform efforts by
changing daily pedagogical practices to incorporate collaborative learning and
building a culture for professional learning by having teachers across different
departments engage in regular, mutual observation and reflection. In addition, most
literature on school reform has tended to overlook how children perceive educational
reforms and how they act in the process, and, if the benefits of reform are to be fully
realised, these issues need to be addressed.
At the same time, discussions in school psychology have focused on changing
problematic behaviours. The suggested approaches fall into two main two schools of
thought. One is a more punitive disciplinary approach, represented by ‘No Tolerance’
policies (Browne-Dianis, 2011; Martinez, 2009; Utley, Kozleski, Smith, & Draper,
2002) in which countermeasures such as suspension or expulsion are taken against
problematic behaviours and emphasis is placed on maintaining order in school build-
ings and increasing school security. The other is a more proactive approach, Positive
Behaviour Support (PBS), intended to build up positive behaviours and cultivate
supportive school cultures in order to decrease violent and problematic behaviours
(Lassen et al., 2006; Marlowe, 2013; Patrick et al., 2007; Stiglbauer et al., 2013).
Recent research shows that PBS is more effective (Lassen et al., 2006; Patrick
et al., 2007; Stiglbauer et al., 2013), but it too has problems. Studies in this vein
focus almost exclusively on the relationship between PBS and academic achieve-
ment. There remains a need for research that considers what factors are effective in
producing and promoting positive behaviours. In the literature on PBS, positive
behaviour is not always clearly defined despite references to its purpose to alter
problematic and violent behaviours through supportive actions. However, at least,
given the purpose of PBS, students’ behaviours to support their peers should be
regarded as one of the operational constructs of positive behaviour. As discussed
Cambridge Journal of Education 3
below, this study will focus on empathetic actions, which are geared to support that
is more psychological, and concrete actions, which are geared to more concrete
helping behaviours, in learning situations.
1.2. Japanese educational issues and the development of lesson study for
learning community (LSLC)
1.2.1. Japanese educational issues
Japan began to experience problems with behavioural disruptions in schools starting
around the end of the 1970s, and these patterns gradually worsened over the next
two decades. By the end of the 1990s, at the height of the Asian economic crisis,
classroom behaviour problems had become very serious indeed. Until that time, only
children with lower academic achievement were likely to ‘escape from learning’
(Sato, 2000), opting out of participation in lessons and refusing to take part in the
learning process. However, after the Asian crisis, even those with moderate aca-
demic success started to display detachment from learning. Sato (2000, 2001)
claimed that this was because of the nation’s increase in family problems due to the
economic recession, such as parental unemployment, divorce or separation, and
abuse. In the US as well, similar findings are presented, namely that delinquency is
likely to take place because of actual or threatened loss of valued goods or services,
as well as actual or threatened presentation of negative stimuli due to lack of money
(Agnew, Matthews, Bucher, Welcher, & Keyes, 2008). Previously, encouragement
for learning was based on the logic that better academic credentials led to better
prospects for employment, ultimately resulting in a better lifestyle. This belief was
supported throughout most of the last century (Kariya & Dore, 2006). However,
Japan’s economic failure and the growing gaps between haves and have-nots began
to suggest flaws in the supposed relationship between academic performance and
socio-economic wellbeing (Kariya & Dore, 2006). The dearth of positive prospects
at the end of the twentieth century was discouraging to Japanese schoolchildren.
Kariya (2001) demonstrated that, from the end of the 1980s, children reduced the
amount of time they spent studying at home, and their understanding of lessons
stagnated, despite revision of the curriculum to reduce lesson content, which was
introduced in response to criticisms of ‘crammed teaching and learning’. Further,
Kariya (2001) maintained that there is a rapidly expanding gap in interest in study-
ing between children in different social strata as determined by the educational
attainment of their parents and father’s occupation.
Sato (2001) explained this situation as follows: the economic downturn had a
strong negative impact on children. Many parents were made redundant, which
brought both economic and emotional stresses on their families. Children became
disillusioned about education because they realised that it would not guarantee their
happiness or even stable employment. They began to question the value of academic
study, and many began to indulge in self-gratification and short-lived pleasure rather
than devote themselves to learning. Their desperation led to a variety of problematic
behaviours. The Ministry of Education, Culture, Science and Technology (2012)
listed problematic behaviours such as school violence, deeds that lead to suspension
from school, bullying, school phobias, dropping out, suicides, and those that indicate
a need for counselling. Teachers looked for ways to cope with these problems and
turn the troublesome attitudes of their students around, but they faced challenges of
4 E. Saito et al.
their own in doing so. Teachers with authoritarian attitudes or a tendency to

communicate with children in a uni-directional manner were particularly likely to
fail, and there was an urgent need to establish a different classroom and school
culture.
1.2.2. The emergence of the Lesson Study for Learning Community

It was then that Manabu Sato, the theoretical founder of the Lesson Study for Learn-
ing Community (LSLC), started to work with three pilot schools, Hamanogo Pri-
mary School, Hiromi Primary School, and Ojiya Primary School. LSLC is an
approach to school reform that seeks to build a democratic culture, namely, ‘associ-
ated ways of living’ (Dewey, 1916) by: (1) reforming daily practices based on col-
laborative learning for mutual consultation; (2) enhancing collegiality and

professional capacities through mutual observation and reflection by the teachers
beyond the subject boundaries; and, (3) engaging parents and local people in the
learning process. The vision of reform presented to the three schools contained three
central goals: assuring learning opportunities for (1) every child, (2) every teacher,
and (3) as many parents and local community members as possible. In order to
implement these goals, the first priority was to increase teachers’ professional learn-
ing opportunities, specifically by letting teachers observe and reflect on one
another’s lessons. In the course of a school year, each school offered a total of 80 to
100 opportunities for teachers to observe their colleagues and reflect on various
practices. To provide teachers with time for such frequent and intensive collabora-
tion, the school leaders reviewed, restructured and reduced their daily administrative
chores. To facilitate cooperation among the children, the reforms also called for the
introduction of collaborative activities in each lesson. Recognising that children are
likely to become bored and feel lost if a teacher lectures for the whole class period,
LSLC emphasises the benefits of small-group work. In each class period, children
were given time – sometimes just five minutes – to consult with each other about
what they did not understand, a practice that Webb (2013) calls ‘help-seeking’.
Then, to obtain community endorsement for the reform, parents were invited to par-
ticipate in the learning process, and some of them became guest teachers for particu-
lar topics (Sato, 2012). Thomson (2006) and Zipin, Sellar, and Hattam (2012)
describe utilising the contexts of pupils’ community as the curriculum, and this can
happen in the case of LSLC as well. Moreover, in addition to the community con-
texts serving as the curriculum, local people or parents play roles as resource person-
nel or even participate in the process of learning to understand what is happening in
the process of pedagogical reform under LSLC.
As LSLC began to expand, most schools engaged in its reforms were primary
schools. Gakuyo Junior High School was a lower secondary school that imple-
mented LSLC by centralising observations and reflections, restructuring teachers’
daily chores, and further refining the pedagogical reform. Masaaki Sato, the princi-
pal, stipulated three requirements for daily instruction: (1) group learning for mutual
consultation, (2) either concrete hands-on tools or concrete contexts to increase rele-
vance for learning, and (3) sharing representations and expressions. To increase dia-
logical opportunities, desk arrangements were reorganised into a U-shape. The
school encouraged parental and local participation, using community members as
resources for students’ learning. Through these steps, Gakuyo succeeded in trans-
forming itself from a low-performing school to one of the best in the city, and the
programme began to spread among secondary schools (Saito & Sato, 2012; Sato &
Sato, 2003). Today, its methods of reform have become a model for school-wide
change at the secondary level.
In all, LSLC reforms have been implemented in 1000 primary schools, 1500
lower secondary schools, and 500 upper secondary schools throughout Japan. The
model is now also at work in Indonesia (Saito et al., 2006), Vietnam (Saito, Khong,
& Tsukui, 2012; Saito & Tsukui, 2008; Saito, Tsukui, & Tanaka, 2008), China (Sato,
2006, 2012), Korea (Sato, 2006, 2012) and Taiwan (Sato, 2012).
1.3. Goal of this study

This study aims to examine what kinds of factors lead children to engage in positive
behaviours. To that end, a mixed-methods analysis was used to clarify the factors
affecting positive behaviour. The remainder of the paper is divided into three parts
with part two explaining the study methods, part three describing the results of the
analyses, and part four discussing the findings and their significance, as well as
outlining suggestions for future research.
2. Methods
2.1. School background
‘S’ Junior High School (SJHS) is located in ‘U’ city in ‘I’ prefecture, which lies
about one hour outside Tokyo. It was established in 1982 as a neighbourhood public
school accepting children from all backgrounds within the catchment area. The for-
mer principal, Mr IS, who initiated the LSLC reforms, said that the school had prob-
lems with low academic performance and serious delinquency. Children could often
be seen hurling desks and chairs, leaving the classroom to escape from lessons, or
riding their bicycles up and down the corridors. Violence and bullying were long-
standing problems.
In 2008, Mr IS decided to implement LSLC reforms. He emphasised the impor-
tance of children’s collaboration with one another in their learning – that is, the reci-
procity of caring for each other (Noddings, 1984). According to one of his
colleagues, Mr IS encouraged teachers to interpret the meanings of their students’
facial expressions. As a colleague reported in an interview for a professional
teachers’ magazine (Sogo Kyoiku Gijutsu ‘General Education Arts’):
Mr IS utilised photos and videos to the full extent in LSLC, showing photos and video
stills of children in lessons and asking us, ‘What do you think about the meaning of
these facial expressions?’ and talking a lot on the importance of reading the faces. In
addition, we were told to carefully interpret children’s facial expressions and to ‘take
photos of good facial expressions of children’ in order to make it a habit to carefully
observe and care for children. (Sogo Kyoiku Gijutsu, 2013, p. 25)
Mr IS reported that some teachers resisted the initial stages of the reform because
they held fears based on the previous styles of lesson study, in which the teacher
who conducted the example lesson was likely to be attacked or strongly criticised
(Saito & Atencio, 2013). However, in LSLC, the types of discourses are based more
on the realities of the children and their learning (Sato, 2006). Gradually, the
teachers found this method acceptable and began to trust in the reform (Day, 2011;
Drysdale et al., 2009; Leithwood et al., 2010; Sergiovanni, 1994).
6 E. Saito et al.
Next, the teachers at SJHS organised a ‘Photo of Learning’ presentation

programme, in which each teacher presented the best photo of children learning that
he or she had taken during a lesson and described his or her reasons for choosing it.
In the process of describing their selection process, the teachers started to share their
own visions of education and lessons. Being engaged in LSLC prompted them to
talk and learn about children and their learning, and their discussions began to take
on a student-centred focus.
The results of the annual standardised achievement tests in ‘I’ prefecture show a
gradual increase in student performance over time with the implementation of
LSLC. For example, the cohort that graduated in March 2013 showed an increase of
10 to 40 points above the prefectural average in five subjects, namely Japanese,
English, mathematics, social studies, and natural science – the best scores in the city
(Figure 1). In Figure 1, the zero point mean refers to the average score of examina-
tions for the given cohorts at the entire prefecture level, and the points shown in the
bar graphs represent the gaps between the average scores of the prefecture in each
grade and each SJHS cohort.
2.2. Study design

This study aims to examine what kinds of factors lead children to engage in positive
behaviours. In order to answer this question, the authors used a mixed-methods
approach (Creswell, 2014; Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2011; Ivankova & Stick, 2006).
Figure 1. Annual change in academic achievement in SJHS.

In particular, this study employed the explanatory sequential design (Creswell, 2014;
Ivankova & Stick, 2006). By implementing this design, the authors seek to explain
the results of the statistical analyses (hereafter referred to as the pupils’ survey) by
probing the situation through in-depth interviews (Creswell, 2014) with pupils and
teachers. The authors prioritise the quantitative approach (Creswell, 2014) because it
is critically important to identify those factors that lead pupils to positive behaviours
using the pupils’ survey. See Figure 2 for the procedure adopted in this study.
2.3. Quantitative phase

2.3.1. Instrument
The Questionnaire-Utilities (Q-U) method (Kawamura, 1999a, 1999b) was employed
for the quantitative phase of this study. The Q-U method was originally developed
because of the increasing number of disruptions and problems in classrooms and
schools, which can escalate to the extent that teachers cannot manage the situation.
According to the Ministry of Education, Culture and Technology (2013), problems
in school have increased, including bullying, violence and long-term absences due to
school phobia. Kawamura (1999a, 1999b) construes that this is because of expanded
gaps between children’s psychological needs and teachers’ understanding of their
problems. It is therefore necessary to help teachers understand children’s emotions
and to implement appropriate interventions and measures to meet student needs.
The Q-U method was developed based on a sample of 5071 participants at the
lower secondary level (Kawamura, 1999a). Reliability was assessed using a
Figure 2. Study procedure.

8 E. Saito et al.
test–retest approach where 321 of the original 5071 participants completed the
questionnaire twice over a two-week interval. As the degree of correlation was more
than 0.80, Kawamura concluded that the reliability of the Q-U method was high.
Kawamura (1999a, 1999b, 2004) identified two dimensions of children’s needs:
adjustment within their classes and motivation. The first dimension, adjustment, per-
tains to how comfortable and safe students feel in the classroom and how they per-
ceive that their classmates accept and care for them. The second dimension,
motivation, comprises five items: relationships with friends, motivation for learning,
relationships with the whole class, relationships with teachers, and expectations for
future courses. This study, however, is an independent enquiry that varies from the
original use of the Q-U method in that it aims to investigate those factors that lead
the pupils to demonstrate positive behaviours, based on the various items in the
questionnaire of the Q-U method. This time, the authors revisited the listed items
and selected those that were suitable for the aims of this study as explained below.
2.3.2. Data collection

The questionnaire survey was conducted in June 2011. The children responded to
the questionnaire in their classrooms, with the instruments explained below. All 543
pupils in the school were targeted and all responded, yielding a 100% response rate.
2.3.3. Analytical models

The aim of this study is to examine what factors lead children to engage in positive
behaviours. In order to achieve this goal, multiple regression analyses were con-
ducted in the quantitative phase to identify the factors that affected positive behav-
iours. This section is divided into three parts to explain the details of the analytical
models used to conduct the confirmatory factor analysis, and identify the dependent
variables and independent variables. The image of the flow of constructing the
analytical models is shown in Figure 3.
2.3.4. Confirmatory factor analysis

To identify the factors as independent variables, a confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA) was conducted to extract specific items from the data-set of the Q-U Method.
The idea underpinning CFA is that while the items on willingness to engage in posi-
tive behaviours are set as dependent variables, the factors that influence them are set
as ones on their own, peers and school/class. Based on this idea, related items were
selected from the questionnaire, and a CFA was conducted to see which factors
would be effective and to generate composite variables. CFA was based on the least-
square method and promax method to reveal the number of factors with eigenvalues
higher than 1.0. According to the results, among the factors related to self-efficacy
and psychometer, the first factor was ‘awareness of positive views held by others
towards the students themselves’. Psychometer is the concept that the degree of an
individual’s self-esteem reflects his or her inclusionary status in a community or
society to which she or he belongs (Leary, 1990; Leary, Tambor, Terdal, & Downs,
1995). The second and third factors were ‘self-efficacy’, which means a belief in
oneself that he or she can accomplish particular tasks or achievement (Bandura,
1977) and ‘incongruence in school’, which means difficulty for pupils to adjust
Figure 3. Image of the flow of constructing analytical models.
themselves to other peers in the school. This is similar to a sense of dissonance with
or negative disapproval by others of oneself (Wolfer, Cortina, & Baumert, 2012).
Then, turning to reciprocity, the first factor was ‘receiving psychological supports’,
and the second was ‘receiving concrete supports’. Only one factor was extracted on
‘school/classroom culture’, which means organisational culture at either classroom
or school levels to promote mutual support and care (Sato, 2006, 2012). Composite
variables were generated based on each of the factors listed. The factor loadings for
composite variables were set as more than 0.50, and the composite variables were
based on the sum of items for each factor.
In producing the composite variables already mentioned, Cronbach’s coefficient
alpha was also calculated to assess the reliability of the items. The value of coeffi-
cient alpha was 0.942 for ‘awareness of positive views held by others towards the
students themselves’, 0.900 for ‘self-efficacy’, 0.886 for ‘incongruence in school’,
0.929 for ‘receiving psychological supports’, 0.687 for ‘receiving concrete supports’,
and 0.863 for ‘school/classroom culture’: thus, there is a sufficient consistency for
the composite variables.
The results of the CFA are shown in Table 1, while the items for composite
variables are listed in Table 2.
2.3.5. Dependent variables

As described earlier, positive behaviour is a broad concept. However, as collabora-
tion and reciprocity (Noddings, 1984) have been emphasised in the process of
10 E. Saito et al.
Table 1. Results of factor analysis.

Awareness of positive views
held by others towards the Self- Incongruence
students themselves efficacy in school
I feel that others have an interest 0.927 −0.024 −0.014
in me
I feel that I am expected to be a 0.916 −0.016 0.055
part of the group
I feel that I am needed 0.894 0.016 −0.072
I feel that others also rely on me 0.840 0.004 0.028
I feel that others care for my 0.800 0.054 0.000
existence
I feel that others evaluate me 0.686 0.091 0.059
fairly
I can do things that will help me −0.035 0.813 0.024
from now on
I can see a purpose for my −0.001 0.796 0.043
future
I feel that I can grow up here 0.037 0.787 −0.034
I can learn things that will be −0.081 0.783 0.021
useful in my future
I feel satisfied 0.084 0.720 −0.046
I can do things that I like 0.074 0.706 −0.040
I have something that I can be 0.204 0.457 0.034
enthusiastic about
I feel that I am the only one who −0.017 0.064 0.812
is not good
I feel that I am disliked −0.047 −0.019 0.802
I feel that I am not useful or −0.097 0.039 0.797
helpful to others
I feel that I do not belong here/I −0.005 −0.101 0.747
am not suited to being here
I feel that I interrupt others 0.064 0.068 0.698
I feel that others order me 0.154 −0.051 0.666
around
Receiving psychological Receiving
supports concrete
supports
My friends comfort me when I 0.968 −0.041
have problems
My friends think together with 0.911 −0.024
me and give me some advice
when I have problems
My friends listen and give some 0.882 0.049
advice to me when I have
problems
My friends stay with me when I 0.872 −0.026
have problems
My friends cheer me up and 0.698 0.092
encourage me when I have
problems
My friends leave me alone when 0.614 −0.041
I have problems.
0.504 0.213
(Continued)
Table 1. (Continued).
Awareness of positive views
held by others towards the Self- Incongruence
students themselves efficacy in school
My friends talk to me when I
am isolated or left out in a
class
My friends try to teach me when −0.084 0.799
I do not understand
My friends help and support me 0.114 0.583
when I face difficulties
My friends share textbooks or 0.046 0.546
stationery with me when I do
not have them

　 School/classroom culture
There is an atmosphere of help 0.798
and support for students when
anyone faces difficulty
Students think together and give 0.740
some advice to each other
when anyone has problems
Students teach each other when 0.720
some students do not
understand
Students share textbooks or 0.700
stationery with students who
do not have them
Students talk to any student 0.697
when she or he is isolated or
left out in a class
There is an atmosphere in which 0.676
students help each other
There is an atmosphere in which 0.552
students can make jokes and
create joy in class
school reform at SJHS, one of the aspects of positive behaviour can be defined as
reciprocal supporting of others. Here, supporting others can be interpreted in two
ways: one is psychological empathetic actions, such as the capacity to secondarily
experience and understand other people’s emotions and feelings (Preston & de Waal,
2002; Wolfer et al., 2012), which can promote pro-social behaviours (Eisenberg,
2000). The other is concrete helping actions, particularly seen in the process of les-
sons, typically as responses to needs and help-seeking (Webb, 2013).
2.3.6. Independent variables

In order to examine what kinds of associations the variables above have with posi-
tive behaviours, equations (1) and (2) are organised as below:
EA ¼ a1 ðGender DummyÞ þ a2 ð7th Grader DummyÞ þ a3 ð8th Grader DummyÞ
þ a4 ðAWAÞ þ a5 ðSELÞ þ a6 ðINCÞ þ a7 ðRCSÞ þ a9 ðSCCÞ þ C (1)
12 E. Saito et al.
Table 2. List of variables.

Variables Items
Dependent Empathetic actions (five-point Likert I listen to and give some advice
variables scale, 1= never, 5= often) to my friends who have
problems
I comfort my friends who have
problems
I think together with my friends
who have problems and give
them some advice
I stay with my friends who have
problems
I cheer up and encourage my
friends.
Helping Actions (five-point Likert I help and support someone who
scale, 1= never, 5= often) has difficulty
I try to teach someone who does
not understand
I share textbooks or stationery
with my friends who do not
have them
Independent Gender Male: 0, Female: 1
variables Age cohorts 7th grader: (If yes, 1; if no, 0)
8th grader: (If yes, 1; if no, 0)
Awareness of positive views held by I feel that others have an interest
others towards the students in me
themselves (five-point Likert scale, I feel that I am expected to be a
1= absolutely not, 5= absolutely) part of the group
I feel that I am needed
I feel that others also rely on me
I feel that others care for my
existence
I feel that others evaluate me
fairly
Incongruence in school (five-point I feel that I am the only one who
Likert scale, 1= never, 5= often) is not good
I feel that I am disliked
I feel that I am not useful or
helpful to others
I feel that I do not belong here/I
am not suited to being here
I feel that I interrupt others
I feel that others order me
around
Self-efficacy (five-point Likert scale, I can do things that will help me
1= never, 5= often) from now on
I can see a purpose for my
future
I feel that I can grow up here
I can learn things that will be
useful in my future
I feel satisfied
I can do things that I like
My friends comfort me when I
have problems
(Continued)
Table 2. (Continued).
Variables Items
Receiving psychological supports My friends think together with
(five-point Likert scale, 1= never, me and give me some advice
5= often) when I have problems
My friends listen to and give
some advice to me when I have
problems
My friends stay with me when I
have problems
My friends cheer me up and
encourage me when I have
problems
My friends leave me alone when
I have problems
My friends talk to me when I
am isolated or left out in a class
Receiving concrete supports My friends try to teach me when
I do not understand
My friends help and support me
when I face difficulty
My friends share textbooks or
stationery with me when I do
not have them
School/classroom culture(five-point There is an atmosphere of help
Likert scale, 1= never, 5= often) and support for students when
anyone faces difficulty
Students think together and give
some advice to each other when
anyone has problems
Students teach each other when
some students do not understand
Students share textbooks or
stationery with students who do
not have them
Students talk to any student
when she or he is isolated or left
out in a class
There is an atmosphere in which
students help each other
There is an atmosphere in which
students can make jokes and
create joy in class
14 E. Saito et al.
HA ¼ a1 ðGender DummyÞ þ a2 ð7th Grader DummyÞ þ a3 ð8th Grader DummyÞ

þ a4 ðAWAÞ þ a5 ðSELÞ þ a6 ðINCÞ þ a7 ðRCSÞ þ a9 ðSCCÞ þ C (2)
Note: EA: empathetic actions; HA: concrete helping actions in lesson periods;
AWA: awareness of positive views held by others towards the students themselves;
SEL: pupils’ self-efficacy in learning; INC: incongruence in school; RPS: receiving
psychological supports; RCS: receiving concrete supports; SCC: school/classroom
culture; C: constant.
The independent variables were: gender, age cohort, self-efficacy, psychometer,
reciprocity, and school/classroom culture. These analytical models incorporate
pupils’ own factors, their previous experiences with receiving supports, and school/
classroom organisational factors. While McIntosh et al. (2013) highlighted the fac-
tors that influence the sustainability of school-wide positive behaviour support, their
listed factors are all about teachers and organisations and not about students. Wolfer
et al. (2012) did focus on student factors and found that adolescents’ empathy is
influenced by peer groups, class, school contexts, and their interactions, acceptance
among peers, and gender, in terms of reciprocity; however, this study did not explic-
itly deal with prior experiences of receiving empathetic actions or helping actions,
an additional focus of the study reported here. Moreover, as learning is a central
activity in school education, it is also important to consider how much confidence in
learning – self-efficacy – contributes to both empathetic and helping actions.
Gender is another independent variable that needs to be investigated because
research shows that female pupils are more likely to be engaged in consultation or
help-seeking behaviour (Nelson-Le Gall, 2006; Taylor & Nelson-Le Gall, 2005) as
well as empathetic actions (Wolfer et al., 2012) than male pupils. However, this
research focuses on reporting the actions of help-seekers, rather than the reactions of
recipients towards such help-seeking actions, which this study seeks to investigate.
The age cohort groups are another independent variable that needed to be con-
sidered in the analytical models because pupils may be more accustomed to helping
others in various ways according to the length of time of their exposure to LSLC
practices inside classrooms. The study will also investigate whether there are any
differences among age cohorts in promoting empathetic and concrete actions.
Psychometer is, in a sense, a continuum of self-perception in relationships with
others between two extreme poles, namely, positive acceptance – how much they
are aware of others’ positive views towards themselves – and negative rejection –
incongruence or disapproval in the school. Thus, in this study, two constructs are
incorporated, namely, awareness of positive views held by others and incongruence
in school.
A sense of being accepted is considered important in promoting empathy in ado-
lescents (Wolfer et al., 2012). Thomaes et al. (2010) found that while peer disap-
proval decreases self-esteem, children who are disapproved of are likely to recover
their self-esteem if they receive positive feedback from popular people. While it is
possible to infer that incongruence in schools would lead pupils to have less empa-
thetic attitudes towards others (Wolfer et al., 2012), this thesis still has to be exam-
ined.
Children’s self-efficacy has been discussed as an influencing factor in promoting
learning. Bandura (1977) pointed out that there are four sources of increasing self-
efficacy: performance accomplishments, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion,
and physiological states. Moreover, Bandura (1993) argued that the degree of pupils’
self-efficacy influences whether they take up more challenging tasks and the extent
of their desire and commitment to the goals they pursue, as well as the effectiveness
of their performance. This study investigates the association between pupils’ self-
efficacy in learning and their positive behaviours.
Reciprocity is a construct based on past experiences for pupils to receive support
from their peers. In a series of investigations, Webb (Webb, 2013; Webb &
Mastergeorge, 2003), reported that help-seeking behaviour is crucial if pupils are to
understand the content of classes better. Nelson-Le Gall (2006) and Taylor and
Nelson-Le Gall (2005) found that females seek help more frequently from others,
particularly in the case of African-American pupils. However, it is questionable as
to whether there is an association between such prior experiences of receiving help
from others and a willingness to assist others in turn.
In examining the school/classroom culture, emphasis is placed on organisational

cultural change through entire school engagement in reform activities in LSLC
(Saito, 2012; Saito & Sato, 2012; Sato, 2006, 2013). While the importance of entire
school engagement is also confirmed in other studies of school reform (Muijs, 2010),
Blatchford, Kutnick, Baines, and Galton (2003) noted that group learning should be
undertaken with an entire school commitment as part of the entire school curriculum.
It is crucial to observe how important organisational culture is in encouraging pupils
to become more willing to assist others. Further, Wolfer et al. (2012) pointed out that
empathy also requires a better organisational and social culture.
The descriptive statistics for each variable are shown in Table 3. Correlations
between the explanatory variables are also calculated, and as Table 4 indicates, the
results show no multi-collinearity, which refers to a linear association between vari-
ables to the degree that one variable linearly predicts the other with a non-trivial
degree of accuracy (Table 4).
2.4. Qualitative phase

2.4.1. Data collection
The aim of the qualitative phase is to elaborate on the results of the CFA (Creswell,
2014) presented above. The authors investigated the situation by interviewing four
school administrators, nine teachers, including one teacher currently working as a
supervisor of the city board of education and 11 pupils, as shown in Table 5. Three
open-ended questions were prepared to explore the situations that the participants
experienced before and after the introduction of collaborative learning and school
reform: (1) what kinds of changes in learning the participants experienced, (2) what
kinds of changes they observed in their peers, and (3) what kinds of changes they
experienced themselves.
The data were collected from in-depth interviews conducted in the form of
focus-group discussions (FGD). FGD were conducted eight times in total with dif-
ferent participants each time in January and February 2014: four times in January
and four times in February. Table 5 lists the interview participants.
Each interview was conducted in Japanese in the form of a focus-group discus-
sion consisting of two to three participants, and the participants were different each
time as described above. The interviews lasted for 60 to 70 minutes. The participants
were chosen based on convenience sampling: first, the authors made contact with the
ex-principal who initiated the reform, and he then contacted the vice-principal of
16 E. Saito et al.
Table 3. Descriptive statistics of each variable.

Variables Mean SD n
Empathetic actions 3.462 0.969 504
Helping actions 4.036 0.681 506
Awareness of positive views held by others 3.079 0.904 479
towards the students themselves
Incongruence in school 2.378 0.817 472
Self-efficacy 3.821 0.842 489
Receiving psychological supports 3.459 1.062 493
Receiving concrete supports 4.394 0.660 508
School/classroom culture 3.962 0.684 489
Sex: male 242, female 265 (deficit: 36)
Grade groups: 7th 189
year
8th 175
year
9th 179
year
Male Female Age SD
average (age)
Gender level 7th 84 101 12.000 0.00
year
8th 74 83 13.094 0.292
year
9th 84 81 14.115 0.320
year
Table 4. Correlations between explanatory variables.

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Awareness of positive 1.000 0.601** −0.156** 0.323** 0.406** 0.554**
views held by others
towards the students
themselves
2. Self-efficacy 　 1.000 −0.208** 0.368** 0.354** 0.436**
3. Incongruence in school 　　 1.000 −0.011 −0.143* −0.081
4. Receiving 　　　 1.000 0.534** 0.493**
psychological Supports
5. Receiving concrete 　　　　 1.000 0.566**
supports
6. School/classroom 　　　　　 1.000
culture
**p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.
SJHS to arrange a series of interviews with various participants. The third author con-
ducted the interviews, and he attempted to be as exploratory as possible (Oppenheim,
1992). Only when he found it necessary to ask for further details did he interrupt the
interviewees’ speech to request concrete examples or anecdotes. This strategy was
taken for the interviews because the authors intended to let the participants share their
own ideas spontaneously in their own words (Oppenheim, 1992).
Table 5. Interview participants.

Participants Number Notes
School 1 Ex-principal (currently the city superintendent)
administrators 1 Current principal
1 Current vice-principal
1 Ex-vice-principal (currently working at another school)
Teachers 8 Current teachers
1 Ex-teacher (currently the supervisor of the city education
board)
Students 6 Current students (1st graders in 2011, 3rd graders in 2014)
2 Graduates (then 3rd graders in 2011, 2nd graders at upper
secondary in 2014)
3 Graduates (2nd graders in 2011, 1st graders at upper secondary
2014)
Total 24
2.4.2. Data analysis

All the interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed in Japanese for further analy-
sis. The analysis was done manually following the steps outlined by Creswell (2014):
(1) preliminarily exploring the data by reading the transcriptions and writing memos,
(2) coding the data by categorising the texts in the transcriptions, and (3) further
grouping the similar codes with reference to the factors identified in the pupils’ sur-
vey. Credibility of the findings was secured through triangulation by comparing dif-
ferent sources of information, having other authors who knew SJHS’s situation check
the data, and a third person’s auditing (Creswell, 2014; Ivankova & Stick, 2006).
3. Results & discussion

3.1. Quantitative phase
Multi-regression analyses were conducted to identify effective factors on positive
behaviours as discussed above, and the results are given in Table 6. R-square value
was used to show the amount of variance in a dependent variable. A limitation of
using R-square value, however, is that the more independent variables are included
in a model, the higher the R-square value becomes. To overcome this problem, the
adjusted R-square value was calculated, because the less difference there is between
the R-square value and adjusted R-square value, the more stable the explanatory
power of a model is. The R-square and adjusted R-square values were 0.512 and
0.502 for empathetic actions, and 0.391 and 0.379 for helping actions, respectively.
The difference between R-square and adjusted R-square is small, and the explana-
tory power is acceptably high for each model.
Further, we tested which independent variables were statistically significant
enough to explain the dependent variable. In the results, p-value is the probability
that a result could have been produced by chance if the null hypothesis of
independent variables’ inability to explain the dependent variables were true. Thus,
if the p-value of a partial regression coefficient of a variable (B) is lower than 0.05,
the variable is usually considered statistically significant. As seen in Table 6, the sig-
nificant variables for ‘empathetic actions’ were ‘eighth graders’, ‘self-efficacy’,
‘receiving psychological support’, and ‘incongruence in school’. In the case of
18 E. Saito et al.
Table 6. Results of multiple regression analyses.

Dependent variables Empathetic actions Helping actions
Independent variables B ß B ß
Sex 0.031 0.016 −0.001 −0.001
7th graders 0.078 0.038 −0.040 −0.028
8th graders −0.220** −0.082 −0.033 −0.023
Awareness of positive views by others 0.051 0.048 0.157** 0.208
Self-efficacy 0.151** 0.132 0.102* 0.126
Incongruence in school 0.103* 0.087 0.011 0.013
Receiving psychological supports 0.575** 0.630 0.057* 0.089
Receiving concrete supports −0.046 −0.031 0.119* 0.115
School/classroom culture 0.025 0.018 0.273** 0.274
Constant 0.624* 1.361**
R2 0.512** 0.391**
Adjusted R2 0.502 0.379
n 455 455
**p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.
‘helping actions’, ‘awareness of positive views by others’, ‘receiving concrete

support’, ‘school/classroom culture’, and ‘self-efficacy’ were also significant.
3.1.1. Gender
Gender was not significant in either empathetic actions or helping actions (see
Table 6). Different from the cases demonstrated by Nelson-Le Gall (2006) and
Taylor and Nelson-Le Gall (2005), as well as Wolfer et al. (2012), this study showed
no distinctive differences between female and male pupils in their willingness to
support others.
3.1.2. Age cohorts

Being in eighth grade had a significantly negative effect on students’ empathetic
actions, decreasing the score by 0.220 percentage points (ß = –0.082). However, the
magnitude of the variable) was not so large for empathetic actions, and it was not
significant for helping actions (see Table 6).
3.1.3. Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy was significant in both empathetic and helping actions, increasing the
scores for empathetic actions by 0.151 percentage points and for helping actions by
0.102 percentage points (see Table 6). Pupils’ confidence in learning facilitated peer
support and assistance. Thus, having a sense of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977, 1993)
is important if students are to demonstrate a willingness to support others in both
psychological and concrete ways.
3.1.4. Psychometer
Psychometer, the awareness of positive views by others, is positively significant in
helping actions, increasing the score by 0.157 percentage points (ß = 0.208), while it
is insignificant in empathetic actions. The more positive the views held by others
towards them, the more likely the children were to provide concrete help to their
peers. Thus, the results suggest that the higher pupils’ inclusionary status (Leary,
1990; Leary et al., 1995) becomes, the more likely they are to provide concrete help
in the learning process.
In terms of psychological empathetic actions, feelings of incongruence in school
seem to provide certain positive effects on empathetic actions. Incongruence in
school was positively significant in empathetic actions, pushing the score by 0.103
percentage points with small magnitudes (ß = 0.087), while it was not significant in
helping actions (see Table 6). One interpretation is that a sense of vulnerability
increases children’s empathy for others experiencing psychological difficulty – that
is, children may understand others’ feelings of vulnerability as an extension of their
own frustrations and struggles. This possible interpretation will be examined with a
case in the qualitative phase.
3.1.5. Reciprocity
Learners’ prior experiences of having received help from others have strong effects
on whether they provide support for others in both psychological and concrete terms.
Regarding empathetic actions, ‘receiving psychological supports’ was positively sig-
nificant, increasing the score by 0.575 percentage points (ß = 0.630). Likewise, turn-
ing to helping actions, the variable ‘receiving concrete supports’ was significant,
increasing the score by 0.119 percentage points (ß = 0.115). That is, the type of help
that the pupils received led them to be willing to offer similar help to their peers.
These results are consistent with the research of Webb and colleagues (Webb, 2013;
Webb & Mastergeorge, 2003) and suggest that such help-seeking and helping actions
may be, and may be constructed as, a chained circle. Interestingly, however, ‘receiv-
ing psychological supports’ is significant in respect of helping actions, increasing the
score by 0.057 percentage points (ß = 0.089), while ‘receiving concrete supports’ is
not significant regarding empathetic actions (see Table 6).
3.1.6. School/classroom culture

The data show that the school culture is positively significant concerning helping
actions – increasing the score by 0.273 percentage points. In addition, regarding
helping actions, this variable has the biggest effect, ß = 0.274. That is, the more peo-
ple throughout the school practice such concrete helping actions as helping others,
the more the children are likely to do so as well. Similar results were reported by
Saito and Sato (2012), as well as others (Blatchford et al., 2003; Sato, 2006, 2013;
Wolfer et al., 2012). In this sense, concrete actions are related to concrete support
for learning, so a school-wide culture supporting mutual help is a significant contrib-
utor to the development of learning.
3.2. Qualitative phase

3.2.1. Gender
The interviewed pupils described their experiences of overcoming the gender gap by
accumulated interactions in collaborative learning. The interviewees had actually
20 E. Saito et al.
experienced a split into factions and there were disputes among those factions even
within the same gender groups during primary school. However, in SJHS, there were
plenty of opportunities to communicate beyond one’s own gender, and there was a
mechanism for organising groups – sitting in a checked pattern by gender. That is, the
group member of the same gender is diagonally located. Additionally, the seating pat-
terns were well considered to boost interactions across the two genders. The seventh
graders (ninth graders as of January 2014) provided the following comments:
A (Male) The seats are in a check pattern between boys and girls, so the conversa-
tions emerge naturally.
B (Female) Oh true, persons both to the side and front are opposite to your gender.
A (Male) In a group, if members are clearly split according to their gender, a boy
would talk to another boy and a girl would talk to another girl.Since the
seats are in a checked pattern, conversation flows to the centre of four,

and it makes it easier to communicate. (Interview, 21 January 2014)
Thus, as shown above, despite the issues raised in previous literature (Nelson-
Le Gall, 2006; Taylor & Nelson-Le Gall, 2005), there is not necessarily a gender
difference in collaborative learning in the way students interact with each other.
3.2.2. Age cohorts

According to the pupils’ survey results, the age cohort for eighth graders was nega-
tively associated with empathetic actions. A teacher, Mr KH, helped to explain this
result by sharing his observation of the children’s mutual care for other children
who used to have trouble in relationships before they came to SJHS:
Those who graduated last year experienced serious troubles in relationships before they
joined our junior high school. Yet Mr KM [a teacher, pseudonym] worked hard to lead
the group of teachers so that the children could strengthen and deepen their ties with
each other. I think that they were really warm children, maybe the best so far. If one of
them found a peer in trouble, anybody else could gently talk to him or her. In the
learning process as well, any student may patiently observe someone struggle, and
when the struggling student asks for help, she or he goes over the material with him or
her until the other student understands. (Interview, 17 February 2014)
Mr KH’s reflection suggests that the group had various issues and problems with
social relationships, likely including isolation. This description supports the pupils’
survey finding that those who feel isolated are willing to support others psychologi-
cally. However, after the students’ exposure to collaborative learning, their attitudes
towards their peers changed, and they became caring of each other to the degree that
Mr KH believed them to be the best so far. It should also be remembered that the
survey was conducted before there was a dramatic turn-around in students’ social
relationships. The pupils’ survey results show that the rapport among eighth-grade
students was in the process of developing because the survey was conducted in June
2011, which is early in the academic year and before the students had had opportu-
nities to work collaboratively together.
3.2.3. Self-efficacy
The pupils mentioned the importance of collaboration in thinking and solving
problems. They emphasised that all of the group members sought solutions to the
problems or tasks by themselves, and that is how they learnt in SJHS – even to the
degree that they ‘became used to working in a group, not knowing much about how
to memorise things alone or study alone’ and they ‘would like to keep learning with
everyone’ (Student A, male, interviewed on 21 January 2014).
In describing how they developed this method of learning, the pupils mentioned
the teachers and the levels of tasks. One of the graduates, H (a female student, in
ninth grade at the time of the study, who is currently in her eighth grade at the upper
secondary level) said, ‘The teachers did not provide the answers. They strove for
the students to solve the problems’ (Interview, 17 February 2014).
The levels of tasks are also important in bringing the pupils to the stage of hav-
ing self-efficacy. The interviewees mentioned that the challenges and demands set in
the tasks for them were high, although the number of tasks was limited to either one
or two. The ninth graders as of 2014, who were then the seventh graders, com-
mented as below:
F (Male) All the members in a group help cooperate to take up a really challeng-
ing task.
D (Female) It is fun.
E (Female) I learn better [this way] than through memorisation. I remember much
more. The time for thinking deeply is different. (Interview, 17 February
2014)
Interaction and collaboration in groups to overcome challenging tasks helped the

pupils increase their confidence and self-efficacy. The pupils above continued that
without self-study before and after classes; it was hard to keep up with the lessons.
This resonates with the existing understanding of self-efficacy, as pupils become
willing to solve more challenging tasks (Bandura, 1993); however, in this study, the
pupils mentioned the important role their peers played – indicating that self-efficacy
is not developed individually but in a collaborative manner. The teachers also played
an important role – setting challenging tasks, trusting in the pupils’ capacities to
complete the tasks, and waiting until they did so.
In addition, while self-efficacy is likely to be discussed as a concept for indi-
vidual activity (Bandura, 1977, 1993), the sources or basis of the interviewed
pupils’ self-efficacy is more related to collaboration and collaborative learning.
That is, they had a strong belief that they could learn and understand well once
they interacted and collaborated with others, and they were willing to create rela-
tionships with anyone else in the class. Despite the finding by Matsushima and
Shiomi (2001) that Japanese lower secondary pupils have difficulty opening them-
selves up to others and maintaining good relations because of their shyness, the
pupils at SJHS tend to be confident in their interactions – to be specific, they
have a well-developed ability to ask questions about matters they do not under-
stand. A male ninth grader (in his eighth grade at upper secondary school as of
February 2014), commented:
When I was a seventh grade pupil, it was hard to say, ‘I do not understand’ or ‘help
me’ in the process of collaborative learning. At the starting point of my lower sec-
ondary time, I could not convey what I wanted to mean and could not communicate
well… I could raise my level of courage and braveness to ask someone else about
what I do not understand by now. Then, such capacity would help me when I start to
work – probably that would be one of the intents that the teachers had. (Interview,
17 February 2014)
22 E. Saito et al.
Since their sources of self-efficacy resided in enquiry in interaction and collaboration,

the pupils became confident and willing to help others. However, in so doing, they
were not patronising others but believing in, and looking forward to, being able to
learn by supporting others – that is, refining their understanding.
J (Female) I remember what I support others about. Don’t you?

K (Female) So do I.
G (Female) I truly think so in supporting others in the senior high. ‘If I help others
about this, I can grow as well.’ That is how I think.
H (Female) I understand. ‘Now my friends ask me. Great, here we go!’ That is how
I feel. (Interview, 17 February 2014)
The pupils found value in learning and interacting with others to take on more
demanding tasks. In the process of collaboration, they felt that they could learn well
by asking their peers questions, and they became confident in their capacity to col-
laborate with others to learn. In these processes, they also became willing to support
others as well – and willing to learn from supporting others.
3.2.4. Psychometer
Regarding psychometer, the degree of an individual’s self-esteem reflecting his or
her inclusionary status in a community or society to which she or he belongs, the
interviewed pupils mentioned that they became closer to their peers through collabo-
ration in class and had a sense of being accepted by them.
B (Female) Since some of my peers came from another primary school, I was ner-
vous. Yet in collaborative learning, we started to talk. We were good
friends, even across primary schools, where we graduated…. We had no
choice other than to talk. This was not a bad thing, but since we are in
groups, if we do not understand….
C (Female) We ask, don’t we?
B (Female) Once we ask, we understand. On the other hand, once we are asked, we
help.
A (Male) If we keep silent, it is strange, isn’t it? (Interview, 21 January 2014)
As described above, the pupils gradually started to have closer relationships in

the process of interaction under collaborative learning. The interviewees mentioned
how others helped them by noticing their needs and offering support. For example,
F (female, ninth grader as of January 2014) observed:
There are some shy peers, who cannot ask [for help] from people they don’t know. For
them, it would be better to be in groups. Once their peers notice these pupils not being
able to solve the problems, some of them can ask, ‘How is it going? Are you OK?’
(Interview, 21 January 2014)
This sense of acceptance helped the pupils feel confidence in being accepted and
accepting others, as discussed above. In addition, a male, a seventh grader at the
time and a ninth grader as of January 2014, said that even though his counterparts
were not so friendly at the beginning of their relationship he had enough confidence
to learn together with them: ‘I can do collaborative learning even with those who
are not so friendly’ (Interview, 21 January 2014).
Such confidence leads the pupils to be willing to work with classmates they do
not know or with whom they have not been in a group before. This is because they
believe that they can work with anybody and are confident that they can find
anyone’s good points in collaborative learning. C, a male pupil, who was a seventh
grader at the time and a ninth grader as of January 2014, stated:
I have some peers in my class whom I still do not know much. I wish to interact with
them – I really want to be friends with those I don’t know yet. (Interview, 21 January
2014)
This pupil was not very open to communicating with others when he was in pri-
mary school, but he became open at SJHS. All the participants in the series of
interviews reported similar experiences. Here, the pupils demonstrate their self-
esteem by being capable of building relationships with others and maximising
their learning, reflected by being accepted by others (Leary, 1990; Leary et al.,
1995). Further, their self-esteem extends to the domain of accepting others and
developing better learning together with others as well as building better relation-
ships with them.
The interviewed graduates provided another example related to psychometer.
One student in their cohort used to be very violent and problematic; however, he
started to change in the middle of SJHS. The graduates described the case as
below:
J (Female) I was a classmate with ** [pupil’s name] for the seventh and eighth
grades. In the seventh grade, even in the same group, ** did not speak at
all, looking so sullen. Yet in the eighth grade, ** started to talk spontane-
ously.
K (Female) He changed, didn’t he?
G (Male) ** was very violent in primary school. It was rumoured that he would be
very problematic in the future.
J (Female) Yet in the latter part of our eighth grade, ** became a wonderful listener,
listening to problems or consultations by other peers. I was so surprised.
‘Wow, a person can change to this degree!’ … ** became so gentle and
kind. (Interview, 17 February 2014)
The pupil described above used to take initiatives in causing trouble, but he
changed his behaviour to become a person who listened to others and demonstrated
understanding of their situations. That is, through a series of experiences of being
accepted in the process of collaborative learning and having better relationships with
others, he became helpful to others. Thomaes et al. (2010) noted that pupils can
recover their self-esteem if rejected by others through positive acceptance by popular
peers, but in the case of SJHS all the peers developed a positive sense towards
everyone, and even those who used to be considered problematic were able to turn
their behaviour around.
3.2.5. Reciprocity
In the interviews, the children reflected that through mutual help in collaborative
learning they reached better views of learning and created better relationships with
their peers. The interviewed pupils often referred to their groups as the basis of their
school lives and mentioned that interacting with their group members helped them
to keep calm and settled regardless of any problems they had.
24 E. Saito et al.
E (Female) Before, when I had trouble, I would feel isolated. However, I have more
close friends now and more pals to consult with, so I feel isolated less
often.
D (Female) I feel less isolated as well. When I am at home alone, I feel lonely. Then,
when I am saddened, I feel isolated. Then, sometimes I have to fight
with my classmates and feel reluctant to go to school. Yet, after a min-
ute, I think that I have my group and have friends, and I can rely on
them whenever I have trouble. (Interview, 17 February 2014)
As above, the interviews with the children showed that feelings of isolation
could be overcome with better relationships. The interviews also revealed that the
children saw reciprocity as an important factor. The interviewees, who were sev-
enth-grade students at the time and ninth-grade students when the interviews were
conducted, made the following comments:
B (Female) Yes, when I look troubled or worried, my friends ask me, ‘Anything
wrong?’ or ‘What is the matter with you?’
C (Male) Yet it does not mean to take a patronising attitude.
B (Female) If I think, ‘Something is wrong with my pal’ or ‘Any problem?’ then I
ask a question to understand his or her situation. Then my pal will think,
‘Oh, this pal also cares for me’ or ‘He also thinks about me’. (Interview,
21 January 2014)
As the basis of such reciprocal relationships, the daily experiences of collabora-

tive learning changed the relationships among the children as well. Other students
said the following:
E (Female) In a good sense, [we] students have become able to assert our own opin-
ions or not to feel shy about asking questions. Before, the boys seemed
very shy interacting with the girls. However, now the boys come to talk
to us, and the girls feel that it is easier to talk, too. This started from the
time we went to junior high.
F (Male) When we were primary students, we had to face the teachers during
lessons, so I consulted only with the boys sitting next to me. In the
U-shaped desk arrangement with groups of four, I can ask various people
questions, so I have more opportunities to have better relationships with
the boys. (Interview, 17 February 2014)
As shown above, the children had better opportunities to interact with each other
through collaborative learning. This is supported not only by the pupils’ survey
responses but also by the interview data. They began to interact more with each
other in the classroom, which led them to have better peer relationships. Groups
were formed, not based on achievements or understanding, but through random
selection (i.e. drawing lots), as the children themselves decided. Thus, the children
needed to interact with everybody, regardless of whether the other group members
were higher achievers or lower achievers, or whether they had experienced trouble
getting along. According to the pupils’ survey responses, willingness for empathetic
actions is based on having received psychological support, while helping actions are
associated with having received concrete support. Furthermore, by receiving psycho-
logical support, pupils would be expected to develop a willingness to provide help-
ing actions to others as well. The interview results suggest that daily interactions in
groups organised for collaborative learning encourage pupils to develop their bonds
to support in both empathetic and concrete ways, and their relationships are based
on care and concern for others (Noddings, 1984). Thus, while previous literature on
help seeking in collaborative learning has focused mainly on academic achievements
(Webb, 2013; Webb & Mastergeorge, 2003), this study extends our understanding
with the finding that shows help-seeking benefits pupils as a psychological support.
3.2.6. School/classroom culture

Before the LSLC reform, SJHS policy had been rather close to ‘No Tolerance’
(Browne-Dianis, 2011; Martinez, 2009; Utley et al., 2002). The current principal,
who had previously worked at SJHS as a teacher in the early 1990s, reflected on the
school’s past as follows:
Teachers did not speak quietly but rather scolded loudly at that time. If the teacher did
not shout, the students did not become quiet…. Powerful teachers repressed the chil-
dren, but the students became naughty in the classes of the quieter teachers. That was
the typical repetitive pattern of school life at that time. (Interview, 17 February 2014)
Now, as discussed hitherto, SJHS policy is more similar to PBS (Lassen et al.,
2006; Marlowe, 2013; Patrick et al., 2007; Stiglbauer et al., 2013), and the chain of
more positive behaviours starts with the experiences of collaborative learning, based
on the involvement and engagement of the entire school as a school policy.
Certainly, the interviewed teachers mentioned the importance of involvement at the
entire school level. For example, Ms NJ remarked as below:
I had this thought after starting to work at SJHS. Various teachers come in to each
lesson, say, student guidance committee members or the heads of grade groups. Even
apart from them, anyone can freely pop into each other’s classrooms to observe les-
sons. The principal says so. Thus, many teachers come to my class, and I myself go to
lessons taught by various other teachers. Then, I realise that not only I alone, but all of
us, nurture children. I feel a sense of safety – all of us care for all the children. I am
not lonely or isolated. Otherwise, I might feel guilty when I encounter children’s prob-
lems and might believe that it is because of my teaching. (Interview, 17 February
2014)
Here, Ms NJ explained that the entire school was involved in nurturing and educat-
ing the children. Mutual observation took place daily, and the teachers had no anxi-
eties or concerns about being observed by others. At SJHS, there was a vision for
reform education (Senge, 2006) to provide the best learning opportunities for chil-
dren as well as teachers – that started with mutual observation and reflection (Barth,
1990; Darling-Hammond, 1998; Fullan, 2007; Joyce & Showers, 2002; Leithwood
et al., 2010; Wrigley, 2003). Then, importantly, this vision was shared throughout
the school (Day, 2011; Leithwood et al., 2010; Sergiovanni, 1994). Through such
experiences, the teachers came to know more about the children and built the school
community, as a form of organisational learning (Hargreaves & Fink, 2003; Lai
et al., 2009; McIntyre & Kyle, 2006).
4. Conclusion
The aim of this study was to examine factors that led children to engage in positive,
supportive behaviours in an LSLC pilot school. In order to achieve this aim, the
pupils were surveyed. The findings are summarised as follows. Prior exposure to
26 E. Saito et al.
support from others had a strong effect on the children’s supportive actions for
others, in both psychological and concrete terms, and the results show that school
culture had the largest effect on their concrete helping actions. In addition, when
their peers displayed positive views towards them, the children were more likely to
provide concrete assistance to others. Self-efficacy was also effective in encouraging
both psychological and concrete helping actions, but feelings of incongruence
towards school may have had certain positive effects on the children’s empathetic
actions towards others.
Further, interviews with the pupils and graduates of SJHS showed there is a
strong sense that they have peers to consult with and seek help from when they have
problems. This is the foundation of their strong trust in others and even a source of
self-confidence and self-efficacy. The pupils do not deny their limitations and weak-
nesses, but they also know that they have friends who can support and help them.
Likewise, even when they cannot solve tasks alone, they can ask for help from oth-
ers and think together. This is not due to mere successful experiences based on indi-
vidual attempts or trials, but more collective and group attempts to overcome
troubles or problems. In the process, mutual help is an indispensable aspect, and the
teachers at SJHS encouraged the pupils to engage in it at the entire school level.
Such experiences were accumulated in a series of experiences of collaborative learn-
ing in daily lessons, leading to positive behaviours.
In case studies probing LSLC situations (Saito & Sato, 2012; Sato, 2006, 2012;
Sato & Sato, 2003), emphasis is placed on the impact of reciprocal learning, the
importance of the involvement of the entire school, and the significance of teachers’
learning. The results of this study are congruent with such previous studies and, for
the first time, provide statistical support for their claims. In particular, LSLC stresses
two essential requirements for success: reciprocal collaborative learning in groups
and sensitisation of teachers to children’s learning needs through observation of, and
joint reflection on, lessons. This study demonstrates that the children in SJHS deep-
ened their relationships in both the psychological and practical sense and contributed
to a culture of mutual support and assistance. In order for children to develop and
benefit from a school culture of rapport, it should be emphasised that teachers also
need to display caring perspectives towards the children, maintain a sharp sense of
learners’ specific needs, and do their best to offer, and model, productive support.
Previous research has emphasised the importance of reciprocity in learning in
LSLC pilot schools (Sato, 2012; Sato & Sato, 2003). This study offers empirical evi-
dence that prior experiences of support lead children to provide support to their
peers. Sato (2012) has emphasised the importance of ‘solidarity among the vulner-
ables’ – that is, the need for children with difficulties, disadvantages or problems to
care for each other, mutually supporting each other in learning by asking and
responding to one another’s questions. ‘The vulnerables’ refers to those who have
experienced being left out or who have struggled with learning difficulties or family
troubles. The results of this study suggest that empathetic actions result from receiv-
ing empathy from other friends, and there is even a tendency for those who feel at
odds with the school environment to be interested in assisting others. The findings
presented here suggest the causality of supportive reciprocity.
As discussed earlier, SJHS was a school with many student behavioural issues
and problems. However, in seeking to address these problems, the school did not
develop a policy of ‘No Tolerance’ (Browne-Dianis, 2011; Martinez, 2009; Utley
et al., 2002) but rather sought to facilitate positive behaviours and a supportive
school culture (Lassen et al., 2006; Marlowe, 2013; Patrick et al., 2007; Stiglbauer
et al., 2013). The present study offers empirical evidence for the complex interrela-
tionships and effects of positive behaviours rather than treating them as simple cog-
nitive outcomes, as much of the recent body of research has done (Lassen et al.,
2006; Patrick et al., 2007; Stiglbauer et al., 2013). The findings here indicate that
the factors contributing to positive behaviours have much to do with children’s prior
experience of positive behaviours and a supportive school culture. This suggests the
importance of establishing a school-wide culture of caring that depends on the par-
ticipation of teachers and students alike.
This study also provides important insights into successful school reform. First,
in order to cultivate a cycle of positive behaviour, educators must provide students
with sufficient opportunities for support in their daily teaching and learning pro-
cesses that take place in the classroom. The findings of this study also support prior
claims that school leaders should focus on classroom situations (Bishop, 2011; Day,
2011; Fullan, 2005; Leithwood et al., 2010; Senge, 2006) and a clear, effectively
communicated vision for reform (Day, 2011; Leithwood et al., 2010; Senge, 2006;
Sergiovanni, 1994). The SJHS principal led the process of reform by emphasising
daily teaching and learning practices that would develop reciprocal, mutually collab-
orative learning.
The LSLC approach to reform requires teachers to observe and reflect regularly
on classroom practices with each other, and this, too, is consistent with previous
research (Barth, 1990; Darling-Hammond, 1998; Dempster & MacBeath, 2009;
Fullan, 2007; Joyce & Showers, 2002; Leithwood et al., 2010; Senge, 2006;
Southworth, 2011; Wrigley, 2003). Such observations and joint reflections are also
beneficial for organisational learning, as numerous studies have shown (Hargreaves
& Fink, 2003; Lai et al., 2009; McIntyre & Kyle, 2006). These points suggest that,
in order to encourage and facilitate positive behaviour among children, teachers need
to offer opportunities for the children to extend their own mutual support. In other
words, supportive learning takes place in collaborative networks among teachers and
among students. Such reciprocal learning should be implemented at the organisa-
tional level as well as within classrooms, and to this end both teachers and students
need regular opportunities to learn with and from one another, engaging in collabo-
rative reflection and supportive dialogue.
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School reform for positive behaviour support through

Singapore; bLibrary and Academic Information Center, Tokyo Metropolitan University,

Recent research has emphasised educating children about positive behaviours to

© 2015 University of Cambridge, Faculty of Education

Sergiovanni, 1994); developing a culture of dialogues among teachers (Dempster &

is distinctively different in that it focuses on generating transformative changes in

their own in doing so. Teachers with authoritarian attitudes or a tendency to

1.2.2. The emergence of the Lesson Study for Learning Community

laborative learning for mutual consultation; (2) enhancing collegiality and

1.3. Goal of this study

Next, the teachers at SJHS organised a ‘Photo of Learning’ presentation

2.2. Study design

Figure 1. Annual change in academic achievement in SJHS.

2.3. Quantitative phase

Figure 2. Study procedure.

2.3.2. Data collection

2.3.3. Analytical models

2.3.4. Conﬁrmatory factor analysis

Figure 3. Image of the ﬂow of constructing analytical models.

2.3.5. Dependent variables

Table 1. Results of factor analysis.

not have them

2.3.6. Independent variables

Table 2. List of variables.

HA ¼ a1 ðGender DummyÞ þ a2 ð7th Grader DummyÞ þ a3 ð8th Grader DummyÞ

In examining the school/classroom culture, emphasis is placed on organisational

2.4. Qualitative phase

Table 3. Descriptive statistics of each variable.

Table 4. Correlations between explanatory variables.

Table 5. Interview participants.

2.4.2. Data analysis

3. Results & discussion

Table 6. Results of multiple regression analyses.

‘helping actions’, ‘awareness of positive views by others’, ‘receiving concrete

3.1.2. Age cohorts

3.1.6. School/classroom culture

3.2. Qualitative phase

seats are in a checked pattern, conversation ﬂows to the centre of four,

3.2.2. Age cohorts

Interaction and collaboration in groups to overcome challenging tasks helped the

Since their sources of self-efﬁcacy resided in enquiry in interaction and collaboration,

J (Female) I remember what I support others about. Don’t you?

As described above, the pupils gradually started to have closer relationships in

As the basis of such reciprocal relationships, the daily experiences of collabora-

3.2.6. School/classroom culture

Darling-Hammond, L. (1998). The right to learn. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Psychology, 99, 83–98.

social network shapes adolescents’ social understanding. Journal of Adolescence, 35,

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