Agri 32 (Crop Science 2) Land conversion, can we stop it?

Lecture Notes  Land conversion from irrigated ricefields to

Prof. Domingo Angeles subdivisions or industrial use is one hot issue
 Stems from the public investment in irrigation
01-15-19 (Tuesday) facilities
 One pineapple farmer in Tagaytay City said he
Issues in Crop Production and Development cannot sustain production because of high land
property taxes in the city
Issues
How to feed a burgeoning Philippine population (100+M) with Are we food secure?
shrinking arable land area?  Most food secure is Singapore, yet it imports most of
 Total land area of the Philippines is 30M hectares its food
 Arable land is placed at 11-12M hectares  In the Philippines, not a single province was rated
 So 3-4 M hectares are for the built up areas like food secure by an international organization and
towns, cities, hi-ways, etc. about four (4) provinces were rated with severe food
 But National Statistics Authority report only 9.7M insecurity
agricultural land nowadays  A country or administrative unit (e.g. province) is
 Agricultural land includes land devoted to livestock considered food secure when all its population has
farms like piggeries, poultry, cattle ranches and access to available and affordable food. In the case
pastures of Occidental Mindoro, the indigenous people (IP) in
the mountains does not have access to the bountiful
What is the best use of arable land? rice harvest
 Traditionally, our 11-12M hectares is apportioned as:
a. 3M hectares is used for rice production Food Security Performance
b. 3M hectares for coconut Year Rank No. of countries
c. 3M hectares for corn 2012 63 105
d. 3M for all other crops and livestock 2015 72 109
 400,000 for bananas 2017 72 113
 100,000 for coffee
 200,000 for rubber DA = food security = availability = well-nourished
 50,000 for oil palm = Accessible
= Affordable
01-17-19 (Thursday) = Nutritional needs

Poverty 6.8 7.6 7.1 6.9 What is lacking to address food security?
Incidence 1. DOH = nutrition
Year 2006 2009 2012 2015 2. DENR = nature resources affecting agriculture
3. DOST = research and service
Causes 4. DSWD = food supply during calamities
1. Low labor productivity 5. DPWH = roads for food production
2. Lack of sustained investment in agriculture 6. DND = peace and order assuring food supply
stability
Administration Budget Allotted (M) 7. DAR = food production of ARBS
Marcos 5.37
Aquino 3.15 Nutritional Security
Ramos 3.52  We still have a lot of cases of stunting, underweight,
Estrada 4.42 and wasted children.
Arroyo 4.58  The good news is that DepEd has a feeding program
Aquino 4.27 for school kids who are hungry.
 The bad news is that the kids are again
Land degradation undernourished when classes resume after the two-
 Erosion threatens 46% of arable land and permanent month vacation break.
crop of which 17.3% are under severe erosion and  The Interdisciplinary Studies Center on Food and
28.3% moderate erosion Nutrition Security (UPLB) is organizing an
international conference on nutrition sensitive
Small Fragmented Farms agriculture and food systems in November
Farm size (ha) Ave farm size %
Under 0.5 0.13 38.83 Malnutrition Remains High
Type 2013 (%) 2015 (%)
0.5 – 0.99 0.61 18.06
Underweight 19.1 21.6
1 – 2.99 1.46 32.01
Stunting 30.3 33.5
 88.9% has farm size below 3 ha Wasting 7.9 7.1
 Ave area/farm = 1.29 ha Overweight 5.0 3.8

Good news = majority of households can afford energy-only

We need to intensify production per hectare diet
 For rice, the target during Marcos years was Bad news = up to half of household cannot afford a nutritious
Masagana 99 equivalent to 5 tons diet (35% in NCR)
 Now, PhilRice has an on-going 10-5 challenge: to
produce 10 tons of rice at P5 production cost/kg of Sustainable Development Goals
palay 1. Zero hunger
2. Good health and well-being
3. Responsible consumption and production
Nutrition Sensitive Vs. Nutrition Specific Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
Crop Percentage (%)
Nutrition specific = prevention and treatment of acute A Cashew Apple 197
malnutrition through blanket and targeted supplementary Guava 126
feeding among children, pregnant, and lactating mothers Papaya 89
Mango 47.73
01-22-19 (Tuesday) Calamansi 49
Acerola 2000mg/100g
Agriculture Crop Production and Trade
Quality Protein Maize (QPM)
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016  It is an open-pollinated variety of corn which is high
R 81 94 92 97 92 89 95 in protein
C 98 99 98 95 93 91 89
CC 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 High in Low in
SC 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Lysine Metabolizable property
CF 55 54 45 46 71 33 32 Tryptophan Glycemic index
T 100 99 99 100 100 99 100 Minerals
E 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Antioxidants
M 47 57 50 49 53 52 52 Amylose

Where: Marketing Rice Problems

 R = rice 1. Limited knowledge on paddy rice grades and
 C = corn standards set by NFA and BAFPS
 CC = coconut 2. Low farmgate prices during peak harvest particularly
 SC = sugarcane in surplus provinces located in far-flung areas where
 CF = coffee prices are low
 T = tomato 3. High marketing cost
 E = eggplant 4. Untimely arrival of rice imports
 M = mango 5. Rice smuggling

Poor growth due to 01-24-19 (Thursday)

1. Typhoon
2. La nina, El nino Continuation
3. Inadequate input use 6. Limited funds of small and medium-scale traders and
4. Fragmented farms millers
5. Poor technology adaptation 7. Poor farm-to-market roads
8. Poor congestion during peak season (Ilo-Ilo –
Food accounts for 41.4% of total family expenditure Zamboanga, Ilo-Ilo – Bacolod, Ilo-Ilo – Cebu)
 26.3 = rice/cereals 9. High interisland freight for rice
 14.7 = meat 10. Low paddy supply
 12.3 = fish 11. Limited entrepreneurial skills of farmers,
 9.2 = fruits organizations, and cooperatives engaged in rice
 7.2 = eggs milling and marketing
 2.4 = coffee
 14 = outside home Value Chain Analysis
 3.1 = beer  Full range of activities which are required to bring a
 9.2 = others product/service from conception, through the
Crops are rich in nutrients different phases of production, involving a
combination of physical transformation and the input
Carbohydrates of various producer service
Crop Percentage (%) 1. Input
Banana 38.6 2. Production
Durian 36 3. Post-harvest
Tiesa 39 4. Distribute
Coconut 12 5. Consumption
Cacao 20.25
Cashew kernel 20 Agronomy
 Cereals
Protein  Fiber
Crop Percentage (%)  Industrial crops
Cacao 15 - 25
Cashew 19 Horticulture
Banana blossom 18 – 25  Vegetables
 Ornamentals
Fats  Fruit
 Plantation crops
Crop Percentage (%)
Pili 69
Cacao 50
Avocado 5.8
Coconut 5.5
 Agricultural Trade and Examples of  Temperate crops: Apple, pear, wheat
Science Industry Companies  Tropical crops: Mango, banana, coconut
Agrochemicals Bayer, Monsanto,  Philippine temperature range is from 25.6°C
Crop (Fungicides, Syngenta, ICL, (January) to 28.2°C (May)
Protection insecticides, Mapecon  High altitude (1200 meters) = Baguio = low
herbicides) temperature
East West Seed,
Plant Seed industry, Pioneer, Allied 2. Light (Solar radiation)
Breeding new varieties Botanicals, Ramgo  Controls practically all aspects of plant
Fertilizers, Haifa Chemicals, growth and development; from seed
Soils Bio-fertilizers Viking Ship, Yara germination to fruit development
Agricultural Genetically Bayer, Monsanto,  Essential in photosynthesis
Biotechnology Modified (GM) Syngenta
(ABT) seeds Two aspects of Light
a. Light intensity
Research Institutions  Varies with season; lower
1. State Universities and Colleges intensity during rainy
2. Department of Agriculture season than dry season
3. DOST due to cloud cover
4. DENR  In mountainous areas,
5. Private companies (big plantations, agrochemical slopes facing either east
companies) or west receive less
sunlight
Technologies b. Light duration/daylength
1. Hydroponics (photoperiod) = period of exposure
1. Microbial fertilizers/bio-fertilizers to sunlight
2. Biocontrol agents  Controls flowering in some
3. SNAP Hydroponics plants
4. Tissue Culture  Controls bulb and tuber
formation in certain crops
Evaluating and Selecting the Environment for Crop Production  Other crops are not
1. Good location sensitive (day-neutral
 Refers to the factors that do not directly crops)
affect the growth and development of crops  In the Philippines, light
a. Access to adequate infrastructures duration is significantly
 Farm-to-market lower during November,
 Electricity and water sources December, and January
 Port facilities (airport/seaport)
 Post-harvest facilities (e.g. dryer & cold 3. Rainfall
storage)  Most critical factor
b. Favorable socio-economic condition  Primary source of water for crop production
 Peace and order  Most agricultural areas in the country are
 Political stability fully dependent on it
 Availability and cost of manpower  Used as basis in classifying climate in the
 Government policies (e.g. tariff/taxes on Philippines
imported goods, tax incentives, trade
policy) Classification Amount of Rainfall
High 5000 mm
Environment for Crop Production Philippine average 2500 mm
 These factors do not directly affect the productivity Low 50 – 1000 mm
itself but could seriously affect the management
(including handling and marketing of products) and Types of Climate
eventually profits A. Type I
 Such factors are best and appropriately addressed by  Two pronounced seasons
the government  Dry = November to April
 Wet = May to October
2. Suitable site B. Type II
 Refers to the factors that directly affect the  No distinct dry period
growth and development of crops  Maximum rainy period from November to
a. Favorable climate January
 Climate refers to the average condition of C. Type III
the atmosphere in a given area  No pronounced maximum rainy period
 An ultimate determinant of what crop  With short dry or relatively dry period from
species to grow November to April
 Influences all plant physiological and 4. Typhoons
biochemical processes (photosynthesis,  Extremely destructive to crops, yet
respiration, transpiration, flowering, fruit beneficial since 47% of rain/rainfall is
maturation, etc.) associated with typhoons
 Average of 21 typhoons annually (mostly
Components of Climate passing through Visayas and Luzon)
1. Temperature
 Determines the distribution of the crop
species in the world
Suitable Soils
A. Important functions of soil
 Provides anchorage to the plant
 Serves as medium/reservoir for air, water,
nutrients, and beneficial organisms
Ideal Soils for Crop Production
A. Upland
1. Deep
2. Moderate texture
3. Moderate pH
4. Fertile
5. High organic matter
6. Well-drained
B. Lowland crops (e.g. rice)
1. Deep
2. Excellent water-holding capacity
3. Fertile
4. High organic matter
5. Moderate pH
6. Fine texture (preferably clay soil)
Soil characteristics/properties that affect crop production
1. Soil Depth
 The top soil is the most fertile layer of the
soil profile
 Loss of the top soil means significant
reduction in the agricultural value of the
land
 Soil depth is determined by digging a pit
and measure the thickness of the topsoil
(from soil surface down to the
bedrock/hardpan layer which obstructs
downward proliferation of the root)
 For perennial crops, soil should be as deep
as possible (at least 80 cm) so that the
roots can penetrate deep and be able to
explore and obtain water and nutrients from
larger volume of soil
 Deep soil is essential in typhoon-prone
areas where roots must be anchored deeply
to avoid blow-down of trees
 Shallower soil can be utilized for shallow-
rooted crops (annual crops)
2. Soil Texture
 Refers to the relative proportion of soil
particles (sand, silt, and clay)
 Soils of moderate soil texture (loam) are
ideal for most crops
 Determined by kind and amount of
cementing materials (e.g. OM, fine, clay
particles)
 Also determined by soil management (e.g.
proper tillage, mulching, addition of organic
materials, etc.)
 A desirable soil structure should be granular
and porous for easy root development
 To develop and maintain a desirable soil
structure, high amounts of organic matter
should be maintained, and tillage must be
done at the right time (near field capacity)
4. Nutrient Content
 Macronutrients and micronutrients must
always be available at optimum and balance
amount
 Otherwise, nutrient deficiencies or toxicities
occur that could lead to reduction in yield
and quality; may even lead to death of the
plants
5. Soil pH
 pH is a measure of degree of alkalinity or
acidity
 Affects availability/solubility of nutrients and
activity of microorganisms (organic matter
decomposition, mineralization, nitrogen
fixation, nutrient absorption)
 Cebu = high in calcium (basic)
 Acid soil = lime (easier to correct)
 Basic soil = add acid (hard to handle)
 Flood the soil to move the basic substances
(cations) upward/to the surface of soil
 Saline soil = high pH = dehydration of water
Peat soil
 Soil with less than pH of 3
 Alternate flooding and draining
 Soil organic matter accumulate = slightly acidic
 Flooded = drained = stop microbial activity
 Never choose red soil
Lecture 4
Land Preparation
Land Preparation
 Includes all steps necessary to make the soil ready
for planting
 Extent of land preparation depends on the existing
vegetation and specific crop requirements (e.g.
perennials and trees = don’t need much land
preparation)

Characteristics Course-textured Fine-textured Lowland crops (rice)

 Tillage when soil is fully saturated with water
Water-holding Low High  Land preparation involves puddling the soil; initially
capacity by plowing then several harrowings
Cation exchange Low High  Soil structure is destroyed
capacity  Soil is compacted at plow sole layer
 Water percolation and seepage are reduced (lower)
Aeration/Drainage Good Poor  Final step is leveling and “marking”
 Implements include moldboard plow, comb-tooth
harrow (suyod) and wooden leveler, pulled by draft
Ease of tillage Easy Hard animal (carabao) or by tractors; markers are usually
used to facilitate transplanting of rice seedlings

Upland crops
01-29-19 (Tuesday)  Tillage is done when soil moisture is near field
capacity
Continuation  With excessive soil moisture, tillage will result to soil
3. Soil Structure compaction and will destroy soil structure
 Refers to the arrangement/clustering of soil
particles into characteristic aggregates
Field Capacity 2. May or may not involve plowing and harrowing bust
 Soil condition at which excess water has been fully must include cutting of grasses and other vegetation
drained and should adopt minimum tillage system
 Second grown forest
Soil Type Capacity  Open grassland
Sandy 6 – 10  Land previously planted to crops
Loamy 18 – 26  Land presently planted to perennial crops (e.g.
Clayey 23 – 29 coconut plantation)
 Woody crops = minimal land preparation
 Fibrous roots = high/extensive land preparation
Plowing, harrowing, and rotavation are done to:  Clay soil = high/extensive land preparation
 Develop desirable soil structure (for easy seed  Silt = minimal land preparation
germination and root development)
 Incorporate crop stubbles and weeds (into the soil) Laying-out
 Commercial pineapple farm = plant to 4 – 6 months  Should follow recommended planting distance and
after land preparation systems of planting
 Planting distance depends on crop variety (big trees
01-31-19 (Thursday) vs. small trees = different canopy) and growing
condition (fertile vs. infertile soil)
Continuation
Land Preparation (Lowland) Systems of Planting
1. Square
Plowing, harrowing, and rotavation are done to: 2. Quincunx (Diagonal)
1. Cultivate land 3. Triangular (Hexagon)
 Develop desirable soil structure 4. Contour planting system
1) For easy seed germination and root
development Digging of Holes and Planting
2) Better drainage = better water supply  Holes should be big and deep to give space for
to roots addition of compost at the bottom and sides (also for
3) Encourage microbial activity (e.g. lime application, if needed)
nitrogen fixation at roots)  During digging, topsoil should be separated from the
4) Aeration (respiration at roots) subsoil, then subsoil should be first used before
2. Control weeds subsoil = topsoil contains more nutrients (from
 Decompost residuals from previous crops organic matter, fertilizers, etc.)
and weeds = provide nutrients for upcoming
crops 02-07-19 (Thursday)
3. Prevent compaction of land
A. Use of Recommended Varieties
Contour Planting  For successful farming, use only varieties
 In gently sloping field, tillage is done across recommended or approved by National Seed
the slope and following the contour lines Industry Council (NCIS), an agency under
the Department of Agriculture (DA)
Land Preparation Implements (Equipment)  Such varieties after having been bred and
1. Carabao-drawn implements = moldboard plow, spike undergone rigid testing and evaluation
tooth harrow (kalmot), lithao (native furrower) were:
2. Tractor-drawn implements = moldboard plow, disc 1. Proven to have good yield
plow, disc harrow, rotavator, tractor-drawn furrower 2. Desirable quality
(adjustable width) 3. Resistance to pest and diseases,
3. Bedder = make beds (30 cm high) = pineapple = and
Mindanao 4. Other desirable traits

Furrowing B. Preparation of Planting Materials

 Making of shallow canals (furrows) of 1. Kinds of planting material
specified distances where seeds are to be a. Use of seeds (sexual propagation)
planted  Applicable to most annual
 Ridges = raised beds formed between the crops (agronomic, vegetables,
furrows; where seeds are planted during plantation crops)
rainy days  Also as rootstocks for grafting
and budding of tree crops
Well-prepared upland should be b. Use of vegetative parts (asexual
 Granular and friable propagation)
 Reasonably level (without depressions where water  Roots, leaves, and stems
may accumulate)  Applicable to most fruits and
 Stubbles and weeds are thoroughly incorporated with ornamental crops, some
the soil agronomic crops, some
 Banana = very sensitive to water = requires good plantation crops, and few
drainage vegetables

For perennial crops (e.g. trees) 2. Advantages of asexual over sexual methods
1. Extension of land preparation depends on condition a. Plants are true-to-type
of land  With the same traits
(productive, good fruit
quality) as the mother
b. Trees are taller
 c. Trees start bearing fruits earlier
d. Asexual propagation is the only
option for seedless varieties
(banana, seedless grapes); sterile
(siniguelas) or when seeds are not
readily available (sugarcane,
cassava, bamboo)
overnight followed by
washing
2. Vernalization – subjecting water-soaked or
germinating seeds to cold treatment to
achieve flowering of cool-season crops
grown in warmer environment

3. Seeds for planting must be: Crop Temp Duration

a. Physiologically mature – with Onion 0°C 15 days
sufficient food reserve needed to Carrot 0 – 10°C 5 – 7 days
produce vigorous and healthy Cabbage 10°C 5 – 7 days
seedlings
b. Should be viable (embryo is
capable of germination) 3. Stratification – subjecting the seeds to cold
treatment in order to break dormancy
Types of Seeds
1. Orthodox seeds – seeds that can be dried
without losing its viability Crop Temp. Duration
 Viability remains for a long period
when stored under low relative
humidity, low temperature, and Grape 4°C 3 months
low oxygen
 These conditions are achieved by
storing the seeds in air-tight Gladiolus 40°F 4-6 months
container, refrigerated room and
provided with dessicant (silica gel
or charcoal)
 Seeds should be protected from
Lecture 5 (No Title)
insects and fungus using pesticides
 Examples of orthodox seeds: grain
Raising of Seedlings
crops, vegetables, and few fruit
1. Rice Seedlings
crops
a. Wetbed method
 Puddled soil as germinating bed
2. Recalcitrant seeds – seeds that cannot
 Seed requirement: 50kg/ha
tolerate low moisture level; once dried, seed
 Space requirement: 400 sq. m
viability is lost
 Pre-germinated seeds (soaked in
 Such seeds should be sown
24 hrs. and incubated for 48 hrs.)
immediately after extraction
 Duration: 25-30 days from soaking
 Seeds may remain viable for some
b. Drybed method
time (1-4 months) when stored
 Uses unpuddled soil but kept moist
under moist condition (high RH)
 Seed requirement: 50kg
inside a polyethylene bag and kept
 Space requirement: 500 sq. m
at relatively low temperature
 Seeds sown directly without pre-
 Examples are mango, rambutan,
germination
cacao, oil palm, rubber, jackfruit,
 Duration: 20-42 days
mangosteen, santol, lanzones, and
c. Dapog method
durian
 Raised bed of puddled soil covered
with banana leaves or plastic
Pre-Germination Treatment of Seeds
sheet. Alternately, paved surface
1. Scarification – treatment that improves the
may be used as seedbed
permeability of the seedcoat to water and
 60kg pre-germinated seeds
hasten seed germination
 40 sq. m
 Some scarification techniques:
 10-14 days from soaking of seeds
1) Soaking seeds in water
overnight (palay and
2. Raising of Vegetable Seedlings
coconut)
 Suitable for small-seeded crops (lettuce,
2) Dipping seeds in boiling
cabbage, pechay, tomato, eggplant, celery)
water (5 min. for guava)
 Crops with germination rate and slow
3) Dipping seeds in acid
establishment
(Abaca seed in 2% HCL
 Crops that are susceptible to damping-off
for 30 min.)
disease
4) Removal of endocarp
(mango)
Two Methods
5) Removing basal portion of
a) Seedbed method – uses well-prepared
the husk (coconut)
soil, sterilized by sunlight, heat or
6) Removing mucilage from
chemical (40% formaldehyde)
seeds (papaya = rubbing
 Seed spacing: 7 cm between
with hand and sand;
rows; 2-3 seeds are drilled per
cacao and santol =
linear cm
rubbing with hand and
b) Seedbox method – use of seedbox (33
sand; tomato =
cm wide x 50 cm long x 7 cm deep)
fermenting seeds
  Soil media: mixture of sand,
compost, and garden soil;
sterilized by heat or chemical
 Seeds are sown at 2-3 seeds
per linear cm with rows spaced
at 7-8 cm
 Seedlings are then transferred
to another seedbox to provide
more space (pricking/pricking-
off)
02-12-19 (Thursday)
3. Raising of seedlings to be used as rootstock or for
field planting
a. Germination bed or seedbed – consists of
fine sand or its mixture (50:50) with garden
soil
 Seeds are sown closely within rows
of appropriate distance
b. Bagging (Potting) – is the practice of
transplanting seedlings to individual bag or
container to allow further growth of
seedlings before field planting or grafting
 Potting media – consist of either
pure loamy garden soil (with high
OM) or mixture (1:1:1) of garden
soil, fine sand, and compost
 Containers commonly used are
black plastic bags of varying sizes
depending on the crop and the
length of time seedlings should
remain in the nursery
 Seedlings for grafting: 7 x 11 (3½
x 3½ x 11) for mango, rambutan,
durian, and santol
 Smaller bag for non-grafted
seedlings: 6” x 10” (3” x 3” x 10”)
– for guava, atis, passion fruit, and
guyabano
 Plastic bags must always be
provided with holes for adequate
drainage and aeration
c. Rebagging – is the practice of transferring
the seedling from one bag to another in
order to provide greater rooting space
 Required for slow-growing
seedlings (mangosteen and
lanzones) that require one or more
years before grafting/planting
 Also required for seedlings that
need to be kept in the nursery
longer before field planting (e.g.
large planting materials)
 For unsold grafted plant, roots of
which have become potbound or
have penetrated the plastic bags
d. Raising of seedlings in nursery bed
e. Balling – is the practice of digging the
seedlings (from the nursery bed) with a ball
of soil still intact with the roots
 Dug seedlings are immediately
wrapped with materials (e.g. sack,
banana bracts, coconut leaf) that
could keep the soil firmly intact
with the roots
 Balling is applicable to seedlings
(e.g. citrus, lanzones) raised on a
nursery bed
 Also applicable to large, overgrown
trees and palms that have to be
moved to another site
4. Asexual Propagation
A. Separation and Division
 Make use of modified roots and stem such
as:
1. Runners = specialized stems which
arise from the leaf axils and form roots
on their own
 Strawberry, black pepper,
and fern
2. Suckers = adventitious leafy shoots
that arise from the stem base or below
the ground
 Banana, abaca, pineapple,
anthurium, African daisy,
and red palm
3. Slips = leafy shoots that arise from
axillary bud at the base of the fruit
 Pineapple
4. Crown = leafy shoots that arise from
the top of pineapple fruit
5. Corn = underground soil structure
having nodes and internodes
 Banana, gabi, abaca, and
gladiolus
6. Rhizome = a modified stem growing
horizontally underground
 Ginger, arrowroot,
heliconia
7. Tuber = underground thickened stem
with numerous buds called eyes
 Potato
8. Tuberous roots = modified roots that
serve as main storage organ of the
plant
 Sweet potato, radish,
singkamas, and winged
bean
9. Bulbis = aerial plantlets formed on the
axils of the leaves or flower stalk
 Agave
10. Offsets = plantlets that arise from stem
 Dendrobium and
Phalaenopsis
B. Cutting
 Method of asexual propagation in which
detached vegetative part is allowed to
regenerate its missing organ(s) eventually
develop into a complete plant
Types of Cuttings
A. Root cuttings
 Breadfuit (rimas), matured root (about 1.5
– 6 cm diameter) is excavated from the
ground and cut into 15 – 20 cm long
segments
 Cuttings are then sown horizontally in a bed
of moist sand and provided with shade
 Takes about 7 – 8 months for the cutting to
produce new plants
B. Leaf cutting = leaf blade (with or without petiole) is
used
a. Begonia
 Mature leaf is cut into sections,
each one having large vein intact
 Cutting is inserted vertically in the
medium with the pointed base end
down
 A new plant eventually develops
from the large vein at the base of
the section
 b. African Violet
 Leaf blade is laid flat on the rooting
medium
 New plants develop at the base of
the petiole and at midrib
C. Stem cuttings = softwood, semi-hardwood, and
herbaceous cuttings
a. Soft-wood cutting
 Consists of shoots taken from
young flush
 Used in many ornamental shrubs
b. Semi-hardwood cutting
 Consists of partially mature shoots
 Gumamela, Croton, Rose
c. Hardwood cutting
 Consists of fully mature shoots
without leaves
 Siniguelas, Kakawati, Malunggay,
and Cassava
d. Herbaceous cuttings
 Applicable to herbaceous plants
 Chysanthenum, potato, tomato,
vanilla, black pepper
Requirements for a successful rooting
1. Temperature = about 27
2. High relative humidity (85 – 100%)
3. Sufficient light
4. Clean, moist, and well-drained medium
5. Protection from diseases
Phases in the development of roots
1. Differentiation of root initials
2. Formation of callus
3. Development of root primordial
4. Emergence of root
Propagation by Layering
Marcotting (Air Layering)
 Rooting of a shoot or branch while still
attached to the mother plant
 Applicable to plants that cannot be readily
propagated by cuttings (hard-to-cut
cuttings)
Advantages Compared to Other Vegetative Propagation
Methods
1. Rooting success is more ensured through layering,
including clones, which will not root easily.
2. Air layering or marcotting is relatively simple to
perform. With a small number of plants, it can
produce more layers with less skill, effort, and
equipment.
3. Larger plants, which are readily mature, can be
produced in faster time.
growth factors from the leaves and shoot tips. These
materials accumulate close to the treated area and rooting
follows.
Requirements/Steps
1. Remove a ring of bark, including cambium layer from
the stem.
2. Put moist rooting medium around the ringed part
and wrap with transparent plastic sheet.
3. When sufficient roots have formed, cut the rooted
shoot from the mother plant.
4. Immediately bag or pot the rooted shoot, then
irrigate and put under shade.
Methods of Layering
1. Mound layering
2. Trench layering
3. Simple layering
4. Serpentine layering
5. Tip layering
Methods of Layering (Natural Form of Layering)
1. Suckers
2. Runners
02-19-19 (Tuesday)
D. Grafting/Graftage
 Method of asexual propagation which
involves joining of two plant parts with the
objective of having the parts united and
grown as one
 Rootstock = part of the graft that serves as
the root system
 Scion = a part that is to be grafted and
eventually becomes the shoot system of the
plant
 The goal in grafting is to replace the shoot
of a rootstock with scion take from desirable
variety
Benefits from/Advantages of Grafting
1. Utilize the good traits of the rootstock (dwarfing
effect tolerance to adverse soil conditions)
2. Early bearing
3. True-to-type plant
4. Can create plant with multiple root system
5. Repair damaged part of the trunk as in bridge
grafting
6. Changing of variety by top working
7. Produce plant with multiple varieties
Topworking of Mango

Disadvantages Compared to Other Vegetative Propagation

Methods
1. Air layering or marcotting is laborious and therefore
expensive.
2. Only a small number of layers can be produced from
a parent plant than when the same plant is used as
source of cuttings, buds, or scions.
3. A wider area is needed to grow stock plants to be
able to produce a greater number of layers.
4. Bigger layers need special care to establish them
independently on the potting containers.

The formation of adventitious roots during air layering is

induced by various stem treatments
Girdling or wounding of a small part of the stem,
resulting to the interruption of the downward movement of
organic materials such as carbohydrates, auxin, and other
Biology of Grafting
Steps in graft union formation
1. Lining up of the vascular cambium of rootstock and
scion. Held together with wrap, tape, staples or
wedged together.
2. Wound response
 Necrotic layer 1 cell deep forms on both
scion and stock
 Undifferentiated callus tissue is from
uninjured parenchyma cells below the
necrotic layer
 Callus forms a wound periderm (outer bark)
which becomes suberized to prevent entry
of pathogens
 Necrotic layer dissolves
3. Callus bridge formation
 Callus proliferates for 1 – 7 days
 Callus mostly comes from scion (due to
basal movement of auxins and CHO)
 An exception to this is on established
rootstock which can develop more callus
than that from the scion.
 Adhesion of scion and stock cells with a mix
of pectins, CHO’s, and proteins. Probably
secreted by dictyosomes, which are part of
the Golgi bodies in cells.
4. Wound repair
 First the xylem and then the phloem is
repaired
 Occurs through differentiation of vascular
cambium across the callus bridge
 Process takes 2 – 3 weeks in woody plants
5. Production of 2nd xylem and phloem from new
vascular cambium in the callus bridge
 Important that this stage be completed
before much new leaf development on scion
or else the leaves will wilt and the scion
may die
Factors Influencing Graft Union Success
1. Incompatibility
2. Plant species and type of graft
 Easy plants = apples, grapes, pears
 Difficult plants = hickories, oaks, and
beeches
 Gymnosperms are usually grafted scions
 Angiosperms are usually budded scions
3. Genetic limits of grafting
 General rules
o Monocots are harden than dicot
 Lack vascular rings and
have scattered vascular
bundles instead
o The more closely related plants are
(botanically), the better the
chances for the graft to be
successful
 Grafting within a clone (no
problem)
 Grafting between clones
within a species (usually
no problems)
o Grafting between species within a
genus (50/50 chance of success).
Reciprocal interspecies grafts are
not always successful.
o Grafting between genera within the
same family (rather remote)
 Cypress on arborvitae
 Citrus on hardy orange
 Pear on quince
 In the solanaceae family,
grafting between genera is
not a problem. Tomato,
tobacco, potato, pepper,
petunia, morning glory,
etc.
o Grafting between families: nearly
impossible
o The first known graft union
between two different families was
published in 2000. The families
were two succulents: Cactaceae
and Capparaceae
4. Polarity in grafting
 Top-grafting = proximal end of scion
inserted into distal end of rootstock
 Root-grafting = proximal end of scion
inserted into proximal end of rootstock
 Inverse scions in bridge grafts can remain
alive but will not expand/grow
 Budding: Upright orientation of bud should
be maintained
Effects of Rootstock on Scion
1. Size and growth habit
o The most significant effect
o Dwarfing rootstock was developed in the
15th century.
2. Fruiting increases
o Precocity = early maturity
o Bud formation and numbers
o Fruit set = # of fruits that actually develop
o Yield = # and weight of fruit at harvest
A. Formation of the graft union
 A “de novo” formed meristematic area must
develop between scion and rootstock for a
successful graft union
B. Three (3) Events
1. Adhesion of the rootstock and scion
2. Proliferation of callus at the graft interface =
callus bridge
3. Vascular differentiation across the graft
interface
Requirement of a Successful Grafting
1. Compatible and actively growing rootstock and scion
2. Condition of stock
3. Condition of scion
4. Care during and after grafting
Common Methods
1. Cleft grafting
2. Approach grafting (Inarching)
3. Patch budding (Durian & Santol)
4. Shield budding (Citrus)
5. Splice grafting
6. Epicotyl grafting
Requirements for successful grafting
1. Compatible and actively growing rootstock and scion
2. Smooth cut made on both rootstock and scion to
ensure the maximum contact of their cambium
layers
3. Scion should be kept from drying by wrapping it with
plastic strip and covering with plastic tube (ice candy
bag)
02-26-19 (Tuesday)
General Methods of Planting
A. Direct seeding/planting = seeds or other planting
materials are directly planted in the field
Applicable to:
1. Seeds that readily germinate 2.
2. Inexpensive seeds
3. Species in which the seedlings are sensitive to root
disturbances (e.g. corn & beans) 3.
4. Big-seeded crops (Okra, beans, patola, and corn) 4.
5. Stem-cuttings (Siniguelas, cassava, sugarcane,
sweet potato)
6. Other propagules (Suckers, crown, tuber, etc.)
Forms of Direct Seeding 5.
1. Broadcasting
o Seeds are uniformly distributed on the field
(Rice, pechay, radish, and cover crop) 6.
o Requires thorough land preparation;
otherwise, weeds will be a serious problem
2. Hill Method
o Seeds are sown at specified distance within
hill and between rows of specified distances
(Corn & pineapple)
3. Drill Method Population Density (PD) Computation
o Specified number of seeds are sown within 1. Hill method
rows of specified distances
o Small-seeded crops (Mungbean) PD = ((Area (m2) x no. of plants per hill))/ S1 x S2
Note: In the last 2 methods, weed control is much Where:
easier than in the broadcast method because straight
rows allow the use of a rotary weeder or cultivator.
4. Dibble Method Example
o Land does not require plowing, harrowing,
and furrowing but needs thorough clearing
o Holes with no definite spacing are dug;
large enough to accommodate the seeds
o Seeds are put into the holes and covered
with thin layer of soil.
o It is an alternative planting system for crops
grown in hilly sites (Corn, rice, sitao, okra,
etc.) 2.
B. Transplanting Method
o Seedlings are initially raised in the nursery
and later planted to the field. Example
Applicable to: rows spaced at 50 cm
1. Seeds that are difficult to germinate
2. Expensive seeds (F1 hybrid/GMO)
3. Rooted cuttings
4. Grafted plants
Layouting
Population density 1. Square
o Refers to the number of plants per unit area
(e.g. 10 000 plants per hectare)
Benefits of Optimum Population Density
1. Early build up of sufficient leaf area index for
optimum use of solar energy
2. Early and better control of weeds 2.
3. Increase efficiency in use of land, light, and water
Planting Density Depends on
1. Crop species and varieties
o Grain crops vs. Trees
o Corn vs. Rice
o Mango vs. coffee
o Tall vs. short varieties of rice
o Tall vs. short varieties of banana
o Erect vs. spreading growth habit (Lanzones
vs. rambutan)
Note: Optimum population density therefore varies
with plant height, canopy shape and size, growth
habit, horizontal spread of root system, etc.
Soil fertility and soil management practices
o Adopt lower population density in fertile
soils
Pruning and canopy control
Method of propagation used
o Seed vs. grafted/cuttings = adopt higher
population density for grafted plants
especially when dwarfing rootstocks are
used
Mechanization to be employed
o Row spacing must conform with the size of
machine to be used
Cropping system to be adopted
o With monocropping, adopt the usual
population density
o In multiple cropping, population density
should be appropriately adjusted to
accommodate all crops to be grown
S1 = Distance between furrows (m)
S2 = Distance between hills (m)
Corn
S1 = 75 cm
S2 = 50 cm
With 2 plants per hill
PD = (10 000m2 x 2)/0.75 x 0.50
= 53 333 plants/ha
Hill Method
PD = Area x no. of plant per linear meter/distance
between rows
Mungbean drilled at 30 seeds per linear meter and
PD = (10 000 m2 x 30 seeds)/0.5 linear m
= 600 000 plants/ha
PD = Area (m2)/S2
S = planting distance (m)
Note: One modification is rectangular system where
trees are planted at the corners of rectangles
Triangular system (Hexagonal)
o Plants are set at the corners of triangle
(equilateral). Allows higher PD than the
square by 15%.
PD = Area (m2)(1.15)/S2
 3. Quincunx System (Diagonal) 3. Inhibit sprouting
o A modification of the square system where
an additional plant is planted at the center Crop
of each square Sweet potato Methyl ester of 100 g per kg of
PD = Area (m2) + ((L/S-1)(W/S-1))/S2 NAA root
Onion Maleic hydrazide 500-2500 ppm
Where:
S = planting distance (m) 4. Increase fruit set/control fruit drop
L = length of the farm (m) o Grape = AlarTM (daminozide), 0.5 to 1%
W = width of the farm (m) o Tomato:
o Orthochlorophenoxy acetic acid (40
Planting Operations ppm)
1. Time of planting o Naphthoxy acetic acid (50 ppm)
o When soil is moist, usually at the start of o GA (100 ppm)
rainy season o Grapefruit (Citrus) = 2,4-D (60 ppm)
o Anytime, if irrigation facilities are available
o Cloudy weather, in case of seedlings 5. Reduce stem elongation or keep plants dwarf/short
o Chrysanthemum = Paclobutrazol
2. Transplanting perennials o Poinsettia = Paclobutrazol or earlier Alar
o Holes should be as deep and wide as the (0.5 – 1.0%)
ball of soil in which the seedling has been o Bougainvilla = Maleic Hydrazide
reared o Mussaenda = Paclobutrazol
o Container must be carefully removed;
making sure that the soil does not 6. Induce/modify flowering
crumble/break to avoid root disturbance o Pineapple = Ethrel (240 ppm), NAA (25
o Seedlings with weak stem need to be tied to ppm), Calcium carbide (1 g per plant)
a support (stakes or trellis) to keep them o Mango = KNO3 (1-2%)
upright o Cabbage = GA (250 ppm) as substitute to
vernalization
02-28-19 (Thursday) o Cucumber = GA (100 to 200 ppm) to obtain
higher ration of female to male flowers
Control of Growth and Development
7. Delay/Prevent ripening
Plant Growth Regulators (PGR) o Ethylene biosynthesis inhibitors (AVG)
o Are organic compounds other than nutrients which in o Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) placed in
minute amount promote, inhibit or modify plant banana boxes
growth and development
o PGR’s are either synthetic or natural 8. Seedlessness in grapes
(phytohormones) o GA (50 ppm)

Classes of Phytohormones 9. On-tree storage in citrus

1. Auxins o GA is used in the US to keep fruits on the
2. Gibberellins (GA) tree for an extra month or two to schedule
3. Cytokinins harvesting and processing plant operations
4. Abcisic acid (ABA)
5. Ethylene 03-05-19 (Tuesday)

Uses of PGR in Crop Production Physical Methods

1. Promote rooting of stem cuttings (Auxin) 1. Training
o Techniques that direct/modify the growth of
Crop Amount plant in terms of canopy size, shape, and
Guava IBA, 200 ppm direction
Bougainvila IBA, 600 ppm o Objectives: (1) to improve yield and quality
Blackpepper NAA, 100 ppm and (2) to facilitate cultural practices
Rose IBA, 400 ppm
Techniques
Naturally occurring A. Trellising (Staking)
o IAA or Indole Acetic Acid o Provision of support to viny crops and other
o IBA (Indole Butyric Acid) crops that could not stand without support
o Viny crops (Cucurbits, pole sitao, grapes)
Synthetic o Passion fruit, vanilla
o Alpha NAA (Napthalene Acetic Acid); also o Herbaceous crops (Tomato, pepper)
popularly called as ANAA by nurserymen o Dragon fruit
o 2, 4-D (2, 4 Dichlorophenoxy Acetic Acid)
B. Topping/Cutting back/Pinching
2. Promote seed germination o Removing terminal shoot of young plant to
o Mussaenda seeds = GA, 100 ppm encourage spreading canopy growth and/or
keep the tree dwarf
o Coffee, lanzones
 C. Bending 03-07-19 (Thursday)
o Coffee = to produce multiple vertical shoots,
thus increase the number of bearing lateral Lecture 7 Soil and Nutrient Management Practices
branches
Rationale in proper soil management
2. Pruning 1. The inherent capacity of soil to supply nutrients is
o Judicious removal of plant parts to achieve dynamic (changing).
specific objectives 2. Agriculture is not mining, (mining is an extractive
industry). The nutrients absorbed by the plants must
Types of Pruning be recycled or if exported out of the farm, replaced.
A. Preventive
o Removal of dead, insect-infested, and Processes that Lead to Nutrient Losses and Ways to Minimize
diseased plant parts Such Losses
1. Crop nutrient removal
B. Formative  Considerable amount of nutrients are lost
o To modify shape of canopy (Topiary) through the uptake by plants and harvest is
exported out of the farm.
C. Corrective a. The amount of nutrient used up by the
o Removing excess shoots that interfere with plant must be replaced through
light penetration and aeration within the fertilizer application
tree canopy
2. Leaching
D. Rejuvenative  Loss of nutrients through percolation,
o Removing most of the shoots in order to particularly of negatively charged ions
reinvigorate an old, unproductive tree (nitrate, phosphate, sulfate, etc.)
a. Timely application of fertilizer
Types of Pruning (Based on Pruning Cut) (avoid application during heavy
1. Cutting out rain)
o Removal of entire branch or shoot such as b. Improve water – holding capacity
in corrective and preventive pruning of the soil (by regular addition of
organic materials)
2. Cutting back
o Removal of portion of branch or shoot such 3. Volatilization
as in formative pruning  Loss of nutrients in gaseous form
(ammonium-forming fertilizers like
3. Stubbing ammonium sulfate and urea)
o A severe form of cutting back such as in a. NH4, NO3, N2
rejuvenative pruning
4. Erosion
4. Corrective  Loss of nutrients through loss of top soil
5. Rejuvenative a. Adopt appropriate soil and water
6. Reproductive conservation (SWC) measures
7. Protective
8. Root pruning Proper Soil Management
o Practices which aimed at improving and maintaining
Why is it a Problem? soil productivity, including soil conservation
o Unproductive; they can’t be induced to measures that minimize nutrient losses from the soil
flower due to soil erosion and volatilization.
o The trees are still relatively young; they
represent wasted investment 1. Fertilization
o In this particular farm, no production for the o Application of fertilizer or any nutrient-
last 4 years containing materials to improve or maintain
the optimum nutrient levels in the plant and
Cause? in the soil.
1. Growers do not follow the concept of “Space”
2. Trees should only be allowed to grow up to the limits A. The quantity and kind fertilizer
imposed by the distance of planting depend on crop species and age
 Generally, complete
How to Solve the Problem? fertilizer (NPK) is used at
Two approaches are possible: all growth stages
1. Thin out by eliminating the trees in the middle  But higher proportion of N
o Not an option for some people is applied during the early
o Doubles the planting distance vegetative stage or after
o Results in even bigger trees harvest in case of
perennials
2. Prune by heading-back  Higher proportion of K is
needed during
reproductive stage
03-12-19 (Tuesday) Example
Pineapple at 36 000 plants per hectare removes
Continuation from the soil
o 200 kg N
B. Existing nutrient level in the soil o 47 kg P2O5
 With fertile soil, less o 71 kg K2O
amount of fertilizer would
be required to satisfy the Ginger yield of 40 tons per hectare removes
nutrient requirement of from the soil
the crops o 127 kg N
o 66 kg P2O5
Methods of Determining Fertilizer Needs/Requirements o 167 kg K2O
1. Field Fertilizer Trial
o Experiments done in farmers’ field to assess Fertilizer Materials
the effect of various levels of fertilizer and
their interaction with all the existing factors Synthetic Natural
of crop growth and development in a given Product of synthesis Available in nature
site Mostly inorganic, some are Most organic, some are
o Most reliable method but expensive organic (Urea) inorganic
o Requires long period in case of perennial Readily soluble with Slow nutrient release
crops immediate effect on plants
o Resulting recommendation is valid only on Contain high concentration of Contain low amount of
specific site particular nutrients various nutrients; need large
volume
2. Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms Some materials cause Promote good soil physical
o Deficiency or lack of nutrient is shown in the increased acidity characteristics
plant through the appearance of symptoms Sources: Animal manure,
o Lack of N = causes general yellowing of crop residue, green manure,
leaves and stunted growth compost
3. Soil Analysis
o Involves chemical analysis of representative 03-14-19 (Tuesday)
soil samples to determine the amount of
available nutrients in the soil Table 1. Examples of Synthetic Fertilizers
1. Organic matter (native source of N
Nutrient
in the soil)
Fertilizers N P2O5 K2O Chemical Formula
1. Low = < 2% OM
Anhydrous 82 0 0 NH3
2. Medium = 2 to 3% OM
ammonia
3. High = > 3.5% OM
Urea 46 0 0 CO(NH2)2
2. P < 10 ppm = deficient Ammonium sulfate 21 0 0 (NH4)2SO4
3. K < 0.4 m.e./100 g soil = deficient (24% S)
Ammonium 26 0 0 NH2Cl
4. Tissue Analysis chloride (68%)
o Involves chemical analysis of plant tissue Ammonium nitrate 33 0 NH4NO3
(usually leaves) to determine the Superphosphate 0 20 0 1/3 Ca(H2PO4)2,
concentration of nutrient present in the (12% S) 2/3 CaSO4
tissue Triple 0 46 0 Ca(H2PO4)2
o Need to establish critical nutrient levels of superphosphate
each nutrient for each species Ammonium 16 20 0 ¼ NH4H2PO4, ½
phosphate (NH4)2 SO4
Example: Critical nutrient levels Diammonium 18 46 0 (NH4)2 HPO4
o N = 2.2 to 2.4% phosphate
o P = 0.04 to 0.11% Muriate of Potash 0 0 62 KCl
o K = 0.7 to 1.1% (46% Cl)
Sulfate of Potash 0 0 50 K2SO4
Note: If a specific nutrient content falls within (or Complete 14 14 14 Mixtures
greater than) the critical value in the plant, then Fertilizers
there is no need to fertilize the plant with that plant 12 12 12
nutrient. If lower than the minimum level, then there 12 24 12
is a need to add that nutrient.
5 10 16
5. Crop Nutrient Removal Coco-gro 14 5 20 Plus Cl, S, Ca & B
o Cropping removes considerable amount of
nutrients from the soil
o The amount of nutrient used up by the
plants must be replaced in the form of
fertilizer application
Table 2. Approximate Nutrient Content (%) of Animal 3. Foliar Application
Manure (Dry Weight Basis) o Fertilizer solution is sprayed to/on leaves
o Particularly useful in applying micronutrients
Kind N P2O5 K2O CaO MgO Sulfate and diluted solution of macronutrients
Guano (Bat) 8.5 5.0 1.5 7.5 0.5 2.0 o It can fit to a regular spraying program for
Cattle 2.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 1.0 0.5 insect pests and diseases
Poultry 5.0 3.0 1.5 4.0 1.0 2.0
Goat 1.5 1.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 4. Fertigation
o Fertilizer solution is applied through
irrigation
Table 3. Approximate Nutrient Content (kg/ha) of Crop o Manual drenching of starter solution to base
Residue of newly transplanted seedlings
o Fertilizer solution applied through drip
Kind N P2O5 K2O irrigation system
Rice straw 30-40 4-7 15--\250
Causes of Soil Acidity
Corn stover 7-23 2-4 19-76
1. Too much rainfall leads to leaching of Ca and Mg
Peanut hay 34-108 3-10 38-84
2. Presence of Fe and Al oxides in the soil particles
Cowpea hay 35-37 6-8 53-65
3. Continuous use of acid forming fertilizers
(ammonium sulfate)
Table 4. Nitrogen Content of Green Manures
Effects of Acid Soils
Crop Age (Month) N (kg/ha) 1. Causes toxicity of some elements (Al, Fe)
Soybean 3 99 2. Causes deficiency of other elements (PO4, Ca, Mg, B)
Mungbean 2.5 42 3. Extremely acidic soil is unfavorable to
Crotolaria 3 107 microorganisms; slow decomposition of organic
Ipil-Ipil - 4 matter
Azolla - 60-80 4. Activity of beneficial bacteria is adversely affected
(Rhizobium)
Placement of Fertilizer 5. Extremely acidic soil condition eventually leads to
o As close as possible to the roots but without reduced crop yield and quality of produce
damaging the plant
o But avoid concentrated fertilizer in contact with Lime Requirement (Depends on)
plants; cause plasmolysis of cells (sunog) 1. Original soil pH
o For direct-seeded crops, small amount of fertilizer is 2. Desired pH
applied at the bottom of or beside the furrow/hill, 3. Soil texture
then cover with thin soil layer before seeding
o For transplanted seedlings, dissolved fertilizer Table 5. Amount of Lime Needed to Bring Soils of
(starter solution) is drenched at the base of the Average OM Content to pH 6.0
seedling (e.g. 1 g ammonium phosphate per liter of
water) Original Required amount of ground
o For trees, put fertilizer on area with the greatest Soil pH limestone (CaCO3) in tons per hectare
concentration of roots, usually within the canopy Silt &
dripline, apply fertilizer about 1 ft. away from the Sandy Sandy Loam Clay Clay
trunk Loam Loam
4.0 2.0 3.5 4.4 6.0 7.5
Distance from trunk (m) Crop 4.5 1.5 2.5 3.2 4.2 5.2
1.5 Lanzones 5.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.5 3.0
1.2 Coconut 6.0 None
0.3 Papaya
0.6-0.9 Citrus & Cacao Conserving Soil Fertility Through Soil Erosion Control
o Erosion leads to the loss of the top soil (and
Methods of Application nutrients), and deterioration of soil structure
1. Broadcast Method
o Fertilizer is spread uniformly on the entire Purpose of Erosion Control Measures
area being fertilized 1. Reduce direct impact of raindrops
o Commonly practiced in lowland rice 2. Keep the soil intact
o Also applicable on trees by spreading 3. Reduce quantity, velocity, and transport capacity of
fertilizer within the canopy dripline followed run-off water
by shallow cultivation to incorporate the
fertilizer with the soil Methods of Erosion Control (Soil and Water Conservation
Measures)
2. Band or Trench Method 1. Covercropping
o Fertilizer is applied to the bottom of furrow o Growing of creeping and bushy plants in
or to the sides of the trees/seedlings during between rows of trees
planting o Minimizes the impact of rainfall and
o For trees, fertilizer is applied in holes or decrease the velocity of run-off water; roots
trenches dug within the canopy dripline and of cover crops also bind the soil together
then covered with soil o Examples are Centrosema, Crotolaria, and
Sweet potato
Covercrop as Fertilizer Excess in Water Causes
1. High leaching of nutrients from the soil and lead to
Dry Matter (%) high acidity
Covercrop N P K Ca Mg S 2. Water-logged condition which leads to reduced root
Kudzu 2.78 0.33 2.6 1.29 0.49 0.22 development and death of roots (due to lack of
Centrosema 2.59 0.37 2.90 0.68 0.79 0.21 oxygen); also makes plants prone to diseases such
as Fusarium wilt
Mulching 3. Predisposes the plant to root-rotting pathogens
o Covering the soil with layers of plant residues or o Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, and
other organic materials Fusarium
o Fluctuation of water supply and cause fruit
Terracing cracking (e.g. tomato, mango, banana,
o Applicable to moderately-sloping farm subject to soil carrots, ampalaya, etc.)
erosion (about 20% slope)
Irrigation
Methods of Terracing o Need for an effective and efficient irrigation program
1. Silt pits that addresses the following:
o Are canals 1.8 to 1.6 m long and 30 to 60 1. Appropriate timing and frequency of
cm wide which are dug every few rows of irrigation
trees to catch the soil particles being 2. Adequate volume of water to apply
washed down the hill (depends on amount of water in soil)
3. Efficient method of application
2. Contour farming
o Planting rows of crops along the contour Factors to be Considered in Developing a Suitable Irrigation
lines of the area Program
1. Soil factors
3. Contour strip cropping o Affects water-holding capacity, water
o Planting of different crops on alternate percolation
strips along the contour lines o High OM = High WHC
o Includes soil texture, structure, and depth

Recommended Strip Width Varies with Slope 2. Climatic factors

o Affects the rate of water losses through
Strip width (ft.) Slope (%) evaporation and transpiration
88-100 2-7 o Low RH = High water in soil = turn on
74-88 7-12 transpiration
o High RH = Low water in soil
60-74 12-18
o High temp = High transpiration = High
50-60 18-24
evaporation = Soil to atmosphere
o Includes temperature, length and intensity
of sunlight, RH, and wind movement
Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT)
o Windy = Water from plants (Transpire)
o Requires planting of hedgerows (usually leguminous
immediately at the leaf atmosphere = High
trees/shrubs e.g. Ipil-Ipil) along the contour lines
MC (Papalisin) will be replaced with low
o Different crops are grown on the alleys between
moisture in the atmosphere = change with
hedgerows
vaporless air to continue transpiration
03-19-19 (Tuesday)
3. Plant factors
o Includes rooting characteristics, drought
Lecture 8. Water Management
tolerance and growth stages
o Cadyos (Pigeon Pea) = 4 months without
An integrated process where water is applied
rain = still green
o Drought resistance = genetics
Depends on:
1. Type of Soil
C4 C3
2. Type of Plant
Corn Rice
3. Water source/supply
4. Factors that affect the future of water and demand of Deep-rooted Shallow-rooted
water
Perennial Crops
Rationale (Rainfall occurrence and intensity is changing) 1. Drought tolerant
1. Insufficient water during dry season o Siniguelas
2. Too much water during rainy season o Cashew
3. Aggravated by El Nino and La Nina o Mango
o Tamarind
Lack of Water Causes
1. Decrease in crop stand (low germination, seedling 2. Drought sensitive
survival, and/or stunted growth) o Banana
2. Decrease in yield (amount and quality of yield) o Lanzones
3. Predisposes the plants to pests, diseases, and o Durian
nutrient deficiency (e.g. blossom end rot of tomato o Papaya
caused by Ca deficiency is aggravated by lack of o Cacao
water)
03-21-19 (Thursday)
Critical Stages Affected by Water Stress
1. Early vegetative growth/establishment period
2. Flowering
3. Fruit setting
4. Fruit development
5. In many crops, application of irrigation water after a
brief period of drought can induce flowering (e.g.
Durian, Rambutan, Citrus, Lanzones, Coffee)
When to Irrigate?
Methods of Determining Irrigation Schedules
1. Estimating available soil moisture
o By measuring the water content of the soil
a. Gravimetry
o Involves oven drying a sample of
soil and compute soil moisture
content
b. Use of tensiometer
o To measure the water potential
which is inversely related to
amount of available water
Note: Using the methods above, there is a need to
know the threshold level at which water can be
depleted before crop is adversely affected. Usually
the threshold level is 50% of the available water.
2. Measure the evapotranspiration rates
o To determine values of evapo-transpiration
rates of the crops over short time intervals
o Use of evaporative pans, which can be
installed throughout the farm. It is a circular
metallic container with open top (120.7 cm
diameter)
Sample Computations
Assumptions and required basic data:
o Crop: Lanzones (38-year old)
o Soil texture: Clay loam (available water = 150
mm/m)
o Canopy diameter: 3 m (Area where feeder roots are
found)
o Depth of feeder roots: 1 m
o Soil moisture depletion level: 50% of available water
in the soil
o Evapo-transpiration rate: 15 mm/day
o Irrigation method to be used: Basin method with
65% efficiency
Estimating the Gross Volume of Water Need per Irrigation
o Gross Volume = (Depth of application X Area of
application)/Irrigation efficiency
o Depth of application = Depth of feeder roots X Soil
moisture depreciation level X Available soil water
o 1 m X 0.5 X 150 mm/m = 0.075 m
o Area of Application = Pi X Square of Canopy
Diameter
o 3.1416 X 3 m X 3 m = 7 sq. m.
o Gross volume = 0.075 m X 7 sq. m. /0.65
o 0.807 cubic meter of water per irrigation or 807
liters of water per irrigation
Determining the Irrigation Interval (Irrigation Frequency)
o Irrigation interval = D/E.T.
o Where:
o D = Depth of water to be replaced per irrigation (Soil
moisture depletion level X Available soil water X
Depth of Soil)
o 0.50 X 150 mm/m X 1 m
o 75 mm
o E.T. = Evapo-transpiration rate (5 mm/day)
o 75 mm/5 mm per day = 15 days

3. Observing visual symptoms on the plants

a. Temporary wilting/leaf rolling Methods of Irrigation
b. Color of the foliage 1. Surface Irrigation System (60-70% efficiency)
o Beans = turning yellow a. Furrow method
o Eggplant = bluish green leaves o Applied water seeps into side and
bottom of furrows to attain desired
4. Feel of the soil wetting

Soil type When irrigation is needed Applications/Advantages

Appears dry but doesn’t o Used for row crops (corn,
Sandy form a ball peanut, banana,
Somewhat crumbly but vegetables) grown in the
Loam particles hold together field with uniform gentle
Somewhat pliable, forms a slopes (0.25-2.5%)
Clay ball, but does not readily o Windy areas
form ribbon o Water is
abundant/inexpensive
5. Sand-Cum-Miniplot Technique
o After laying out the field, choose 2 to 3 hills b. Flooding method
on a representative section of the field o Water is applied by flooding the
o Dig pits (1 cubic meter volume). Add 5% entire field
sand to the soil and return the mixture to
each pit. Then, plant the seedlings. Application/Advantages
o When soil moisture becomes limiting, o For lowland rice and
seedlings planted in these pits are expected upland crops that are
to wilt 2-3 days ahead of others closely planted
o Flat or nearly flat areas
Soil Type Available Moisture (mm/m) o Water is abundant and
Clay 185 inexpensive
o Windy areas
Clay loam 150
Sandy loam 120
Disadvantages of Methods Above
Fine sand 80
o Inefficient use of water;
Sand 55
percolation loss is high
especially in light soil
(sandy)
 o Encourages weed growth
o Limited application; not
suitable for irrigating field
with steep slope
c. Basin method
o Trees are irrigated individually
o Solves most of limitations of
ordinary flooding method
Application/Advantages
o Crops that are planted far
apart like trees
o More efficient use of water
compared to flooding and
furrow methods
o Applicable even in areas
with steep slope
2. Sprinkler Irrigation (70-80% efficiency)
o Highly-pressurized water is delivered
through the network of pipes and comes out
as fine droplets
Application/Advantages
o Applicable to sandy soil
o Even in areas with steep
slopes
o More efficient use of water
than surface irrigation
methods
o Temperature reduction
during hot days (due to
cooling effects of water
evaporation)
Disadvantages
o Requires high initial
investment
o High operating cost
o Wind affects water
distribution
o Favors disease and weed
growth
o High evaporation losses
3. Drip System (80-90% efficiency)
o Water is applied through network of pipes
and comes out in the form of drips
o Drippers control the flow of water
o Water is applied directly to the root zone in
small amount and continuously until desired
wetting of soil is attained
Application/Advantages
o Wide application (annual
to perennial crops, flat to
steep land, even windy
areas)
o Highly efficient use of
water
o Ease of combining
irrigation with fertilization
(fertigation)
4. Sub-surface Irrigation System
o Water is applied below the soil surface
(through the underground system) and
reaches plant root zone by capillary
movement
Disadvantages
o High initial investment;
requires pipes, pumps,
filtration systems which
are expensive
o Clogging of nozzles due to
water impurities and algae
Sources of Irrigation
1. River, stream, and lake
o Pumping
o Dam (Under NIA)
2. Small farm reservoir or water impounding system
(WIS) = structure to collect rain and run-off water
(also called SWIPs or Small Water Impounding
Ponds) = under DA
3. Ground water
o Open well
o Tube well
03-26-19 (Tuesday)
Pest Management
Damage/Losses
1. Annual losses in production
o Rice = 3 M tons
o Corn = 2.7 M tons
2. Crop quality is reduced
o Small size
o Discolored products
o Poor taste and flavor
o Toxins (e.g. aflatoxin is stored)
Worldwide average crop losses: 35% of total production, even
higher in developing/underdeveloped countries.
Examples of Devastating Pests that Brought Down the
Industry
1. Citrus Industry
o Leaf mottling or greening disease wiped out
the citrus orchards in the country
o The citrus industry has not recovered from
the disease; it still remains to be a serious
problem
2. Papaya Industry
o Papaya ring spot virus (PRSV) in Luzon,
particularly in Cavite and Laguna
o Partly recovered with availability of tolerant
varieties
3. Banana Industry (Central America)
o Caused by Panama Wilt or Fusarium Wilt
o Banana corporations had to change variety
(Gros Michel to Cavendish) and relocate
plantations to Philippines and other
countries
o Seriously threatens the local banana
industry as of now
4. Mango Hoppers
o Highly destructive to mango flowers
o Manageable only with the use of effective
and expensive insecticides
5. Oriental Fruit Fly
o Before, the Philippines could not export
fruits to Japan
o Export of mango and papaya to Japan
started in 1975, when an effective but
expensive control method: Vapor heat
treatment
o Vapor Heat Treatment (VHT) was developed
and sold by Japan. It is a post-harvest
treatment where fruits are placed in a
 chamber and subjected to 46-47°C for 20
minutes. Costs 2M Php/unit.
Group of Pests
1. Pathogens
2. Insect and mites
3. Weeds
4. Snails, rats, birds, bats, and parasitic plants
1. Pathogens
o Biotic pathogens = are living agents that
cause diseases
a. Fungi
b. Bacteria
c. Viruses and viroids
d. Nematodes
e. Mycoplasma
How Does Pathogen Cause Damage?
1. Killing of host cells or slowing down metabolism with
toxins (e.g. soft rot = Erwinia carotovora),
uncontrolled cell proliferation due to growth
substances produced in response to infection (e.g.
root knot nematodes). Pathogen produces enzymes
that degrade the cell wall of the host plant.
2. Blocking the passage of water and nutrients
o Bacterial wilt = Pseudomonas solanacearum
o Fusarium wilt = Fusarium oxysporum
4. Spreading of Pathogens
o Insect vectors (e.g. aphids and other
sucking insects)
03-28-19 (Thursday)
Principles of Pest Control
1. Exclusion
2. Eradication
3. Protection
4. Plant resistance
1. Exclusion
o It is the first line of defense in any program
o Currently, there are a lot of diseases and
pests in foreign countries, which are not yet
in the Philippines and have been kept out of
our quarantine officers.
o We can mention mango malformation
disease, and witches’ broom disease in
cacao.
o The Philippines’ advantage as an
archipelagic country is that we can use
isolation more easily as a strategy as
compared to a nation with contiguous area.
o A policy of containment was used to prevent
the spread of diseases, which originated in
the country or inadvertently introduced.

3. Consuming the cell contents 2. Protection

o Anthracnose = Colletotrichum sp. o The principle of protection calls for placing a
barrier between the crop and the pest.
4. Blocking the surfaces of leaves and stem, leading to
o Reduced photosynthesis a. Physical Barriers
o Interrupted gas exchange  One strategy used to
o Sooty mold, Powdery mildew, Downy prevent seedlings from
mildew, etc. being infected is to keep
them in insect-proof net
5. Taking over protein synthesis houses.
o Leading to multiplication of viral cells and  This is especially done in
damaging the host cells citrus and banana so that
seedlings will not be
Pathogen’s Entry, Infection, and Spread infected with bacterial and
1. Entry through wounds or natural opening (stomata) virus pathogen borne by
followed by infection and disease development insect vectors while the
seedlings are in the
2. Spread of pathogen through nursery.
o Tools and equipments  For established crops,
o Vectors (insects) galvanized iron bands are
o Wind used in coconut to keep
o Water splash rodents from climbing up
the palm.
3. Spread of pathogen through the use of infected plant  The band should be
material smooth and of sufficient
o Particularly crucial for viruses, viroids, width so that the rats
bacteria, and mycoplasma cannot traverse it.
 Because rats can jump
Destructive Insects and Mites from one tree to another
o Insects and mites = both belong to because of overlapping
Arthropod family fronds, be sure that there
are no leaf bridges from
Nature of Damage infested trees.
1. Tearing and eating of plant parts
o Chewing insects (e.g. larvae of butterflies b. Chemical Barriers
and moths)  Insect repellants are
chemical barriers that
2. Sucking cell sap prevent insect infestation.
o Sucking insects (e.g. thrips, aphids,  A classic example is
mealybugs, leafhoppers) marigold.
 Systemic pesticides can be
3. Boring and feeding considered as chemical
o Stem, fruit, and seed borers barriers against insect
pests.
  Since systemic pesticides  Close planting makes
are usually active for two control of mango hopper
(2) weeks, any insect that and anthracnose difficult
feed on the crop within  Optimum spacing must be
that period will usually die observed to facilitate pest
from stomach poisoning. control including weeds

3. Resistance e. Balanced fertilization

o When exclusion and protection as a strategy  Heavy application of
have failed, breeding for pest and disease nitrogen = attracts more
resistance has always been resorted to. leaf-feeding insects
o There is a dearth of examples among
perennial crops but at least there have been f. Organic farming
progress achieved in papaya.  No chemical pesticides
o Locally, a papaya hybrid tolerant to papaya  Use of natural fertilizers
ring spot virus (PRSV) has been developed.  Favor build up of natural
enemies of pathogens and
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) insect pests (e.g.
saprophytes)
UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) definition of
IPM g. Planting mixed varieties
 Interplanting one row of
o The careful consideration of all available pest control glutinous rice every 5
techniques and subsequent integration of appropriate rows of hybrid variety
measures that discourage the development of pest (resistant to rice blast)
populations and keep pesticides and other resulted in 94% reduction
interventions to levels that are economically justified in infection and 84%
and reduce or minimize risks to human health and increase in yield
the environment. IPM emphasizes the growth of a
healthy crop with the least possible disruption to h. Intercropping/Multiple Cropping
agro-ecosystems and encourages natural pest  Provides genetic diversity
control mechanisms.
o IPM aims to suppress pest population below the 2. Host Plant Resistance
economic injury level (EIL). o Use of resistant varieties including GMOs
o A pest management approach that employs a (e.g. Bt corn)
combination of techniques and strategies in
controlling wide variety of pests that threaten the 04-04-19 (Thursday)
crops.
o It involves maximum reliance on natural population 3. Conservation of Natural Enemies of Pests
control through cultural methods, insect attractant, o Through selective use of chemical – specific
use of parasite, and predators, use of resistant to target pests
varieties, and/or use of pesticides when needed. o Providing shelter to natural enemies of
pests (e.g. Wasp = predator of tobacco
Components of IPM worm)
1. Cultural practices o Supplemental feeding of natural enemies of
o Practices that make the environment pests (e.g. Lady Beetle = fed with
favorable to population build up of natural honeydew to help control cotton ballworm)
enemies of the pests or making the
environment unfavorable to pests. 4. Biological Control
o Involves deliberate introduction and
a. Proper drainage and improved soil establishment of natural enemies of pests
aeration
 Helps control 5. Other methods
Phytophthora (by building a. Solarization
up saprophytes that  Solar heat sterilization of
compete with the soil to control soil-borne
pathogen) pathogen, insects, and
weeds
b. Keeping the field drained during  By exposing soil to the
and soon after transplanting sun after tillage
 To control golden apple  Covering soil with black
snail plastic cover

c. Control of weeds by flooding b. Low-temperature storage of

 Prevents weeds from perishable produce
sprouting/emerging  Slows down growth of
post-harvest pathogens
d. Proper plant spacing
 Too wide spacing = build c. Hot water treatment
up of whirl maggot of rice  Dipping newly harvested
 Too narrow spacing = mango fruits in how water
favors multiplication of (52-55°) for 10 minutes to
brown plant hopper control anthracnose

d. Use of attractant
 Methyl eugenol mixed with
insecticide to attract and
kill male fruitfly
 citrus rind borer, corn borer. Provided by DA
e. Detaselling to control corn borer
 Reduces larval population
by removing most of the
corn tassels where the
insects lay their eggs
f. Fruit debagging
 Protects fruit from
damage by fruitfly
 Commonly done in
ampalaya, mango,
jackfruit, guava, cacao,
cucumber
g. Artificial lighting with basin of
water
 Use of fluorescent lamp to
control nocturnal insects
 Lamp placed above a
basin of water (with or
without insecticides) to
trap/kill insects
h. (Was not able to copy T__T)
i. Screen house
 To protect plants from
insect pests, vectors, and
birds
Application/Uses:
 To keep sources of scion
free from insects vectors
of viruses
 To keep propagated
materials free from
vectors
Botanical Pesticides
1. Pyrethrins
 Extracted from chrysanthemum flowers
 It is photosensitive and replaced by
synthetic pyrethroids
2. Rotenone
 Extracted from Derris
3. Neem Extract
 Has an anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-fungal
properties
 Effective against insect pests of rice,
mango, etc.
4. Marigold
 Has insect-repellant property
 It can be planted around and within the
cropping area
Biocontrol Agents
1. Aphytis lingnanensis
 A parasitoid against scale insects of citrus
2. Comperiella calauanica
 Larva parasitizes on eggs of coconut scale
insect
3. Diadegma semiclausum and Cotesia plutellae
 For the control of Diamondback moth of
cabbage
4. Trichogramma sp.
 Used against borers like cacao pod borer,
as Trichogramma cards.
Methods of Controlling Weeds
1. Physical/Mechanical
o Pulling
o Slashing/Mowing
2. Cultural
o Optimum plant spacing
o Thorough land preparation
o Covercropping/intercropping
o Mulching
o Cultivation/hoeing
o Flooding
3. Chemical
o Use of herbicides (e.g. glyphosate)
o Efficient and effective but:
a. Residue problem and pollution
b. Undesirable shift in weed
composition
c. Need high degree of precision
(concentration, stage of weed
growth)
04-11-19 (Thursday)
Lecture 10. Cropping Systems
Development
1. Hunters/gatherers
2. Home gardens
3. Monocropping
4. Intercropping
5. Multiple Cropping
6. Agroforestry
In CAFS, there was an institute established in 1970’s, Farming
System and Soil Resources Institute (FSSRI), now a part of
the Agri Systems Institute.
Standard Land Area: 60% Forest; 40% Commercial
Crop Rotation
 Growing of different crops in a defined order
or succession in the same land.
Advantages Compared to Continuous Cropping to a Single
Crop
1. High yield (Haughly experiment)
2. Better control of weeds, pests, and diseases
(Resistance build-up is avoided; breaks life cycle of
weeds)
3. Ensures build-up of organic matter in the soil
4. Balanced utilization of nutrients in the soil
5. Better distribution of farm labor and less economic
risks
Actual Crop Rotation Practices (Based on Moisture)
1. Rice-hybrid/GM corn
2. Rice-onion-rice
3. Rice-watermelon-rice
4. Rice-peanut-rice (Monocot to dicot, or vice versa)
Constraints to Crop Rotation o In the uplands, selling copra makes sense as the
1. High investment cost (e.g. different machinery in product is much lighter and non-perishable
harvesting)
2. Life cycle of crops With the 1.5 B trees target, NGP must answer for each site
1. What mix of trees to grow?
Double Row Method 2. How many of each kind?
Livestock to be included 3. How will the trees be arranged or laid out?
 To be holistic
 To provide something and something to the Continuation: What trees will be preferred that answer the
farmer several goals of NGP?
 Something manure 1. Coconut
 To help in weed control
2. Coffee
SALT 1 (Sloping Agricultural Land Technology) o High value crop
SALT 2 (Simple Agro-Livestock Technology) o Gives rise to the expensive “alamid” coffee
o Liberica and Excelsa = adapted to the
National Greening Technology forest-like environment
o Drought tolerant
04-16-19 (Tuesday)
3. Rubber
Goals of NGP is not just greening, but also: o Offers a year round income since tapping for
1. Food security latex is done every other day except for two
2. Poverty alleviation (2) months of the year when “wintering”
3. Environmental stability and sustainability occurs
4. Biodiversity conservation
5. Climate change mitigation and adaptation 4. Abaca
o Also offers a year-round income; offers
How does the government propose to address the goals by livelihood opportunities
just planting trees?
o The plan is to plant about an equal number of forest 5. Cacao
trees and multi-purpose trees traditionally associated o Will thrive in an agroforestry system where
with agriculture like fruit and plantation crops. several crops or biodiversity exists rather
o Forest trees take a long time to be economically than under a monoculture type of
useful while fruit and plantation crops can already production which gives rise to serious pest
yield fruits and nuts depending on the species and disease problems
planted.
6. Pili
Agroforestry approach was adopted o Fast growing and can withstand the
o Planting of trees will only be done in tenured strongest typhoons; bears fruit year-round;
government land, these are the Community-Based fruit pulp is a source of oil; hard shell can
Forestry Management (CBFM) areas also be used as fuel wood
o Occupants have forestry stewardship contract for 25
years, renewable for another 25 years 7. Jackfruit (Langka)
o They are entitled to the products of what they o Fruits year-round; seeds are good
planted via an approved Resource Utilization Permit carbohydrate source and the immature fruit
when cooked with coconut milk is good as a
For NGP to be successful, it must: vegetable dish
1. Address the needs of the forests occupants
2. For the trees to grow 8. Banana (Saba)
3. Before environmental services can be realized o Good for uplands; year-round income
source; stem can also help feed hogs in the
The forest steward is at the center of the AF system farm
1. Agro-forestry System (Center)
2. Social 9. Cashew
3. Political o Will do well in the uplands; nuts are non-
4. Economic perishable; fleshy fruit can be converted
into wine and other products
o When more people started to live in the forests, the
pressure on the available resources began to be felt 10. Tamarind (Sampaloc)
o Upland dwellers have to support themselves on a o Should always be included in the mix of fruit
daily basis (for food & fuelwood) trees as it is leguminous; its fruits can be
sold fresh, as candy or as souring agent
What trees will be preferred that answer the several goals of
NGP?
1. Coconut
o Harvesting is done every 45-60 days
o Produces 12-14 leaf fronds per year or at least 1
frond per month
o A family would require 3 fronds per day for
cooking needs, so at least 90 coconut palms per
family would supply their fuel wood
requirements
o Coconut shell will also provide charcoal for
cooking
Non-Woody Forestry Species that answer the several goals of
NGP
1. Bamboo
o 9 out of 45 bamboo species grown in the
Philippines are economically important
a. Kawayan tinik = Bambusa
blumeana J.A. & J.H. Schultes
b. Bolo = Gigantochloa levis (Blanco)
Merr.
c. Buho = Schizostachyum lumapao
(Blanco) Merr.
o “One Town, One Product” (OTOP) = bamboo
has become the “OTOP” in a number of
towns and cities. These towns produce a
variety of finished products ranging from
traditional to engineered-bamboo items.
o Ilo-Ilo Kawayan Marketing = can hardly
meet the demand for barbecue sticks of
Mang Inasal
2. Rattan
o Considered next to timber in terms of
economic importance among the products
from the forest
o Many species bear edible fruits and shoots;
others serve as medicinal plants
o Twelve out of 66 rattan species in the
Philippines are commercially-significant
a. Palasan (Calamus merrillii Becc.)
b. Limuran (C. ornatus var.
philippinensis Becc.)
c. Tumalim (C. mindorensis Becc.)
04-25-19 (Thursday)
Harvesting and Post-Harvest Practices
Two Groups of Crops (Based on shelf-life and post-harvest
requirements)
1. Perishable Crops (Perishables)
o Crops which are utilized in fresh form and
with short shelf life due to rapid
deterioration
o Includes fruits, vegetables, flowers, and
recalcitrant seeds
2. Durable Crops (Durables)
o Crops that can be processed into a primary
product that can be stored for a reasonably
log period
o Includes agronomic crops, plantation crops,
and orthodox seeds
Harvesting
1. Maturity Index
o Stage of crop which indicates that the
produce is ready for harvesting based on
purpose or preferred use
2. Priming (Harvesting)
o A method of harvesting in which only
matured or ripe fruits or pods are
harvested, leaving others for
future/subsequent harvesting
a. Mungbean
b. Coffee

3. Kaong (Arenga pinnata) 3. Stripping

o Provides modest income for village o Harvesting in which all fruits in the cluster
communities as source of vinegar, tuba, and are harvested once few fruits become ripe
processed food products or mature
o One productive tree can yield 10-15 liters of a. Coffee
sap (juice) b. Black pepper
o Sap from inflorescence can be fermented to
produce ethanol 4. Tapping
o Estimated ethanol yield is 24 000 o Process of extracting latex from the tree or
liters/hectare/year (insert) containing fruit
approximately 70 kaong trees a. Rubber
b. Papaya (for papain)
Additional Notes c. Pili (elemi)
o Other fruit crops like citrus, guyabano,
lanzones, mango, santol, durian, Post-Harvest Handling
mangosteen, and rambutan may be planted o Refers to all steps done on the harvested
for variety but they are seasonal or require fresh produce prior to sale or use without
expensive external inputs like in mango changing their basic appearance
o They are also perishable with poor post- o Includes washing, trimming, sorting,
harvest characteristics, thus prone to losses packaging, storage, and transport

Summary Harvesting Techniques

o The success of the NGP program lies in planting trees 1. Proper stage of maturity
that answer the 5 goals of the program o Age from flowering
o The mix of trees must be identified at the regional or o Change in color
lower level taking note of biophysical limitations of o Change in fruit shape
the species o Sound of fruit when tapped
o The capabilities of these tree species to answer the o Others
needs of the forest steward, especially regular
income throughout the year is crucial
o Finally, the farm plan to input layout, planting
density must be holistic, economically viable, socially
just and environmentally sustainable
Maturity Indices Handling Practices
1. Age 1. Trimming
o Done to remove unnecessary and
Crop Age at Harvest protruding parts of the fruits e.g. stalk,
Mango (carabao) 120 days from flower petioles, and leaves
induction
Pineapple (Smooth Cayenne) 202 days from FI 2. Washing/Soaking
Banana (Lakatan) 13 weeks from shooting A. Use clean water with or without disinfectant
Rice (IR 36 var) 90 days from sowing pre- B. Hot water treatment
germinated seeds o This treatment must be done soon
Coconut 9 months after stigmatic after picking the fruits
receptivity o The primary purpose is to
Cacao 170 days from fruit set inactivate/kill the spores of
anthracnose fungus (Colletotrichum
Radish 60 days from sowing
gloeosporioides) and also to
Pechay 45 days from sowing
remove the latex from skin of fruits
o Then, fruits are dip in tap water
2. Change in Color
and allowed to air day
o From green to tinge of red or yellow
a. Mango = 52 to 55°C for 10
(“Sinag” or color break)
minutes
a. Papaya
b. Tomato
3. Sorting and Grading
o Based on size, shape, and degree of
o From green to full yellow or red
maturity
a. Santol
o Off-size, off-shape, and overripe fruits must
b. Rambutan
be discarded
c. Lychee
d. Rice (80% of grains are yellow)
4. Packaging (Objectives)
o Increase handling efficiency
o From green to purple
a. Appearance
a. Mangosteen
b. Protect the produce
b. Caimiito (Purple variety)
c. Prevent contamination by
microorganisms
3. Sound
o Dull sound
o Common Containers
a. Durian
a. Bamboo basket (Kaing) = most
b. Jackfruit
common
c. Watermelon
b. Wooden or plastic crates
c. Cartons
4. Smell
d. Netted bags
o Unique smell or aroma
a. Durian
o Lining/cushion materials
b. Jackfruit
a. Banana leaves
b. Newspaper
5. Others
c. Shredded paper
o Banana (Lakatan) = minimum angles on
fruits
Proper Storage
o Mango (Carabao) = full cheeks
 Being highly perishable, fruits, vegetables, and cut
o Onion and Garlic = tight neck
flowers need proper storage to maintain their quality
o Taro (Gabi) = dry leaves
and prolong their usefulness
o Starapple (Caimito) = shiny skin
 Due to high moisture content, they deteriorate easily
o Corn (grain) = dry leaves
through respiration, transpiration, senescence, and
o Yam = dry leaves
attack by pathogens
Time of Picking
Alternatives to Cold Storage
o During coolest time of the day (for most crops)
1. Evaporative Cooling
o Mango = 9 AM to 3 PM (to avoid latex burn)
o Due to high cost of cold storage, most
o Citrus = same period as mango (to avoid oleocellosis
growers fail to adopt it
in citrus)
o An alternative is called “Evaporative Cooling
Technique”
Methods of Harvesting
o Basic principle: When a source of water is
1. Pulling
near the commodity, heat given off during
2. Twisting
respiration is used in evaporating the water
3. Use of knife
resulting to decrease in temperature and an
4. Shaking of branches
increase in relative humidity
5. Harvesting aids/tools (must avoid injury/damage)
a. Intermittent sprinkling fresh
a. Ladder
produce with water
b. Picking pole with knife or hook
b. Covering produce with wet cloth
c. Catching net
c. Wrapping produce with fresh
d. Rope
leaves
d. Store produce in moist saw dust
 2. Modified Atmosphere Storage 6. Tuxying
o Fresh produce is packed/stored in plastic o Process of slicing thin ribbons from the
bag with or without pin pricks outermost portion of the abaca leaf sheath
o An ethylene absorber/scrubber like using a tuxy knife
potassium permanganate (KMnO3) may be
added to slow done ripening/senescence 7. Hagutan Method
o A manual method of extracting abaca fibers
Advanced Storage Methods Adopted in Developed Countries from tuxy
1. Controlled Atmosphere (CA) Storage
o Storing produce in cold, air tight room with 8. Wet Method
low oxygen and high carbon dioxide levels o A method of coffee processing in which ripe
o Allows long-term storage of temperate fruits coffee berries are de-pulped and then dried
like apples, pears, etc. to produce parchment coffee

Other Post-Harvest Practices 9. Dry Method

1. Waxing the fruits o A method if processing coffee in which strip-
o Coating the peel of fruits with thin layer of harvested berries are immediately dried to
wax (food grade) produce dried berries

2. De-greening of fruits 10. De-hulling

o Use of ethrel to change peel color from o Process of removing the hull from dried
green to yellow or orange (to be more berries or parchment coffee to produce
attractive) green coffee beans

3. Dipping of fruits in ethrel solution 11. White Pepper

o For uniform and accelerated ripening o It is the dried pepper without pulp
o Alternatives are: o Ripe berries of pepper are used
a. Calcium carbide (Inorganic)
b. Kakawati leaves (Organic) 12. Black Pepper
c. Squash peel (Organic) o Is the dried whole pepper berries where
both green and partly ripe berries are used
Primary Processing of Durables
o Primary processing refers to series of steps required General Procedures of Primary Processing (Continuation)
in converting raw farm produce into marketable 1. Extraction
and/or “storable” forms 2. Drying
o Process of reducing moisture content of
General Procedures primary products to prevent or minimize
1. Extraction of primary economic product attack of pathogens or insect pests during
storage
Methods o Reduces rate of respiration in case of
1. Threshing orthodox seeds
o Process of separating/extracting the grains o Minimizes broken grains during milling e.g.
from straw (rice, wheat) or hay (mungbean, rice
soybean) o Recommended moisture level
a. Rice = 14% or lower
2. Shelling b. Corn = 12% to 13%
o Process of extracting corn kernel from cob c. Mungbean = 10%
or seeds from pods of legumes d. Soybean = 10%
o Also applicable in separating coconut kernel e. Copra = 6%
(meat) from the shell f. Coffee = 12%
g. Cacao = 7%
Bulk Handling h. Black pepper/white pepper = 10%
o More efficient than handling individual sacks
o Hence, less labor = cheaper 3. Fermentation
o Some crops require fermentation during
3. Decortication primary processing to:
o Method of extracting fiber e.g. ramie using a. Facilitate removal of mucilage from
a machine (decorticator) that crushes the beans e.g. coffee and cacao
wood and strips off fibers from the bark

4. Retting
o An alternative method of extracting fibers
from ramie plant
o Done by soaking the stalk in water to loosen
the bark and facilitate removal of non-
fibrous tissues

5. Ginning
o Process of separating cotton fibers (lint)
from the cotton seeds
Linking Post-Harvest Handling Practices and Nutrition a. Colored fruits and vegetables,
carrot, yellow tomato, spinach,
What Makes Human Beings Healthy? squash, sweet potato, mango
 “Let food be your medicine and medicine be your
food.” 5. Calcium
 Fruits, vegetables, pulses, herbs, cereals, root crops, o Builds and maintains bones and teeth
meat, and fish are food o Helps blood clot
o Regulates cholesterol level
Nutrient content of indigenous vegetables/100 g edible o Good for the nerves, muscle cramps, and
portion menstrual pain
a. Beans, green leafy vegetables,
Protein Fiber Ca P Fe Vit. A Vit. malunggay, saluyot, alugbati,
(g) (g) (mg) (mg) (mg) C spinach, broccoli, mustard green,
(mg) citrus fruits, pineapple, passion
Alu 2.1 1.3 16- 0 1.2- 1686- 29- fruit
117 3.1 6390 166
Mal 6.7 0.9 440 0 7.0 11300 220 6. Potassium
Lab 4.0 1.0 37 40 1.5 0 10 o Normal toning of muscles, nerves, heart
Kat 0.008 6.87 0.05 0.53 0.18 0 0 action, and enzyme reactions
Tal 2.4 1.1 30- 0 4.8- 3 mg 31 o Regulates body fluid balance
135 5.0 a. Banana, pineapple, potato,
Him 2.9 1.5 278 75 4.3 0.3 0 cabbage, orange, tomato, lima
mg beans, singkamas (jicama)
Sal 6.5 2.0 488 114 11.6 1221 95
mg 7. Magnesium
o Proper functioning of nerves and muscles
Kul 4.6 1.1 43 0 918 12860 120
o Necessary for handling of calcium and
Amp 2.0 1.7 23 38- 2.0 0 88-
vitamin c within the body
70 96
a. Green leafy vegetables, pineapple
Where:
8. Phosphorus
Alu = Alubati
o Normal bone and tooth structure
Mal = Malunggay
o Interrelated with action of calcium and
Lab = Labong
vitamin d
Kat = Katuray
o Needed by some enzymes which help
Tal = Talinum
change food into energy
Him = Himbabao
a. Beans, pineapple, singkamas
Sal = Saluyot
Kul = Kulitis
9. Iron
Amp = Ampalaya
o Major component of hemoglobin (red blood
cells) that carries oxygen to the different
Nutrients
parts of the body
1. Thiamine (Vitamin B1)
a. Green leafy vegetables, young
o Normal functioning of the nervous system,
leaves of the jute plant (saluyot),
heart, and muscles
sweet potato, Malabar spinach
o Aids in digestion
(alugbati), horse raddish tree
o Promotes carbohydrate metabolism
(malunggay), amaranth
a. Vegetables
b. Pineapple
Phyto-Chemicals
1. Glucoseinolates
2. Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)
o Antioxidant = detoxification of chemical
o Promotes general growth
carcinogens
o Good for the skin
o Inhibits the growth of tumor cells
o Promotes healthy eyes
a. Broccoli, cauliflower, spinach
o Assists cells to use oxygen
o Release of energy from food
2. Lycopene
a. Strawberry
o Lower risk of prostate and stomach cancer
b. Pear
a. Tomato, red watermelon
3. Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)
3. B-carotene
o Holds body cells together
o Lower risk of lung and other cancer
o Hastens healing and resistance to infection
a. Carrot, cantaloupe, green leafy
o Necessary for healthy teeth and gums
vegetable, sweet potato, squash,
a. Citrus, papaya, mango, guava,
mango, papaya
pineapple, strawberry
b. Sweet potato, potato, spinach,
4. Quercetin
cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower
o Lower risk of heart disease and cancer
a. Leafy vegetables, onion
4. Retinol (Vitamin A)
o Promotes good eyesight
5. Flavonoids
o Healthy skin, good teeth, general growth
o Lower risk of heart and cancer diseases
and vitality
a. Alugbati, malunggay, talinum,
o Builds resistance to infection
camote leaves, sugar beets, duhat,
o Necessary for pregnancy and lactation
strawberry
 6. Polyphenols Food Safety Hazards in Food the Pose Risks to Human Health
o Inhibits aldose-mediated reaction in the 1. Invisible chemical hazards in food
retina o Cleaning chemicals
o Prevents blindness o Adulterants
a. Red and black rice o Excess of permissible food additives
o Heavy metals
Anti-Nutritional Factors o Non-permissible food additives
1. Oxalic acid o Veterinary residues
o Binds with calcium and interferes with o Pesticide residues
iodine metabolism making these unavailable
to the body Food Safety Chemical Hazards
a. Camias, gabi leaves and stems,
cassava tops Stress Metabolites Sources of Contamination
Solanine (potato) Prolonged exposure to
2. Goitrogen sunlight
o Binds with calcium making calcium Isocoumarine (carrots) Storage together with high
unavailable to the body ethylene producers
a. Cabbage, chinese cabbage, Mycotoxins/aflatoxins High humidity/high
broccoli, cauliflower (corn, peanuts, soybeans) temperature storage of corn,
peanuts, soybeans, cassava,
3. Phasin copra
o Interferes with protein metabolism Ipomoeamarone Bacterial disease affecting
a. Lima beans and other leguminous (sweet potato) the tuber
vegetables

4. Cyanoglucoside Factors Affecting Nutrient Availability and Utilization

o Releases cyanide when acted upon by an 1. Loss of nutrients in food
enzyme inside the body 2. Contamination Hazards
o Inhibits respiration process 3. Anti-nutritional Factors in fruits and vegetables
a. Cassava, bamboo shoots, seeds of o Phasin (most legumes) = interferes with
pear, apples protein metabolism
o Goitrogen (Brassicaea) = binds with calcium
5. Phytic acid and iodine
o Binds with iron, causing anemia o Oxalic acid (camias, taro) = binds with
a. Brown rice iodine
o Phytic acid (rice bran) = binds with iron
Factors Affecting Nutrient Availability and Utilization
1. Loss of nutrients in food Results into reduced/impaired bioavailability
o Physical loss of amino acids, calcium, iodine, and iron
o Chemical changes inside the body, causing poor growth,
osteoporosis, goiter, and anemia
a. Reduced level of nutrients available for
intake Nutrient Losses or Stability During Postharvest and Processing
b. Nutrient deficiency/malnutrition Operations
1. Fruits, vegetables, cutflowers, herbs, plantation
crops, ornamentals = 4-98% or 5-50%
Stability of Nutrients in Food 2. Grains, pulses, and nuts = 15-20%

Effect of Environment Food Loss (FAO, 1981)

Nutrient Oxygen Light Heat o It is defined as “any change in the availability,
B-carotene Unstable Unstable Unstable edibility, wholesomeness (safety) or quality (visual,
Folacin Stable Unstable Stable nutritional, sensory) of the food that prevents it from
Niacin Stable Stable Stable being consumed by the people”. Thus, nutrition
Riboflavin Stable Unstable Unstable insecurity results from nutrients in food not being
Thiamine Unstable Stable Unstable available or accessible to the consuming population
Ascorbic acid Unstable Unstable Unstable giving rise to malnutrition.
Mineral salts Stable Stable Stable
Harvest Maturity (in general)
B-carotene is easily oxidized at high temperature and o Increase in total ascorbic acid in fruits with maturity,
undergoes isomerization and destruction by oxygen and light. like in pineapple
Vitamin C is water-soluble and aside from light, oxygen, and o Higher ascorbic acid in vine ripe tomatoes than those
heat, it could also be lost in the tissue by leaching, cutting, ripened off the vine
and by contact with traces of copper. o Increase carotene or pro-vitamin A with maturity and
on-vine ripened in tomatoes
2. Contamination hazards
o Chemical Trimming
o Microbiological o Vitamin C in potato and apple is concentrated under
o Physical the peel and losses may be as high as 35% and
o Food borne diseases that substantially 70%, respectively when these are peeled (off)
contribute to malnutrition o Over-trimming of cabbage = loss of vitamins A and C
that are present in large amounts at the outer leaves
than the inner leaves
Ambient Storage 05-07-19 (Tuesday)
o Increase in Vitamin C in pineapple and other fruits
o Loss in Vitamin C in: Horticultural Plant Arts
a. Citrus A. Flower arrangement
b. Leafy vegetables and green beans 1. Corsage
c. Asparagus not held under shade  Small arrangement consisting of a
d. Spinach and other leafy vegetables = wilting due few flowers, ribbon, and foliage
to ambient holding for 50 hrs results in loss by 2. Bouquet
as high as 80% of ascorbic acid and 50% of  Wedding bouquet
carotene levels
e. Potato = 50% loss during 4 months of ambient 3. Plant arrangement
storage 4. Leis
f. Beta-carotene (yellow color) synthesis in tomato  Flowers strung together to make a
garland worn around the neck
Low Temperature Storage a. Sampaguita and
o Increase in sugar content in potato and sweet potato ilang-ilang leis
o No loss of ascorbic acid in green beans 5. Car decorations for wedding
o Loss of about 50% and 23% of ascorbic acid in 6. Wreath
lettuce and broccoli  As funeral offerings or Christmas
o Red tomatoes = lycopene decors
o Yellow tomatoes = b-carotene
B. Bonsai
Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) o Art of growing trained and aged dwarfed
o Due to low moisture loss, there is favorable retention plants in small container
of: o Main principle is to restrict root growth in
a. Ascorbic acid order to limit nutrient uptake by the plants
b. B-carotene o Container should be small and shallow, not
c. Vitamin A more than 8 cm deep
o Desirable species:
Minimal Processing a. Tolerance to pruning
o 10-50% decrease in ascorbic acid as observed in b. Produces masses of fine roots
cabbage, tomato, cucumber, and banana near base of the trunk
o These operations lead to enhanced browning c. Slow growth rate with compact
reactions, predisposition to microbial contamination branches and foliage
and deterioration leading to poor quality and d. Small leaves and attractive
physical/nutrient losses bark

Blanching Examples of Species Useful for Bonsai

o Influence of water temperature on ascorbic acid 1. Bougainvilla
content of kangkong during blanching 2. Citrus sp.
3. Rosal
Temperature (°C) Mg/100 g 4. Ficus
60 35.67 5. Hibiscus
80 30.67 6. Guava
100 13.67 7. Pomegranate

Conclusion C. Miniature Gardens

o Coupled with the implementation of Good 1. Dish garden or tray landscape
Agricultural Practice during the primary production of o Growing plants in a small, shallow pot
fresh food commodities, applying good and or tray
appropriate post-harvest handling practices and o Popular for indoor decorations
technologies that reduce physical and nutrient losses o Plants should be tolerant to low light
in the food, is seen as less costly, less risky intensity
nutrition-sensitive approach towards the attainment
of food security and nutrition 2. Terrarium or bottle garden
o Plants are grown in transparent glass or
plastic container

D. Topiary
o An art of controlling the canopy shape of the
plants by training and regular pruning/trimming

E. Container Gardening
o Use of container-grown plants to landscape an
area or garden
o Particularly suitable for city dwellers
a. Hanging plants
o Plants in glazed or clay pots and
basket made of wire or wooden
boxes are suspended in the air

b. Interior plantscaping or pot gardening

o When potted plants are used to
beautify building’s interiors
 c. Outdoor container gardening
o Potted plants are used as materials
in landscaping; can be moved
easily

F. Water Garden
o A pool as main feature of a garden
o Fountains and waterfalls may be provided as
features

G. Green Walls

Landscaping
o A building looks incomplete (and shabby) without
landscaping
o Imagine Makati Greenbelt without the greens
o Landscaping increases property values

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