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Cover Photo: Photo shows the watersheds of La Mesa and San Cristobal
in Metro Manila and Sta. Rosa, Laguna, respectively.
Climate change has taken a huge impact in the research world. Several
studies have been conducted to determine its effects in the environment. In
the Philippines, while we have lower carbon emissions compared to other
developing countries, we are considered to be one of the most vulnerable to
the impacts of climate change.
We hope that this issue will inspire more researchers to conduct in-
depth studies on vulnerability assessment using up-to-date and science based
information.
ANTONIO M. DAÑO
Lead Author, VA Special Issue
Sylvatrop, The Technical Journal of Philippine Ecosystems and Natural Resources 25 (1 & 2) 1-26
Four priority environmental hazards were assessed in the study area using a spatial
analysis tool, the ArcGIS Model Builder. The composite map identified a total
of 10.285 ha of very highly vulnerable areas distributed as follows: soil erosion
(0.285 ha), landslide (0.014 ha), biodiversity loss (8.685 ha), and fire (1.141 ha).
Review of literature
Watersheds, considering the role they play, should always be given due
conservation efforts. Vulnerability assessment of the watershed is one important tool to
determine its risks and hazards.
with climate change such as flood, drought, erosion, landslide, and biodiversity loss. It
was emphasized in the paper that all these information played a significant role in the
effective and efficient management of watersheds in the country, as well as in targeting
policy interventions associated with climate change (Tiburan et al. 2010).
Another way to study vulnerability assessment (VA) includes the use of a GIS
model that integrates the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) (Lanuza 2014). This
method was used by Lanuza in geospatial modeling of soil erosion of the Buhisan
Watershed Forest Reserve in Cebu City, Philippines. It was predicted that about 60.20%
or 369.22 ha of the watershed forest reserve have high potential for soil erosion. On the
average, predicted soil erosion is about 160.23 t/ha/yr.
The USLE, remote sensing satellite data, digital elevation model (DEM) and GIS-
based geospatial approach were utilized to study the soil erosion of some sections of the
Upper Subarnarekha River Basin, Jharkhand, India. Raster grids of topography acquired
from Advanced Space-borne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) Global
DEM data were analyzed to determine vulnerability. LANDSAT TM and ETM+ satellite
data of March 2001 and March 2011 were used to infer the land use cover of the watershed.
USLE was integrated within the GIS framework to derive the annual soil erosion rates and
also the areas with varying degrees of erosion vulnerability, from very low (0-5 t/ha/yr) to
4 E. Andres et al.
very severe (>40 t/ha/yr.) Results indicated an increase of erosion rates in 2011 compared
to 2001. Factors for the increase in the overall erosion could be attributed to variation in
rainfall, decrease in vegetation cover or protective land covers, and the increase in built-up
or impervious areas (Chatterjee et al. 2014).
In Bartin Province of Western Black Sea Region, Turkey, the effects of mapping
unit on different susceptibility mapping methods was investigated. GIS and remote
sensing techniques were used to create the landslide factor maps, obtain susceptibility
maps and compare results. Use of the Logical Regression (LR) and Spatial Regression
(SR) were also compared. The Relative Operating Characteristics (ROC) curve was
used to compare the predictive abilities of each model and mapping unit. Accuracy was
also evaluated based on observations made during the field surveys. Analyzing the area
under the ROC curve for grid-based and slope-unit-based mapping units showed that
SR model provided better predictive performance as compared to the LR model. The
result was also supported by the accuracy analysis. Better performance of the SR model
was derived from the incorporation of the spatial correlation between the mapping
units into the model while it was not considered in the LR model (Erener et al. 2012).
generated from the process. Around 69.7% of the watershed have vulnerability scales
of >3.0. In addition, priority areas were determined using an evaluation matrix and
results showed that around 8.4% (193.4 ha) of LMW have high to very high priority
levels. All these information were considered as very indispensable and can be used
to address management issues, such as resource prioritization and optimization. In
addition, these can be utilized to sustainably manage the watershed, particularly, on
the provision of quality water for domestic use of several cities in the National Capital
Region, as well as its neighboring provinces (Tiburan et al. 2012).
Methodology
Study area
The schematic diagram presents input factors (i.e., agroclimatic, soil, slope,
vegetative cover/landuse, and conservation practices) that are converted into vector/raster
format and subsequently reclassified prior to the operation of arithmetic overlay process.
Reclassification was done to assign values to reclassified critical factors. Applying the USLE
in the arithmetic overlay, soil erosion map was generated and further reclassified to assign
vulnerability class value for a certain range of soil erosion estimate.
Weighted overlay technique was used in this study. It combines multiple rasters
by applying a common measurement value or percentages on each raster to create an
integrated analysis. Input factors critical for each hazard were converted into vector/raster
format and subsequently reclassified and/or buffered prior to the operation of the weighted
overlay process. Reclassification was done to assign degree of influence and vulnerability
classification value for each critical factor and reclassified critical factor.
For each hazard, the critical factors were identified. Table 1 presents the critical
factors utilized in the assessment. Table 2 presents the qualitative classification of areas
vulnerable to identified hazards, with corresponding classification value.
The degree of influence assigned to each critical factor, as used during the
overlay process for landslide, fire and biodiversity loss, is presented in Table 3. Soil
erosion (t/ha/yr) was estimated by applying the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) and
spatial analysis using the Model Builder of ArcView/ArcGIS to estimate the soil erosion
potential.
8 E. Andres et al.
Using the ArcView/ArcGIS Model Builder, the following models for LMWR were
formulated: a) Vulnerability to soil erosion; b) Vulnerability to landslide; c) Vulnerability to
fire; and d) Vulnerability to biodiversity loss.
Geomorphological features
The surface elevation of the area ranges from 40 to 260 masl. The watershed
is characterized as having a gently sloping to rolling topography with most of the area
having slopes of 18% and below. There are no flood-prone areas in the watershed
since the two major creeks, namely, the Sapang Krudo Kamatis and Sapang Kawayan,
adequately drain into the reservoir. The elevation and slope of the watershed is
presented in Table 4.
Elevation 40-260 meters With gentle slopes and relatively flat areas around
above sea level the watershed indicate low sediment loss or
(masl) surface runoff.
Slope 0-50% = 834.64
The major geological feature in the area is the West Marikina Valley Fault that
runs from Angat Dam from Pasig to Tagaytay. On the northeastern part of the La Mesa
reservoir is the Guadalupe Formation, a major geologic formation which is made up
of clastic and volcanic rocks. Guadalupe Formation overlies pre-Quaternary Basement
Rock Formations, namely, the Madlum, Angat, Maybangan and Kinabuan Formation
which serve as basement rocks for the watershed and its adjacent areas.
The LMWR exhibits three types of soil, namely, loamy-sand, sandy-clay loam,
and sandy-loam. Sandy-clay loam is the dominant soil type.
10 E. Andres et al.
Climate
The PAGASA classifies the climate in the Philippines on the basis of temporal
rainfall distribution (Coronas Scheme). Under this classification, the area has a Type 1
climate: two pronounced seasons, dry from November to April and wet from May to
October.
The LMWR derives its rainfall for the most part from the warm, moist southwest
monsoon, as well as, the convergent storm cells associated with the intertropical
intensification and strong winds due to the frequent passage of tropical typhoons during
the rainy season. The cooler and drier northeast monsoon occurs from October to
January, occasionally producing light rainfall.
The mean annual rainfall over the study area is around 2,000 mm. Temperature
ranges from a minimum of 20 ºC around January and February to a maximum of 35 ºC
around April and May. Mean monthly temperature varies from 25 ºC to 30 ºC. Mean
annual temperature is at 27 ºC. Monthly relative humidity ranges from the maximum
of 95% in August and September to a minimum of 55% in March and April. Mean
annual relative humidity is 76%.
Flora
A total of 520 plant species are now located in the area to include those
enumerated during the inventories as well as planted species during reforestation and
enrichment efforts. Out of the listed species, 10 are vulnerable, seven are endangered,
and four are critically endangered according to the IUCN category (Table 5).
Vulnerability assessment of the La Mesa Watershed Reservation 11
Fauna
Table 6 Avifaunal species at the LMWR which are listed under CITES Appendix II
Local name Scientific name
Guiabero Bolbopsittacus lunutatus
Brahminy kite Haliastur indus
Colasisi or hanging parakeet Loriculus philippensis
Philippine scops owl Otus megalotris
Crested serpent eagle Spilormis cheela
Land use
GIS mapping of the LMWR shows that it is a mixture of closed forest, open
forest, other wooded land, built-up areas, barren land, and inland water. More
specifically, the watershed has a forested area of 2166.90 ha, natural barren land of
9.30 ha, built-up area of 116.20 ha, and inland water of 367.18 ha.
Vulnerability assessment
1. Soil erosion
Soil erosion is defined as the movement of soil particles either by water or wind
usually expressed in tons per hectare per year (t/ha/yr). Utilizing the critical factors, the
rate of soil erosion (t/ha/yr) was estimated by applying the Universal Soil Loss Equation
(USLE) as expressed in the following formula:
Vulnerability assessment of the La Mesa Watershed Reservation 13
Spatial analysis using the Model Builder of ArcView/ArcGIS was used to estimate
the soil erosion potential of the La Mesa Watershed. Input factors like agroclimatic, soil,
slope, vegetative cover/landuse, and conservation practices are converted into vector/
raster format and subsequently reclassified prior to the operation of arithmetic overlay
process. Reclassification was done to assign values to reclassified critical factors as
shown in Table 7. Applying the USLE in the arithmetic overlay, a soil erosion map was
generated and further reclassified to assign vulnerability class value for a certain range
of soil erosion estimate (t/ha/yr) as shown in Table 8.
Using the annual soil loss map, soil erosion index map was generated and the
result thereof is presented in Table 8. Erosion index was regrouped and its value of
>1.5 is classified as highly vulnerable area (Table 9).
Table 10 shows that 1.96 ha of the LMWR is very severely eroded with a soil
erosion estimate of ≥2 t/ha/yr. Annual soil loss map of the LMWR is presented in Fig. 3.
From the erosion vulnerability map (EVM), 0.28 ha of the watershed is very
highly vulnerable to erosion (Figure 3 ). These are the areas located within a 600-m
distance away from streambanks and the reservoir.
Figure 4 shows the erosion hazard map of the LMWR. The slope factor greatly
contributed to the identified areas of the watershed with high risk to soil erosion.
Agricultural production in sloping areas located below the water treatment plants
further enhanced the risk.
2. Landslide
Spatial analysis using the ArcView/ArcGIS Model Builder was used to identify
areas vulnerable to landslide within the La Mesa Watershed. Input factors (i.e., slope,
soil morphology or genesis, proximity to faultline, typhoon risk, climate, vegetative cover
14 E. Andres et al.
0.0001-0.5 1
0.5-1.0 2
1.0-2.0 3
2.0-4.0 4
>4.0 5
Vulnerability assessment of the La Mesa Watershed Reservation 15
or land use, road and river cut, and geology) were converted into vector/raster format
and subsequently reclassified and/or buffered prior to the operation of the weighted
overlay process. Reclassification was done to assign degree of influence and vulnerability
classification value for each critical factor and reclassified critical factor, respectively.
Meanwhile, buffer operation was performed to create buffers such that areas near faultlines,
for example, have higher vulnerability class value.
Table 11 presents the tabulated result of the analysis showing areas with
corresponding qualitative degree of vulnerability to landslide. The landslide hazard map
of the area is shown in Figure 5.
16 E. Andres et al.
Extracting areas with reclassification values greater than 4 (Table 12) from the
landslide vulnerability map, landslide hazard areas were identified with a total area of
0.014 ha. The presence of gully within the identified landslide hazard areas confirmed
such observation during validation. Although the said gully is dominantly vegetated
with vines and shrubs, may not suffice to control landslide phenomenon.
3. Fire
Spatial analysis using the ArcView/ArcGIS Model Builder was used to identify
areas vulnerable to fire within the La Mesa Watershed. Input factors (i.e., vegetation,
slope, wind exposure aspect, proximity to possible sources of fire and accessibility)
were converted into vector/raster format and subsequently reclassified and/or buffered
prior to the operation of the weighted overlay process.
Vulnerability analysis for fire for the LMWR was undertaken using GIS. The
resulting fire hazard map is presented in Figure 6. Table 11 presents the tabulated result
of the analysis showing areas with corresponding qualitative degree of vulnerability.
Fire-prone area of the LMWR based on spatial analysis is 8.685 ha. Field validation
revealed that the identified areas are sparsely planted with trees and are still dominated by
grasses, which usually dry up during summer, thus, increasing the fire vulnerability of the
area.
4. Biodiversity loss
Spatial analysis using the ArcView/ArcGIS Model Builder was used to identify
areas vulnerable to biodiversity loss within the watershed. Input factors were converted
into vector/raster format and subsequently reclassified and/or buffered prior to the
operation of the weighted overlay process.
during validation.
scenario within the LMWR might have already changed by now, thus, an updated
vulnerability study is recommended.
Acknowledgment
We would like to thank the other members of the team who helped in the
profiling and characterization as follows: Forester Angelito O. Arjona, Forester Rolando
Acosta and Forester Rodelina de Villa;
Acknowledgment is also due the following offices: the River Basin Coordinating
Office of the DENR; Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS); ABS-
CBN Bantay Kalikasan; and the Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau (ERDB).
Literature cited
Erener A, Duzgun H. 2012. Landslide susceptibility assessment: What are the effects
of mapping unit and mapping method? Environmental Earth Sciences. 66(3):859-
877.
Lanuza RL. 2014. Geospatial modeling of soil erosion in Buhisan Watershed Forest
Reserve, Cebu City, Philippines: Model Application and Validation. Sylvatrop.
Tech. J. of Phil. Ecosystems and Nat. Resources. 24(1&2):47-78.
Lopez AV, et al. 2008. Vulnerability assessment of the Pudong Watershed within the
Upper Amburayan River Basin in Kapangan, Benguet. Ecosystems Research Digest.
13(2).
Watersheds not only serve as vital habitat for plants and wildlife but also
perform a critical water quality function and provide natural aesthetics and various
environmental benefits. However, watersheds in the Philippines are vulnerable to
various hazards because of the country’s steep topography, poor vegetation cover,
earthquake faults and effects of climate change. Adverse changes in seasonal river
flows, floods, droughts and loss of biodiversity are among the major vulnerabilities
and concerns in Asia-Pacific region. The greatest vulnerabilities are likely to occur in
watersheds that are currently subjected to stress, or are being unsustainably managed.
In unmanaged watersheds, there are few or no structures in place to absorb the effects
of hydrologic variability, population pressures and natural hazards.
basis for mitigation and adaptive measures. The study results are expected to be useful
to the concerned authorities in formulating suitable integrated watershed management
policies and strategies and in prioritizing the actions needed to protect the water
resources and the environment of the river.
Review of literature
Watersheds may undergo significant changes due to natural and anthropogenic
hazards. Adverse effects to watershed resources can be mostly due to human activities
like improper land use and agricultural practices. The degree of watershed stress
can be detrimental to a large extent with the impact of climate change interplaying
with anthropogenic effects (Ahmadi et al. 2014). Among of the major indicators of
watershed's health are its soil and water quality. Assessment of soil and water quality,
through biological and physico-chemical parameters, has always been an urgent process
of determining the extent of effects of natural forces and anthropological impacts.
Soil erosion has been identified as one of the problems of both rural and urban
landscapes all over the world. Developed as well as developing countries like the
Philippines, face problems of soil erosion of varying intensity and nature. A number of
parametric models have been developed to assess soil erosion vulnerability of drainage
basins. Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) is a largely used empirical method for
quantifying soil erosion taking into account various contributing factors. For watershed-
based computation of soil erosion, remote sensing and GIS are widely used, especially
employing USLE method (Chen Tao et al. 2010; Bez 2011). Qualitative and quantitative
models provide appropriate information about the spatial distribution of erosion-risk
areas in the watershed where suitable and urgent measures and treatments will be
required (Kefi et al. 2011). USLE predicts soil loss for a given site as a product of six
major erosion factors – soil, rainfall, topography, cropping and management. The values
at a particular location can be expressed numerically and is suitable for predicting long-
term averages. Spatial patterns of soil erosion play an important role in studying sources
of erosion, sinks as well as soil and water conservation (Shinde et al. 2011). Prediction
of soil loss is important for assessing soil erosion hazard and determining suitable land
use and soil conservation measures for the watershed (Baskan et al. 2010).
Methodology
a. Biophysical assessment
Soil (soil physical and chemical properties)
Climate (annual/monthly rainfall, evaporation, typhoon occurrence and
frequency)
Hydrology (monthly streamflow pattern)
Water Quality. Water samples were taken at different times of the year and
analyzed for various water quality parameters (temperature, pH, dissolved
oxygen, BOD, coliforms). Water samples were brought to DENR-Region 4A
laboratory for analysis.
Hazards and their contributory factors were also verified through analysis of
watershed characterization data and through the conduct of focus group discussion
(FGD) with occupants of the watershed and other key informants. Specific locations
where the hazards occurred or were observed were recorded during the field surveys
and inputted to maps generated using geographic information system (GIS). A crucial
element in reducing vulnerability to natural hazards was the analysis of human
settlements and infrastructures gathered during field validation and Focus Group
Discussion (FGD).
land classification map, soil and geology, and climate. The topographic map was used
to digitize the contours at 10-m interval which served as reference to generate the
digital elevation model (DEM).
All thematic maps were transformed to hazard class rating maps based on the
procedure contained in the ERDB Manual for Vulnerability Assessment (ERDB 2008).
Rating Classes 1 to 5 rate the thematic maps’ features from very low (1) to very high (5)
susceptibility to the occurrence of the hazard.
For assessing vulnerability to soil erosion, the thematic maps were assigned
class and weights according to their relative importance in influencing erosion and
mass movement. These are briefly discussed below.
1. Slope. To make the assessment more systematic, all slopes from 0-8% (level
to gently sloping) were categorized as areas with low susceptibility to erosion.
Steep slopes (>50%) were considered to be areas that are very highly
susceptible to landslide.
2. Soil. Soil characteristic contributes to occurrence of erosion and mass
movement. A general soil map based on soil classification was used in this
study.
3. Rainfall and typhoon occurrence. Rainfall is considered as the triggering factor
to the occurrence of any hazard. The rainfall isohyets and historical monthly
average rainfall were used in assessing the susceptibility of the watershed to
soil erosion.
4. Land use. Land use map derived from LANDSAT satellite images were
analyzed and validated in the field. Rating was based on the presence and
type of vegetation cover in the watershed.
San Cristobal Watershed is located at the southwestern side of Laguna de Bay. It lies
within four provinces, with the largest area located in Laguna (10,645.70 ha). Most of the
watershed’s upstream area is in Silang (1,967.30 ha) and Tagaytay City (1,493 ha) in Cavite
while a very small portion towards the headwater is part of Tanauan City, Batangas (56 ha).
The watershed is shaped like a fish with its tail along the Laguna Lake (Fig. 1).
The average length of stream is highest for the fourth and fifth orders for the
entire watershed which is 8.62 and 7.5 km, respectively. The watershed has a total of
219 streams with a total length of 269 km. On the other hand, the subwatersheds have
higher average length only in second and third orders except for Diezmo which is a
fourth order stream with a total length of 9 km.
parts of the river system, the channel has a deep ravine, indicating less problem of
channel overflow or flooding.
Slope
The slope distribution ranges from 0% to more than 50%. About 70% of the
area (9,842.5 ha) is level to nearly level to undulating. This area occupies near the lower
to middle portion of the watershed. Close to 18% (2,525 ha) of the area is within the
slope range of 8-18%, described to be undulating to rolling. This slope range is situated
in Calamba City, Sta. Rosa City, and Cabuyao. About 1,243.8 ha (8.8%) belongs to
Table 2 Slope distribution of San Cristobal Watershed
Slope range Description Area (ha) Percent
(%) (%)
rolling to moderately steep (18-30% slope). Steep slope (30-50% slope) occupies 485.4
ha (3.4% ) of the total land area of the micro-watershed. The very steep slope (>50%)
shares less than 1% of the total land area.
This is followed by Carmona sandy clay loam (3,835 ha) and the rest are Tagaytay
sandy loam (1,072 ha), mountain soil, undifferentiated (1,062 ha), Quingua fine sandy
loam (575 ha), Tagaytay loam (381 ha), and the Taal fine sandy loam (125 ha).
Barangay Casile in Cabuyao is the drainage area of the Matang Tubig Spring,
which is the source of water for the municipality of Cabuyao and corresponds to an
area of about 318 ha. In Silang, forest areas are devoted primarily for forest purposes.
These cover an aggregate area of 208.0 ha or 1.3 % of the municipality’s total land area.
Table 4 General land uses within San Cristobal Watershed (1996 and 2007 imagery)
Land use
1996 Imagery 2007 Imagery
category
Area Percent Area Percentage Percent change
(ha) total (%) (ha) total (%) from 1997 imagery
Agricultural 5,865 41.4 4,926 34.7 -6.7
areas
Grassland/ 5,621 39.7 2,926 20.7 -19.0
shrubland
areas
Built-up areas 2,488 17.6 5,084 35.9 +18.3
Open canopy 188 1.3 1,226 8.7 +6.4
Total 14,162 100.0 14,162 100.0
Climate
The most dominant climatic type of the watershed is Type 3 where the seasons
are not very pronounced and relatively dry from November to April and wet during the
rest of the year. The maximum rainy period is from June to October and on the average,
the area is visited by five cyclones every three years.
San Cristobal River is one of the major tributaries draining into the Laguna de
Bay (Fig. 2). It is also one of the most polluted rivers affecting the lake’s productivity and
survival. It contributes about 5% of the total freshwater discharge into the lake. Figure
7 shows the mean monthly discharge (m3/sec) of San Cristobal Watershed at a point
along the National Highway. The watershed has an estimated mean discharge of 0.694
Rainfall (mm)
Figure 6 Monthly rainfall from four synoptic stations around San Cristobal
Watershed
monthly flow
m3/sec. Maximum peak discharge recorded in the watershed was 411.9 m3/sec during
the September 1, 1956 flood event.
Water samples collected from three samples sites showed high level of BOD
and coliforms. Water quality status based on different parameters is summarized in
Table 5.
middle to the mouth of San Cristobal River. The high BOD5 value was attributed to the
organic pollutants coming from the industrial establishments and domestic households
that abound in the area.
Data indicated that water pollution from the river systems was brought about
by discharges from residential septic tanks, domestic liquid wastes, and industrial
discharges. The elevated BOD and coliform counts plus depleted DO level also
indicate that contamination of water largely comes from fecal matter and unmitigated
discharges from households.
Socioeconomic
The major sources of family income can be grouped into two: employment
and entrepreneurial activities. Household incomes are derived mainly from non-
agricultural activities and only a few from farming and fishing. In Calamba City, 36,225
(68%) of the households mainly derived their income from entrepreneurial activities
of non-agricultural nature. In Sta Rosa City, only 7,969 (13%) of the households still
derive their income from farming or fishing. Similarly, in Cabuyao, only 304 families
depend on fishing for their income. While actual data are unavailable, it can also be
inferred that for highly commercialized localities, majority of the households derive
their income from non-agricultural endeavors.
Table 6 Major sources of income of households in Laguna
Source of income Municipality
Sta. Rosa Cabuyao Calamba
Entrepreneurial activities n.d. n.d. 36,225
Farming and Fishing 7,969 304 n.d.
Oversees Remittances n.d. n.d. 4,255
*n.d. - no data
Different perceptions on the importance and benefits derived from San Cristobal
River were noted. The usefulness of the river was positively expressed by respondents
in Sitio Matang Tubig, Canlubang, Laguna; Barangay Casile, Cabuyao, Laguna; Pasong
Langka, Silang, Cavite; and Sto. Domingo, Sta. Rosa City. Accordingly, the importance
of the river is as follows: fishing, irrigation/agricultural uses, domestic and aesthetic
values. It also generates electricity in Sitio Matang Tubig according to some residents.
According to the farmers interviewed, there are three types of water used in
irrigating their farm lots. These are: Class A which comes directly from NIA irrigation;
Class B, water from NIA irrigation and collected rainwater (rainfed); and Class C which is
non-NIA water or spilled water coming from deep wells of industrial plants in Cabuyao,
Laguna. Barangay San Isidro and Barangay Gulod in Cabuyao use class B in their farm
lots. Barangay Baclaran and Barangay Mamatid use the excess water coming from the
NIA irrigation system in watering their farm lots. Accordingly, their crops are healthy
and do not require fertilizer application. The common farm problems include presence
of black bugs and snail on crops.
44 A.M. Daño and K.R.M. Fortus
Analysis of watershed attributes, as well as, findings from FGD revealed two
major hazards affecting the soil and water resources of San Cristobal watershed – soil
erosion and water pollution.
Soil erosion was the dominant hazard in the watershed due to community
cropping practices particularly in the planting of pineapple and vegetables in moderately
steep slopes, mostly in the Silang-Tagaytay portion of the watershed.
Water pollution is the biggest problem threatening the usefulness of the water
resources of the river. Water quality assessment revealed heavy pollution from the
middle to downstream portion of the river system. The water from San Cristobal river
had fecal coliform greater than 1.6 x 107 MPN/100ml and BOD level reaching about
20 mg/l. The high BOD level and coliform count particularly fecal coliforms can
be attributed to households and industries that discharge their waste directly to the
river system resulting in foul smell and black color of the water. Most of the houses
located near the river discharge their waste directly to the river. Furthermore, results
of interviews with residents revealed that water pollution is the main problem of
communities living near the river system. Accordingly, the river has a very foul smell.
The situation is worst particularly during rainy season, wherein at a certain time of the
day, the smell is almost intolerable. The communities suspected that some industries
discharge their waste during heavy rainfall to avoid being noticed by the communities.
Surface water bodies are progressively subjected to stress as a result of
anthropogenic activities. The rivers, strongly influenced by household wastewater,
have the highest concentrations of nutrients (Wang et al. 2006).
Interview with the NIA personnel revealed the sad state of the river system.
Accordingly, it is difficult to conduct maintenance operations on the irrigation structures
due to the intolerable smell of water. The structures are difficult to visit due to proliferation
of houses. Permit need to be secured first from private landowners before NIA personnel
can pass through the private properties to reach the site of the infrastructures.
Results of the overlay and index methods provided the spatial location of
vulnerable areas including their classification from high to low to various hazards
(degree of vulnerability).
Vulnerability to soil erosion and water pollution assessment 45
Soil erosion
The identified physical factors affecting soil erosion include: slope (S), climate
(which is influenced by rainfall and typhoon frequency), soil type (St), and land cover
(Lc). These erosion factors were converted to hazard index or scale and transformed
into maps; and the data processed were used to create critical factor layers in grid or
raster formats.
Using overlaying approach of slope, rainfall, landuse, soil and crop management
factor, the polygon formed from the intersection of the five maps was analyzed using
the GIS-assisted spatial analysis. Overlaying produced the soil erosion vulnerability
map as shown in Figure 8. Out of the total area of the watershed (14,162 ha), the
1,173 ha in the upstream portion of the watershed was zoned as vulnerable to soil
erosion. Most of the areas belonged to the zone with moderate to low vulnerability to
soil erosion. The distributions of these areas are shown in Table 7.
As reflected in the land use map, the lower and middle portions of the watershed
are now occupied by houses and industries. Surface water in the river system which is
used to irrigate ricefields and other agricultural areas in Canlubang and Calamba has
become polluted due to wastewater coming from households and industries. Figure
9 shows the vulnerability map of San Cristobal river system to water pollution. Areas
along the river system are the highly vulnerable portions of the river; and communities
living on it are predisposed to water-borne diseases brought about by the high fecal
coliform and BOD of water.
San Cristobal River as one of the 21 major tributaries draining into the Laguna
Lake represents a typical agro-industrial condition which if properly and scientifically
managed could serve as a model for development to other basins with similar potential
characteristics. The rapid urbanization of Tagaytay City and the migration of landless
farmers in the heartland of the watershed will inevitably increase cultivated farms. As
the area becomes highly urbanized, infrastructures and settlements should be avoided
in steep areas as these are aquifer recharge areas. Areas with steep slopes particularly in
Silang and Tagaytay City, should be declared as environmental zones in the respective
Comprehensive Land Use Plans (CLUPs) of said municipalities.
48 A.M. Daño and K.R.M. Fortus
Literature cited
Alwathaf, Yahia, BEl Mansouri. 2011. Assessment of aquifer vulnerability based on GIS
and ARCGIS methods: A case study of the Sana’a Basin (Yemen) 3: 845-855.
Retrieved from http://www.SciRP.org/journal/jwarp.html
Balisacan AM, Sebastian LS and Associate. 2006. Securing rice, reducing poverty:
challenges and policy directions. SEARCA, PhilRICE and DA-BAR, Los Baños,
Philippines.
Bez PK. 2011. Watershed characterization for assessing erosional behavior through
geoinformatics. M.Tech. (Remote Sensing) [Thesis]. Birla Institute of Technology
(BIT). Mesra, India.
Chen T, Niu R, Li P, Zhang L, Du B. 2010. Regional soil erosion risk mapping using
RUSLE, GIS, and remote sensing: A case study in Miyun watershed, North
China. Environ Earth Sci (Online). doi:10.1007/s12665-010-0715-z.
Vulnerability to soil erosion and water pollution assessment 49
Fussel HM, Klein RJT. 2006. Climate change vulnerability assessments: An evolution
of conceptual thinking. Climate Change, 75, 301-329. DOI: 10.1007/S10584
– 006-0329-3.
Habito CF, RM Briones. 2005. Philippine agriculture over the years: Performance,
policies and pitfalls. Paper presented at the conference “Policies to Strengthen
Productivity in the Philippines,” Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM) Trust Fund, Asian
Institute of Management Policy Center, Foreign Investment Advisory Service,
Philippines Institute of Development Studies and the World Bank, Makati City,
June 27-28, 2005.
Lasco R, Espaldon VO. 2005. Ecosystem and people: The Philippine millennium
ecosystem assessment sub global assessment. Environmental Forestry Program,
College of Forestry and Natural Resources.University of the Philippines at Los
Baños.
Schröter D, Metzger MJ. 2004a. Global change vulnerability— Assessing the European
human-environment system. Proc., Twentieth Sessions of the Subsidiary
Bodies (SB 20), United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC), Workshop on Scientific, Technical, and Socio-Economic Aspects
of Impacts of Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change, Apr. 9, 2006.
Retrieved from http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/workshops/other_meetings/
application/pdf /schroeter.pdf.
Turner BL, et al. 2003. A framework for vulnerability analysis in sustainable science.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003 Jul 8; 100(14):8074-9. Epub 2003 Jun 5.
Yohe GW, Tol RSJ. 2002. Indicators for social and economic coping capacity – moving
towards a working definition of adaptive capacity. Global Environmental
Change. 12 (1), 25-40. (Q20): Retrieved at www.feem-web.it/cp05/05bio_tol.
htm
Sylvatrop, The Technical Journal of Philippine Ecosystems and Natural Resources 25 (1 & 2): 51- 78
Results of the study indicated that the Sablayan, Occidental Mindoro portion
has the highest vulnerability to landslide, particularly to geological risks.
This is caused by the convergence of the effects of slope, rainfall, and fault lines.
Meanwhile, portions of Victoria, Oriental Mindoro have similar rainfall
and fault line characteristics except for the aggravating effect of slope.
Review of literature
and the mountainous terrain were blamed for the fatal floods and mudslides in Infanta-
Nakar area in Quezon province.
In 2006, Roberto reported that three flashfloods struck Calapan City and the
municipalities in the northern part of Oriental Mindoro. As reported by PAGASA,
this was caused by the three-day rainfall reaching a total of 194 mm and 77 mm on
6 December 2005 and 17 December 2005, respectively. Heavy rainfall resulted in
large discharges in both Mag-asawang Tubig and Bucayao Rivers.The municipalities/
city of Baco, Naujan, Victoria and Calapan were severely affected with 141 barangays
stricken by the typhoon, leaving 23,364 families affected. Calamity victims reached
9,551 families or 39,006 persons. One death was registered in the municipality of
Naujan.
Former DENR Secretary Elisea G. Gozun said that much of the landslide
tragedy had to do with the improper use of forest land for agricultural purposes;
noting that farmers opted to plant cash crops instead of trees (DENR 2003 as cited by
Daño 2005).
The paper by van Westen (2008) discussed a number of issues related to the use
of spatial information for landslide susceptibility, hazard, and vulnerability assessment
with focus on the types of spatial data needed for each component and the methods
for obtaining them. Accordingly, there is a very fast development in the application
of digital tools such as GIS, digital image processing, digital photogrammetry and
Global Positioning Systems (GPS). Landslide inventory databases are now available
and accessible even through the internet. A comprehensive landslide inventory is a
must to quantify both landslide hazard and risk.
Landslide is one of the various natural processes that shape the surface of the
earth. Hazard can only be realized when landslides threaten mankind. Landslide is
one of the mass movements which include all those processes that involve movement
of slope-forming material under the influence of gravity either outward or downward
(Crozier 1999a).
54 Vendiola E and Limpiada M
Methodology
With the use of topographic map, soils map and vegetation map, the
preliminary points were identified. The preliminary/tentative observation sites were
determined on the ground for evaluation. The identified areas were marked on the
ground.
Specific locations where the hazards were observed were recorded in the
field map during the field surveys and inputted to maps generated using geographic
information system (GIS) software. The observed hazard locations are useful in
validating GIS generated model. A crucial element in reducing vulnerability to natural
hazards is the analysis of human settlements and infrastructures as gathered during
field validation and FGDs.
Vulnerability assessment of the Kisloyan subwatershed 57
Vulnerability was classified (slight, fair, moderate, high, and very high) based
on the hazard value; thus, a map was zoned into vulnerability classes. Landslide
vulnerability map due to physical factors were calculated for each hazard unit as the
sum of weighted product of individual factors, as shown in Equation 2:
Where: R = rainfall
Lp = landslide vulnerability due to G = geology factor
physical factors S = soil factor
Sl = slope factor Lu = land use factor
58 Vendiola E and Limpiada M
To assess the vulnerability of the study area, historical accounts from the
respondents as to the occurrence of floods and landslides in the area were gathered.
Using tools such as remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS), the
potential vulnerability was analyzed.
The overlay and index method which involved combining various watershed
attributes (e.g., geology, soils, slope, climate, landuse, anthropogenic factors) was
used. In this approach, all attributes are assigned with class (Class 1-5) and weights
(1-100%) (Table 2). This method was considered to be the simplest approach that
can easily be adopted in conducting vulnerability assessment. This tends to be more
quantitative by assigning different numerical scores and weights to the attributes in
developing a range of vulnerability classes which are then displayed in the map.
This approach involved assigning values to the identified factors affecting the
vulnerability of watershed resources to landslide. Factors which are considered to
have high influence in the vulnerability of the watershed to landslide were rated as 5
while those with very minimal effect were given a rating of 1 (Daño 2005).
Having identified the hazards, series of FGDs with the community as well as
workshops by the technical team and key persons were conducted to come up with
appropriate mitigating measures to prevent the occurrence of disaster. The mitigating
measures focused on interventions that may reduce the effects of the identified hazard
or improve the adaptation of the watershed to the landslide.
The Kisloyan subwatershed is located at the central part of the Mindoro Island.
Geographically, it lies between 13o02‘42’’ to 13o6’54’’ N, and 121o06’54’’ to 121o11‘
06’’ E (Fig. 1). It has an approximate area of 1,435.90 ha of which 1,133.70 ha or 78.95%
is within the Occidental side while 302.20 ha or 21.05% is within the Oriental side.
The subwatershed is covered by two municipalities: Victoria in Oriental Mindoro, and
Sablayan in Occidental Mindoro (Fig. 2).
Vulnerability assessment of the Kisloyan subwatershed 61
Although a larger portion of the said watershed is within the Occidental side,
the area is more accessible via the Oriental side route. Consequently, the inhabitants
living inside the watershed are having a more active interaction with the residents
of Oriental Mindoro than the other part of the island. However, the administrative
jurisdiction over the Kisloyan subwatershed is shared between Occidental Mindoro
and Oriental Mindoro.
Victoria
Sablayan
River Network
Kisloyan Subwatershed
Barangay Boundary
Municipal Boundary
Geomorphological features
A. Slope
C. Geology
Geologic formation of the subwatershed shows that almost the entire area
(95.45%) evolved from the Pre-Jurassic to Jurassic era while the rest were of recent
(up to 1 million years old) origin. It was in the Pre-Jurassic and Jurassic eras that the
nickel and cobalt ore materials likely originated.
Vulnerability assessment of the Kisloyan subwatershed 65
The general composition of the rock deposits in the area are classified into
four, namely: silt-sand-gravel component generally deposited along the channel,
green schist with mica schist generally associated with the Halcon metamorphics
and, dunite and peridotite generally associated with the ultramafic complex (Fig. 4).
D. Climate
The subwatershed falls under Climatic Type III based on Corona’s Revised
Classification where rainfall is not pronounced and dry season lasts from one to three
months only. Rain mostly occurs in October, November, and December while the
driest period is during March and April.
Figure 5 shows the monthly mean rainfall during the two time periods: baseline
period (1951-1999) and climate change period (2000-2010). The selected time period
is in line with the PAGASA study on climate change which considers the period 1999
and earlier as the baseline period. The latter was found to have higher monthly mean
rainfall as compared to the baseline period (Daño et al. 2013). It shows that climate
change has a significant effect in the area and in the province as well. Rainfall almost
occurs from May to December. This underscores the fact that the Kisloyan subwatershed
is one of the major sources of water of the Mag-asawang Tubig River.
Table 5 Extent of the various geological characteristics of Kisloyan subcatchment
E. Geological hazards
The Kisloyan subwatershed is crisscrossed with major fault lines such as the
Aglubang River Fault and the Central Mindoro Fault. As recorded by the US Geological
Survey, the Kisloyan area was the epicenter of three moderately strong earthquakes
in the past. Further, there are three general geological hazards identified in the area.
These are landslides, soil erosion, and floods. Figure 6 shows the geohazard map of
the Kisloyan subwatershed.
1994. On the other hand, about 42% of the area is vulnerable to landslides caused by
intense rainfall (Fig. 8). Although some areas are interchangeably vulnerable to these
two forms of landslides, it is obvious that for the most part, Kisloyan subwatershed is
particularly vulnerable to landslides in general.
F. Land classification
Legal Status. The entire subwatershed is classified into three major land classes. These
include: timberland, alienable and disposable, and school reservation. Table 7 shows
that approximately 50% of the area is considered under the Timberland status. This
constitutes about 711 ha. The rest of the areas are under the School Reservation status
(MinSCAT) and Alienable and Disposable (A&D).
Victoria
areas with severe limitation for crop production, and (4) definitely unfit for agricultural
production (Table 8). As shown in Table 7b, 81% of the area or 1,169.10 ha is not
suited for agricultural activities where constant soil working is done. This includes
55% of the area under severe limitation and the 26% classified under not suited for
agricultural production. These areas had to stay as woodland and covered with trees.
The present classification of the area, where 21% had been declared as Alienable and
Disposable, fits relatively well with the inherent geophysical attribute and capability
of the land.
Four categories of present landuses and vegetative cover are observed in the
area. These are: closed canopy, cropland mixed with coconut plantation, cultivated
area mixed with brushland/grassland, and mossy forest (Fig. 9). Table 9 shows details
of the area covered under each category. This shows that a major portion of the area
is cultivated with mixed brushland/grassland but still with the presence of mossy and
closed canopy of mature trees covering >50% in the higher elevation.
The area is believed to contain rich amount of nickel and cobalt. Therefore,
it is anticipated that the extent of the variability in the proposed land management
modalities will largely depend on the perception of the various interest groups as to
how the area should be managed and utilized.
Vulnerability assessment
Table 10 shows the summary ratings of each parameter based on the guide of
scaling of factors for landslide vulnerability of Kisloyan subwatershed (ERDB 2011).
Vulnerability assessment of the Kisloyan subwatershed 73
The weights of the assigning values to each factors based on their influence
in the occurrence of landslide in the subwatershed were analyzed to determine the
vulnerability class of the subwatershed as presented in Table 11. This result is further
verified through the landslide vulnerability map in Fig. 10 .
Conclusion
Victoria
Sablayan
River Network
Kisloyan Subwatershed
Municipal Boundary
Low
Moderate
High
soil fertility loss sets in. Once fallow period is shortened, sustainability becomes a
critical issue. Notwithstanding the relative richness of its forest resources, the Kisloyan
subwatershed is threatened by its vulnerability to landslide.
Results of the vulnerability assessment in the area indicated that a large part
of the subwatershed is highly vulnerable to landslide. The vulnerability of these areas
is particularly precipitated by the convergence of the effects of slope, rainfall, soils,
and fault lines. These parameters are the principal operating factors that rendered
a major portion of Sablayan, Occidental Mindoro particularly vulnerable to these
geological risks. Although the Victoria, Oriental Mindoro side shares similar rainfall
and fault line characteristics with the rest of the areas, the aggravating effect of slope
stood out as a very critical factor in the analysis.
Recommendations
Natural hazards. As indicated in the results, there are specific areas in the
Kisloyan subwatershed that are particularly prone to geological perturbations, such as
ground movements, due to the presence of fault lines. The presence of these active
faults rendered the area vulnerable to landslides. Therefore, to forestall loss of life and
property, the long-term use of this subwatershed must be restricted to forest purposes.
The dwellers in these areas must be advised to move to safer grounds.
Several landslides are still visible in some portions of the area. These are
presumably results of the 1994 earthquake. Although many years had already passed,
these landslides have not been substantially repopulated with vegetation. It would be
beneficial to apply Assisted Natural Regeneration (ANR) using grasses and other low-
statured flora as pioneer or succession species.
The vulnerability map shows that majority of the areas in the subwatershed
are highly vulnerable to landslide. Therefore, the following mitigating measures,
among others, should be prioritized:
3. Installation of rain gauge within the watershed. Since Kisloyan is one of the
principal sources of water to Mag-asawang Tubig River, the river could also
be one of the major contributors to the inundation of the floodplains. Several
studies pointed out that the triggering effect of rainfall to landslide start once
an area receives >100 mm rainfall in a 24-hour rainfall event. The rain gauge
will give a signal to any impending landslide situation in the area. With the
early warning of an unusually heavy precipitation, the residents in the low-
lying areas of Mag-asawang Tubig River can be warned against a possible
flooding as a result of damming due to landslides, and the abrupt release of
the impounded waters in the Kisloyan River. This rain gauge can be installed
in the built-up areas where several dwellers live.
Literature cited
Brooks SM, Crozier MJ, Glade T, Anderson MG. 2004. Towards establishing climatic thresholds
for slope instability: Use of a physically-based combined solid hydrology-slope stability
model. Pure and Applied Geophysics. 161.
Crozier MJ. 1999a. Landslides. Alexander DE and Fairbridge RW, Editors. Encyclopedia of
Environmental Science. Dordrecht, Kluwer.
Crozier MJ. 1999b. Prediction of rainfall-triggered landslides: A test of the antecedent water
status model. Earth surface processes and landforms. 24:825-833.
Daño AM, Ebora JB, Ociones FT, Olvida AF. 2007. Guidelines on vulnerability assessment of
watersheds. Unpublished paper. College, Laguna.
Daño AM, Vendiola EE, Reaviles RS, Mauricio RA, Chicano DS. 2013. Impacts of climate
change on the extent and magnitude of flooding in Mag-asawang Tubig-Bucayao River
Basin in Oriental Mindoro. Unpublished Terminal Report. Ecosystems Research and
Development Bureau, College, Laguna.
McSaveney MJ. 2002. Recent rockfalls and rock avalanches in Mount Cook National Park,
New Zealand. Evans SGand DeGraff JV (Eds.) Catastrophic landslides: Effects, occurrence,
and mechanisms. 15:35-70.
Roberto IS. 2006. Philippine Disaster Management System: Case of the Oriental Mindoro
December 2005 Floods.
78 Vendiola E and Limpiada M
Schumm SA. 1979. Geomorphic thresholds: the concept and its applications. Transactions
Institute of British Geographers (New Series). 4:485-515.
Van Westen CJ, et al. 2008. Spatial data for landslide susceptibility, hazard and vulnerability
assessment: An overview. Engineering Geology, doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.03.010.
Sylvatrop, The Technical Journal of Philippine Ecosystems and Natural Resources 23 (1 & 2): 79 - 120
Bruno O. Carreon
Science Research Specialist I
The study was conducted in the ecologically and economically
significant Matutinao Watershed in Cebu. Ongoing developmental activities
in the area necessitates a landslide vulnerability assessment to avoid possible
losses of lives and properties. A GIS-assisted approach was developed to
a) evaluate the utility of GIS with regard to landslide vulnerability assessment
anchored on the climate change framework; b) identify and map out the
areas vulnerable to landslide; recommend appropriate measures to avoid
loss of lives and properties; and c) formulate policy recommendations.
In Central Visayas, Matutinao Watershed was the target site for CY 2014. It is
one of the important watersheds in Cebu because it supplies majority of the domestic
and agricultural waters in the municipalities of Alegria and Badian. It is also an
ecotourism site known for the fantastic beauty of Kawasan Falls. Thousands of local
and foreign tourists visit the place to commune with nature and to enjoy the cool
and refreshing waters and the beautiful landscape. It also generates power for nearby
Application of AHP and GIS in landslide vulnerability assessment 81
This study focused on the following: integration of AHP and GIS in landslide
vulnerability assessment anchored on a climate change perspective; evaluation of
the utility of GIS with regard to landslide assessment and mapping; identification and
mapping of areas that are vulnerable to landslides; recommendation of appropriate
measures to avoid loss of lives and properties due to landslides; and formulation of
policy recommendations.
Review of literature
Landslide is one of the forms of erosion called mass wasting when the
force of gravity pulls rock, debris or soil down a slope. It may occur when the stress
produced by the force of the gravity exceeds the resistance of the material due to
the determining and triggering factors (Varnes 1978). A landslide may be defined as
a “downhill and outward movement of slope-forming materials under the influence
of gravity” (Cruden 1991). According to Petley (2010), majority of landslides are
triggered by external processes that cause the slope for failure. These processes are
termed as “causes” which includes geomorphology, physical processes or features,
and human actions. In most cases, the final failure of slope occurs as a result of a
clear trigger. Rainfall triggered landslides happen when the rainwater sinks through
the earth on top of a slope, percolates through cracks and pore spaces in underlying
sandstone, and encounters a layer of slippery material, such as shale or clay, inclined
toward the valley (Petley 2010).
82 R. Lanuza et al.
Soeters and van Westen (1996) discussed the application of various GIS
methods with respect to the characteristics of the area, the extent and type of
landslides, data types, and mapping scale. However, GIS applications in natural
hazard management and development planning are limited only by the amount of
information available and by the imagination of the analyst. Mukhlisin et al. (2010)
Application of AHP and GIS in landslide vulnerability assessment 83
used GIS in analyzing and mapping landslide hazardous areas with four main factors
such as slope gradient aspect, geology, surface cover/landuse, and precipitation
distribution. They produced a hazard map with five different indexes (i.e., very low,
low, medium, high, and very high hazard). The results of the analysis were verified
using the landslide location data which showed that the model was very suitable in
predicting landslide hazard and generating landslide hazard maps.
et al. (1991) that for the development of criteria weights, the procedure of pairwise
comparison in AHP is a logical process. Weighted linear combination operator
commonly used with such factors lies on a continuum with these operators.
GIS can provide better information in decision making. Heywood et al. (1995) opined
that GIS allows the decision maker to identify a list of pre-defined set of criteria with
the overlay process.
Methodology
Project Site
S
540000 545000 550000
54000 0 54900 0
A MAP showing
location of Matutinao Watershed
1085000
1085000
Area : 5,735.677 hectares
Watershed : Matutinao Watershed
Municipality : Alegria, Badian, Dalaguete and
10800 00 10800 00 Malabuyoc
Province : Cebu
Island : Cebu
Legend
Political Boundary
1080000
1080000
10710 00 10710 00 Barangay
Matutinao Watershed
54000 0 54900 0
1075000
1075000
540000 545000 550000
S
540000 545000 550000
A MAP showing
barangay boundary within Matutinao
Watershed
1085000
1085000
Matutinao Area : 5,735.677 hectares
ait
Watershed : Matutinao Watershed
Str
Municipality : Alegria, Badian, Dalaguete and
Sulsogan Malabuyoc
on
Province : Cebu
n
Balhaan
Island : Cebu
Ta
2000 0 2000 Meters
Compostela Scale : 1:100000
Legend
Dugyan
Watershed Boundary
1080000
1080000
Barangay
Balhaan
Compostela
Valencia
Dugyan
Guadalupe
Lepanto
Matutinao
Nug-as
Palaypay
Sulsogan
Guadalupe Valencia
Application of AHP and GIS in landslide vulnerability assessment
Nug-as
1075000
1075000
Lepanto 475000 570000 665000
1235000
1235000
Palaypay
This Site
1140000
1140000
Data sources
The location of landslides and landslide prone areas were determined using
a Global Positioning System (GPS). Other primary data included the location of
infrastructures, farming systems and occupancy, and ground habitation which served
as inputs to the development of GIS-assisted model on landslide assessment.
The factors for each of the vulnerability functions such as exposure, sensitivity
and adaptive capacity were treated individually. Then, thematic maps were generated
for each factor.
Application of AHP and GIS in landslide vulnerability assessment 89
The average weight of factors was directly used for the exposure and adaptive
capacity. The weights for the factors identified were equally divided by the number
of factors for each vulnerability function. On the other hand, the MCE approach
using the AHP was employed in determining the relative weights for the sensitivity.
The MCE approach can objectively solve a complex decision problem with multiple
criteria using the AHP method introduced by Saaty (1980). The AHP is a method to
derive ratio scales from paired comparisons. The input can be obtained from actual
90 R. Lanuza et al.
An expert pair-wise comparison matrix was formulated and the weights to the
factors/criteria were assigned. Using the pair-wise comparison matrix, all identified
relevant factors/criteria were compared against each other with reproducible preference
factors to calculate the needed weights of factors. Table 2 shows the numerical values
expressing a judgment of the relative importance of one factor against another. The
values range from 1 to 9 which describe the intensity of importance (Saaty and Vargas
1991). A value of 1 expresses “equal importance” and a value of 9 is given for factors
with “extreme importance” over another factor.
In the next step, the assigned preference values are synthesized to determine
a numerical value which is equivalent to the weights of the factors. Therefore, the
Eigen values and Eigen vectors of the square preference matrix showing important
details about patterns in the data matrix are computed. The square matrix of order
11 gives 11 Eigen values with which 11 Eigen vectors can be computed. Saaty and
Vargas (1991) remarked that it is sufficient to calculate only the Eigen vector resulting
from the largest Eigen value since this Eigen vector contains enough information to
provide the relative priorities of the factors being considered. The pair-wise matrix
is normalized and the Eigen values of the normalized matrix, which represent the
parameter weights, are computed as shown in Table 3. The final equation of sensitivity
function is expressed in Equation 1:
M L L M H H
H L M H H VH
VH M H H VH VH
Potential Impact = (Exposure + Sensitivity)
2
Note: The formula was adapted from Allison et al. 2009
Vulnerability Values
Very Low < 2.0
Low 2.0 – 2.75
Moderate 2.75 – 3.5
High 3.5 – 4.2
Very High > 4.2
Figure 4 Potential impact of the ecosystem as a function of exposure and sensitivity
Adaptive Capacity
VL L M H VH
VL M L L VL VL
Potential Impact
L H M L L L
M H H M L L
H VH H H M L
VH VH VH H H M
The relative contribution by the physical and anthropogenic factors was also
analyzed. It was done by summing up all the physical and normalizing the values.
The same was done for the anthropogenic factors. The relative weights were 82.97%
and 17.03% for the physical and anthropogenic factors.
The vector files of the thematic maps with the respective hazard ratings
were converted into grid formats in assessing the landslide vulnerability class due
to exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity (Lanuza 2007). For the exposure and
adaptive capacity, a straight-forward conversion of the vector files to grid format was
done by averaging the respective hazard ratings. In the case of sensitivity, the GIS-
based approach with relative weights derived from AHP was applied to calculate areas
that are vulnerable to landslide using Equation 1. The vulnerability class followed the
ranges as presented in Table 4.
A review of existing programs was made and the results of the vulnerability
assessment on landslide was used to come up with the proposed mitigation measures
to minimize and control the negative impact of the identified environmental hazards
within Matutinao Watershed. The strategies focused on measures that can keep the
Application of AHP and GIS in landslide vulnerability assessment 95
Factors
Factors for sensitivity
for Sensitivity
Analytic Hierarchy
Process Parameter Class
Weighing (0-100) Landslide Hazard Model
on Sensitivity
Distance to Household
Distance to Economic Activities
Distance to Leisure Activities
Frequency (Household)
Frequency (Economic Activities)
Frequency (Leisure Activities)
Projected Increase in Rainfall
Percentage of Exposure
Self-help System
Availability of Structures
Availability and Use of Facilities
Special Skills and Training
External Assistance Model on the
IEC Activities
Leadership Potential
Formal Safety Association impact
Indigenous Practices Impact
Availability of Technology
Adoption of Technology
Landslides were among the natural hazards that had occurred within Matutinao
Watershed. Landslide refers to slides, rock falls, and/or lows of unconsolidated
materials. It can be triggered by heavy precipitation or groundwater rise that saturate
and loosen the soil, earthquakes, and river undercutting. Landslides are highly
localized but can be particularly hazardous due to their frequency of occurrence.
Matutinao Watershed belongs to the Type III Climate under the Corona
climate classification. This is characterized by no pronounced wet or dry season,
relatively dry from December to April, but wet during the rest of the year. It is situated
on less frequent typhoon zone making it favorable to vegetative interventions. The
highest amount of monthly rainfall was recorded in November 2001 having 523.7
mm. Moreover, the average monthly rainfall for the 9-year period (2000-2008) is
131.9 mm taken from three nearby stations. For the rainfall recorded in Philippine
Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA),
Mactan Station, the highest rainfall amount for the 11-year period (1997-2007)
was 423.5 in December 2003. Data on annual rainfall from three gauging stations
indicated that the month of May is the driest month with only 1,107.5 mm average
rainfall for the past seven years. In contrast, the month of March had the highest
rainfall with 1,835.6 mm followed by month of April that measured 1,663.1 mm
average rainfall.
Application of AHP and GIS in landslide vulnerability assessment 97
Table 5 Geographic location of landslide incidents and landslide prone areas within
Matutinao Watershed determined using a GPS handset (Lanuza et al. 2014)
Elevation
Location Easting Northing Remarks
(masl)
Alegria
Compostela 540163 1081046 236 Minor landslide area
540145 1081062 231 Minor landslide area
540133 1081079 232 Minor landslide area
540115 1081105 232 Minor landslide area
540022 1081134 238 Minor landslide area
540022 1081119 248 Landslide prone (4 people affected)
540189 1080989 222 Landslide prone
540206 1080811 220 Landslide prone
Guadalupe 539706 1076139 416 Landslide prone (5 houses affected) near
on somewhat a lake
539606 1076207 424 Landslide area (rock falls along road
at the back of Guadalupe Elementary
School)
539573 1076180 415 Landslide prone (road at the back of
Guadalupe Elementary School)
539696 1076253 391 Landslide prone (abandoned Guadalupe
Elementary School)
539678 1076253 392 Landslide prone (abandoned Guadalupe
Elementary School)
539655 1076266 423 Landslide prone (abandoned Guadalupe
Elementary School)
539675 1076300 427 Landslide prone (very steep area at the
back of Guadalupe Elementary School)
Lepanto 542548 1073654 633 Landslide area (occurring at road side)
98 R. Lanuza et al.
Table 5 Geographic location of landslide incidents and landslide prone areas within
Matutinao Watershed determined using a GPS handset (Lanuza et al. 2014)
(Continued)
Elevation
Location Easting Northing Remarks
(masl)
Valencia 541786 1077941 420 Landslide prone (occurring at sitio
Banahaw)
541825 1077964 404 Landslide prone
541863 1077985 414 Minor landslide area (near 3 houses)
541923 1078006 396 Landslide prone (2 houses)
541933 1078012 395 Landslide prone (cliff)
542097 1078054 394 Landslide prone (1 house)
542191 1077857 416 Landslide prone (1 house)
542170 1077866 409 Landslide area (rock falls)
542136 1077884 406 Landslide prone (near 2 houses)
542225 1077851 410 Landslide prone (1 house)
542246 1077851 409 Landslide prone (1 house)
542379 1077883 405 Landslide prone (2 houses)
542403 1077859 401 Landslide prone
543417 1077989 490 Landslide area (basketball court with
rock falls at the upper portion of Inghoy
Elementary School)
543423 1077964 493 Landslide area (rock falls affecting 3
houses)
543968 1077709 525 Landslide area (minor rock falls going to
sitio Mayana)
542405 1077830 423 Landslide prone (after Cambais falls)
540878 1079546 377 Landslide prone
Badian
Matutinao 540489 1084126 13 Landslide area (area due to earthquake)
540533 1084133 12 Landslide area (rock falls)
540651 1084093 15 Landslide area (located at the other
side of the river (portion of the adjacent
mountain) which occurred few years ago
Solsogan 542627 1082901 313 Landslide prone
Application of AHP and GIS in landslide vulnerability assessment 99
Furthermore, the rainfall pattern has two peaks from June to July and
September to October. Similarly, the general rainfall pattern of Cebu Province has
also two peaks around these months. The average annual rainfall within the watershed
is about 1,583.4 mm. Based on the 11-year rainfall data from PAGASA station in
Mactan, Cebu, the average annual rainfall is about 1,623.5 mm (Fig. 7).
The values of exposure and adaptive capacity per barangay are shown in
Tables 7 and 8 which were later converted to geospatial data using the average
weights of hazard ratings (Figs. 8 and 9). Meanwhile, the sensitivity was based on
GIS-assisted model as expressed in Equation 1 which was generated through Analytic
Hierarchy Process (AHP) and the hazard ratings are presented in Table 9. However,
before the relative weights of the GIS-assisted model were applied, the consistency
ratio (CR) was calculated. The CR is a measure of how consistent the judgments were
made relative to large samples of purely random judgments. The AHP always allows
for some level of inconsistencies which should not exceed a certain threshold (Saaty
1980).
Table 10 shows the Random indices (RI) developed by Saaty and Vargas
(1991) and is used to determine the CR. If the CR value is smaller or equal to 0.1,
100 R. Lanuza et al.
the inconsistency is acceptable. However, if the CR is greater than 0.1, the pair-wise
comparison may be revised as it implies that the judgments are unreliable because
they are too close for comfort to randomness.
Based on AHP, weights are calculated in percent as 26.24, 8.08, 8.08, 7.57,
7.57, 14.36, 5.80, 5.26, 4.29, 5.38, and 7.37 for slope, rainfall amount, typhoon
frequency, geologic age, geologic formation, relative distance to fault line, soil
type, landuse, farming system, habitation and occupancy, and ground disturbance,
respectively. The computed CR is 0.0127 which indicated a reasonable level of
consistency in the pair-wise comparison of the factors. Thus, the weights can be
accepted. The physical and anthropogenic sensitivity were further analyzed and the
final equation is:
The raster layer in grid format of each parameter is multiplied by their given
weight and summing them together by arithmetic weighted sum overlay tool using
GIS to generate the sensitivity (Fig. 10).
1085000
1085000
within Matutinao Watershed
###
Matutinao Area : 5,735.677 hectares
ait
Watershed : Matutinao Watershed
Str
Municipality : Alegria, Badian, Dalaguete and
n
Sulsogan# Malabuyoc
o
Province : Cebu
n
Balhaan
Island : Cebu
Ta
2000 0 2000 Meters
###
# Compostela Scale : 1:100000
#
Legend
Dugyan
Watershed Boundary
1080000
1080000
#
# Hazards areas
Barangay
Valencia Balhaan
#
Compostela
#### #######
# Dugyan
Guadalupe
Lepanto
Matutinao
##### Nug-as
Palaypay
Guadalupe Sulsogan
Nug-as Valencia
1075000
1075000
Application of AHP and GIS in landslide vulnerability assessment
#
Lepanto 475000 570000 665000
1235000
1235000
Palaypay
This Site
1140000
1140000
2,125.10
2,057.80
1,980.01 1,954.90
2,000.00
1,764.80
1,559.71
1,500.00 1,364.30 1,401.53 1,398.80
1,117.50 1,134.50
1,000.00
-
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Year
Figure 7 Annual rainfall from 1997 to 2007 at PAGASA Station, Mactan, Cebu
R. Lanuza et al.
Application of AHP and GIS in landslide vulnerability assessment 103
ha, 826.23 ha, 715.07 ha, 212.07 ha, and 209.56 ha, respectively. However, the
information generated is only indicative.
1. Dugyan * nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd
D. Alcoy
1. Nug-as * nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd
E. Malabuyoc
1. Palaypay * nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd
Note: AC5 - External Assistance AC10 - Availability of Technology
AC1 - Self-help System AC6 - IEC AC11 - Adoption of Technology
AC2 - Availability of Structures AC7 - Leadership
AC3 - Availability and use of Facilities AC8 - Formal Safety Association
AC4 - Special Skills and Training AC9 - Common Safety Indigenous Practices
105
Table 9 Hazard rating of various themes
Landslide parameters /Sensitivity Subclass of parameters Hazard rating
1. Slope Very Steep (>50%) 5
Steep (30-50%) 4
Moderate (18-30%) 3
Gentle (8-18%) 2
Very Gentle (0-8%) 1
2. Rainfall (Annual) > 2000 mm 5
1500 – 2000 mm 4
1000 mm – 1500 mm 3
500 mm – 1000 mm 2
< 500 mm 1
3. Typhoon Frequency 3 times a year 3
4. Geologic Age Upper Miocene-Pliocene, Pliocene-Pleistocene 4
Oligocene-Miocene 3
5. Geologic Formation Carcar Formation, Maingit Formation 4
Barili Formation 3
6. Relative Distance to Fault 0 – 0.5 km 5
line
0.5 – 2 km 4
2 – 5 km 3
5 – 8 km 2
> 8 km 1
7. Soil Type Clay loam, silt loam 4
Clay, loam 3
8. Landuse Cultivated area (annual crops) 5
Shrublands 4
Woodland with grassland, natural grassland, open forest with broadleaves 3
species
9. Farming System Upland farms (Cropland) 5
Brushland 4
Open forest interspersed with broadleaves species 3
10. Occupancy and Habitation 0 – 100 m 5
100 – 200 m 4
200 – 300 m 3
300 – 400 m 2
> 500 m 1
11. Ground Disturbance 0 – 200 m 5
200 – 400 m 4
400 – 600 m 3
600 – 800 m 2
> 800 m 1
Note: Values in bold are the hazard ratings of the landslide parameters (sensitivity) of Matutinao Watershed.
Application of AHP and GIS in landslide vulnerability assessment 107
Table 10 Random Index for matrices of various sizes (Saaty and Vargas 1991)
n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
RI 0.00 0.52 0.90 1.12 1.24 1.32 1.41 1.45 1.49 1.51
Note:
CR= CI/RI, where CI = ( max - n)/(n-1), RI = random index, n = number of criteria, λmax is priority vector
multiplied by each column total.
1085000
1085000
within Matutinao Watershed
it
Area : 5,735.677 hectares
tra
Watershed : Matutinao Watershed
Municipality : Alegria, Badian, Dalaguete and
nS
Malabuyoc
o
Province : Cebu
n
Island : Cebu
Ta
2000 0 2000 Meters
Scale : 1:100000
Legend
Watershed Boundary
1080000
1080000
Exposure
0 - 2.1 (Very Low)
2.1 - 2.8 (Low)
2.8 - 3.5 (Moderate)
3.5 - 4.2 (High)
> 4.2 (Very Hig)
1075000
1075000
Note: The watershed boundary
is based from the map
presented in the Watershed
475000 570000 665000
Characterization Report (2007).
However, this map is for
1235000
1235000
December 2014 Universal Transverse Mercator 51N Source: NAMRIA, FMS 475000 570000 665000
MDGF, 2010
Luzon Datum (excluding Mindanao)
Figure 8 Exposure to landslide within Matutinao Watershed based on 2020 rainfall projection
R. Lanuza et al.
Application of AHP and GIS in landslide vulnerability assessment
111
1085000
1085000
Area : 5,735.677 hectares
ait
Watershed : Matutinao Watershed
Str
Municipality : Alegria, Badian, Dalaguete and
Malabuyoc
on
Province : Cebu
n
Island : Cebu
Ta
2000 0 2000 Meters
Scale : 1:100000
Legend
Watershed Boundary
1080000
1080000
Sensitivity
0 - 2.1 (Very Low)
2.1 - 2.8 (Low)
2.8 - 3.5 (Moderate)
3.5 - 4.2 (High)
> 4.2 (Very Hig)
1075000
1075000
Note: The watershed boundary
is based from the map
presented in the Watershed
475000 570000 665000
Characterization Report (2007).
However, this map is for
1235000
1235000
Figure 10 Sensitivity to landslide within Matutinao Watershed based on 2020 rainfall projection
R. Lanuza et al.
N
1085000
1085000
it
Area : 5,735.677 hectares
Watershed : Matutinao Watershed
tra
Municipality : Alegria, Badian, Dalaguete and
nS
Malabuyoc
o
Province : Cebu
n
Island : Cebu
Ta
2000 0 2000 Meters
Scale : 1:100000
Legend
Watershed Boundary
1080000
1080000
Potential Impact
0 - 2.1 (Very Low)
2.1 - 2.8 (Low)
2.8 - 3.5 (Moderate)
3.5 - 4.2 (High)
> 4.2 (Very Hig)
1075000
1075000
Application of AHP and GIS in landslide vulnerability assessment
Figure 11 Potential impact as a function of exposure and sensitivity on landslide within Matutinao
Watershed based on 2020 climate projection
113
114
N
1085000
1085000
within Matutinao Watershed
Area : 5,735.677 hectares
ait
Watershed : Matutinao Watershed
Str
Municipality : Alegria, Badian, Dalaguete and
Malabuyoc
on
Province : Cebu
an
Island : Cebu
T
2000 0 2000 Meters
Scale : 1:100000
Legend
Watershed Boundary
1080000
1080000
Landslide Vulnerability
<= -1.0 (Very Low)
-1.0 - 0 (Low)
0 - 0.5 (Moderate)
0.5 - 1.5 (High)
> 1.5 (Very Hig)
1075000
1075000
Note: The watershed boundary
is based from the map
presented in the Watershed
475000 570000 665000
Characterization Report (2007).
However, this map is for
1235000
1235000
Figure 12. Landslide vulnerability as a function of exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity
within Matutinao Watershed based on 2020 climate projection
R. Lanuza et al.
Application of AHP and GIS in landslide vulnerability assessment 115
Conclusions
The GIS technology coupled with the application of AHP has demonstrated its
capability in assessing landslide vulnerability in a watershed. The application of AHP
has provided a strong basis in determining the relative importance of the landslide
sensitivity factors. Moreover, the approach has also refined the previously reported
GIS-assisted model by incorporatinh the vulnerability functions (exposure, sensitivity
and adaptive capacity) anchored on climate change framework. The model predicted
the location of landslides in a climate change perspective and these areas have been
mapped out using GIS. Out of 21 locations, 67% falls on high vulnerability, 14% on
very high vulnerability, and 19% on medium vulnerability. Therefore, this approach
can be a valuable tool in watershed planning to avoid possible losses of lives and
properties caused by landslides.
116 R. Lanuza et al.
However, with the limited funding and insufficient actual observations on the
magnitude of landslide, there was no detailed validation of the GIS-assisted model.
With this limitation, this model needs to be validated using sufficient actual landslide
data in the area.
Recommendations
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to express their deepest gratitude to the following persons and
institutions that in one way or another extended their assistance in the conduct of this research
endeavor;
Dr. Alicia L. Lustica and Mrs. Emma E. Melana for their support and technical inputs
in the research work; Samuel Laurino, for providing the GIS maps. Also, to MGB for the geology
maps, Philvocs for the faults map downloaded from their website, CENRO Argao and PAGASA
Mactan for providing the rainfall data, and to all ERDS personnel who in one way or another
assisted the project leader and the VA team;
Special thanks to OIC CENRO Flordeliza Geyrozaga, and For. Mardionne delos
Reyes, for their assistance in the project implementation;
The Local Government Units of Alegria and Badian headed by their respective
mayors, Mayor Verna Magallon and Mayor Rubbort Librando, the staff from MAO/MENRO,
and the barangay captains for their assistance during data gathering and facilitation of Focus
Group Discussion;
ERDS 7, FMS 7 and ERDB for providing funding support;
To our loved ones for their love, care, prayers, and understanding;
And above all, to the LORD GOD ALMIGHTY who gives life, knowledge, wisdom,
blessings and graces which make this work a reality.
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122
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