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Abstract: Every semester students are asked to complete course on by introducing the web-based approach. However some
evaluations at Limkokwing University. The main goal of the universities have conducted research and implemented the
course evaluation is to collect feedback from student in order to online course evaluation and have found it effective. Online
improve the quality of the education. However, a traditional
evaluation system promises a lower costs compared to
method of using paper and pencil is the current approach in
Limkokwing University. In this paper we proposed an intelligent paper-based evaluation. In addition it saves time for the
online course evaluation system that aims to automate this faculty, anonymity for students, better safeguards against
routine in order to facilitate data gathering, analysis and tampering, and more flexibility in questionnaire and report
storage. The document is an essential element as it provides a design [2]. Just like any normal system, the online
summary of the literature about online course evaluation in the evaluation system also has some drawbacks which include
first part of the paper and describes our findings on the
easy sensitive data access by unauthorized users, lower
approaches use for text mining in the second part. And finally
we discussed about the proposed system and the implementation
response rates and ratings may be less favourable to
of Natural Language Processing. lecturers.
KeyWords: Online Course evaluation, data mining, Natural In this paper we discuss about the argument over the online
Language Processing. and offline course evaluation method. We also discuss about
the evolution of online course evaluation system, and we
presented an intelligent online course evaluation proposed to
replace the current paper method use in Limkokwing
1. Introduction
University.
The evolution of technology and computer reveals the
Internet as the fastest medium of communication where the 2. Previous Works
information is at your fingertips. This evolution has brought
a new era where real time information are being accessed 2.1. Evolution of Course evaluation
from everywhere. As part of that evolution the education has According to Haskell the student evaluation of faculty
come to the level where universities, lecturers and students members was first used at the Univeristy of Wisconsin in the
communication through internet. We are living the era of early 1920s to collect students’ feedbacks. Many other
virtual world where everything seems to be transformed universities introduce it in the 1960s as a decision-support
from physical to digital form. Thus, new concepts such as tool regarding salary, promotion, and tenure. Since then it
virtual classrooms and digital libraries have been introduced has been the dominant method for evaluating teaching
to break the barriers of education and meet challenges of the across North America, and continue to be the same today
new millennium. but used for formative purpose to help faculty improve
The Idea of online course evaluation system is to abandon teaching instead of summative decisions regarding salary,
the paper evaluation system that has been used for years. promotion, tenure and merit.
The evolution from paper to online student evaluation With the emergence of internet we were introduced to online
system is an innovative idea of the new millennium where evaluation system in the 1990s. In 1997, Columbia
everything is been automated and accessed from home., If University implemented their Web course Evaluation system
students can study online and register online why not [30]. This system allowed faculty to customize their surveys
evaluate their lecturer online? Despite the growth of World and was linked directly to the registrar’s office for security.
Wide Web, the online course evaluation remains a new topic The result of evaluation was published on a public web
to many institutions of higher education. Most of them are where anyone could view.
stuck on the traditional approach and have problem to move In Australia, Deakin University recognized the potential
2 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
savings in time and expense they would gain by shifting In 2002 and 2004, Teaching Questionnaire ratings were
from traditional evaluation to an online evaluation system collected online in several University departments in Pilot
[31]. Before the implementation of their online system in tests. A low performance of web-based Teaching
1998, off-campus students used to mail their evaluation Questionnaire compared to the standard was observed in the
form and the compilation of these forms into electronic form tests with a lower response rate and less favourable
could take up to 3 months to complete. The implementation responses [2]. Several studies demonstrated the low
of an HTML and CGI-based online system raised the response rate provided by the web-based questionnaires
response rate to 50% in 1997. Then later after the which are illustrated in Table 1.
implementation the complete online evaluation system,
online and offline student could log in with their unique ID Table 1: comparison between web Based and Paper approach
and complete the evaluation. Researchers Yea Web Mail/
In the late 1990s two (2) other universities in china r Based/ pape
(HKUST, HKU and HKPU) collaborated to create 2 online E-mail r
evaluation systems [32]. COSSET (Centralised Online Medlin et al 1999 28% 47%
System for Student Evaluation of Teaching) and OSTEI Guterbock et al 2000 37% 48%
(Online System for Teaching Evaluation of Instructors). Kwak and Radler 2000 27% 42%
Comparatively, COSSET provided more features than Crawford et al 2001 35%
Ranchlod & Zhou 2001 20% 6%
OSTEI and relied on registration information for student
logins while OSTEI used a combination of instructor ID and
questionnaire ID for logins which was less secure. But A research since 1986 [11] noticed a drop of email-survey
OSTEI was flexible and allowed instructor to register and response rates from 46% in 1995/1996 to 31% in
create their own questionnaire and also provided a bank of 1998/1999. Other research also noticed a drop of response
800 questions to allow custom questionnaire. rates in a survey completed in 1995 and 1998 [12].
Another system was implemented by Drexel University [30]. Layne also was conducted a comparative study between
This system was based on HTML, SQL and the Perl electronic and paper course evaluation [13]. In this survey a
scripting language. Instructors would submit their questions number of 2,453 were evaluated using the same question in
on a template email which would be uploaded as evaluation the electronically and paper-based evaluation. The response
forms into the system. The students name and birth date rate was 60.6% for the class evaluation against 47.8% for
were used to log in and complete the evaluation. to the online evaluation. Another research that conducted in
encourage more participation, E-mail was used as main 2000 had a very less participation of student in the online-
means of communication between students and the faculty based evaluation, and the reason was that students were
to remind student about completing the evaluations. satisfied with their lecturers’ performances which give them
According to Hmieleski in a report on higher education in an excuse not to fill the evaluation form [14]. Students
2000, only 2 institutions ranked as the most wired were found the online evaluation easy to use and liked it because
using the online evaluation among the 200 wired- of the anonymity. The online method gave them the ability
institutions in Australia. However In 2002, the online to provide more thoughtful comment than the traditional
evaluation system was still considered limited in higher method.
education. However some researchers found a positive result in email
Electronic Evaluation Method Vs Traditional paper response rates. Unlike table 1, Tables 2 provides the
Method: findings that demonstrates high response rate for online
Many Universities hesitate to convert to web-based evaluation over the traditional approach.
evaluation due to fears regarding cost, return rates, and
Tables 2: Comparison between E-mail and Mail Evaluation
response quality [1] but in one of the previous studies on
this topic, [4] compared traditional course evaluation with
Authors Year Email Mail
online evaluations at Rutgers College of Pharmacy. they
compared the evaluation rates of both methods and found
Parker 1992 60% 38%
that the paper had a evaluation rate of 97% with a response
rate of 45% to the open-ended questions whereas online Kiesler & 1986 67% -
method had an evaluation rate of 88% and a response rate of Sproull
33% for the open-ended questions. Dommeyer also
conducted a survey to determine preferred method of student Walsh et al 1992 76%
appraisal where the tagged was a group of business
professors [3]. Out of 159 faculty members, 33% responded Jaclyn M, 1998-2002 64%
and there was a preference for the paper evaluation because Grahan H
they believed it has a higher response rate and accurate
response. It was concluded that the online approach could Some others researchers in their research stated that the
be more appealing to faculty members if techniques could be advantage of E-mail or web based survey over traditional
used to increase students’ response rates. method is that Paper resource use savings decrease costs by
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 3
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
80 to 95% [11] [19] [20]. Compared to a normal mail survey the University to implement an online rating system,
it is cheaper and the cost decreases as survey size increases including communication and training as essential
[21]. In addition, students provide more answers to the open components of the system. They also recommend comments
ended question online [21] [12], according to another not to be stored in the database or electronics files after
research on 1998 email surveys are cheaper and faster than using them as they could be easily accessed by an
paper surveys, encourage respondents to reply and can unauthorized user which reduce the Freedom of Information
provide a friendly environment [22]. Act (FOIA). And they also stated that authors of comments
According to [3], St. Louis College of pharmacy compared and ratings should not be identified during collection of
the traditional paper with online evaluation. Out of 169 data. And the list of respondents should be deleted from the
students in the survey, 50 were randomly chosen to complete system and should never be available to the faculty and
the same form online, and the other 119 students to teachers.
complete the traditional paper. This study showed that In addition they gave recommendation to overcome one of
despite the small number of students completing the online the common concerns of online evaluation system which is
evaluation, they provided more comment than the big low response rates. They forbid Universities to use
amount of student that completed traditionally; and the incentives and sanctions to improve the response but
number of words typed online was 7 times the number of instead, use targeted announcements and frequent follow-up
words typed offline. The time spent by students to complete reminders for students during period when the evaluation is
was approximately 10 minutes online VS 25 minutes offline. being collected.
The staff took 30 hours to compile scores and comment from Completion time indicated in the invitation, timing of the
the paper VS an hour to just download scores and comments reminder notice, access to the survey. Perceived anonymity
from the online survey. and confidentiality of responses including reward are factors
may affect the email survey response rates [6]. An
2.2. Web based survey methodology
investigation of another research on 2001 shows that more
Based on our research we found that either paper or web the time given to complete the survey increases more the
based survey; the methodology matters as it affects the response rate decreases because the user will not focus
response rates. A research shows that there is a way to knowing that he has a lot of time to complete it [10].
maximise response rates by keeping the questionnaire short Online respondent are more distracted with others opened
and the following up notice is an important aspect that windows and may have less attention. A risk of being
affects the response rate. A reminder after two days had a attacked by virus is considerable and the download time or
completion rate of 30.3% while a reminder after five days number of pages accessed may affect the online survey.
had a completion rate of 24.3 %(p<0.050) . In general, two Unlike the web-based, these are generally not issues with the
days reminder notice is suggested [6]. But others paper or mail survey [6]. Due to the big amount of email
researchers [23] have found improved response rates with received by users, it is likely that they may ignore email
fourth contacts. form unknown senders [10].
In a Crawford et al study, the authors mentioned that the
more complicated is the access to the questionnaire; fewer
3. Text Mining
users are motivated to respond. Researchers have
demonstrated that the ease of access to the survey page is As the human speak or write English, he uses a lot of word
important. Dommeryer and Moriarty showed that an combination to express something or to explain something.
embedded survey with an en easy access had a better Out of 50 words spoken or written, the useful information
response rate compared to an attached questionnaire that needed by others might only be 10 to 20 words, the rest are
requires downloading, completing and uploading the the way to make the English language beautiful. when we
questionnaire [24]. To minimize the download time of read a text, our brain try to get the useful information out of
questionnaire pages other researchers recommended the use it and try to match it with something store on our mind in
of simple designs for the system [25]. The question should order to understand and interpret it for decision support . So
be straight forward and simple, in addition each point does the computer through test mining.
should ask only one question [26]. Text mining also called text data mining, processes
A lack of anonymity in the use of email surveys has been unstructured textual information to extract high quality
underline as one of the reason of the low response rates [16] information through patterns and trends such as statistical
[25]. Administrators can track passwords and easily access pattern learning. Data mining involve the process of
user answers. Especially with Emails, an author is easily structuring text that would be stored in a database and
traceable via return email on which the respondent email restore later for interpretation. Text mining tasks include
may be included. And if the survey is designed online and text categorization, text clustering, and concept/entity
no password, there is no way to follow up on non extraction, production of granular taxonomies, sentiment
respondents and there won’t be any control over the number analysis, document summarization, and entity relation
of survey complication per person rates [6]. modelling.
Some research teams provided recommendation for the Text mining also called knowledge discovery for text was
methodology to be used. There was a recommendation for mentioned for the first time by. Un Yong N. and Raymond
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Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
J. M defined it as “the process of finding useful or KDD and data mining are two terms that are sometimes
interesting patterns, models, directions, trends, rules from confusing and used as synonyms. Reasons given were that
unstructured text”. It refers generally to the process of Data mining includes all the aspect of knowledge discovery
extracting interesting information and knowledge from process [33] and that data mining was a part of the KDD-
unstructured text [32]. It has been describe as truly processes or modelling phase of KDD process. However data
interdisciplinary method drawing on information retrieval, mining represent the same concept as KDD and has for goal
machine learning, statistics, computational linguistics and to retrieve useful information in data. It was defined by [33]
especially data mining [32]. That implies that text mining as the search for valuable information in large quantities of
uses techniques for information extraction and natural data. For data mining to achieve its goals, few research
language processing (NLP) to extract data to which areas need to be included which are database, machine
algorithms and methods of KDD can be applied. This learning and statistics.
technique is widely used by many authors [2] [32]. Text • Database is not only used to store found information
mining was also described as the extraction of not yet only but it is necessary to support the data mining
discovered information in large collections of texts [35]. It is algorithms for the identification of useful information.
considered as process oriented approach on texts. For a • Machine learning (ML) is a field of artificial
good comprehension of the topic, there are few terms that intelligence which consists of developing techniques to
you need to be familiar with. allow computers to learn by analysis of data.
3.1Text Mining Approaches • Statistics deals with science for the analysis of
empirical data. Today many methods of statistics are
Text mining has several approaches or techniques. Some
used in the field of KDD [33].
proposed techniques are knowledge Discovery and Data
Information Retrieval (IR):
mining, Information Retrieval, Information Extraction,
Information retrieval is the finding of documents which
Knowledge Discovery and Data mining:
contain answers to questions and not the finding of answers
Knowledge discovery or knowledge discovery in databases
itself [35]. IR refers to the research of information using
(KDD) is defined by [35] as the non-trivial process of
methods, automatic processing of text data and comparison
identifying valid, novel, potentially useful, and ultimately
of question and answer. IR is a research area that has been
understandable patterns in data. It considers the application
widely used with the growth of World Wide Web. It was
of statistical and machine-learning methods to discover
first used for automatic indexing. IR also refers to the
novel relationships in large relational databases [34]. KDD
extraction of information based of keywords such as search
has for goal finding hidden patterns or facts in a database or
engines [33].
text file and includes several processing steps that have to be
applied to the data in order to achieve this goal. The main 3.2Natural Language Processing (NLP)
steps defined by Cross Industry Standard process for Data Natural Language Processing refers to text processing for an
mining (Crisp DM) is shown in Figure 1 namely: phases of understanding of human language by a computer. Its goal is
Crip DM [10]. Business understanding and Data to interpret human language through the use of computers
understanding are the first steps that consist of analysis and [36]. Natural Language Processing is a linguistic analyse
understanding of the initial problem. The next step which is technique for a fast text processing.
Data preparation consist of pre-processing to convert data The concept of Natural Language Processing is all about
from textual to a format that can be suitable for the data understanding an input in a form of natural language and
mining algorithm which is applied at the Modelling phase. producing an interpretation of it in sentence in a form of
The process is completed by an evaluation and deployment natural language as well through the use of computer. The
of the obtained model. process of understanding a sentence by the computer in
Natural Language Processing is illustrated in Figure 2.
words are defined using vector representation whereby as Tribune Company use text mining to monetize the
numerical value is stored for each word. The currently content.
predominant approaches are the vector space model [39], • Sentiment analysis may involve analysis of movie reviews
the probabilistic model [25] and the logical model. to estimating how favourable a review is for a movie.
The Vector Space Model: • Academic applications: text mining is an important tool
The vector space model was introduced first for indexing for publishers who hold database of information and
and information retrieval [25] but now it is also used for text require indexing for retrieval.
mining and in most currently available document retrieval Example of Applications using text Mining:
systems [33]. It enables efficient analysis of huge text • AeroText: is a package of text mining applications for
documents by representing them as vectors in m- content analysis.
dimensional space. Each document d is described by a • Attensity: can be hosted, integrated or stand-alone text
numerical feature vector w(d) =( x(d, t1), . . . , x(d, tm)) mining software that uses natural language processing
thus, the documents can be compared by use of simple technology to address collective intelligence in social
vector operations and even queries can be performed by media and forums.
encoding the query terms similar to the document in a query • Endeca Technologies: provides software to analyze and
vector. The query vector can then be compared to each cluster unstructured text.
document and a result list can be obtained by ordering the • Autonomy: suite of text mining, clustering and
documents according to the computed similarity [25]. categorization solutions for a variety of industries.
• Expert System- suit of semantic technologies and
3.4Applications for text Mining products for developers and knowledge managers.
Text mining is an area currently used in various domains.
Security applications:
Text mining is usually used to analyze plain text source in 4. Proposed System
internet. Text can be filtered by removing some In our research we noticed that most online course
inappropriate terms such as bad word in a chat room. It is evaluation have common requirements that many programs
used as well to automate the classification of texts. i.e it can meet such as user authentication to prevent from
be applied to filter undesirable junk email based on certain unauthorized use of the system and prevent double
terms or words that are not likely to appear in normal evaluation, student anonymity that protects them from being
messages. Those messages can be automatically discarded or trace by their lecturers, user validation and report. However
routed to the most appropriate department. we found that only very few existing system use chart to
Analyzing open-ended survey responses: represent data in the report and none of them allow the
It is used in survey research in which various open-ended system to provide suggestion to the manager based on the
questions about the topic are included. The idea is to allow students comment. That is the reason we propose an
respondents to express their opinions with no limitation or intelligent course evaluation system that will generate a
without constraining them to a particular response format. report that includes suggestion and chart. It would be a
Text mining is now used in marketing applications to system that uses algorithms to understand and retrieve from
analyze customer relationship management apply it to students open-ended responses useful data and interpret it
improve predictive analytics models for customer attrition. into information for the report.
This method is often used by marketing to discover a certain
set to words used to describe the pro’s and con’s of a 4.1. Proposed System Features and user Roles
product or service. The intelligent online evaluation system would have 3 user
The proposed system falls into this area of application. It roles: The faculty members that would own the admin role,
will be using the same concept to interpret the student the student and the lecturer role. These roles have different
comment in the open-ended question of the student level of access to data and are provided with different
appraisal. features.
Analyzing warranty or insurance clains, diagnostic Students: are the potential stakeholders of this system.
interviews, etc: Upon log in they are provided questionnaire link for each
In some business domains, most data are collected in open- module that they can evaluate only once. They can see the
ended textual form. For example warranty claims or medical status of each evaluation questionnaire to know which
interviews are usually written in text form by a customer to modules they have not evaluated yet. Their input will be
explain the problems and the needs. These information are processed and used to generate the report.
type electronically and available for input text mining Lecturers: have a passive or viewer role. They are only able
algorithms. And as output, can generate useful structured to view students comments related to the course they teach
information that identifies common clusters of problems. without having a possibility to trace the authors. This would
Others applications: help them to know what student think about the course and
• Various biomedical applications use text mining such as would know how to improve their way of teaching.
PubGene, GoPubMed.org and GoAnnatator. Faculty members: the faculty members are those who can
• Online Media applications uses by media companies such view every single thing except the student name of a
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 7
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
particular response. They give account to lecturer and and reduce work as it would provide chart and suggestion
student, allocate module to student and lecturer, create, edit using Artificial Intelligence (Natural Language Processing).
and delete questionnaire and view report. The report With a proper project plan the proposed system would be a
includes the student’s feedback, statistical result with chart platform that would be benefiting the University.
for every lecturer and suggestion that would help the faculty Future Enhancement
to take strategic and academic decision. The faculty As the time past, new challenges are presented to man-kind.
members would be able to view as well the response One of the most common challenges of the new millennium
percentage of each module and can set starting date and is the rapid access of information and very recently the
finishing date of the questionnaire. mobility of the information. The technology is moving to
The challenges presented here brought us into other area of mobile computing, and all the businesses are introducing it
research that would allow us to achieve this innovative and to have a huge amount of customer. As future enhancement
very useful change. We conducted research in the area of of the intelligent online course evaluation we are planning
Artificial Intelligence and to be more specific in text to provide a platform that would allow student the
processing method. The idea is to understand the student evaluation of their lecturer through mobile phone and PDA.
answers to the open ended question (in Natural language),
process it and provide reports and suggestion (in Natural Acknowledgment
language).
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to ARASH
In our research we studied various text mining approaches
HABIBI LASHKARI (PHD candidate of UTM) for his
and found the Natural Language processing (NLP) as the
supervision and guidance. Also, we would like to express
suitable approach to meet the system requirement. As the
our appreciation to our parents and all the teachers and
students would be writing their comment in sentence using
lecturers who help us to understand the importance of
their ordinary way to speak and write, the system would
knowledge and show us the best way to gain it.
need a robust natural language analysis to process the
students input (sentences) and interpret it to generate a
report in sentences. References
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Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Abstract: A fuzzy extractor is designed to extract a uniformly the alphabet of a random variable is denoted by the
distributed string from a noisy input in an error-tolerant corresponding script letter, the cardinality of a set is
manner. It has two outputs for a noisy input, a uniformly denoted by . The expected value of a real-valued random
distributed string and a public string. This paper gives the effect
variable is denoted by . The uniform distribution
of public string on the entropy loss in a fuzzy extractor, and
obtains the relationship between the entropy loss and public over is denoted by .
string, and the relationship between the size of extracted string A useful bound for any real-valued variable , any
and public string. , and any ( is the set of real numbers) is
.
Keywords: Cryptography, Secure sketch, Fuzzy extractor,
Min-entropy, Entropy loss Take , we have
(1)
1. Introduction The Rényi entropy of order of a random variable with
distribution and alphabet is defined as
To securely derive cryptographic keys from a noisy input
,
such as biometric data, a fuzzy extractor is designed to
extract a uniformly distributed string from this noisy input for and .
in an error-tolerant manner [1, 2, 5, 6, 7]. A fuzzy extractor The min-entropy of is
has two outputs for a noisy input, a uniformly distributed .
string which is used as cryptographic key, and a public The conditional min-entropy of given is
string which is used to encode the information needed for .
extraction of the uniformly distributed string. The difference We have .
between the min-entropy of the input and the conditional The statistical distance between two probability
min-entropy of the input given extracted string is defined as distributions with the same alphabet is defined
the entropy loss of a fuzzy extractor. as
This paper gives the effect of public string on the entropy .
loss in a fuzzy extractor, and obtains the relationship Lemma 1 [1]: Let be two random variables, if
between the entropy loss and public string, and the has possible values, then for any random variable ,
relationship between the size of extracted string and public
string.
A metric space is a set with a distance function
A similar problem in unconditionally-secure secret-key
, satisfying if
agreement protocol was considered in [3, 4, 8], which dealt
and only if , and symmetry
with the effect of side-information, obtained by the opponent
and the triangle inequality
through an initial reconciliation step, on the size of the
.
secret-key that can be distilled safely by subsequent privacy
Definition 1. An -secure sketch is a pair of
amplification.
randomized procedures, “sketch” ( ) and “recover” ( ),
2. Preliminaries with the following properties:
(i) The sketching procedure on input returns
We repeat some fundamental definitions and conclusions in a bit string . The recovery procedure takes
this section. Random variables are denoted by capital letter,
an element and a bit string .
10 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
(ii) Correctness: Because is an arbitrary constant, we take it big
If , then . enough such that is approximately 1, take limit
(iii) Security: For any distribution over , with , and obtain
if , then . ,
Definition 2. An -fuzzy extractor is a pair with probability approximately 1.
of randomized procedures, “generate” ( ) and Let , if is distributed uniformly, then
“reproduce” ( ), with the following properties: , ,
(i) The generation procedure on input .
outputs an extracted string and a helper string Therefore, the lemma1 is a special case of Theorem1.
.The reproduction procedure takes an Lemma2. Let be a constant, then
element and a bit string as inputs.
(ii) Correctness: If and with probability at least .
, then . Proof. From
(iii) Security: For any distribution over , if ,
and , then we have , ,
. .
From (1), it follows
3. The Effect of Public String on Extracted
String and the Size of Extracted String So
In the following two theorems, we give the relationship ,
between the entropy loss and the public string in a fuzzy with probability at least .
extractor. Because the inequality holds for each , we have
Theorem 1. In an -fuzzy extractor, let
be a random variable with alphabet , be a deterministic ,
function of , and with alphabet . Then with with probability at least .
probability approximately 1, we have Theorem2. Let be the same as theorem1,
.
be an arbitrary constant. Then for
Proof. We first consider the entropy loss of the Rényi
entropy of order . Since is a deterministic
function of , and , it follows that
with probability at least .
Proof. From
or
.
Let be an arbitrary constant,
.
From (1), we have
By chebychef inequality, we have
,
or and
( d )(
Lp (d ) = Lp (d0 ) + 10n log10 d
0 dB)
, d ≥ d0 (3)
Here w is the street width (in m) and
where n = path loss component, d0 = the close-in reference ∆hMobile = hRoof − hMobile (7)
distance (typically 1 km for macro cells, 100m for micro
cells), d = distance between transmitter and receiver. is the difference between the height of the building on which
the base station antenna is located, hRoof, and the height of
3. Point-to-Point Prediction Models the mobile antenna, hMobile. Lori is the loss that arises due to
the orientation of the street. It depends on the angle of
Calculation of the path loss is usually called prediction. incidence ( φ ) of the wave relative to the direction of the
Exact prediction is possible only for simpler cases, such as
street.
the above-mentioned free space propagation or the flat-earth
Lori is given by
model. For practical cases the path loss is calculated using a
variety of approximations.
− 10 + 0 . 354 φ 0 0 ≤ φ < 35 0
The area-to-area model provides path loss with long (8)
L ori = 2 . 5 + 0 . 075 (φ − 35 ) for 35 0 ≤ φ < 55 0
range of uncertainty. Point-to-Point prediction reduces the
4 . 0 − 0 . 114 (φ − 55 ) 55 0 ≤ φ < 90 0
uncertainty range by applying the detailed terrain contour
information to the path-loss predictions. Point-to-point Lmsd is given by
prediction is very useful in mobile cellular system design,
where the radius of each cell is 16 kilometers or less. It can Lmsd = Lbsh + ka + kd log d + k f log f − 9 log b (9)
provide information to insure uniform coverage and
avoidance of co-channel interference. Where b is the distance between the buildings along the
Statistical methods (also called stochastic or empirical) signal path and Lbsh and ka represent the increase of path
are based on fitting curves with analytical expressions that loss due to a reduced base station antenna height. Using the
recreate a set of measured data. abbreviation
In the cities the density of people is high. So the more ∆hBase = hBase − hRoof (10)
accurate loss prediction model will be a good help for the
Base Station Transceiver System (BTS) mapping for Where hbase is the base station antenna height, we observe
that Lbsh and ka are given through
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 15
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
as part of the path loss [7] – [9]. In small cells, the loss is
− 18 log( 1 + ∆ hBase ) hBase > h Roof calculated based on the dimensions of the building blocks.
L bsh = (11)
0 hBase ≤ hRoof Since the ground incident angles of the waves are small due
to the low antenna heights used in small cells, the exact
54 hBase> hRoof height of buildings in the middle of the propagation paths is
ka = 54− 0.8∆hBase d ≥ 0.5km hBase≤ hRoof (12) not important. Although the strong received signal at the
54−1.6∆hBased d ≥ 0.5km hBase≤ hRoof mobile unit is come from the multipath reflected waves not
from the waves penetrating through buildings, there is a
The terms kd and kf control the dependence of the correlation between the attenuation of the signal and the
multiscreen diffraction loss versus distance and the radio total building blocks, along the radio path.
frequency of operation, respectively. They are
18 hBase> hRoof 4. Performance Analysis
kd = ∆h (13)
18−15 Base hBase≤ hRoof
hRoof In this paper, the propagation path loss has been assessed
by considering the parameters BTS Antenna height, MS
And
Antenna height and T-R separation for the COST-231
f
k f = −4 + 0.7 − 1 (14) Walfisch Ikegami and Hata models by MATLAB
925 simulation.
for medium-sized cities and suburban centers with moderate
tree densities and for metropolitan centers.
f
k f = −4 + 1.5 − 1 (15) 190
925 Ikegami
Hata
185
3.2 Hata model
It is an empirical formulation of the graphical path loss data 180
provided by Okumara’s model. The formula for the median
P ath loss (dB)
When the size of the cell is small, less than 1 km, the 170
street orientation and individual blocks of buildings make a
difference in signal reception [3]. Those street orientations 165
this signal causing only the multipath fading not the path
loss at the mobile unit. When the cells are small, the signal Figure 2. Propagation path loss due to the change in the MS
arriving at the mobile unit is blocked by the individual antenna height.
buildings; this weakens the signal strength and is considered
16 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Figure 1 depicts the variation of path loss with base References
station antenna height keeping the parameters MS antenna
[1] Tapan K. Sarkar, M.C.Wicks, M.S.Palma and R.J.
height and T-R separation constant. It is noted that path loss
Bonnea, Smart Antennas, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
is decreasing due to increase in BTS antenna height for both
Publication, NJ, 2003.
models. However path loss continues to be low in COST-
[2] M. A. Alim, M. M. Rahman, M. M. Hossain, A. Al-
231 model.
Nahid, “Analysis of Large-Scale Propagation Models
Figure 2 evaluates the path loss by varying MS Antenna for Mobile Communications in Urban Area”,
height and fixing the other two parameters. As MS antenna International Journal of Computer Science and
height is increased, the path loss is decreased in this case. Information Security, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2010, pp. 135–139.
Figure 3 illustrates the change in path loss upon change [3] W.C.Y.Lee, Mobile Communications Design
in T-R antenna separation distance. It is observed that the Fundamentals, Sec. Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
path loss is less up to 4 km radial distance for COST-231 1992.
model while the path loss is more beyond 4 km separation [4] W.C.Y.Lee, Mobile Cellular Telecommunications, Sec.
distance. Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd.,
India, 2006.
In cases 1 and 2 the path loss is low for both the models [5] Robert J. Piechocki, Joe P. McGeehan, and George V.
and in case 3 the trend is different beyond 4 kilometers Tsoulos, “A New Stochastic Spatio-Temporal Propa-
separation between transmitter and receiver. Hence COST- gation Model (SSTPM) for Mobile Communications
231 model may be preferred to design cellular network with Antenna Arrays”, IEEE Transactions on
where the cell radius is less than 4 km. Hence this model is Communi--cations, Vol. 49, No. 5, May 2001, pp. 855–
preferred for densely populated urban areas where call 862.
traffic is high. [6] Frank B. Gross, Smart Antennas for Mobile
Communications, The Mc-Graw Hill Companies, 2005.
[7] C. Jansen, R. Piesiewicz , D. Mittleman and Martin
240
Koch, “The Impact of Reflections From Stratified
Hata
Ikegami
Building Materials on the Wave Propagation in Future
220
Indoor Terahertz Communication Systems”, IEEE
200
Transactions on Antennas and propagation, Vol. 56,
No. 5, May 2008, pp. 1413–1419.
[8] J. C. Rodrigues, Simone G. C. Fraiha, Alexandre R.O.
Path loss (dB)
180
de freitas, “Channel Propagation Model for Mobile
160 Network Project in Densely Arboreous
Environments”, Journal of Microwaves and
140 Optoelectronics, Vol. 6, No. 1, June 2007, pp. 236–
248.
120 [9] A.R. Sandeep, Y. Shreyas, Shivam Seth, Rajat
Agarwal, and G. Sadashivappa, “Wireless Network
100
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Visualization and Indoor Empirical Propagation
Distance Between Base-station and Mobile-station (km.) Model for a Campus WI-FI Network”, World
Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology,
42, 2008, pp. 730–734.
Figure 3. Path loss due to the change in T-R separation. [10] J. B. Anderson, T.S. Rappaport and Susumu Yoshida,
“Propagation Measurements and Models for Wireless
Communication Channels”, IEEE Communication
5. Conclusions
Magazine, January 1995, pp. 42-49.
In this paper, two widely known large scale propagation Authors’ Profile
models are studied and analyzed. The analysis and
simulation was done to find out the path loss by varying the Y.Ramakrishna is currently a research
BTS antenna height, MS antenna height, and the T-R student under Dr. P. V. Subbaiah. He
separation. Cost-231 Walfisch Ikegami model was seen to received M.Tech. degree in Microwave
represent low power loss levels in the curves. The result of Engineering from Acharya Nagarjuna
this analysis will help the network designers to choose the University, India in 2005. He received
proper model in the field applications. Further up-gradation B.E. degree in Electronics and
in this result can be possible for the higher range of carrier Communication Engineering from the
frequency. University of Madras, India in 2002. He
is presently working as Senior Assistant Professor in the
Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, PVP Siddhartha Institute of Technology,
Vijayawada, India. His research interests are: Mobile
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 17
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Communications, Smart Antennas, Satellite
Communications.
Dr. P. V. Subbaiah received his
Ph.D. in Microwave Antennas from
JNT University, India 1995, His
Master‘s degree in Control Systems
from Andhra University, India 1982.
He received B.E. degree in Electronics
and Commu-nication Engineering
from Bangalore University in 1980. He
is currently working as Principal in Amrita Sai Institute of
Science and Technology, Vijayawada, India since 2007. His
research interest includes Microwave Antennas, Optical
Communications and Mobile Communications.
Abstract: In 3G wireless system the dedicated pilot is presented 2. Development of Smart Antennas
in the structure of uplink CDMA frame of IMT-2000 physical To reduce the multiple access interference (MAI) of 3G
channels and this dedicated pilot supports the use of smart wireless communication system it is essential to make the
antennas. Switched beam smart antenna (SBSA) creates a antenna more directional or intelligent. All this leads us to
group of overlapping beams that together results in omni
the development of smart antenna. Depending upon the
directional coverage. To reduce the side lobe level and improve
the SINR of SBSA non adaptive windowed beam forming
various aspects of smart antenna technology they are
functions can be used. In this paper performance of eight categorized as switched beam smart antenna and adaptive
element linear SBSA with Kaiser-Bessel window function has array smart antenna. In cellular system for macro cells
been investigated using MATLAB and it is observed that the use angular spread (AS) at the base station is generally below
of such SBSA at the base station of 3G cellular system improves 15o and the upper bound on number of elements in the array
the capacity by 26% compared to 120o sectorized antennas. is about 8 for AS of 12o. Hence eight element smart antenna
However these SBSAs provide limited interference suppression. arrays are suggested for 3G cellular wireless system.
The problem of SBSA can be overcome using adaptive array
smart antenna. In this paper eight element adaptive array smart
3. Development of Eight Element Linear Array
antenna is investigated where adaptive array smart antenna
estimates the angle of arrival of the desired signal using MUSIC Switched Beam Smart Antenna
DOA estimation algorithm and received signal of each antenna
element is weighted and combined to maximize SINR using RLS 3.1 Switched Beam Smart Antenna (SBSA)
beam forming algorithm. When such adaptive array smart The switched beam smart antenna (SBSA) has multiple
antenna employed at the base station of 3G cellular system, it fixed beams in different directions and this can be
provides 34% system capacity improvement.
accomplished using feed network referred to as beam former
and most commonly used beam former is Butler matrix. The
Keywords: Adaptive array smart antenna, Beam forming
receiver selects the beam that provides greatest signal
algorithms, DOA, Switched beam smart antenna, System capacity.
enhancement and interference reduction as shown in Fig.1.
1. Introduction Beam-1
The capacity of 3G wireless system using CDMA is
measured in channels/km2 and is given as [3] Be
Beam-2 a
m Signal
C = [W / R] ÷[[Eb / No ]× Ac ] (1) fo Beam output
where, W is Bandwidth of the system, R is data rate of user, r Select
Ac is coverage area of the cellular system and Eb/No is the Beam-3 m
signal to interference plus noise ratio. er
From equation (1) it is evident that 3G CDMA system is Beam-4
still interference limited and the capacity of such wireless
system can be improved by interference reduction technique
Desired signal Direction
such as smart antenna. The smart antenna types, their
performance analysis in 3G cellular mobile system is Figure 1.. Switched Beam Smart Antenna
investigated here. However SBSA solutions work best in minimal to moderate
MAI scenario. But they are often much less complex and are
easier to retrofit to existing wireless technologies.
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 19
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
|AF |dB
-30
0
-40
-5
-10
-50
Normalized power gain(dB)
-15
-20 -60
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90
θ
-25
-30
Figure 4 Array factor with Kaiser-Bessel weights and N=8
-35
-40 Fig.4 shows that Kaiser Bessel function provides side lobe
-45
suppression γ = -33 dB but with minimum increase in main
lobe beam width ∆ = 1.2
-50
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
AOA
4. Development of Eight Element Adaptive
Figure 2. SBSA Array pattern for number of antenna
Array Smart Antenna
elements N = 8.
4.1 Adaptive array smart antenna
of SBSA has side lobe levels γ=-16 dB. These harmful side
Adaptive array smart antennas are the array antennas whose
lobes of SBSA can be suppressed by windowing the array
radiation pattern is shaped according to some adaptive
elements as shown Fig. 3. [4],
algorithms. Smart essentially means computer control of the
antenna performance. Actually adaptive array smart antenna
is an array of multiple antenna elements which estimates the
y
angle of arrival of the desired signal using DOA estimation
algorithms [8] such as MUSIC (Multiple signal
Ѳ
classification) or ESPRIT (Estimation of signal Parameters
wN/2 w2 w1 w1 w2 wN/2 via Rotational invariant Techniques). The estimated DOA is
x
d
used for beam forming in which the received signal of each
antenna element is weighted and combined to maximize the
Figure 3 . N Element linear antenna array with weights desired signal to interference plus noise power ratio which
The array factor of such N linear element windowed array is essentially puts a main beam of an antenna in the direction
given by of desired signal and nulls in the direction of interference.
The weights of each element of an array may be changed
N/2 adaptively [5] and used to provide optimal beam forming in
AFn (θ ) = ∑w
n =1
n cos(((2n − 1) / 2) kd sin θ ) (3)
the sense that it reduces MSE (Mean Square Error) between
To determine the weights wn the various window functions desired signal and actual signal output of an array. Typical
such as Hamming, Gaussian and Kaiser-Bessel weight algorithms used for this beam forming are LMS (Least
functions can be used in eight element SBSA. Out of these, Mean Square) or RLS (Recursive Least Square) algorithms.
20 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
As this smart antenna generates narrower beams it creates the MUSIC Pseudospectrum is given as
less interference to neighboring users than switched beam
approach. Adaptive smart antennas provide interference PMUSIC (θ ) = 1 / abs (a (θ ) H VNVNH a (θ )) (7)
N signal ports
Ѳ1 However when signal sources are coherent or noise
variances vary the resolution of MUSIC diminishes. To
X1(k) W1 Beamformer
overcome this we must collect several time samples of
relieved signal plus noise, assume ergodicity and estimate
Ѳ2 the correlation matrix via time averaging.
X2(k) W2 ∑ Mobile location
data
4.3 Simulation results of MUSIC algorithm
Source For simulation of MUSIC algorithm MATLAB is used and
ѲD Estimation
Processor
the array used is eight element linear array with,
* Spacing between array elements d =0.5λ
XN(k) WN DOA Estimation
Algorithms * DOAs of desired signals : -50, 100 and 250
eg; Music, ESPRIT
10
Figure 5. N element Adaptive antenna array with D
K=10
arriving signals 5 K=100
0
rejection and spatial filtering capability which has effect of
-5
improving the capacity of wireless communication system.
MUSIC DOA estimation algorithm is highly stable, accurate -10
|P (θ )|db
and
The noise subspace eigenvectors are orthogonal to array
steering vectors at the angles of arrivals θ1, θ2, θ3, --- θD and
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 21
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
k accepts the signal at 25o and rejects the signals at + 45o and
r (k ) = ∑ α k −i
d * (i ) X (i )H
thus improves the SINR of the wireless system. Fig.7 also
i =1
shows that as the number of elements in the array are
where α is the forgetting factor & it is positive constant such increased from
that four to eight DOA detection and beam forming in the
0≤α≤1 desired direction becomes more accurate and highly stable.
K2
−1
(k)
E /N M 1 (12)
0.4 P e = Q ∑ b (1 ) o +
k = 2 3 E b No 2 E b(1 ) N o
0.2 N=8
SBSA and adaptive array with MUSIC and RLS are Multibeam Adaptive Base Station Antennas for Cellular
determined and capacity improvements of 3G cellular Land Mobile Radio Systems”, IEEE Transactions on
system using (1) are found and as follows from the Fig.8 the Vehicular Technology, vol.3, No.1 pp 56-67, February
use of adaptive array 1990
[6] Ch. Shanti , Dr. Subbaiah, Dr. K. Reddy, “ Smart
Antenna Algorithms for W-CDMA Mobile
smart antenna in 3G cellular system provides maximum Communication systems”, IJCNS , International
capacity improvement. Journal of Computer Science and Network Society vol.8
No.7 July 2008.
0
10
[7] A. Kundu, S. Ghosh, B. Sarkar A. Chakrabarty, “
120 deg. sect. Antenna Smart Antenna Based DS-DMA System Design for 3rd
Boxcar SBSA generation Mobile Communication”, Progress in
-2 Kaiser-Bessel SBSA Electromagnetic Research M, Vol.4, 67-80, 2008
10
Adaptive array
[8] Lal C. Godara, “Application of Antenna Arrays to
Mobile Communications, Part-II: Beam forming and
-4
10
Directional of Arrival”, Proceedings of the IEEE vol.85
No.88 pp. 1195-1245 August 1997.
[9] David Cabrera, Joel Rodriguez, “Switched Beam Smart
Pe
maximize the lifetime of sensor network. Most of them were intersected barrier belts.
for area coverage, such as [6] and [8]. Only two algorithms
3.4 Redundancy Elimination and Minimum Barrier
are proposed for barrier coverage [13]. It uses IBM and
Belts
RPM to address the sleep-wakeup problem for homogeneous
lifetime and heterogeneous lifetime. A barrier graph contains a set of sensors that are active for
Another important metric of sensor network in barrier barrier coverage. But what is more meaningful is a
coverage is the fault tolerance. Many papers propose the use minimum set of sensors to meet the QoS. The redundant
high sensor density to provide redundancy [1][5][10][15]. It sensors need to be eliminated or scheduled to sleep.
is generally believed that sensors are relatively economical
and unreliable devices, therefore high density is required to
provide a reasonable level of fault tolerance. This high
density assumption belongs to RPM for both area coverage
and barrier coverage. To change a coverage graph to a barrier graph, first we have
For barrier coverage, the centralized algorithms are to eliminate the round trip edges. We call this kind of
introduced in [11][13]. An L-zone localized algorithm is elimination to be Type I Elimination. There is a very special
provided in [2] for k-barrier coverage. Our APM uses a kind of redundant node - the single edge node. If a node (not
localized algorithm based on accumulation points, a subset including the virtual terminal nodes) has only one edge in a
of sensor nodes that locate closely together. coverage graph, then it has to be eliminated in a barrier
Weak barrier coverage and strong barrier coverage were graph. This is called Type II Elimination. The result of type
introduced in [11]. Weak barrier coverage assumes only I, II eliminations is a barrier belt. However, this barrier belt
when the intruder does not know the traverse path will it be is not the minimum barrier belt. So we need Type III
detected with high probability. The QoS improvements are Elimination, by which we eliminate the redundant nodes, so
discussed in [3][12]. In this paper, we assume the quality is that we can use the minimum number of nodes to meet QoS
important and all of the assumptions are based on strong requirement. We get two reasons for type III elimination:
barrier coverage. first, we can schedule the redundant nodes to sleep, so that if
an active node depletes, a redundant node can take its place;
3. Preliminary and Network Model second, the redundant nodes are also possible to be utilized
by other barrier belts.
3.3 Barrier Belt and Barrier Graph
Assume the coverage of sensor is a unit disk with sensing
radius R. A Coverage Graph G = (V,E) indicates that for
the active sensor set V , for ∀u, v V , if the distance duv
<2R, then there is an edge euv E. There are two virtual
nodes s, t V, corresponding to the left and right
boundaries. Barrier Space is the field of interest for barrier
coverage. It is a long strip physical region with arbitrary
shape and deployed by the barrier sensors.
From above introduction, we can summarize the Let us take Fig. 1 as an example, to show more details about
properties of the barrier belt as three types of elimination. First we get a coverage graph
1) There is no loop in a barrier belt; from the coverage relationship of sensors. The edge set {eaf,
2) It is possible that there are crossing edges of two efb, ecd} ⊂ V . But as for a barrier graph, every node can
distinct barrier belts in a barrier graph; only has two edges to support the barrier. So in this barrier
3) Except for the virtual terminal nodes {s, t}, there is no graph, edges {eaf , efb, ecd} are eliminated. However, this is
shared node for two distinct barrier belts in a barrier graph. only one barrier graph. There are several other barrier
graphs for this example; this leaves as an exercise for
Theorem 1. A sensor network barrier space is k-barrier readers. For this barrier graph Gb = (Vb,Eb). Since {eab, ecd}
coverage iff ∃k barrier belts in the barrier graph. are edges of the coverage graph, e and f are redundant
Proof: If each crossing path is covered by k distinct sensors, nodes. After the elimination of e, f, we get the final
then it must be that these k distinct sensors belong to k not minimum barrier graph. If a node is eliminated from the
minimum barrier graph, and it is not utilized by other
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 25
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
So we get lr ≤ 2Rnr/t2.
If the length lr = l is given, then we know that the number
of sensors required to support k-barrier coverage under RPM
is
26 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Observation 1. For a barrier coverage system in a barrier have r = min(Rθ, R(1 − 2θ)/2). Let Rθ ≥ R(1 − 2θ)/2,we
know the permitted deploy region is a circle with radius r,
space, if it is constructed by n Akt accumulation points, then
then we can get Equ. (6).
the activation rate ρa = k/t.
Definition 6. Accumulation Deduction An accumulation 5. Comparison of the Barrier models
deduction is a decomposition and combination of an
accumulation degree, to make a conversion of a high 5.1 Connection Degree
accumulation degree to lower accumulation degrees and The connection degree for a sensor node A is the number of
vice versa, denoted as active nodes within the communication distance of A. Here,
the node we are referring is a normal node, not including
Let us look at an example: A35 = A23 + A12 = 3 A11 + 2 A10 . the virtual terminal nodes. We assume the communication
distance Rc ≥2R.
Here we know for a 3-barrier coverage system, we can use
3 Observation 2. For barrier coverage in k A11 + ( t − k ) A10
A5 APM in one barrier space. If we put them into two
independent belt model, the connection degree is at least 2.
barrier spaces, we can use A23 and A12 APM. We can also
Observation 3. For barrier coverage in Akt accumulation
use the IBM 3 A11 + 2 A10 . Here we have 3 A11 working belts, point model, the connection degree is at least 3k − 1.
and 2 A10 backup belts. As for each internal node A, it has two sets of neighbors,
each set has k active nodes. Also A has k – 1 brothers.
4.3.3 Analysis of Barrier Length
The barrier length of IBM and APM follows the same Observation 4. For barrier coverage in Rtk random point
schema. model, the connection degree is at least πk2/2.
Theorem 5. For a barrier coverage deployed in Akt Each node lies in a square (Equ. (2)). There are at least t
nodes in each cross path, k of them active. The nodes with
accumulation point model, the total number of nodes na =
least connection degree are the border nodes. We have
t・n, the overlap factor θ, then the barrier coverage length
(2R)2/2 (2R)2 = n/k2. So, we get n = πk2/2.
la = 2R(1−θ)n.
5.2 Network Lifetime
If the length is given, la = l, then the number of nodes na
required is If we do not concern the different roles of sensors, we can
assume all sensors’ lifetime is independent and follow the
same distribution. Considering a sensor’s lifetime is mainly
determined by battery, we can use the normal distribution to
From Equ. (3), it is easy to know that under the same
interpret the lifetime of a sensor node, with random variable
activation rate ρa = k/t, the same barrier length, the cost of
X to indicate a sensor node’s lifetime, the mean lifetime as
the RPM compared with the APM is
μ and variance σ, X ∼ N(μ, σ2).
The cumulative distribution function (cdf) is as follows:
Assume there are n accumulation points in the belt. Denote probability of a node’s lifetime defined in Equ. (7). Then
random variable Z as the lifetime of the belt. Then Fap,z(z)
={ the probability that Z ≤ z} = P(Z ≤ z). Denote py as the
probability of an accumulation point’s lifetime. Then
accumulation point, we know that the neighbors and else {after a period pw, A cannot receive k messages
brothers of A can receive the broadcasting message. After a back}
node B received A’s “I am here” message, B can compute A invokes the barrier building process;
the distance dAB, end if
if dAB < R then In the above algorithm, we use a wake-up query scheme
A is B’s brother; instead of an activate scheme. The activate scheme is
else {dAB < 2R} unpractical considering the current technique [8]; if a sensor
A is B’s neighbor; went to sleep, we cannot wake it up unless the sensor wake
else up itself by a short period. In the wake up scheme, it is
discard this message; possible that during the sleep period of a node, there is a
end if brother node depleted. And so it is possible to exist an
After this process, each sensor will construct a list of interval that the belt degrades to (k − 1)-barrier coverage.
Let’s denote the period from a node begin to report
brothers. Therefore, a sensor can learn the value of t in Akt
depleting to the time it totally depletes as pd. If we set the
by itself. After the node find out the value of t, it will fixed sleep period ps = 2pd, and the random sleep delay dr
broadcast a message “my accumulation point”, including the [0, 2pd], then even in the worst case, that is, t degrades to
list of its brothers. Usually, a neighbor node can receive the k+1, only one brother node left as a backup node, the
“my accumulation point” message 2t times from its maximum possible degraded monitoring interval max(ps +
neighbors. It simply separates the neighbors to be the left dr − 2pd) = 2pd.
neighbors and right neighbors. This finishes our neighbor If we decrease ps, the maximum possible degraded
finding process. monitoring interval max(ps + dr − 2pd) can be decreased. For
When the system begins the building process, a node can k > 1, the wake-up time is not a problem for APM, since
be chosen randomly to be the Seed. The seed is informed the node switch in each accumulation point is done locally, even
value of k in Akt . The seed selects k −1 brothers from its if one belt degrades a little time due to node switch, the
other belts are still working. While in IBM, unless we
brother list to be the Heads of the barrier belts. After a node
assume nodes can be activated, or we use the wake-up
A is appointed to be the head, it backoffs a random time,
scheme and set dr to be very small, which will lose the
then broadcasts a “request barrier edge” message, if it can
benefit of saving energy when sleeping, the barrier domino
get the responses from left and right neighbors in a waiting
phenomenon will be explicit during belt switch. RPM does
time, we get to the next step, or else A will backoff another
not need belt switch either, so its wake up scheme is the
time.
same as that of APM.
For the first free left neighbor B that is waiting for
command, if it heard A’s “request barrier edge” message,
and the first free right neighbor to be C. The B,C will send
A a “respond barrier edge” message. A finds out that B,C
are the first left and right neighbors to respond, it will reply
an “accept” message to B,C respectively. Then B,C become
A’s barrier neighbors. After this process, B,C become the
new barrier heads (see Fig. 6), and each of them will repeat
the above steps. But this time, B,C only need to receive one
“respond barrier edge” message before it hands off the role
of barrier head. After a node finds that there are k brothers
become the barrier heads, and it is still free, then it will be
scheduled to sleep.
6.2 Sleep Schedule Figure 7. Network Lifetime for Barrier Coverage
There is no need for an accumulation belt to use belt Deployment Models
switch. Even if multiple barrier spaces are considered, e.g.
( A23 , A24 , A12 ). First, for this system, we can use A59 to
7. Simulation Results the low quality sensors. This indicates APM is a very robust
and reliable structure. Even if the quality of the sensors are
To evaluate our analysis, we build a simulation platform not good and vulnerable to all kinds of failures, we can still
based on C++. We set the sensing radius R = 10m, maintain a good network service if we deploy sensors
communication radius Rc = 30m. Sensors are deployed in a according to APM.
belt region of 3000m, and for RPM and APM, the width of
the belt is 20m. As for IBM, the width is not fixed in order
8. Conclusions
to make sure different belt independent. The k is fixed to 3,
and t is a variable. The overlap factor θ = 0.1. The sensors’ Compared with existing models of barrier coverage -
mean lifetime μ = 400, the variance of lifetime σ = 20. We Random Point Model and Independent Belt Model, the
deploy different number of sensors, so that the node Accumulation Point Model is an economical, robust and
densities are different. Here the network energy residue rate reliable structure: its cost is the least, and the failure
ρr is a metric to measure how much energy remained when resistance is the best. The Accumulation Point Model is a
the barrier fails, long lived deployment model for sensor networks. Although
originated from barrier coverage, it is possible to use
Accumulation Point Model for area coverage. If we deploy
the accumulation points instead of single sensors, the fault
Fig. 7 indicates RPM needs more sensors to maintain a tolerance and network lifetime will definitely increase. This
certain network lifetime. When the number of sensors is will be more helpful than simply increase the node density.
lower than 1800, the network lifetime of RPM is zero. This
is because RPM needs a high node density to work. After the Acknowledgments
density reaches a threshold, RPM’s lifetime increase fast,
but it is still lower than IBM, while IBM’s network lifetime
This work is supported in part by the National Science
is lower than APM. In this experiment, we optimize the
Foundation under award number CT-ISG 0716261.
backup nodes and backup belts to sleep in order to save
energy and maximize the network lifetime. That is why the
network lifetime can be 3000 days for APM, nearly 9 years. References
[1] P. Balister, B. Bollobas, A. Sarkar, and S. Kumar.
Reliable density estimates for coverage and connectivity
in thin strips of finite length. In Proceedings of the 13th
annual ACM international conference on Mobile
computing and networking (MobiCom), pages 75–86,
NY, USA, 2007.
[2] Ai Chen, Santosh Kumar, and Ten H. Lai. Designing
localized algorithms for barrier coverage. In Proceedings
of the 13th annual ACM international conference on
Mobile computing and networking (MobiCom), pages
63–74, New York, NY, USA, 2007. ACM.
[3] Ai Chen, Ten H. Lai, and Dong Xuan. Measuring and
Figure 9. The Effect of Sensor Quality on Network Lifetime guaranteeing quality of barrier-coverage in wireless
sensor networks. In Proceedings of MobiHoc, pages 421–
The network energy residue rate in Fig. 8 is an indicator 430, NY, USA, 2008.
for the performance to price ratio. Low network residue rate [4] X. Cheng, X. Huang, and Xiang yang Li. Applications
indicates a High Performance to Price Ratio. APM’s residue of computational geometry in wireless networks, 2003.
ratio is the least, which means its waste is the least of all [5] Qunfeng Dong. Maximizing system lifetime in wireless
models. RPM has a higher residue rate than 50%. This sensor networks. In Proceedings of the 4th international
means when the network cannot meet the quality symposium on Information processing in sensor
requirement, only less than half of the whole energy networks (IPSN), page 3, Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2005.
consumed. The graph also indicates that when more sensors IEEE Press.
are deployed, the residue rate decreases as a tendency. [6] D.W.Gage. Command control for many-robot systems.
In the next experiment, we need to find out the network In AUVS-92, the Nineteenth Annual AUVS Technical
failure resistance ability of different deployment models. We Symposium, pages 28–34. Unmanned Systems
fix the number of sensors to be 3000, and change the sensor Magazine, 1992.
lifetime variance σ from 15 to 130 days, in order to indicate [7] J.A. Fuemmeler and V.V. Veeravalli. Smart sleeping
we use sensors with poor quality. All the other parameters policies for energy efficient tracking in sensor networks.
are the same as the first experiment. We find out that IBM’s In IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing, pages 2091–
lifetime deteriorates fast from 1800 to 0, even though the 2101, Washington, DC, USA, 2008. IEEE Computer
number of sensors remains the same (Fig. 9). As for RPM, Society.
although its lifetime is not long, only 390 at the beginning, [8] Rajagopal Iyengar, Koushik Kar, and Suman Banerjee.
it does not decrease so sharply as that of IBM. APM’ Lowcoordination topologies for redundancy in sensor
lifetime is the longest. It only decreases a little when using networks. In Proceedings of the 6th ACM international
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 31
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Author’s Profile
1. Introduction
Tactile sensation possesses a salient characteristic
Figure 1. Artificial tactile affordance system (ATAS)
among the five senses because it does not occur without
interaction between sensory organs and objects. Touching an
object induces both deformation of it and the sensory organ. Since ATAS is categorized as a behavior-based control
Since the tactile sensing of robots is crucial to perform any system, it more closely resembles subsumption architecture
task [1], we previously focused on tactile sensing and (SSA) [5][6]. Although in SSA each connection between
introduced a new concept called the artificial tactile sensors and actuators has priority, in ATAS no modules
affordance system (ATAS) [2], whose basic idea is an have priority, and they are arranged in parallel form. In
extension of the theory of affordance [3]. each module, we can include a relative complex procedure if
ATAS is based on a recurrent mechanism in which the needed. Therefore ATAS is suited to such rather complex
information obtained from the object and the behavior tasks as assembly and walking on uneven loads.
performed by the robot itself induce subsequent behavior. To In a previous paper [2], we implemented ATAS based on
explain ATAS, we introduce its schematic block diagram the following two methodologies. In methodology 1, ATAS
(Fig. 1). When the tactile information obtained from the is composed of several program modules, and a module is
environment is input into ATAS, a command for robot selected from the set of modules based on sensor
behavior is output, and the robot actuators are controlled information to perform a specified behavior intended by a
based on that command. After that, the environment is designer. In methodology 2, a set of rules is expressed as a
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 33
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
table composed of sensor input columns and behavior output the current values of A0, A1, A2, and A3 of Table 1 in every
columns, and each rule is transformed to a string of 0 and 1 set period to decide its behavior.
treated as a gene to obtain an optimum gene that adapts to 2.2 Behavior Acquisition Method
the environment using a genetic algorithm (GA) [7]. While
The behavior table is composed of the truth and motor status
methodology 1 was very effective for such fine control as
tables of the sensors. These tables can be expressed with a
handling tasks of humanoid robots, methodology 2 was very
one-dimensional array like genes because all of the truth-
useful to obtain general robotic behavior that was suitable values are Boolean data. Therefore, the behavior table can
for its environment. However, the possibility of method 2 for be designed as a model of a simple genetic algorithm (SGA)
object handling must be further pursued because the robot comprised of Boolean data [7]. Since the behavior table is
can automatically obtain the relationship between sensor evolvable, we call it the Evolutionary Behavior Table
input and behavior output patterns after it has committed to System (EBTS). The design procedure of the behavior table
the environment. using SGA is shown in the following.
In this paper, we apply the Evolutionary Behavior Table First, we design a genotype array that has information
System (EBTS) of methodology 2 to the object handling of a about the behavior table. The length of the genotype array is
two-arm hand because we are examining the possibility of shown with the next formula:
methodology 2 for fine control. After explaining the G = 4S × M (1),
behavior acquisition method using EBTS, we derive a
simulation procedure for a two-hand-arm robot that was where the number of sensors and the bit number of the
developed in another project. In computational experiments, output gradation are S and M , respectively. Sensor
the robot grasps an object and transfers it to a goal. We patterns are calculated as 4 S because each sensor has 2-bit
examine the difference of grasping efficiency between one- graduation.
and two-hand tasks. The genotype model used for the numerical experiments
described in the subsequent section is shown in Fig. 2. The
Table 1: Behavior tables agent possesses three sensing elements, the output of 4-bit
gradation, and a length of 64 × 4 = 256 bits as gene data
information.
The agent’s fitness value is calculated in a simulator that
is equipped with internal functions that evaluate the
efficiency and the task accuracy degrees of the agent. Then
the simulator generates a behavior table from the genotype
array of a one-dimensional vector composed of G elements
(Fig. 2). The agent is evaluated on the basis of the task
achievement degree in the simulator field during a specified
period. The evaluation value obtained by this simulation is
sent to the calculating system for genetic algorithms as
fitness.
advancement over the previously presented one-hand-arm 3.6 Simulator Design for Robotic Hands
robot [8]. The arm system’s DOF is 5, and each finger’s As an object handling task, we adopted an object
DOF is 3. To compensate for the lack of arm DOF, this transportation problem for easy comparison to previous
robot uses its finger’s root joint as its wrist’s DOF. research. In the task, a hemispherical fingertip equipped
with three tactile sensing elements is modeled (Fig. 5). The
motion of the modeled robotic hand is restricted within two
dimensions. Since the wrist is assumed to be fixed, it only
manipulates an object with its fingers. We presume that the
robotic fingertip transports the object to the goal.
difference between the fitness values of the first and second Figure 10. Relationship between maximum fitness and
elites is greater than that of one-hand case. The variation in generation for two-hand case
the top score of one population becomes steady after around
100 generations. Moreover, the fitness value of the first elite
at 1,000 generations is around 560 and is smaller than that
5. Conclusion
of one-hand case. Therefore, the efficiency of object
transportation with two-hand grasping saturated very We implemented an artificial tactile affordance system
rapidly. (ATAS) based on the following methodology. A set of rules
Since object grasping and transportation can be is expressed as a table composed of sensor input columns
performed by one hand, the two-hand case is obviously and behavior output columns, and a row of the table
redundant. Although redundant grasping induces stability, it corresponds to a rule. Since each rule is transformed to a
string of 0 and 1, we treat a long string composed of rule
decreases the efficiency of grasping and transferring.
strings as a gene to obtain an optimum gene that adapts to
Finally, we discuss the efficiency of acquiring autonomy
the environment using a genetic algorithm (GA). We
cooperation behavior of a multi-finger in this EBTS using
propose the Evolutionary Behavior Table System (EBTS)
GA. In this numerical experiment, the number of simulation using a GA to acquire the autonomous cooperation behavior
trials was 100,000, as a result of optimizing the gene data of multiple mobile robots.
until 1,000 generations. This final truth table obtained by In validation experiments, we assume that a robot
the gene data doesn’t always assure an optimum solution, grasps and transfers an object with one or two hands; each
but the calculation cost is reduced from 1.2 × 1077 to hand is equipped with two articulated fingers. In
1.0 × 10 5 because the combination numbers of the input and computational experiments, the robot grasped the object and
transferred it to the goal. This task is performed more
output patterns are calculated as 2 256 ≅ 1.2 ×10 77 , according efficiently in the one-hand case than in the two-hand case.
to Eq. (1). If we used top-down methodology, Although redundant grasping induces stability, it decreases
1.2 × 1077 trials are needed to specify the optimum pattern. the efficiency of grasping and transferring. Although the
Therefore, we accomplished the automatic design of present method requires many computational resources, it is
cooperative behavior of multi-agents for collective tasks. attractive because it is very useful for obtaining general
robotic behavior that is suitable for its environment.
700 References
600 [9] M. Ohka, “Robotic Tactile Sensors,” Encyclopedia of
500 Computer Science and Engineering, Wiley
Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Engineering,
400
Fitne ss
3. Experimental Procedure
To evaluate the present tactile mouse, we performed edge
tracing tests for virtual circles, triangles, and squares (Fig.
8). According to a previous feasibility study, we found that –400
300 400 500
operators did not judge whether their fingers were on the
x–coordinate pixel
virtual figure or not. If the positions of all the stimulus pins
are on a virtual figure and their fingers remain on it, all (a) Only distributed pressure
stimulus pins keep protruding and operators cannot judge if
the mouse cursor is on it because their sense of feeling is
adapted for the continuing protrusion of the pins. To prevent –200
this problem, the shearing force was generated in proportion
to the cursor’s speed when the cursor is on a virtual figure.
In addition, when the cursor entered a virtual figure to
pixel
–400
300 400 500
Figure 5. Virtual objects
x–coordinate pixel
pixel
desired trajectory is depicted by the solid line in Fig. 6. As
shown in Fig. 7, the tracing precision of the pressure and
tangential force presentation is higher than that of only the
pressure distribution presentation. –300
y–coordinate
Additionally, only the number of points registered by
pressure stimulation is larger than that registered by the
pressure and tangential force presentation. In the pressure
presentation, 986 points were recorded, but 468 points were
recorded in the combined stimulation. Since sampling time
is a constant, the time consumptions required for the
pressure stimulation only and the combined stimulation –400
were about 30 and 15 seconds, respectively. This result 300 400 500
indicates that operator recognition for the virtual figure is x–coordinate pixel
enhanced with pressure and tangential force stimulation.
Figure 8 shows the edge tracing trajectories for a square.
Compared to Fig. 7, the enhancement of the tracing Table 1: Deviation errors (Unit: pixel)
precision induced using combined stimulation is not clear.
Table 1 summarizes the mean deviation apart from the Pressure stimulus Pressure plus
desired trajectory among the four subjects. Since the only shearing stimuli
deviation of the pressure and tangential force is smaller than Circles 15.9 6.2
that of the only pressure presentation for every shape, the Triangles 14.8 12.2
presentation capability is enhanced by the combined
Squares 15.9 15.2
stimulation, even if the effect is not considerable in the
triangles and squares. Since the stimulus pins are aligned as
squares, the horizontal and vertical lines, including those in (b) Distributed pressure and slippage force
the triangles and squares, are easily recognizable without
tangential stimulus. Therefore, using a combined stimulus is Figure 8. Trajectory obtained by virtual square tracing
especially effective for such difficult shapes as circles that
do not include straight lines.
5. Conclusion
–200 To enhance the presentation capability of a tactile
mouse, we developed a tactile mouse capable of distributed
pressure and tangential force. The distributed pressure
pixel
2,4
Cadi Ayyad University, National School of Applied Sciences, Avenue Abdelkarim
Khattabi, P.O. Box 575, 40001, Marrakech, Morocco
y.jabrane@ensa.ac.ma , ouahman@ucam.ac.ma
1. Introduction
When Multi-carrier modulations such as Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) has been where denotes the expectation, and and
advocated for Long Term Evolution (LTE) of wireless represent the -norm and the 2-norm of , respectively.
personal communications [1]. However, it undergoes large
envelope fluctuations, causing a loss in energy efficiency 3. ACE method
due to the need of power back-off at the High Power
Amplifiers (HPA). Several proposals in the literature try to The ACE method modifies and expands the constellation
reduce their envelope fluctuations to fight this problem points within an allowable region which does not affect the
which is the most important drawbacks in multi-carrier demodulation slicer, and thus, it does not need side
modulations [2] - [8]. information to be sent. By using this new degree of freedom,
Active Constellation Extension (ACE) [9] is an interesting multi-carrier signals with arbitrarily low envelope
technique since it is able to achieve large reductions, it does fluctuations can be obtained. In [9], different algorithms to
not need side information and it only needs a small increase achieve PAPR reduction are provided. In this paper, the
in transmits power. However, ACE requires much iteration Approximate Gradient-Project (AGP) algorithm will be
for convergence and this, unfortunately, constitutes its main used.
weakness [10]. In this paper, ACE will be used combined Let's be the frequency-domain version from , i.e,
with PSO, with the aim of drastically reducing its its FFT, and Q the clipping amplitude value. The algorithm
implementation complexity. proceeds as follows:
To that end, we will use Particle Swarm Optimization
• Initialization: i accounts for the
(PSO), a well-known tool (heuristic) to solve the complexity
iteration index.
problems [11] - [14]. The balance of this paper is organized
as follows. Section 2 introduces the system model. Section 3 • Clip any , Q and form
describes the ACE method. In Section 4, the proposed PSO-
ACE-AGP architecture to reduce the envelope fluctuations
is described and analyzed. Then, the obtained results are
presented and discussed in Section 5. Finally, conclusions where .
are drawn in Section 6. • Compute the clipped signal:
44 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Original
Modifed ACE-AGP
• Determine the step size according to some
criterion and compute new version of the time- Modifed ACE-AGP
domain signal .
Modifed ACE-AGP
• Calculate the for the new signal. If
OFDM
acceptable, stop the algorithm and return as
output, otherwise, increase i and go to step 2.Iterate
until target is accomplished or a maximum number
of iterations is reached.
signals
Modifed ACE-AGP
4. Particle Swarm Optimization
Particle swarm optimization (PSO) is a population based
stochastic optimization technique, system is initialized with PSO
a population of random solutions and searches for optima by
updating generations. However, PSO has no evolution
operators such as crossover and mutation. In PSO, the
OFDM signals with reduced PAPR
potential solutions, called particles, fly through the problem
space by following the current optimum particles with
PSO ACE-AGP implementation
respect to a specific algorithm. In a previous work [15] a
suboptimal partial transmit sequence (PTS) based on Thus for a K-dimensional optimization, the position and
particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm has been velocity of the ith particle can be represented as:
presented for the low computation complexity and the
reduction of the peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) of an (4)
orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) respectively. Each particle has its own best position:
system. The procedure of standard PSO can be summarized
as follows:
corresponding to the individual best objective value obtained
Generate initial population so far at time t, referred to as pbest. The global best (gbest)
random particle is denoted by:
5. Results
Monte Carlo simulations have been carried out with 10000
randomly generated QPSK-modulated OFDM symbols for
N=256, N=512 and N=1024. In figure 1, we can observe
that the proposed method outperform the one based on
ACE-AGP since the PAPR reduction of PSO-ACE-AGP
when Gn = 40 is about respectively 7dB, 5.9dB and 4.9dB
for N=256, 512 and N=1024, comparing to 7.3dB, 6.8dB
and 5.9dB for N=256, N=512 and N=1024 when using
ACE-AGP (the convergence of ACE-AGP is slower).
It is worth noting that these results are achieved with very
low complexity and with only one iteration ( ) by
choosing different number of generations (Gn = 10; 20; 30; (b) N=512
40) (2000 iterations for ACE-AGP).
The complexity of the algorithm, in terms of complex
multiplications and additions per OFDM symbol, is
and ,
respectively, where is the number of iterations, which
is usually high.
Besides, on each iteration, the needs to be evaluated
to determine if the target goal has been reached. These
operations are also required in many other methods.
Besides,
a DFT/IDFT are needed per iteration. A complexity
summary and comparison has been detailed in table 1.
(c) N=1024
Figure 1. Comparison of PAPR reduction between
ACE-AGP and PSO-ACE-AGP using QPSK
46 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Author’s Profile
Abstract: In 1965, Zadeh introduced the concept of fuzzy sets. t- norm on [0,1] unless otherwise specified. By an abuse of
Wee introduced the concept of fuzzy automata in 1967. Malik et notation we will denote
al. introduced the concept of fuzzy state machines and fuzzy
transformation semi groups based on Wee’s concept of fuzzy
T (a1,T (a 2,T (.......,T (a n−1 , a n )....)))
automata in 1994. A group semiautomaton has been extensively byT (a1 ,.......a n ) where a1 , a 2 ,.....a n ∈ [0,1] . The
studied by Fong and Clay. Das fuzzified this concept to
introduce fuzzy semiautomaton over a finite group. Sung-jin legitimacy of this abuse is ensured by the associativity of T
cho, jae- Gyeom Kim, Seok-Tae Kim introduced the notion of T- (Definition 2.1(4)).
fuzzy semiautomaton, T-fuzzy kernel and T-fuzzy Note: For further discussions we are considering ( G , + ) as
subsemiautomaton over a finite group. In this paper, we further
give some properties of T-fuzzy subsemiautomaton over finite a finite group.
groups. 2.2 Definition [1]
A fuzzy subset λ of G is called a T – fuzzy subgroup of G if
Keywords: T-fuzzy normal subgroup, T-fuzzy kernel, T-fuzzy (i) λ ( x + y) ≥ T (λ ( x), λ ( y)),
subsemiautomata. (ii) λ ( x) = λ (− x) for all x, y ∈ G .
1. Introduction 2.3 Definition [1]
Fuzzy automata concept was introduced by Wee in 1967 A T – fuzzy subgroup λ of G is called a T- fuzzy normal
[8].Using this concept Malik et al. [5] introduced the subgroup of G if
concept of fuzzy state machines and fuzzy transformation λ ( x + y) = λ ( y + x) for all x, y ∈ G .
semigroups. A Group semiautomata has been extensively
studied by Fong et al [3].This concept was fuzzified by Das 2.4 Definition [1]
[2], and he introduced fuzzy semiautomaton over finite
groups. The notion of T fuzzy semiautomaton over finite A triple M = (Q, X ,τ ) where (Q, + ) is a finite group, X
group was introduced by Kim and Cho [1]. In this paper we is a finite non empty set and τ is a fuzzy subset of
have got some more results of T fuzzy subsemiautomaton Q × X × Q , that is τ is a function from Q × X × Q to
and T fuzzy kernel. [0,1],is called a fuzzy semiautomaton
2. Preliminaries if ∑τ ( p, a , q) ≤ 1 for all
q∈Q
p ∈ Q and a ∈ X. If
In this section we summarize the preliminary definitions,
and results that are required for developing main results. ∑τ ( p, a , q) = 1 for all p ∈ Q and a ∈ X , then M
q∈Q
is
p=q
(4) T ( a , T ( b, c )) = T (T ( a , b ), c ) for all a , b , c ∈ [0,1] .
The maximum and minimum will be written as ∨ and ∧ ,
τ * ( p , Λ , q ) = { 10 iiff p≠q
respectively. Define T0 on [0,1] by T(τ ( p, a1 , q1 ),
T0 (a ,1) = a = T0 (1, a ) and
and τ * ( p, a1.....an , q) = ∨ τ (q1 , a2 , q2 ).....,
T0 (a , b) = 0 if a ≠ 1 and b ≠ 1 for all a , b ∈ [0,1] Here τ q , a , q ) / q ∈Q
T always will mean a t- norm on [0,1] . A t-norm T on ( n−1 n ) i
[0,1] is said to be ∨ distributive if where p, q ∈ Q a1 ,.....a n ∈ X. When T is applied on M as
T ( a , b ∨ c) = T (a , b ) ∨ T (a , c ) for all a , b, c ∈ [0,1]. Throu above, M is called a T-fuzzy semiautomaton.
ghout this paper, T shall mean a ∨ - distributive
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 49
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
fuzzy subset A of G by
A( e ) = 1, A( a ) = 1, A( b ) = 3 / 4, A( c ) = 3 / 4 .Clearly a/0.2
A is a fuzzy subgroup of G.
b/0.2
k r
where Q = { p, q, r , k}
τ ( a + b + c, x, p ) ,τ ( a + b, x, q ) ,
=T
µ ( c ) ,τ ( a , x, r ) ,ν ( b )
and X = {a }
a/0.4
= T (τ ( a + b + c, x, p ) , µ ( c ) ,τ ( a , x, r ) ,ν ( b ) )
q Since τ ( a + b + c, x, p ) ≤ τ ( a + b, x, q ) .
p
Then for all p, q, r , k ∈ Q and x ∈ X
( µ +ν )( p − r )
a/0.1 T (τ ( q + b + c, x, p ) ,τ ( q, x, r ) µ ( c ) ,ν ( b )) :
≥ ∨
b, c ∈ Q, b + c = k
a/0.3
r
= T
{ }
τ ( q + b + c, x, p) ,τ ( q, x, r ) , ∨ T ( µ ( c) ,ν ( b) ) :
k b, c ∈Q,b + c = k
= T (τ ( q + k, x, p ) ,τ ( q, x, r ) , ( µ + ν )( k ) ) Hence
a/0.2
( µ +ν ) is a T-fuzzy kernel of M = (Q, X ,τ ) .
Figure 2. Finite T-fuzzy semiautomaton 3.6 Example
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 51
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
q M = (Q , X , τ ) .
a/0.1 a/0.1
References
[1] S. J. Cho, J. G. Kim, S. Tae Kim, T-fuzzy
p semiautomata over finite groups, Fuzzy sets and
u systems 108 (1999) 341-351.
[2] P.Das, On some properties of fuzzy semiauto-
maton over a finite group, Information Sciences
101 (1997) 71-84.
a/0.2 [3] Y. Fong, J.R. Clay, Computer programs for
a/0.1
investigation syntactic near rings of finite group
semiautomata, Academia Sinica 16 (4) (1988) 295-
304.
t r [4] D. S. Malik, J. N. Mordeson, and P.S. Nair,
Fuzzy normal subgroups in fuzzy subgroups,
J. Korean Math. Soc. 29 (1992), No. 1, 1–8.
minimum transfer time, it cannot necessarily choose the northward movement. Turn model allows non-minimal path
shortest path to the destination. This is a similar approach to destination nodes, but certain path cannot be taken due to
with deflection (hot-potato) routing[16][17][18] and chaos prohibited turns.
3.10 Deadlock removal
This section describes the mechanism of Semi-deflection
routing. This allows prohibited turns of turn model under
certain conditions, while it guarantees deadlock-free. We
focus on the fact that deadlocks do not occur as long as
packets are moved by non-blocking on every prohibited turn
in virtual cut-through switching, because each packet can
Figure 1. Prohibited turn of North-last turn model independently detour blocked packets. First, we define “non-
blocking packet transfer” as follows.
Definition 2: (Non-waiting port) An input port and its 3.3.2 Output selection function
pair connected with a link in the neighboring node is Adaptive routing is characterized by determining adaptive
defined as “non-waiting port” when either of following is routing algorithm and output selection function (OSF).
satisfied: (a) when any available output port selection Adaptive algorithm decides a set of available output ports,
becomes a packet transfer along the prohibited turns, or (b) and OSF prioritizes output ports for assigning to packets.
a port is paired with port defined in (a).
Theorem 1: There is one non-waiting port per router at Definition 4: (Output Selection Function (OSF) of Semi-
most when network topology is two-dimensional Mesh (N × deflection routing) OSF of Semi-deflection routing
N) and applied turn model is either North-last or West-first prioritizes each port based on the following order:
model. 1) Output towards the destination
Proof: Packets that enter a router from a South input port 2) Output that goes away from the destination, but does not
can only take a prohibited turn for North-last model. loop back
Consequently, South input ports have only possibilities to be 3) Output that loops back
non-waiting ports according to Definition 2 (a). On the
other hand, for Definition 2 (b), since there is only one input It is possible to prevent livelock between non-waiting ports
port that can be paired with (a), Theorem 1 is obviously by giving loop-back selection the lowest priority.
satisfied. For West-first routing, packets that go through
routers at coordinate x = N− 1 can only take prohibited turn.
Here, there is an output port which does not make prohibited 2.3.2 Arbitration
turn either in x or y direction in case of y ≠ 0, y ≠ N − 1. An arbiter is in charge of allotting input packets to output
Condition of Definition 2 (a) is satisfied either when x = N ports. Priority of arbitration is described as follows. If none
− 1, y = 0 or x = N − 1, y = N − 1 are satisfied. In the of the rules match, the order is based on the timestamp
former case, condition is satisfied for North input port, and when packets entered the router.
South input port for the latter case. On the other hand, for
Definition 2 (b), since there is only one input port that can Definition 5: (Arbitration order of Semi-deflection
be paired with (a), satisfaction of Theorem 1 is obvious. routing)
■ 1) Packets that were injected from non-waiting input port
2) Packets whose highest prioritized output port by the OSF
Definition 3: (Loopback transfer) When a packet transfers makes prohibited turn
directly from a router’s port to adjacent router’s port which 3) Other packets
the packet was transferred from, it is called “loopback
transfer”. It is possible to prevent livelock by arbitrating (1) with the
Theorem 2: When there is only one non-waiting port, a highest priority. Also, non-blocking loop-back transfer is
packet does not stay at non-waiting port after a certain realized when other output ports are busy. By arbitrating (2)
period of time when following conditions are satisfied: (a) with high priority, non-blocking transfer to the prohibited
loopback transfer is permitted, and (b) highest arbitration direction is satisfied when the output port is available. If it is
priority is given to the non-waiting port. blocked, other vacant ports are allotted in prior to other
Proof: When buffer of forwarding input port is vacant, a input packets.
packet at a non-waiting port is transferred to one of vacant Finally, the arbiter selects other packets that are not
ports. According to Definition 2, a non-waiting port always injected from non-waiting port, or packets that does not
exists on a router that a packet is transferred back to in a wish to take prohibited turn. If only available output port
loopback manner. If any input port of forwarding router is would keep packets away from destination nodes, packets
unavailable, a packet is transferred in a loopback manner. can wait at the router input buffer until other ports to
Even when a packet exists in forwarding non-waiting input become vacant. This suppresses unprofitable increase of hop
port, packets are simply exchanged between pairing non- counts.
waiting ports when highest arbitration priority is given to
these ports. Since these packet transfer and exchange are
2.1 Router structure
done within a certain period, Theorem 2 is satisfied.
■ Based on above studies, routing which adopts the following
rules is defined as Semi-deflection routing mechanism.
Non-waiting ports in Figure 2 is marked with black color
or diagonal lines. Livelock removal of non-waiting ports is Definition 6: (Semi-deflection routing mechanism)
described in the following section. l Prohibited turns and non-waiting ports are determined
based on a turn model in the given network.
l Each router transfers packets based on priorities given by
3.11 Router structure OSFs and arbiters in the previous subsections.
This section describes the modification of router’s output
selection function and arbiters, which are necessary to Because turn model can be applied to arbitrary topology
support Semi-deflection routing mechanism. [21], application of Semi-deflection routing is not limited to
a two-dimensional Mesh topology.
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 55
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Theorem 3: Semi-deflection routing is deadlock-free. ports, no deadlock occurs unless a packet transfer takes
Proof: (i) If a packet does not take a prohibited turn, it prohibited turn. Thus, buffers of forwarding input port will
does not deadlock because no cyclic-dependency occurs. (ii) be vacant according to (i), and packet transfer will be
In case of taking prohibited turn, a packet can be transferred possible. According to the above, only possible condition for
if buffers among forwarding input ports are vacant. (iii) causing a deadlock is when all packet transfer to forwarding
Even when packets exist in all buffer of forwarding input input ports to take prohibited turns, and packets
Figure 3. Uniform (1-flit) Figure 4. Matrix transpose (1-flit) Figure 5. Bit reversal (1-flit)
Figure 6. Uniform (4-flit) Figure 7. Matrix transpose (4-flit) Figure 8. Bit reversal (4-flit)
Figure 9. Uniform (8-flit) Figure 10. Matrix transpose (8-flit) Figure 11. Bit reversal (8-flit)
On the other hand, an adaptive routing can select blocking transfer among certain routers in interconnection
multiple possible paths, and make much of path diversity of networks of massively parallel computers and SANs.
the topology. The main challenge of adaptive routing is to Evaluation results show that throughput improvement
provide a large number of alternative paths so as to maintain was 2.38 times in maximum in case of 8×8 two-dimensional
average network load constant, balance the load among Mesh topology.
multiple routers, and keep average hop count low as much As the future work, we are planning to test our proposed
as possible. Another challenge is to guarantee deadlock- and routing with other topologies such as torus topology, and
livelock-freedom. A turn model described in Section 2 study other tuning techniques.
defines prohibited turns to eliminate all cyclic channel
dependency of the topology. Duato’s protocol is an adaptive
routing which makes the best use of path diversity, and is a References
fully-adaptive routing. It allows all possible paths by adding
one virtual channel for each path. [1] N.J.Boden and et al., “Myrinet: A Gigabit-per-Second
In contrast, Semi-deflection differs from the above in Local Area Network,” IEEE Micro, vol. 15, no. 1, pp.
terms of the following features. 29–35, 1995.
l Router design becomes lightweight because it does not [2] I.T.Association, “Infiniband architecture. specification
require virtual channels. volume1,release 1.0.a,” available at the InfiniBand
l It is a non-minimal fully-adaptive routing that has Trade Association, http://www.infinibandta.com, Jun.
largest path diversity. 2001.
Another approach to cope with deadlocks is deadlock- [3] F.Petrini, W. Feng, A.Hoisie, S.Coll, and
recovery-based routing, which usually employs minimal E.Frachtenberg, “The Quadrics network: high-
fully adaptive routing. It is useful only when deadlocks are performance clustering technology,” IEEE Micro, vol.
infrequent, and recently, the techniques that are applicable 22, no. 1, pp. 46–57, 2002.
for efficient deadlock recovery-based routing have been [4] P. Kermani and L. Kleinrock, “Virtual cut-through: A
proposed. When deadlock is found, one of the packets is new computer communication switching techniques,”
removed from the deadlocked paths. In overall, there are Computer Networks, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 267–286, 1979.
two types in deadlock removal strategies: a progressive [5] W. Dally and C. Seitz, “Deadlock-Free Message Routing
method that prepares escape path, and regressive method in Multiprocessor Interconnection Networks,” IEEE
which discards and retransmits packets. The former requires Transaction on Computers, vol. 36, no. 5, pp. 547–
virtual channels, and the latter requires control mechanics 553, May 1987.
for packet disposal and retransmission. Semi-deflection [6] C. J. Glass and L. M. Ni, “The Turn Model for Adaptive
routing is a deadlock-free mechanism, so it does not require Routing,” Proceedings of International Symposium on
such control mechanisms. Computer Architecture, pp. 278–287, 1992.
Also, some methods handle deadlocks more proactively. [7] W. J. Dally and H. Aoki, “Deadlock-Free Adaptive
For example, Deflection routing guarantees deadlock-free by Routing in Multicomputer Networks Using Virtual
making a router sending out larger number of flits than it Channels,” IEEE Transaction on Parallel and
has received per cycle. Of course, each router cannot Distributed Systems, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 466–475, 1993.
necessarily selects proper output port of each packet to the [8] A.A.Chien and J.H.Kim, “Planar-adaptive routing: low-
destinations, however deadlock does not occur because cost adaptive networks for multiprocessors,” Journal
packets do not make collisions. Also, studies of Chaos router of the ACM, vol. 42, no. 1, pp. 91–123, Jan. 1995.
have proved its livelock-freedom. Drawback of Deflection [9] J. Duato, “A Necessary And Sufficient Condition For
routing is that it cannot be applied to wormhole routing, Deadlock-Free Adaptive Routing In Wormhole
increasing number of average hop count, and increasing Networks,” IEEE Transaction on Parallel and
hardware amount due to addition of dedicated buffer for Distributed Systems, vol. 6, no. 10, pp. 1055–1067,
holding one packet per router[25]. Semi-deflection routing 1995.
differs from Deflection routing in terms of the following. [10] J.C.Martinez, J.Flich, A.Robles, P.Lopez, J.Duato, and
l Semi-deflection routing only requires non-blocking M.Koibuchi, “In-Order Packet Delivery in
transfer for selected ports of partial routers. Other Interconnection Networks using Adaptive Routing,” in
packets can wait for output ports to take appropriate Proceedings of IEEE International Parallel and
paths. Thus, average hop count is smaller than Distributed Processing Symposium, Apr. 2005, p.
Deflection routing, as shown in Section 3. 101a.
l No dedicated buffer is required for implementation. [11] M.Koibuchi, J.C.Martinez, J.Flich, A.Robles, P.Lopez,
and J.Duato, “Enforcing In-Order Packet Delivery in
System Area Networks with Adaptive Routing,”
5. Conclusions Journal of Parallel and Distributed Computing, vol.
65, pp. 1223–1236, Oct. 2005.
In this paper, we proposed Semi-deflection routing, which is [12] S. L. Scott and G. T.Horson, “The Cray T3E network:
a non-minimal fully-adaptive routing and makes the best use adaptive routing in a high performance 3D torus,” in
of virtual cut-through switching. Semi-deflection routing Proceedings of Hot Interconnects IV, Aug. 1996, pp.
does not require the use of virtual channels by allowing non- 147–156.
58 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Abstract: The number and sophistication of phishing scams or fraud. Users are tricked into disclosing their information
sent out to consumers is continuing to swell drastically. Banks, either by providing it through a web form or by
Vendors, and a number of organizations who provide their downloading and installing hostile software. Once this is
services online have had several incidents where their clients done, the attackers have the information they want, which
have been swindled by phishers. The internet industry is starting puts the ball squarely in their court. This has been a very
to take the threat very seriously seeing the exploding trend of
successful avenue for attackers in the past. They have been
attacks and the tendency for the phish hits to afflict the big
able to harvest various users’ personal information with
industries. Today, both the spam and phishing enterprises are
blooming. These fraudsters send spam or pop-up messages to ease. As a whole, the Internet is unsecure because many of
lure personal and financial information from unsuspecting the constituent networks are unsecure. [5]
victims. The hostile party then uses this information for The first major phishing attempt was made in 1995 against
criminal purposes, such as identity theft and fraud. In spite of
AOL users (ASTALAVISTA, 2010). Back then, AOL just
the measures being taken by researchers, internet service
recently finished adapting measures that prevented using
providers and software vendors to curb this scam, phishing
scams have been on the rise as phishers continue to devise new fake credit card numbers to open new AOL accounts.
schemes to deceive consumers. In this paper, we present the Because of this Crackers resorted to the phishing to get real
different forms of phishing; highlighting specific phishing credit card numbers from authentic users to create their
features that would help consumers identify an imminent accounts. Phishers usually posed as AOL employees. These
phishing scam in order to avoid being phished. It is hoped that fake AOL employees contacted their victims using instant
promoting valuable consumer education would help protect messaging in an attempt to get them to reveal their credit
Internet users worldwide from becoming victims of phishing card details. [6]
scams. By providing their consumers with the tools, resources,
and guidance they need to protect themselves from these threats, Due to the fact that many phishers were successful in
industries and organizations would equally help reduce the obtaining credit card details from AOL customers, they
threat of phishing attacks.
realized that it might be profitable to attack online payment
institutions. Phishing has become a critical problem for
Keywords: consumers, emails, phishing, vishing, websites.
every major financial institution in the world. Nowadays,
phishers usually target people who deal with online payment
1. Introduction services and banks. Phishers now have the ability to target
Phishing attacks are rapidly increasing in frequency. specific customers of different financial institution. By
According to the Anti-Phishing Working Group (APWG), narrowing down the which bank service you are using,
[1] reports of phishing attacks increased by 180% in April phishers can then send targeted emails by posing as
2004 alone, and by 4,000% in the six months prior to April. employees from a specific financial institution. This makes
A recent study done by the antispam firm MailFrontier Inc. their data gathering attempts much more efficient and
found that phishing emails fooled users 28% of the time.[2] difficult to stop. This process is referred to as ‘spear
Estimates of losses resulting from phishing approached $37 phishing’. Some phishers have targeted VIPs and high-
million in 2002.[3] ranking executives in a practice that has been labeled as
The term phishing refers to the act of sending an e-mail to a ‘whaling’.
user falsely claiming to be an established legitimate
enterprise in an attempt to scam the user into surrendering With the advent of social networking sites such as Facebook
private information that will be used for identity theft. The and MySpace, phishers have now moved to new hunting
e-mail directs the user to visit a Web site where they are grounds. The details obtained from phishing on social
asked to update personal information, such as passwords networking sites are known to be used in identity theft.
and credit card, social security, and bank account numbers, Phishers prefer targeting social networking sites because the
that the legitimate organization already has. [4] success rate is often high. In fact, experts have estimated
A phishing attack is said to be successful when a user is that 70% of all phishing attacks in social networking sites
tricked into forming an inaccurate mental model of an are successful. This is because phishers use a fake login
online interaction and thus takes actions that have effects page to track social networkers to punch in their login
contrary to the user's intentions. The attacker can then use details. File sharing sites like Rapidshare and Megaupload
this information for criminal purposes, such as identity theft have also been targeted by phishing schemes. Phishers
60 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
attempt to obtain login details to various premium accounts • A fraudster initiates phishing by sending thousands,
to gain access to unlimited upload and download service even millions, of emails to different mail accounts
that are provided by the site. disguised as messages from a well-known
company. The typical phishing email will contain a
There is yet another form of phishing where the scammers concocted story designed to lure you into taking an
exploit the phone channel to ask for sensitive information, action such as clicking a link or button in the email
rather than sending e-mails and cloning trustworthy or calling a phone number. [10]
websites. In some sense, the traditional phone scams are • In the email, there will be links or buttons that take
streamlined by attackers using techniques that are typical of ignorant consumers to a fraudulent website.
modern, e-mail-based phishing. • The fraudulent website will also mimic the
appearance of a popular website or company. The
2. Related Work scam site will ask for personal information, such as
A number preventive and detective solutions for phishing credit card number, Social Security number, or
threats have been provided by MarkMonitor, Panda account password.
Security, VeriSign, Internet Identity, Cyveillance, RSA, • As soon as the user is tricked to take actions contrary
WebSense, etc. [7], most of them are based on detecting to his intention, phishing is said to be successful.
fraudulent emails and embedded URL, identifying and Thus, the user thinks he’s giving information to a
closing down the scam site, bombing phishing sites with
trusted company when, in fact, he’s supplying it to
dummy information (but apparently real) in order to confuse
a criminal.
the attacker making it difficult to distinguish real data from
dummy data. The use of digital certificates is also a solution
proposed as a countermeasure for phishing attacks. 4. Types of Phishing
However, investigations reveal that the use of digital 3.1 Email and Bogus Website Phishing
certificates for server authentication is not enough to The most common form of phishing is by email. In this
mitigate phishing threats. This is for many reasons, for mode of phishing, phishers pretending to be from a genuine
example many users do not pay enough attention to the financial institution, or a legitimate retailer or government
digital certificate details or many others do not have the agency, ask their targeted victim to “confirm” their personal
knowledge to perform a correct validation of the digital information for some made-up reason. Typically, the email
certificate [8, 9]. In addition the attacker could decide not to contains a link to a phony Web site that looks just like the
use encrypted traffic (HTTP instead of HTTPS). real thing – with sophisticated graphics and images. In fact,
These solutions are not sufficient to provide a secure the fake Web sites are near-replicas of the real one, making
environment because most of them are reactive solutions it difficult even for experts to distinguish between the real
and others do not comply with security policies (e.g. deny as and fake Web sites. As a result, the victim enters his
default, allow only permitted, etc.). In particular for personal information onto the Web site – and into the hands
blocking an attacker site, detecting fraudulent emails is like of identity thieves.
making a black list, and this is the opposite of allowing only
permitted. Other solutions such as the use of two factor
3.2 Vishing
authentication are not enough. If we authenticate the user,
we also have to authenticate the server because both entities The main text for your paragraphs should be 10pt font. All
must be considered mutually untrusted. For this reason, in body paragraphs (except the beginning of a section/sub- As
order to work in a secure way in presence of innumerable computer users have become more educated about the
phishing attempts a multi-factor solution is required. dangers of phishing emails, perpetrators have begun
incorporating the telephone into their schemes. This
variation on the phishing ploy has been termed vishing,
3. Common Phishing Procedure
indicating that it is a combination of voice (phone) and
The most common phishing scams involves sending a
phishing. In a typical vishing attempt, you would receive a
fraudulent email that claims to be from a well-known legitimate-looking email directing you to call a number.
company. Below is an illustration of a typical phishing This would connect you to an automatic voice system, which
procedure: would ask for your credit card information. In some cases
email wouldn't be involved at all. Instead, you would receive
1. Mass 2. Phishing 3. Fraudulent
Email Email Website an automated phone call requesting your account
information. Often the perpetrators would already have your
credit card number and would be requesting only the
security code from the back of the card.
features such as caller ID and voice mail. Internet voice 5. Tips for Spotting Phishing Scams
(VoIP) vulnerabilities are facilitating this form of fraud. Essentially, fraudulent email and websites are designed to
Users can telephone anonymously. In addition, caller ID deceive you and can be difficult to distinguish from the real
devices can be fooled into displaying a false source for a thing. Whenever you get an email about your account, the
call. safest and easiest course of action is to open a new browser,
. type the website address of your online transaction and log
3.3.1 Samples of Phishing in to your account directly. Do not click on any link in an
email that requests personal information.
Sample 1:
"Is this Mr. Shola? I'm calling from PSP Bank. Do you have 5.1 Identifying Fraudulent Emails
a Visa® card? I need to verify your account number because There are many telltale signs of a fraudulent email.[11]
it seems that someone may be fraudulently a. Sender's Email Address. To give you a false sense
charging purchases to your account. Can you read me the of security, the “From” line may include an official-
account number and expiration date on the front of your looking email address that may actually be copied
Visa® card? OK, now the last four digits on the back..." from a genuine one. The email address can easily
be altered – it’s not an indication of the validity of
Sample 2:
any email communication.
"Hello, Mr. Peter Johnson? I represent the ICC Company
b. Generic Email Greeting. A typical phishing email
and our records show that you have an overdue bill of $500
will have a generic greeting, such as “Dear User.”
plus interest and penalties. You don't know anything about
Note: All PayPal emails will greet you by your first
this bill? Well, there could be a mix-up. Is your address 34
and last name.
Hall Street? What is your Social Security number...?"
c. False Sense of Urgency. Most phishing emails try
Sample 3: to deceive you with the threat that your account will
"This is Inspector Danladi calling from the Economic and be in jeopardy if it’s not updated right away. An
Financial Crimes Commission. Are you Mr. Samuel? We email that urgently requests you to supply sensitive
have received several reports of telemarketing personal information is typically fraudulent.
fraud involving attempted withdrawals from bank accounts d. Fake Links. Many phishing emails have a link that
in your area. In order to safeguard your account, we need to looks valid, but sends you to a fraudulent site that
confirm your account number, could you please call out your may or may not have an URL different from the
account number...” link. Always check where a link is going before you
click. Move your mouse over the URL in the email
3.3.2 Common Phishing Features and look at the URL in the browser. As always, if it
looks suspicious, don't click it. Open a new browser
While phishing scams can be sophisticated, one needs to be window, and type https://www.paypal.com.
vigilant in order to recognize a potential scam. The e. Attachments. Similar to fake links, attachments can
following features are often pointers that something is wide be used in phishing emails and are dangerous.
of the mark: Never click on an attachment. It could cause you to
download spyware or a virus. PayPal will never
… Someone contacts you unexpectedly and asks for your email you an attachment or a software update to
personal information such as your financial institution install on your computer.
account number, an account password or PIN, credit card
number or Social Security number. Legitimate companies
and agencies don’t operate that way.
You think you are giving information to a trusted company Web page window). Double click on the symbol to see the
when, in fact, you are supplying it to an online criminal. security certificate for the site and make sure that it matches
a. Deceptive URLs. the site you think you're visiting. But beware - a scammer
Be cautious. Some fraudsters will insert a fake browser may also use a secure Web site.
address bar over the real one, making it appear that you’re
on a legitimate website. Follow these precautions: Even if an • Regularly check your bank, credit and debit
URL contains the word "PayPal," it may not be a PayPal card statements (paper and online).
site. Verify each account at least once a month. Ensure that all
Examples of fake PayPal addresses: transactions are legitimate. If anything is suspicious, contact
http://signin.paypal.com@10.19.32.4/ your bank and all card issuers.
http://83.16.123.18/pp/update.htm?=https://
www.paypal.com/=cmd_login_access • Ensure that your browser is up to date.
www.secure-paypal.com Make sure that you have applied the latest security patches
Always log in to PayPal by opening a new browser and and updates. If you use the Microsoft Internet Explorer
typing in the following: https://www.paypal.com. browser, go to http://www.microsoft.com/security/ and
The term "https" should precede any web address (or download a special patch relating to certain phishing
URL) where you enter personal information. The "s" schemes.
stands for secure. If you don't see "https," you're not in a
secure web session, and you should not enter data. • Install and maintain antivirus and anti-spyware
b. Out-of-place lock icon.
Software.
Make sure there is a secure lock icon in the status bar at the
Some phishing email may contain software that can track
bottom of the browser window. Many fake sites will put this
your activities, disrupt your computer or simply slow it
icon inside the window to deceive you.
down. Detect, manage and delete these threats by installing
effective antivirus software and antispyware and keeping it
updated, either automatically or by downloading updates
manually from the manufacturer's Web site.
Abstract: A new Bluetooth authentication model using some malicious individuals. Wireless networks are exposed to
game theory concepts is presented in this paper. Bluetooth is a many risks and hacker attacks, ranging from data manip-
wireless communication protocol designed for WPAN (Wireless ulation and eavesdropping to viruses and warms attacks. On
Personal Area Network) use. Game theory is a branch of one hand, security needs are increasingly vital. On the other
mathematics and logic which deals with the analysis of games. hand, many security problems have been addressed by game
An authentication between two Bluetooth devices is an theory. In fact, game theory is the formal study of interactive
unidirectional challenge-response procedure and consequently, decision processes [11] offering enhanced understanding of
has many vulnerabilities. We propose a bidirectional conflict and cooperation through mathematical models and
authentication scheme in which the authentication is considered
abstractions.
as a non-cooperative non-zero-sum bi-matrix game. Three
strategies are developed for each player, and the best-response Bluetooth networks are proliferating in our society.
strategies (also called Nash equilibrium) for this game are Unfortunately, the Bluetooth security has many weaknesses.
computed. Using Simplex algorithm, we find only one Nash Del Vecchio and El Kadhi [8] explain many attacks based
equilibrium corresponding to the case where both Bluetooth on the Bluetooth protocol and Bluetooth software
devices are authentic and trying to securely communicate implementations.
together. In a Nash equilibrium, no player has an incentive to The application of game theory to networks security has
deviate from such situation. Then, we generalize our been gaining increasing interest within the past few years.
authentication method to other protocols. For example, Syverson [14] talks about “good” nodes
fighting “evil” nodes in networks and suggests using game
Keywords: Computer/Communications Protocols, ISO theory for reasoning. In [3], Browne describes how game
(International Standards Organization), Bluetooth security, theory can be used to analyze attacks involving complicated
Bluetooth authentication, game theory, Nash equilibrium, and heterogeneous military networks. Buike [4] studies the
Transport Layer Protocol. use of games to model attackers and defenders in
information warfare.
1. Introduction In this paper, we focus on the vulnerability of the
The growth of Information Technology role in various Bluetooth authentication. Since such process is unilateral, a
aspects of our lives in various areas has been increasing malicious Verifier can considerably damage its
rapidly. This in turn increased the importance of having correspondent menacing the operability of that device on the
digital information bases and have electronic connectivity one hand and, the confidentiality and the integrity of the
between various sites of the same organization and between data exchanged on the other hand. To counter this
various organizations. These may be spread over multiple weakness, a game-theoretic framework is used to model a
networks in different countries in different contents [16, 17]. bidirectional authentication between two Bluetooth devices.
This in turn, significantly and substantially increased Using the Nash equilibrium concept, a secure authentication
the importance of having security guarantees for these process is defined in which the authentication is successful
information data bases and electronic connectivity. if and only if both devices are trusted. This paper is
Unfortunately, the security risks have also increased. This structured as following: First, Bluetooth protocol is reviewed
triggered the Research on & Development of security with a focus on its security procedures and vulnerabilities in
methods and systems to provide security guarantees to the section 2. Then, section 3 is dedicated to a background on
communicating users and users of the information data game theory. Next, in section 4 we introduce our game-
bases. This includes the work on developing authentication theoretic model, then some results are presented in section
methods to authenticate the identity of the communicating 5. The new bidirectional Bluetooth authentication protocol
parties [1]. is described in section 6. In Section 7, we generalize our
The explosive growth of electronic connectivity and intelligent authentication method to other protocols. Section
wireless technologies revolutionized our society. Bluetooth 8, presents concluding remarks.
is one of these technologies. It is a recently proposed
standard [8] that allows for local wireless communication
and facilitates the physical connection of different devices
[2]. Unfortunately, this wireless environment attracted many
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 65
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
2. An overview of the Bluetooth security exchanged [15]. The authentication process is shown in
figure 1:
4. Results
After optimal results are computed by the Simplex
resolution, the algorithm matchs Verifier and Claimant
probabilities with the mutual best-response
correspondence(MBi?y (r, s) and MBRc(p,q)). The Claimant
probability r = 173 corresponds to the case where Tv is the
best-strategy for the Verifier. In fact, r is greater than 38s
and also greater than 1s. Analogously, the Verifier
probability p = 173 yields the case where Tc is the Claimant’s
best-strategy. In fact, p is greater than 389 and also greater
than 15q. Thus, the mixed-strategy Nash equilibrium of our
game corresponds to the situation where telling the truth
and cooperating is the best-strategy for both players.
Consequently, the best strategy for the Verifier is Tv and the
best strategy for the Claimant is Tc and both players have no
incentive to deviate from this situation. This means that
according to our bidirectional authentication, the two
Bluetooth devices in communication are better off trusting
each other.
Connection Process
establishment phase AuthenticatedTPC0[tcreq,tdind,cr,cc,tccon,dr,ndind,tdreq,dt
,tdatr,ndreq] :no exit
idle
:= ( ?tcreq; !tdind;
connected TPC0[tcreq,tdind,cr,cc,tccon,ndind,tdreq,dt,tdatr,ndreq]
[] ?tcreq; !cr; ( ( ?dr; !tdind;
Disconnection phase TPC0[tcreq,tdind,cr,cc,tccon,dr,ndind,tdreq,dt,ndreq] )
[] (?cc; !tccon; exit)))
Data transfer phase >> ((Authentication_Data_phase[tdatr,dt]) [>
Disconnection_phase[tdreq,ndreq,ndind,tdind] )
Figure 3. Block Diagram representing normal ISO endproc
Transport Layer protocol where
Referring to the ISO Transport Layer protocol given in Process Authentication_Data_phase[RV,RC,SR2,tdatr,dt]
Lotos in [16, 17], we have the following: ::exit = ( !RV; ?RC; SR2; (i; ?tdatr; i; Data_phase[tdatr,dt])
Consider the Lotos specification for Class 0 transport [] (i; Disconnection_phase[tdreq,ndreq,ndind,tdind])
protocol to the case where the protocol entity is the initiator. [] (!RV; ?RC; SR2; (i; ?dt; i; Data_phase[tdatr,dt])
Process [] (i; Disconnection_phase[tdreq,ndreq,ndind,tdind]))
TPC0[tcreq,tdind,cr,cc,tccon,dr,ndind,tdreq,dt,tdatr,ndreq] endproc
:no exit := ( ?tcreq; !tdind; Process Disconnection[tdreq,ndreq,ndind,tdind[
TPC0[tcreq,tdind,cr,cc,tccon,ndind,tdreq,dt,tdatr,ndreq] ::no exit :=
[] ?tcreq; !cr; ( ( ?dr; !tdind; ?tdreq; !ndreq;
TPC0[tcreq,tdind,cr,cc,tccon,dr,ndind,tdreq,dt,ndreq] ) TPC0[tcreq,tdind,cr,cc,tccon,dr,ndind,tdreq,dt,tdatr,ndreq]
[] (?cc; !tccon; exit))) [] ?ndind; !tdind;
>> (Data_phase[tdatr,dt] [> TPC0[tcreq,tdind,cr,cc,tccon,dr,ndind,tdreq,dr,tdatr,ndreq]
Disconnection_phase[tdreq,ndreq,ndind,tdind] ) Endproc
endproc
where 8. Conclusions
Process Data_phase[tdatr,dt] ::exit = ?tdatr; i; In this work, we present a solution to strengthen the
Data_phase[tdatr,dt] Bluetooth security as well as other protocols including those
[] ?dt; i; Data_phase[tdatr,dt] for the wired networks. A classical Bluetooth authentication
endproc is unidirectional and consequently is vulnerable to malicious
Process Disconnection[tdreq,ndreq,ndind,tdind[ ::no exit := device attacks. The idea is to propose a bidirectional
?tdreq; !ndreq; authentication scheme. Game theory is useful for such
TPC0[tcreq,tdind,cr,cc,tccon,dr,ndind,tdreq,dt,tdatr,ndreq] modelisation since it is a global framework with formal
[] ?ndind; !tdind; opportunities for real-life problem representations. Thus, the
TPC0[tcreq,tdind,cr,cc,tccon,dr,ndind,tdreq,dr,tdatr,ndreq] authentication between two Bluetooth devices is viewed as a
endproc game. The new bidirectional authentication is modeled as a
Applying our authentication scheme and our extension, we simultaneous two-players game (bi-matrix). The possible
get the following specifications: strategies for each player are defined (based on some
security parameters check) and formulated with the utility
Connection function. Such function affects some costs and rewards
Idle
establishment Ua-
phase
values for each player depending on its strategy and its
connected
correspondent’s. Then, each players’ best-strategy are com-
puted (defining the Nash equilibrium). The algorithm uses
the Simplex technique to calculate players’ total gains.
Recall that in such conditions only one Nash equilibrium
Au- Authentication phase
connected
can be derived. This equilibrium corresponds to the case
where both players are telling the truth. In Bluetooth
security terms, two devices have to be trusted during
bidirectional authentication. In other words, the
bidirectional authentication is successful if and only if both
devices are authentic. To implement this protocol, two
issues are possible: outside the Bluetooth core protocol (in
Data transfer phase Disconnection phase the application layer) or within the Bluetooth core protocol
(in the LMP layer). In the first case, the classical Bluetooth
authentication will be replaced by our bidirectional
authentication. When considering the second view, some
changes in the cryptographic function used during a
Idle classical Bluetooth authentication are necessary in order to
Figure 4: Block Diagram of the Extended ISO Transport incorporate the described model. We are finalizing some
Layered protocol with Authenticaion benchmarks to compare the efficiency between our
70 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
algorithm and the standard Bluetooth authentication model. [14] Syverson, P. F. (1997). A different look at secure
Our work can be extended in different ways. For example, distributed computation. In Proc. 10th IEEE Computer
we can model our bidirectional authentication as an N- Security Foundations Workshop.
player game. According to such model, an authentication [15](2003) Bluetooth: threats and security measures.
process can be performed between many devices at the same Bundesant fr Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik,
time. This will be useful when piconets or scatternets are Local Wireless Communication Project Team, Ger-
formed. In addition, we can exploit extensive form in order many.
to describe dynamic behavior. A player will take into ac- [16] Hazem El-Gendy, “Formal Method for Automated
count the effect of its current behavior on the other players’ Transformation of Lotos Specifications to Estelle
future behavior. This principle can forewarn trusted Specifications”, International Journal of Software
Bluetooth devices of possible threats and malicious devices. Engineering & Knowledge Engineering, USA,
Also our model can be applied to any authentication process Vol. 15, No. 5, October 2005, pp. 1-19. 2005.
just by adapting the utility function parameters. [17] Hazem El-Gendy and Nabil El Kadhi, “Testing Data
Flow Aspects of Communications Protocols, Software,
References and Systems Specified in Lotos”, International Journal
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Security Challenges, A tutorial. In proceedings of the
8th World Multi-Conference on Systemics, Cybernetics
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Koufopavlou, O. (2003) Hardware Implementation of
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[10] Muller, T. (1999). Bluetooth security architecture -
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[11] Osborne, M.-J., & Rubinstein, A. (1994). A course in
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[12] Persson, J., & Smeets, B. (2000). Bluetooth security -
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(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 71
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Abstract: Delay tolerant Networks (DTN) are wireless networks single copy and multi copy [12]. In single copy schemes
where disentanglement may occur repeatedly. In order to attain only one copy of message exists in the network, which is
the delivery probability in DTN, researchers have proposed the forwarded along single path [5] for example first contact
use of store-carry-forward paradigm where a node may
[5], direct delivery [5]. While in multi copy schemes more
accumulate messages in its buffer and carry it’s for long period
of time, until a forwarding opportunity arises. In this context,
then one copy of same message are forwarded to multiple
multiple copies scheme gets popularity which floods multiple paths for example Epidemic router[8], spray&wait[14]
messages to increase the delivery probability. This combination ,prophet[1], MaxProp [20] ,probabilistic forwarding[3].
leads protocol to store message for long time at node buffer and As proved by [13] that multi copy policy has high impact
less time duration of contact limited the message forwarding on message delivery and robustness at the cost of more
and increase overhead of bandwidth. Thus a effective scheduling bandwidth, energy and memory usage. However an
for forwarding and drop polices are extremely important to
important issue which was not investigated in the previous
make decision in which order message is forwarded from queue
when limited time of transmission is available and decide which work is the use of an efficient buffer management strategies
drop policy will be use to overcome the full node buffer when a and message forwarding polices. A recent work [1], [21],[7]
new message received. In this paper, we propose a combination has proposed few forwarding and buffer management
of drop policy DLA and forwarding scheduling policy TSMF strategies.
called as DLTs that optimizes the DTN routing protocols in term In this paper we combine the buffer management strategy
of overhead and boost the delivery probability and buffer time DLA with forwarding queue mode TSMF to optimize the
average. We evaluate their efficiency and tradeoffs, through
simulation and prove that DLTs is performing better than
performance of DTN routing protocols in term of delivery
FIFO. probability, overhead ratio and buffer time averages. This
technique is called as DLTs.
Keywords: Store and carry networks. Routing protocols, drop The remaining paper is prepared as follows .Section 2
policies, forwarding policies. elaborates the existing buffer and forwarding polices.
Section 3 is about routing protocols for optimization and
1. Introduction Section 4 is performance metrics, Section 5 is approach and
simulation results simulates in section 6 by a conclusion at
In conventional routing schemes it is necessary to launch
section 7.
end-to-end path from source to destination previous to the
transmission of data. Hence most of wireless applications
such as sensor networks for ecological monitoring [16],
2. Existing drop and forwarding policies
ocean sensor networks [18],[17] biological sensor networks When nodes under DTN resource constrained (buffer)
[11] and vehicular networks [19], [20] due to highly network communicates the congestion arise frequently.
unstable path which may change or break while being Hence the issue is which message from congested buffer will
discovered. be dropped to continue transmission.
Disruption tolerant networks (DTNs) enable the
transmission of data by using intermittently connected 2.1 Queuing drop policies
mobile nodes. DTN as [9],[6] refers as work by using store- Following are queuing drop polices for messages discarded
carry-forward paradigm, where each node in the network order when a new message received at the full buffer node.
store the message in buffer, carries the message while
2.1.1 Drop Random (DR)
moving and forward when it encounter with another node.
The selection of message to be dropped is in random order
Due to long delays, frequent disruptions between
intemitteltly nodes and limited resources, routing in DTN 2.1.2 Drop–Least-Recently-Received (DLR)
[10] has become the prime issue. The message with the long stay time in buffer will be
Based on the idea of message forwarding, routing dropped. The idea is that the packet with in buffer for long
schemes for DTN can be divided in to two major categories, time has less probability to be passed to other nodes.
72 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
2.2.4 GRTRSort
2.1.3 Drop -Oldest (DOA) “GRTRSort looks at difference P (B-D) – P(A-D) values for each
The message with the shorted remaining life time (TTL) in message between the nodes and forward the message only if
network is dropped. The idea of dropping such packet is that P(B-D)>P(A-D).” [1]
if packet TTL is small, it is in the network for long time and
thus has high probability to be already delivered.
2.2.5 GRTRMax
2.1.4 DL-Drop last (DL) “Select messages in descending order of P (B-D) forward the
It drops the newly received message. message only if P (B-D)> P (A-D).” [1]
2.2.6 TSMF
2.1.5 Drop front (DF)
The message that enters first in the queue is dropped first. In TSMF [7] the forwarding queue the message with small
size is placed on top of queue.
2.1.6 N-Drop
In N-Dropt [2], the message that does N number of 3. Routing protocol for optimization
forwarding will be selected to drop.
2.1. Epidemic
2.1.7 MOFO In epidemic routing[8] application messages are swamped to
The message that has been forwarded to maximum number the relay nodes called carriers , where carrier nodes though
of times will be dropped first. [1] moving comes in contact with another related proton of
network , it forward the message to further island of nodes.
2.1.8 MOPR This redundancy of forwarding formulates sure about the
Each message in node is associated with a forwarding delivery of message to its destination.
predictability FP, initially assigned to 0. When the message
is forwarded the FP value is updated and the message with 2.2. Spray&wait (binary)
highest FP value will be dropped first. [1]
Spray&wait (binary) start with N number of copies. While
2.1.9 SHLI moving when it encounter with a node such that N=0, it
The message having smallest TTL will be selected to drop. spread the (N/2) message copies to new node while keep
[1] (N/2) for itself. When it left with one copy (N=1) it perform
direct transmission. Spray&wait combines the speed of
2.1.10 LEPR epidemic router with the simplicity of direct transmission.
“Since the node is least likely to deliver a message for which
it has a low P-value, Drop the message for which the node 2.3. Direct delivery
has the lowest P value.” [1] The source node transmits the message to other node only
when other node is its destination. Direct delivery[5] can be
2.1.11 Drop Largest (DLA) considered a hybrid technique as one can include it in
In Drop Largest (DLA) [21] large size message will be flooding where Direct Delivery always select the direct path
selected in order to drop. between source and destination.
2.2 Forwarding policies
2.4. First Contact
2.2.1 First In First Out (FIFO) In first contact [5] a message is forwarded along a single
path by selecting the node randomly from available
In FIFO queue mode all messages are arranged according to connections. If connections do not exist the nodes waits and
arrival time and the message which has oldest arrival time transmit the message to first available contact.
will be transmitted first.
identified [11]. However, the problem of proper threshold implementation for support vector classification [12] and
setting was still left behind. Another study showed that the this was selected for unordered classification. The
composition of two kernel methods was shown to improve SVMHMM (Support Vector Machines Hidden Markov
the detection accuracy while minimizing the false alarm rate Model) is an implementation of SVMs for sequence tagging
slightly [8]. [13] and it was selected for ordered classification.
The overall results of the tests that we have conducted are
3. Empirical Study and Experimental Results presented in Figure 1 and Figure 2. Figure 1 shows
detection rates when different threshold (TH) values, 35%,
As we surveyed in the previous section, the SVM has
50%, and 70%, were applied to each SVM and Figure 2
been popularly employed in masquerade detection.
shows their corresponding false alarm rates. Note that both
Nevertheless, these studies mainly focused on demonstrating
detection rates and false alarm rates are increased when the
the superiority of the proposed model when compared to
instance length gets longer. Detailed analysis of our findings
other approaches. The main purpose of our research is to
are described in sections 3.2 ~ 3.4.
provide a guideline for modeling an ideal set of features in
utilizing the SVM so that the effectiveness of masquerade
detection can be maximized. Our study analyzes the
performance of masquerade detection with respect to three
parameters: threshold levels, the type of classifiers, and the
length of instances. Section 3.1 describes our experimental
design and overall test results.
3.3 Dataset and Experimental Design
We used the most popular dataset provided by Schonlau
et al. for our experiments. This dataset is called the SEA
data and it includes 15,000 UNIX commands for each of 50
users [7]. We believed that the sequence of UNIX
commands were a good identifier to determine the identity
of each user. This approach was widely used by many
researchers [8], [9], [11]. The sequence of commands was
parsed and partitioned to generate meaningful subgroups Figure 1. Comparison of detection rates
which were fed to the SVM. That is, each user's command
history in the dataset was divided into multiple files which
were broken down into two distinct categories: training data
and test data. Commands were first taken from the dataset to
compile a 500 line file for training on the appropriate SVM
which generated a profile for each user. Next, multiple files
were generated for each sequence length, 4 to 13, for the
purpose of identifying the effectiveness in terms of sequence
length. Each user's profile was then trained on the
appropriate SVM, and the profile was used to classify each
test file for each user. For each user, 500 tests were
conducted.
We analyzed detection rates by classifying a user's profile
against other user's test files. Comparing a user’s test data
against his (or her) own normal profile generated false
alarms. Data was then collected to determine the average Figure 2. Comparison of false alarm rates
detection rate and false alarm rate for each user in terms of
different instance lengths. This data was further extended 3.4 Threshold values
into three threshold values: 35%, 50%, and 70%. This in The threshold value represents the selected minimum
turn was averaged to determine the average detection rate matching percentage so that the audited behavior can be
and false alarm rate for each sequence length. That way, we classified as a masquerade attack or not. Determining an
could determine the relationship between the threshold level appropriate threshold level directly affects the performance
and the performance of masquerade detection. of the system. That is, in general, the raise in the threshold
value causes the increase in both detection rates and false
Different types of classifiers were used for SVMs and we
alarms. Figure 3 and Figure 4 show the average detection
classified the types of classifiers into two distinctive groups:
rates and false alarm rates when three threshold values,
ordered and unordered. The order of the command sequence 35%, 50%, and 70%, were applied to each SVM.
is considered in ordered classifiers whereas it is not taken Our testing showed that threshold values had a profound
into account in unordered classifiers. The LIBSVM (a effect on detection and false alarm rates. Increasing the
Library for Support Vector Machines) is an integrated
78 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
threshold value increased both detections and false alarms. Figure 2). False alarm rates differed by 26 points at
Although the lowest threshold, 35%, had the lowest sequence lengths four and 18 points at length five.
detection rates, this threshold produced minimal false Note that the SVMHMM outperformed the LIBSVM in
alarms in testing (see Figure 3 and Figure 4). Much higher most cases with respect to detection rates when the instance
detection rates were seen at a threshold of 50% than at a lengths were less than 10 (see Figure 1). However, as the
threshold of 35%. While detection rates as high as 93.3% instance length was increased, the performance of both
(SVMHMM) and 96.3% (LIBSVM) were achieved at a SVMs converged at length 10. The performance degradation
threshold level of 70%, this was at a cost of a high false in the SVMHMM seems to be caused by the increasing
alarm rate, 83.5% (SVMHMM) and 89.1% (LIBSVM) particularity as the instance lengths become too long. This is
respectively. Thus, a threshold of 70% or higher is seen as because it is less likely that users always enter a long series
impractical for use due to the excessively high false alarm of commands in the exactly same pattern.
rates. The performance of the LIBSVM, however, turned out to
be less relevant to the instance lengths and this behavior is
shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2. The reason behind this
phenomenon is that the specific order of commands entered
by users is not considered in the LIBSVM. Therefore, there
is no significant change in the performance as the instance
length varies.
3.6 Instance lengths
In order to determine the effect of applying different
instance lengths, we classified the employed instance
lengths into three groups: Short (lengths of 4 ~ 6), Medium
(lengths of 7 ~ 9), and Long (lengths of 10 ~ 13). Testing
results are averaged and redrawn using these groups and
they are represented in Figure 5, 6, 7, and 8.
a smaller instance length is desirable in order to maintain attractive to use a medium length instance; note that there
lower false alarm rates. was a 21.86% increase in the detection rate (see Figure 9)
As we previously mentioned in section 3.3, the when the instance was lengthened from short to medium.
performance of the LIBSVM is less affected by the instance
length (see Figure 7 and Figure 8). Note that there was a 4. Conclusion
slight benefit in the detection rate as the instance lengths
increased under the 35% threshold setting. There have been many approaches in tackling
masquerade attacks. However, these studies primarily
focused on demonstrating the advantage of the proposed
model when compared to other approaches. The main goal
of our research is to investigate the effectiveness of
masquerade detection using SVMs. We analyzed the
performance of masquerade detection with respect to three
parameters: threshold levels, the type of classifiers, and the
length of instances.
In conclusion, no parameters that were selected and tested
were able to improve detection rates while decreasing false
alarms. In all tests, increased detection rates correlate to
increased false alarm rates. However, masquerade detection
using sequence classification was more successful when
limiting false alarms with the use of smaller instance
lengths. Increasing threshold values to a 70% showed little
Figure 7. Analysis of detection rates (LIBSVM) benefit since false alarm rates increased significantly with
only slight increase in detection rates. This study shows that
there is an advantage of using smaller instance lengths
applied to a classifier which considers the order as an effort
to minimize false alarm rates. If maximizing detection
capability is the main goal, the type of a classifier is less
relevant. Instead, it is desirable to use a longer instance at
the sufficient level of threshold where reasonable limits of
false alarms can be retained.
Finally, a new dataset, if any, could be used in order to
support and reinforce the validity of our findings. This
research will help to provide a principle for modeling an
ideal set of rules so that the effectiveness of masquerade
detection can be maximized.
2
Dept. of CST, S.K.University, Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh, India.
bachalasatya@yahoo.com
3
Dept. of CSE, JNTUH College of Engineering, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India.
obvramanaiah@gmail.com
Abstract: A Mobile ad hoc network is a collection of nodes that all the participants to correctly forward routing and data
is connected through a wireless medium forming rapidly traffic. The routing protocol sets the upper limit to security
changing topologies. Mobile ad hoc network are vulnerable due in any packet network.
to its fundamental characteristics such as open medium,
dynamic topology, distributed co-operation and constrained If routing can be misdirected or modified the entire
capability. Real time Intrusion detection architecture for ad hoc network can be paralyzed [2]. Several efforts have been
networks has been proposed for detecting black hole and packet made to the design of a secure routing protocol for ad hoc
dropping attacks. The main problem with this approach is that
networks. The main problems with this approach are that it
the detection process relies on a state based misuse detection
system. In this case every node needs to run in the IDS agent.
requires changes to the underlying protocol and that manual
This approach does not make use of a distributed architecture to configuration of the initial security associations cannot be
detect attacks that require more than one hop information. In completely avoided.
this paper we propose an Efficient IDS, a novel architecture that
uses a specification based intrusion detection techniques to The Efficient Intrusion Detection Systems for mobile ad
detect active attacks such as packet dropping, black hole attacks hoc network system is based on previous research proposed
against AODV protocol. Our architecture involves the use of to detect active attacks against AODV, a routing protocol
FSM for specifying AODV routing behavior and distributed that is widely used in wireless networks [1]. We have
network monitors for detecting the attacks. Our methods can adopted the successful approach of employing distributed
detect most of the bad nodes with low false positive rate and network monitors for detecting attacks in real time and have
packet delivery ratio can also be increased with high detection
applied to the domain of ad hoc routing. Efficient Intrusion
rate. Efficient Intrusion detection system architecture for ad hoc
detection Systems for mobile ad hoc networks can be
networks does not introduce any changes to the underlying
routing protocol since it operates as an intermediate component characterized as an architecture model for Intrusion
between the network traffic and the utilized protocol with detection in ad hoc networks, while its implementation
minimum processing overhead. We have developed a prototype targets specifically AODV [9].
that was evaluated in AODV enabled networks using the network
simulator (ns-2). We clarify our system as an architecture model since it
does not perform any changes to the underlying routing
protocol but it merely intercepts traffic and acts upon
Keywords: MANET’S, Types of attacks, AODV, IDS. recognized patterns.
2. Related Work independently and detects intrusions from local traces. Only
one hop information is maintained at each node for each
Specification based intrusion detection system is used to route. If local evidence is in conclusive, the neighboring IDS
detect attacks on AODV. This approach involves the Finite agents co-operate to perform global intrusion detection. The
state machine for specifying correct AODV routing behavior author utilizes misuse detection techniques to reduce the
and distributed network monitors for detecting runtime number of false positives.
violation of the specifications [3]. Specification based
system are particularly attractive as they successfully detect A context aware detection of selfish nodes utilizes hash
both local and distributed attacks against the AODV routing chains in the route discovery phase of DSR and destination
protocol with a low number of false positives. A real time keyed hash chains and promiscuous made of link layer to
intrusion detection system for ad hoc networks model for observe malicious acts of neighboring nodes [11].This
detecting real time attacks has been developed specifically approach introduces a fear based awareness in the malicious
for AODV [2]. The model is composed of four main layers, node that their actions being watched and rated, which helps
a traffic interception module, an event generation module, in reducing mischief in the system. A potential problem of
an attack analysis module, and counter measure module. this system could be mobility of the nodes. Since the
The traffic interception module captures the incoming traffic malicious node can go out of range and again come in the
from the network and selects which of these packets should network with a different IP address. It can still take
be further processed. The event generation module is advantage of the network. Since this method uses
responsible for abstracting the essential information cryptographic mechanisms to detect malicious attacks, it
required for the attack analysis module to determine if there cannot be classified as pure intrusion detection system.
is malicious activity in the network. The event generation
and attack analysis modules are implemented using A specification based intrusion detection system for
TFSM’S. The final component of the architecture is the AODV [3]. It involves the use of Finite State Machines for
counter measure module that is responsible for taking specifying correct AODV routing behavior and distributed
appropriate actions to keep the network performance within network monitors for detecting runtime violation of the
acceptable limits. The result of this research clearly specifications. An additional field in the protocol message is
demonstrates that this approach is used to detect active proposed to enable the monitoring.
attacks in real time. In effective intrusion detection system
for mobile ad hoc networks, we use this work as a basis and 3. AODV Security Problems
apply the developed concepts in the field of ad hoc
networking environment and more specifically to the AODV In this section we present an overview of AODV ad hoc
routing protocol. routing protocol and the threat model associated with it.
The watchdog and path rater scheme has suggested two 3.1 AODV overview
extensions to the DSR ad hoc routing protocol that attempt
to detect and mitigate the effects of nodes that do not AODV can be thought as a combination of both DSR
forward packets although they have agreed to do so [7].The and DSDV [9].It borrows the basic on demand mechanism
watchdog extension is responsible for monitoring that the of Route discovery and Route maintenance from DSR and
next node in the path forwards data packets by listening in the use of hop by hop routing ,Sequence numbers from
promiscuous mode. The path rater assumes the results of the DSDV.AODV is an on demand routing protocol ,which
watchdog and select most reliable path for packet delivery. initiates a route discovery process only when desired by
As the authors of the scheme have identified, the main Source node. When a Source node S wants to send data
problem with this approach is its vulnerability to black mail packets to a destination node D but can not find a route in
attacks. its routing table, it broadcasts a Route Request (RREQ)
message to its neighbors, including the last known sequence
The intrusion detection and response model proposes number for that destination .The neighbors of the node then
a solution to attacks that are caused from a node internal to rebroad cast the RREQ message to their neighbors if they do
the ad hoc networks where the underlying protocol is not have a fresh route to the destination node .This process
AODV [8]. The intrusion detection model claims to capture continues until the RREQ Message reaches the destination
the attacks such as distributed false route requests, Denial of node or an intermediate node that has a fresh enough route.
Service, destination is compromised, impersonation, and
routing information disclosure. The intrusion response AODV uses Sequence numbers to guarantee that all
model is a counter that is incremented wherever a malicious routes are loop free and contain most recent routing
activity is encountered. When the value reaches a predefined information [9]. An Intermediate node that receives a RREQ
threshold, the malicious node is isolated. The authors have replies to it using a route reply (RREP) message only if it
provided statistics for the accuracy of the model. has a route to the destination, whose corresponding
destination Sequence numbers is greater or equal to the one
A cooperative distributed intrusion detection system contained in RREQ. Otherwise, the intermediate node
(IDS) has been proposed in [10] by Zhang and Lee. This broadcasts the RREQ packet to its neighbors until it reaches
method employs co-operative statistical anomaly detection to the destination. The destination unicasts a RREP Back to
techniques. Each intrusion detection agent runs the node that initiated route discovery by transmitting it to
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It is a type of Routing attack where a malicious node The EIDS is used to successfully detect both local and
advertise it self as having the shortest path to all the nodes distributed attacks against the AODV routing protocol, with
in the environment by sending a fake route reply. By doing a low number of false positives. It uses Network monitors to
this, the malicious node can deprive the traffic from the trace RREQ and RREP messages in a request reply flow for
source node. It can be used as DOS attack, where it can drop distributed network. A Network monitor employs a FSM for
the packets later. The set up for black hole attack is similar detecting incorrect RREQ and RREP messages. The below
to routing loop attack in which attacker sends out forged fig shows the architecture of a Network monitor.
routing packets. It can set up a route to some destination via
it self and when the actual data packets get there they are
simply dropped forming a black hole where data enters but
not leaves.
In this attack, the malicious node attempt to consume Figure 2. Architecture of a Network Monitor
both the network and node resources by generating and
sending frequent un necessary routing traffic. The goal of Networks monitors are used to detect incorrect RREQ
this attack is to flood the network with false routing packets and RREP messages by listening passively to the AODV
to consume all available network bandwidth with irrelevant routing messages. A request reply flow can be uniquely
traffic and to consume energy and processing power from identified by the RREQ ID, the source and destination IP
the participating nodes. addresses. Messages are grouped based on the request-reply
flow to which they belong
There are several other similar attacks presented in the
literature [4, 5, 6]. They exploit more or less the same A network monitor employs a finite state machine
routing protocol vulnerabilities to achieve their goals. (FSM) for detecting incorrect RREQ and RREP messages. It
Sequence number attack is specific to AODV, while the maintains a Finite state machine for each branch of a
other two can be applied to any routing protocol. request-reply flow. A request flow starts at the Source state.
It transmits to the RREQ Forwarding state when a source
4. Efficient Intrusion detection system Architecture node broadcasts the first RREQ message (with a new REQ
ID). When a forwarded broadcasting RREQ is detected, it
84 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
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When a Network Monitor compares a new packet The four metrics that were used in the evaluation of
with the old corresponding packet, the primary goal of the Sequence number attack detection and counter mechanisms
constraints is to make sure that the AODV header of the are the delivery ratio, the number of false routing attacks
forwarded control packet is not modified in an undesired sent by the attacker, false positive and detection rate.
manner. If an intermediate node responds to the request, the
Network monitor will verify this response from its
forwarding table as well as with the constraints in order to
make sure that the intermediate node is not lying. In
addition, the constraints are used to detect Packet drop and
spoofing.
5. Evaluation
References
Author’s Profile
3
Asst.Professor in C.S.E Dep., L.B.R.College of engineering, Vijayawada, A.P., India,
anandranjit@gmail.com
Trustworthiness of websites: - The trustworthiness of a on different web sites E.g., “Jennifer Widom” vs. “J.
website w is the expected confidence of the facts provided by Widom”.The false facts on different web sites are less
w and is denoted by t (w) likely to be the same or similar. False facts are often
introduced by random factors. A web site that provides
Our Problem Setting mostly true facts for many objects will likely provide
true facts for other objects
• Each object has a set of conflictive facts
• E.g., different author names for a book 4.4 Overview of Our Method
• And each web site provides some facts 3.3.1 Confidence of facts ↔ Trustworthiness of web
• How to find the true fact for each object? sites
A fact has high confidence if it is provided by (many)
trustworthy web sites. A web site is trustworthy if it
provides many facts with high confidence.
Our method, Truth Finder Initially, each web site is
equally trustworthy and Based on the above four
heuristics, infer fact confidence from web site
trustworthiness, and then backwards. Repeat until
achieving stable state.
There is usually only one true fact for a property of an Truth finder search: We design a general framework
object. This true fact appears to be the same or similar for the Veracity problem, and invent an algorithm Called
90 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Truth Finder. It utilizes the relationships between web Set of facts provided
sites and their information. That is a web site is by w
trustworthy if it provides many pieces of true information,
and a piece of information is likely to be true if it is We compute the confidence of a fact f: s (f)
provided by many trustworthy web sites. One minus the probability
that all web sites providing f are wrong
Result calculation: For each response of the query we Probability that w
Is wrong
s( f ) =1− ∏(1−t(w))
are calculating the Performance. Using the count
calculated find the best link and show as the out put. w∈W( f )
Set of websites providing f
F (w)
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http://mathworld.wolfram.com/LogisticEquation.html
, 2008.
Finding trustworthy information sources most D.Vijayakumar received the B.sc Degree
trustworthy bookstores found by Truth Finder vs. Top from ANU University in 2002 and the
ranked bookstores by Google (query “bookstore”) M.sc mathematics degree from ANU
University in 2004. He is doing M.Tech,
Table 3: Comparison of the Accuracies of Top Computer science & Engineering in
Bookstores by TRUTHFINDER and by Google P.V.P.S.I.T, Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh,
Truth finder India. Now he was working as a lecturer
in Sri Viveka Institute Of Technology,
Bookstore trustworthiness #boo Accurac
k y
TheSaintBookstor 0.971 28 0.959
e
MildredsBooks 0.969 10 1.0
Alphacraze.com 0.968 13 0.947
Google
Bookstore Google rank #book Accuracy
Barnes & Noble 1 97 0.865
Powell’s books 3 42 0.654
6. Conclusion
References:
Abstract: This is a case study on the students’ attitude and learning process [18]. “Scaffolding refers to providing
perspectives on the effectiveness of the online scaffolding in a contextual supports for meaning through the use of
graduate computer literacy course. This study used the simplified language, teacher modeling, visuals and graphics,
qualitative and quantitative mixed methods. Sixty-four students cooperative learning and hands-on learning” [7]. Combined
and one faculty member participated in this study. The findings with the scaffolding, the learning of the new multimedia
show that the online scaffolding is an effective approach to project creation provides more interest and motivation,
integrate Internet technology in the computer project-based
keeping students on track and increasing retention [14]. The
learning and help “Leave Nobody Behind.” It is beneficial for
both the students and the faculty. Learning through the online
scaffolding structured through the Internet platform has
scaffolding environment also models the students the effective intrigued interest in the educators in the blended classrooms
use of online learning resources that impacted students in their as well as in the distance education classes [1, 13].
life time. The hands-on learning in the authentic context is known as
experiential learning [21]. Learning would be most effective
Keywords: scaffolding, online learning, distance education, when learning takes place in the authentic context [11].
resource-based learning Authentic instruction use teaching strategies such as:
structuring learning around genuine tasks, employing
1. Introduction scaffolding, engaging students in inquiry and social
Vygotsky asserted that learning is a social process [19]. discourse, and providing ample resources for the learners
Social Learning Theory (SLT) is a category of learning [8]. When rich learning resources are incorporated and
theories which is grounded in the belief that human available to learners, effective learning would be achieved
behavior is determined by a three-way relationship between [9].
cognitive factors, environmental influences, and behavior
[2]. “If people observe positive, desired outcomes in the 2. Method
observed behavior, then they are more likely to model, This is a case study on the students’ perspectives on the
imitate, and adopt the behavior themselves” [20]. To effectiveness of the online resource-based scaffolding in a
observe the peer’s behaviors could result in even more peer computer project-based learning course. It adopts the
modeling effect in the learner. The metaphor of scaffolding qualitative and quantitative mixed methods. The
is grounded in the social learning theories of Vygotsky’s quantitative method is one in which the investigator uses
“Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD). Vygotsky said: postpositivist claims for developing knowledge, such as
cause and effect thinking, reduction to specific variables and
…the difference between the child’s hypotheses and questions. It takes measurement to test
developmental level as determined by the hypothesis or theories. While the qualitative method is one
independent problem solving and the higher in which the inquirer makes knowledge claims mainly based
level of potential development as determined on constructivist perspectives or participatory perspectives,
through problem solving under adult guidance or or both [3]. The quantitative research statistically measures
in collaboration with more capable peers. [19] situation, attitudes, behavior, and performance, utilizing a
series of tests and techniques. Quantitative research often
yields data that is projectable to a larger population. Because
Learning support falls into three categories: cognitive, it so heavily relies on numbers and statistics, quantitative
affective, and systematic [18]. They are usually in a research has the ability to effectively transform data into
combined mechanism in the teaching process. The skeleton quantifiable charts and graphs. Qualitative research
of the concept is also guided by a series of the guidance, discovers in the depth to which explorations are conducted
counseling, coaching, tutoring, assessment, etc. [13]. and descriptions are written, usually resulting in sufficient
Scaffolding is an effective teaching approach to support details for the reader to grasp the idiosyncrasies of the
learners [1]. The theoretical concept of the social learning situation or phenomenon [16]. The quantitative approach
underlines the scaffolding perspective. With the scaffolding, uses predetermined closed ended questions to collect
learners are guided, supported and facilitated during the numeric data, employing statistical procedure scientifically;
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the qualitative approach uses open ended questions in the perspectives on their use of the online scaffolding for
interview, observation and document review to collect data learning. The first part of the responses is around the use of
through human interaction. Both methodologies have their the project samples or examples provided online. Students
own strengths and weaknesses. The qualitative and value the effect of using the online project samples to learn
quantitative mixed research method is regarded to better to create new projects.
explain the process of an event and to give a more
meaningful result [6]. The mixed research method draws I think it is a great help to access our course
from the strength of both qualitative and quantitative website. In conducting activities to do projects
approaches, and minimizes the weakness of either in a and assignments, this website gave us a number
single research study [10]. It increases the validity and of sample projects in various ways (to tell us
reliability of the findings by allowing examination of the how) to do PowerPoint presentations, and using
same phenomenon in different ways and promotes better Excel to create charts and graphs. It helps me
understanding of findings [4]. This study adopts the with learning how to effectively use track
quantitative descriptive statistics and qualitative mixed change, making flyers for class activities. And
method. The course of FED 529 Computer-Based (by following the examples) it saves my time in
Instructional Technology was used as a case for this study. doing mail-outs to parents by creating the mail
The purpose of this study is to explore the learners’ merge project.
perspectives on the effectiveness of the online scaffolding in
the FED 529 project-based learning class. This website provides a lot of good resources for
This study uses three graduate classes of FED 529 our projects, saving us a lot of research time.
Computer-Based Instructional Technology as a case. The There were also some good examples of projects
data are collected in three FED 529 classes in the spring, developed by other students which helped (us)
summer and fall semesters in 2010. Sixty-four graduate better understand our class assignments to meet
education students and one instructor participated in this higher requirement.
study. The FED 529 class was a project-based computer
literacy class in the traditional classroom. Rich online I am a visual learner. The computer is pretty new
learning resources were created on the class website as an to me. But the class website gave me great
enhancement or support to learning in this class. The examples to go by…. I have used the website
resources like project models, tutorials, multimedia tutorials to learn some projects, and used the
resources, and writing help are online as scaffolding resources to insert sound, music, and clip arts
resources to learners. The learning content is related to the into my PowerPoint projects, flyer, and web
concepts and relationships that are relevant to the real-world pages. I depended on the previous students’
instructional projects for various content areas, such as model projects to create in learning to do the
PowerPoint presentation for science, math, etc., quality work.
instructional web page design, graphics design, video
editing, sound editing, etc. The writing project is a research The old proverb says that “seeing is believing.” The novice
paper on the use of the educational technology. Though the students are in demand of the visual experience or “first
FED 529 class is taught in the traditional classroom, the sight experience” to gain preliminary understanding [5].
classroom teaching and the online learning resource-based Providing only verbal talking without visual presentation
support exist at the same time to make it a blended format would result in ineffective teaching. So giving the students
(in a traditional instructional format but also integrating samples/examples, or models, enhanced knowledge
plenty of online learning resources) so as to enhance acquisition as well as comprehension. The computer literacy
learning in a more effective way [1]. The course website is class provides a variety of trainings. The cognitive load is
at http://myspace.aamu.edu/users/sha.li. high for the students especially whose background is weak.
To involve students in the learning activities by starting
3. Data Analysis with the good examples could smoothly engage the learners
FED 529 Computer-Based Instructional Technology course to self goal-setting according to the interesting and high
is a traditional classroom computer literacy class. The quality projects.
students age from 20s to 50s. Their computer knowledge Tutoring is the next major issue of the teaching. While goal
and skills are in a large discrepancy. Even though learning is set up, hands-on learning starts. About two thirds of the
is in a face-to-face format, the students still expect extra students could follow in-class instruction to create the
support or help during the learning process because some projects, but one third of the students need extra time and
students have limited experiences of using computers. They help to finish them, according to Dr. Lee, the instructor of
are easy to get lost in class. They need extra time and help the class. “Some students are old students, and some are
to catch up. Others might have missed class because of their from the families which could not provide enough computer
personal events. To follow the principle of No Student Left access for the students. So both the teacher and the students
Behind, the instructor design the online learning support for have to spend more effort to accomplish the class objectives
the students by integrating rich course information, with assignments. When I can provide one on one support to
resources to scaffold the learners so as to ensure that those students, I provide. When I am short of time, I might
everybody learns successfully. Through the interview and refer students to the online tutorials, called FAQs, to learn
survey, students gave responses about their experiences and during after-class period. This is also effective and also
94 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
saves me a lot of time. About 90% of the students who used chose to use more of the Instant Demo to capture screen of
the online tutorials told me that they feel satisfied to learn the project tutorials because the Windows Media Encoder
with the help of the online tutorials, because they are clear could malfunction for some time when a new version of the
to follow and easy to access. The rest of the students are Windows Operating System comes out. The Instant Demo is
either too old to learn effective by themselves, or have more stable with the change of the Windows versions
limited access to the computer/Internet at home,” Dr. Lee because it uses the Flash Player to display the video tutorial
added. The online FAQs are in two formats: text tutorials that upgrades to the new version of Windows faster than
and video tutorials. Some students preferred using the text other programs. Flash works well with multimedia and easy
FAQs, but majority of the low skill students preferred using to play on the Internet. Students like to view the video FAQs
video FAQs. Some of the students’ survey feedback about which involved the students at the low level of the
the online scaffolding was provided as follows: technology skills in effective learning to catch up to a more
advanced level.
The good side of video tutorials is it teaches you The FED 529 class was enhanced with the integration of the
visually and with the instructor’s sound. The Internet technology. The learners are benefited with the
downside of the video tutorials is sometimes it is online learning resources. They offered their feedback in the
hard to download at home, because I use the dial interviews on their opinion of the use of the online
up phone line to connect to Internet. When I use resources.
videos (to learn) at home, I have to be patient to
download them. But they do help me (learn). I think that the website is helpful for those who
did not understand or missed a class. They can
I am familiar with most of the commonly used have a general idea of what is expected of them.
computer programs like Microsoft Word, Excel, They can also follow those step by step tutoring
PowerPoint, Internet, etc. I can finish most of the to learn. And the website is easy to access.
projects in class except some of the advanced
projects which have more advanced skills I don’t The website has good examples of the finished
know. When I need to use the FAQs, the text assignments with tutorials. I felt like it was very
FAQs are enough for me, because I read text helpful. Whenever I needed an answer, I could
faster. I only occasionally use video FAQs, not just look at this website for examples. It included
very much to learn the things I missed. many other useful website links also, such as
BrainyBetty’s multimedia resources, Youtube
I prefer video FAQs. The video FAQ allows for video insertion skills with PowerPoint, clip art
you to view as exactly as it displays on the download, sample research articles, and APA
computer screen. It is easy to understand for writing guide.
people like me. Since I am not good at
computers, I like the tutorial to teach me slowly. Our class website is very informational. It is neat.
The windows media player can pause and slide It helped me tremendously throughout this
back to view video repeatedly. That is exactly semester. I really wish other teachers could
what I like. consider doing websites too. I think all students
should have opportunities to see the examples of
The video tutorial was some of the students’ favorite help. class tasks. I will create my own instructional
The FAQ files are mall and easy to download. It has video websites for my classes when I start teaching in a
with instructor’s sound that improves understanding. Dr. school, just like Dr. Lee’s.
Lee recorded those video tutorials by using the online free
screen capture ware to make them. The screen capture-based The teacher’s instructional website contains
software captures the computer screen interface of the useful information and examples that helped me
projecting process from the beginning to the end, displaying understand the class content. With the online
the real procedure of creating a project on the computer step tutor and demonstration, I was able to preview
by step visually and auditorily. With the variety of the and practice the projects prior to actually doing
screen capture tools available, integrating the screen them in class. It allowed me to access very
capture-based programs into the scaffolding become an valuable information with very little effort on my
easier and convenient practice. It empowers the facilitation part. I really appreciate the time and effort that
and solicits enhanced students engagement in learning. Dr. Dr. Lee put into this website.
Lee told that the current popular screen capture is the
Catasia (www. camtasia.com), but the Catasia is a software Dr. Lee said that his time he contributed to the class
package that costs money. So he chose to use the online free website design was a lot, but the benefit his class received is
ware of Windows Media Encoder also a lot. In this class, not only did Dr. Lee teach and
(http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/bb676137.aspx) facilitate students, his website also taught and facilitated the
or Instant Demo (www.instant-demo.com) to capture the class. Dr. Lee provided instruction and scaffolding
process of the projecting screen processes. Doing this can physically, and his website provided teaching and
save money in one way, and model the educational scaffolding through online informational resources. “It is a
technology use for the teacher students in another. Dr. Lee two-way teaching strategy in this learning environment,” as
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Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Dr. Lee said. There is another gain. That is that the The Table II displays the students’ attitude toward each
integration of the Internet technology into the instruction specific item of the scaffolding resources.
has imposed a conspicuous impact on the learners. The Table II shows the specific items in the online scaffolding
teacher has modeled the use of the online resources to resources. We can see that the students’ preference to use
scaffold learning for students. The students not only learned the online scaffolding resource
the course content, but also learned how to integrate Internet
technology into education that results a long term effect in
students.
In the survey on the students’ attitude and perspectives on
the online scaffolding, students’ responses are displayed in
the Table I.
Abstract: Portable Document Format (PDF) developed by and operating system. Each PDF file contains a complete
Adobe Systems Inc. is a flexible and popular document description of a 2-D document, which includes text, fonts,
distribution and delivery file format, and it is supported within images, and vector graphics described by a context-free
various operating systems and devices. The ease of reproduction, grammar modified from PostScript. Many PDF readers are
distribution, and manipulation of digital documents creates available for use to read PDF files; each PDF file appears in
problems for authorized parties that wish to prevent illegal use the window of a PDF reader as an image-like document.
of such documents. To this end, digital watermarking has been The main advantage of the PDF format is that it allows
proposed as a last line of defence to protect PDF files copyright documents created within any desktop publishing package to
through visible watermarks in such files. As well as, to preserve
be viewed in the original typeset design, regardless of the
the integrity of the digital watermark, an asymmetric
cryptographic algorithm (DES) is employed. The proposed
systems where it is being displayed. Documents with texts,
watermarking method does not change the values of the stored images, hyper-links and other desirable features in
data objects. Experimental results show the feasibility of the document authoring, can be easily created with the packages
proposed method and provide a detailed security analysis and distributed by Adobe or with any other authoring application
performance evaluation to show that the digital watermarking is (e.g., Microsoft Office, OpenOffice, LaTeX, etc.) and then
robust and can withstand various types of attacks. converted to the PDF format. The result is an easy to
Keywords: Portable Document Format (PDF), Watermarking distribute, small size document, that will be displayed
(WM), Data Encryption Standard (DES), Copyright protection, exactly in the way it was created, on any platform and using
Cryptosystems. any viewer application.
Besides being very flexible and portable, PDF documents are
1. Introduction also considered to be secure. Popular document formats like
Microsoft Compound Document File Format (MCDFF) have
The number of files that are published and exchanged
been proven to have security flaws that can leak private user
through the Internet is constantly growing and electronic
information(see Castiglione et al.(2007)[6]), while PDF
document exchange is becoming more and more popular documents are widely regarded as immune to such
among Internet users. The diversity of platforms, formats problems. This is one of the reasons why many
and applications has called for a common technology to governmental and educational institutions have chosen PDF
overcome those differences and produce universally readable as their official document standard. In this paper, we will
documents to be exchanged without limitations. Even start giving a concise overview of the PDF format, focusing
though it is supported by nearly every application on any on how data is stored and managed.
machine, plain text ASCII has failed to become popular Digital watermarking is a relatively new research area that
because it does not allow text formatting, image embedding attracted the interest of numerous researchers both in the
and other features that are required to an efficient academia and the industry and became one of the hottest
communication. Portable Document Format (PDF) files [1] research topics in the multimedia signal processing
are popular nowadays, and so using them as carriers of community. Although the term watermarking has slightly
secret messages for covert communication is convenient. different meanings in the literature, one definition that
Though there are some techniques of embedding data in text seems to prevail is the following [7]: Watermarking is the
files [2-4], studies of using PDF files as cover media are practice of imperceptibly altering a piece of data in order to
embed information about the data. The above definition
very few, except Zhong et al. [5] in which integer numerals
reveals two important characteristics of watermarking. First,
specifying the positions of the text characters in a PDF file
information embedding should not cause perceptible
are used to embed secret data. In this paper a new algorithm
changes to the host medium (sometimes called cover
for PDF documents protection has been presented. medium or cover data). Second, the message should be
The PDF, created by Adobe Systems for document exchange related to the host medium. In this sense, the watermarking
[1], is a fixed-layout format for representing documents in a techniques form a subset of information hiding techniques.
manner independent of the application software, hardware, However, certain authors use the term watermarking with a
98 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
• One or more cross-reference tables storing (xref) followed by the object number of the first object that
information and pointers to objects stored in the has an entry in that section and the number of its entries.
file; Table 2 shows a section with entries of 36 objects, from
• One or more trailers that provide the location of object 0 to object 35. Each entry provides the following
the cross-reference tables in the file. information:
• The object offset in the file;
Table 1: PDF file header For version 1.7 document • The object generation number;
Header Version • The free/in-use flag with value n if the object is in use or ƒ
if the object is free, that is, if the object has been deleted.
%PDF- 1.7
Object 0 is a special object and it is always marked as free,
with generation number 65535. The latest document
(trailer) is stored at the end of the file and points to the last
A newly created PDF document has only one body section, section of the cross-reference table. A PDF document is
one cross-reference table and one trailer. When a document always read from the end (apart when generated with the
is modified, its previous version is not updated, but any “Fast Web View ”flag enabled),looking for the offset
changes and new contents are appended to the end of file, relative to the last section of the cross-reference table,
adding a new body section, a new section of the cross- required to identify the objects that constitute the latest
reference table and a new trailer. The incremental update version of the document. Each time the document is
avoids rewriting the whole file, resulting in a faster saving updated–adding new objects or modifying existing ones–a
process, especially when only small amendments are made new body, cross-reference table section and trailer are
to very large files. Objects stored in the body section have an appended to the file. The body section will contain the
object number used to unambiguously identify the object newly created objects or the updated version of the existing
within the file, anon-zero generation number and a list of ones, the cross-reference table section will store information
key-value pairs enclosed between the keywords (obj) and to retrieve those objects, while the trailer will have a
endobj. Generation numbers are used only when object reference to the newly created cross-reference table section,
numbers are reused, that is, when the object number as well as a pointer to the previous one.
previously assigned to an object that has been deleted is
assigned to a new one. Due to incremental updates, 4. Digital Watermarking and Cryptosystems:
whenever an object is modified, a copy of the object with the basics and overview
latest changes is stored in the file. The newly created copy
will have the same object number as the previous one. Thus, 4.1 Digital watermarking
several copies of an object can be stored in the file, each one Digital watermarking requires elements from many
reflecting the modifications made to that object from the disciplines, including signal processing,
time it was created, onwards. telecommunications, cryptography, psychophysics, and law.
The cross-reference table is composed of several sections In this paper, we focus on the process of protecting PDF
and allows random access to file objects. When a document documents.
is created, the cross-reference table has only one section and An effective watermark should have several properties,
new sections are added every time the file is updated. Each listed below, whose importance will vary depending upon
section contains one entry per object, for a contiguous the application.
number of objects. • Robustness
The watermark should be reliably detectable after alterations
Table 2: An example of cross-reference table to the marked document. Robustness means that it must be
xref difficult (ideally impossible) to defeat a watermark without
0 36 degrading the marked document severely-so severely that
0000000000 65535 f the document is no longer useful or has no (commercial)
0000076327 00000 n value.
0000076478 00000 n • Imperceptibility or a low degree of obtrusiveness
0000076624 00000 n To preserve the quality of the marked document, the
0000078478 00000 n watermark should not noticeably distort the original
document. Ideally, the original and marked documents
0000078629 00000 n
should be perceptually identical.
0000078775 00000 n
• Security
0000078488 00000 n Unauthorized parties should not be able to read or alter the
0000078639 00000 n watermark. Ideally, the watermark should not even be
. detectable by unauthorized parties.
. • No reference to original document
. For some applications, it is necessary to recover the
0000100661 00000 n watermark without requiring the original, unmarked
An example of cross-reference table section is given in document (which would otherwise be stored in a secure
Table 2.As shown, each section starts with the keyword archive).
100 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
The DES algorithm is the most widely known block cipher KPDF document belong to him. Software programs consist
in the world and even today, is resistant to most of practical of two major entities: KPDF creator and KPDF viewer.
attacks. It was created by IBM and defined in 1977 as U.S. The KPDF creator as shown in (Fig.2) and the flowchart is
standard FIPS 46. It is a 64-bit block cipher with 56 bit keys shown in (Fig.3):
and 16 rounds. A round in DES is a substitution 1. Embedded digital watermark into PDF document
(confusion), followed by a permutation (diffusion). 2. Generate string of the header which contain the
For each 64-bit block of plaintext that DES processes, an publisher info and the parameters value (Expire date,
initial permutation is performed and the block is broken into Allow password, Allow print and Allow print screen)
two 32-bit halves, a left half ( Li ) and a right half ( Ri ) . then convert it into array of bytes then append last byte
that’s contain (Number of Header bytes)
The 16 rounds of substitutions and permutations, called
3. Read the work document (watermark included or not)
function f, are then performed. For each round, a DES round
into array of bytes then transposition the array of bytes
key ( K i ) of 48 bits and the current Ri are input into from Z to A into a new array of bytes
function f. The output of f is then XORed with the current 4. Create a new array of bytes that contain header bytes +
Li to give Ri +1 . The current Ri becomes Li +1 . After the 16 reverse bytes and one byte for the trailer which has
header length
rounds, the two halves are rejoined and a final permutation
5. To preserve the integrity of the digital watermark, an
is the last step. This process is shown in Fig.1
asymmetric cryptographic algorithm (DES) is
employed using public key hashed to create a unique
32 character (256-bit)
6. Write the all bytes into the KPDF document
(a)
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Author’s Profile
Abstract: Image registration has great significance in segmentation. In Image analysis technique, the same input
medicine. Hence numerous techniques were developed. This gives out fairly detail description of the scene whose image
paper introduced a method for medical image registration using is being considered. Hence the image analysis algorithms
Fast Walsh-Hadamard transform and measured their perform registration as a part of it towards producing the
performance using correlation coefficient and time taken for description. Also in single subject analysis, the statistical
registration. This algorithm can be used to register images of analysis is done either before or after registration. But in
the same or different modalities. Each image bit is lengthened
group analyses, the statistical analysis is done after
in terms of Fast Walsh-Hadamard basis functions. Each basis
function is a concept of determining various aspects of local
registration. Though registration transforms the different
structure, e.g., horizontal edge, corner, etc. These coefficients sets of data into one co-ordinate system, it’s required for
are normalized and used as numerals in a chosen number comparison or integration.
system which allows one to form a distinct number for each type Generally registration is the most difficult tasks among
of local structure. The research outcomes show that Fast Walsh all in image processing. It is because aligning images to
-Hadamard transform accomplished better results than the overlap the common features and differences if any are to be
conventional Walsh transform in time domain. In addition Fast emphasized for immediate visibility to the naked eye.
Walsh-Hadamard transform established medical image There is no general registration [1-17] algorithm that
registration consuming less time and more correlation work reasonably well for all images. A suitable registration
coefficient. Since in Medical Images information is very algorithm for the particular problem must be chosen or
important than time, hence Correlation Coefficient is used as a
developed, as they are adhoc in nature. The algorithms can
measure. It proves that Fast Walsh Hadamard Transform is
be incorporated explicitly or implicitly or even in the form
better than Walsh Transform in terms of both the measures.
of various parameters. This step determines the success or
Keywords: Walsh Transform, Fast Walsh-Hadamard
failure of image analysis. The method generally involves
Transform, Local Structure, Medical Image Registration, determining a number of corresponding control points in the
Normalization. images and, from the correspondences, determining a
transformation function that will determine the
1. Introduction correspondence between the remaining points in the images.
Digital image processing is building up the basic This technique may be classified based on four different
machine that could achieve the visual functions of all, that aspects given as follows: (i) the feature selection (extracting
is, it is an enhancement by improving image quality by features from an image) using their similarity measures and
filtering the noise and restoration of images by performing a correspondence basis, (ii) the transformation function, (iii)
compression to save storage area and channel capacity the optimization procedure, and (iv) the model for
during transmission. It is a rapidly growing field with processing by interpolation.
emergent applications in many areas of science and Amongst the numerous algorithms developed for image
engineering. The main principle of registration is to registration so far, methods based on image intensity values
combine the sets of data with the deviations if any or with are particularly excellent as they are simple to automate as
their similarities into a single data. These sets of data are solutions to optimization problems. Pure translations, for
obtained by sampling the same scene or object at different example, can be calculated competently, and universally, as
times or from different perspectives, in different co-ordinate the maxima of the cross correlation function between two
systems. The purpose of registration is to envision a single images [11] [15] [17]. Additional commands such as
data merged with all the details about these sets of data rotations, combined with scaling, shears, give rise to
acquired at different times or perspectives or co-ordinate nonlinear functions which must be resolved using iterative
systems. Such data is very vital in medicine for doctors to nonlinear optimization methods [11].
prepare for surgery. The most familiar and significant In the medical imaging field, image registration is
classes of image analysis algorithm with medical regularly used to combine the complementary and
applications [1,3] are image registration and image synergistic information of images attained from different
106 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
modalities. A widespread problem when registering image toward the effectiveness of the occurrence of the analogous
data is that one does not have direct access to the density structure at the particular position. If these coefficients are
functions of the image intensities. They must be estimated normalized by the dc coefficient of the expansion, i.e., the
from the image data. A variety of image registration local average gray value of the image, then they measure
techniques have been used for successfully registering purely the local structure independent of modality. Walsh
images that are unoccluded. This is generally practiced with basis functions correspond to local structure, in the form of
the use of Parzen windows or normalized frequency positive or negative going horizontal or vertical edge, corner
histograms [12]. of a certain type, etc. In addition, registration schemes based
The work proposed in this paper uses Fast Walsh- on wavelet coefficient matching do not present a general
Hadamard Transform (FWHT) [18, 19] for image mechanism of combining the matching results across
registration. The coefficients obtained are normalized to different scales.
determine a unique number which in turn represents the Suppose if there are two images I1 and I2, in which I1 is
digits in a particular range. The experiments conducted on assumed to represent the reference image whereas I2
clinical images show that proposed algorithm performed represents an image that has to be deformed to match I1.
well than the conventional Walsh Transform(WT) method First, we consider around each pixel, excluding border
in medical image registration. In addition, this paper pixels, a 3X3 neighborhood and compute from it, the nine
provides a comparative analysis of Fast Walsh-Hadamard Walsh coefficients (3X3 WT of a 3X3 image patch). If ‘f’ is
transform and Walsh transform in Medical image the input image, the matrix of coefficients ‘g’ computed for
registration in terms of correlation coefficient and time it using equation (1),
taken for registration. g = (W −1 ) T . fW −1 (1)
The remainder of the paper is ordered as follows.
Matrix contains the coefficients of the expansion of the
Section 2 provides an overview on the related work for
image, in terms of the basis images formed by taking the
image registration. Section 3 explains Walsh transform in
vector outer products of the rows of matrix W and its inverse
image registration. Section 4 describes the proposed
W-1. These basis images are shown in Fig. 1(a). These
approach for image registration using Fast Walsh-Hadamard
coefficients are denoted by a00, a01, a02, a10, a11, a12, a20, a21,
Transform. Section 5 illustrates the experimental results to
a22, and in a matrix form as shown in Fig. 1(b). These
prove the efficiency of the proposed approach in image
coefficients take the value in the range [0, 9]. Moreover
registration in terms of correlation coefficient and time
normalization given by equation (2) makes the method
taken for registration and Section 6 concludes the paper
robust to global levels of change of illumination.
with a discussion.
αij = aij / a00 (2)
2. Related Works However, the information having dense features and
rigid body transformation allows for plenty of redundancy in
This section of paper provides a quick look on the the system and makes it robust to noise and bad matches of
relevant research work in image registration. individual pixels which effectively represent lack of local
An automatic scheme using global optimization information. One may construct a unique number out of
technique for retinal image registration was put forth by eight numbers if one uses these numbers as the digits of the
Matsopoulos et al. in [1]. A robust approach that estimates unique number. The number of levels depends on the
the affine transformation parameters necessary to register number system adopted. If one decide to stick with the
any two digital images misaligned due to rotation, scale, decimal system, and then the normalized coefficients are
shear, and translation was proposed by Wolberg and Zokai quantized so that they take integer values in the range [0, 9].
in [2]. Zhu described an approach by cross-entropy
optimization in [3]. Jan Kybic and Michael Unser together
put forth an approach for fast elastic multidimensional
intensity-based image registration with a parametric model
of the deformation in [4]. Bentoutou et al. in [5] offered an
automatic image registration for applications in remote
sensing. A novel approach that addresses the range image (a). WTs basis images for a 3X3 images
registration problem for views having low overlap and
which may include substantial noise for image registration a0 a0 a0
was described by Silva et al. in [6]. Matungka et al. 0 1 2
proposed an approach that involved Adaptive Polar a1 a1 a1
Transform (APT) for Image registration in [7, 10]. A 0 1 2
feature-based, fully non supervised methodology dedicated a2 a2 a2
to the fast registration of medical images was described by
0 1 2
Khaissidi et al. in [8]. Wei Pan et al. in [9] proposed a (b). Nine coefficients in matrix form
technique for image registration using Fractional Fourier Figure 1. Walsh Transformation
Transform (FFT).
3. Walsh Transform In Figure 1(a) the coefficients along the first row and the
first column are of equal importance, as they measure the
The Walsh, Haar [13], etc are examples of orthogonal presence of a vertical or a horizontal edge, respectively. The
transforms. The coefficients of such an extension point
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 107
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
remaining four coefficients measure the presence of anumber. This unique number can then be used as feature for
corner. image registration. The implementation of FWHT readily
The following ordering of coefficients are used in images, reduces the time consumption for medical image registration
Ordering IA α01, α 10, α 20, α 02, α 11, α 21, α 12, α 22 when comparing the same with conventional WT technique for
Ordering IB α 10, α 01, α 02, α 20, α 11, α 12, α 21, α 22 image registration.
Ordering IIA α 22, α 21, α 12, α 11, α 02, α 20, α 10, α 01
Ordering IIB α 22, α 12, α 21, α 11, α 20, α 02, α 01, α 10 5. Experimental Result
The performance of the FWHT is better than the WT in terms A series of experiments is performed using medical
of Correlation Coefficient(CC) and Time taken for registration images. The tests are performed using different images of
of mono and multimodal image registration. different sizes. A set of CT and MR medical images which
depict the head of the same patient is considered. The
The drawbacks of WT were found to be as follows: original size of these images is given as pixels. In order to
(i) Errors are present in the final registration stage. remove the background parts and the head outline, the
(ii) Consumes more CPU time for registration as lot of original images are cropped, creating sub-images of
calculations are involved. This is the major drawback when different dimension pixels. The algorithms are evaluated by
compared to FWHT. determining the CC and Time taken for registration.
The CC is a statistical measure of how well trends in
The advantages of FWHT were found to be as follows: the predicted values follow trends in past actual values. It is
(i) More reliable as produces least error results in the final a measure of how well the predicted values from a forecast
registration stage when compared to WT. model “fit” with the real-life-data. As the strength of the
(ii)Consumes very less CPU time for registration as calculations relationship between the predicted values and actual values
are performed using divide and conquer method. This is the increases, so does the CC. Thus higher the CC the better it
major advantage when compared to WT. is.
(iii)The performance of the FWHT is better than the WT in Correlation Coefficient
terms of CC for monomodal and multimodal image registration.
The Computed Tomography (CT) or Magnetic Resonance
(MR) images represent monomodal images and CT-CT, CT-MR,
and MR-MR images represent real multimodal pairs and the
successful registration shows that FWHT produce accurate
results while the measures correlation coefficient and time taken
for registration are considered in a diversity of image sets,
without any tuning in the preprocessing step.
4. Proposed Approach
0.5
0.4
FWHT
(iii) Sagittal 500 x 500 - 72k - jpg MRI & Sagittal 840 x 754 -
0.3
0.2 69k - jpg CT - WT
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 5
Ima ges
Table 2.Represents Time consumption for Image Registration a) Registered Image obtained using WT
using WT & FWHT
S X in Y in Angle in Elapsed Elapsed
No mm mm degrees Time in Time in
seconds seconds
for WT for
FWHT b) Difference in images obtained using WT
1 4 -10 9 138.297 6.829 Figure 8. Images obtained using WT
2 -12 -7 13 135.922 7.328
3 5 -7 5 133.406 6.328 (iv) Sagittal 500 x 500 - 72k - jpg MRI & Sagittal 840 x 754 -
4 -14 -15 2 136.000 6.750
69k - jpg CT - FWHT
5 -8 -7 1 141.125 6.125
160
140
120
Time in Secs
100
WT
80
60
FW HT
a) Registered Image obtained using FWHT
40
20
0
1 2 3 4 5
I ma ge s
b) Difference in images obtained using FWHT b) Difference in images obtained using FWHT
Figure 17. Images obtained using FWHT
110 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Analysis and Machine Intelligence, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. R. Neelaveni is presently working as a
400-413, 2009. Assistant Professor, Department of EEE,
[10] R. Matungka, Y. F. Zheng, and R. L. Ewing, “Image PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore.
registration using Adaptive Polar Transform,” IEEE She has a Bachelor’s degree in ECE, a
Master’s degree in Applied Electronics and
Transactions on Image Processing, vol. 18, no. 10, pp.
PhD in Biomedical Instrumentation. She has
2340-2354, 2009. 19 years of teaching experience and has
[11] Jr. Dennis M. Healy, and Gustavo K. Rohde, “Fast guided many UG and PG projects. Her
Global Image Registration using Random Projections,” research and teaching interests includes
4th IEEE International Symposium on Biomedical Applied Electronics, Analog VLSI, Computer Networks, and
Imaging: From Nano to Macro, ISBI 2007, pp. 476- Biomedical Engineering. She is a Life member of Indian Society
479, 2007. for Technical Education (ISTE). She has published several
[12] C. Fookes and A. Maeder, “Quadrature-Based Image research papers in national and international Journals and
Registration Method using Mutual Information,” IEEE Conferences.
International Symposium on Biomedical Imaging: Nano
to Macro, vol. 1, pp. 728-731, 2004.
[13] M. Petrou and P. Bosdogianni, Image Processing—The
Fundamentals. New York: Wiley, 1999.
[14] Pere Marti-Puig, “A Family of Fast Walsh Hadamard
Algorithms With Identical Sparse Matrix
Factorization,” IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing
Letters, vol. 13, no. 11, pp. 672-675, 2006.
[15] J. L. Moigne, W. J. Campbell, and R. F. Cromp, “An
automated parallel image registration technique based
on correlation of wavelet features,” IEEE Trans. Geosci.
Remote Sens., vol. 40, no. 8, pp. 1849–1864, Aug.
2002.
[16] J. P. W. Pluim, J. A. Maintz, and M. A. Viergever,
“Image registration by maximization of combined
mutual information and gradient information,” IEEE
Trans. Med. Imag., vol. 19, no. 8, pp. 899–814, Aug.
2000.
[17] Z. Zhang, J. Zhang, M. Liao, and L. Zhang, “Automatic
registration of multi-source imagery based on global
image matching,” Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens.,
vol. 66, no. 5, pp. 625–629, May 2000.
[18] M. Bossert, E. M. Gabidulin, and P. Lusina, “Space-
time codes based on Hadamard matrices proceedings,”
in Proc. IEEE Int. Symp. Information Theory, Jun. 25–
30, 2000, p. 283.
[19] L. Ping, W. K. Leung, and K. Y. Wu, “Low-rate turbo-
Hadamard codes,” IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory, vol. 49, no.
12, pp. 3213–3224, Dec. 2003.
Author’s Profile
D.Sasikala is presently working as Assistant
Professor, Department of CSE, Bannari
Amman Institute of Technology,
Sathyamangalam. She received B.E.( CSE)
from Coimbatore Institute of Technology,
Coimbatore and M.E. (CSE) from
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,
Tirunelveli. She is now pursuing Phd in Image
Processing. She has 11.5 years of teaching experience and has
guided several UG and PG projects. She is a life member of ISTE.
Her areas of interests are Image Processing, System Software,
Artificial Intelligence, Compiler Design.
112 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
are then embedded into the web page through the upper and
Abstract: In this paper an effective color image steganography lower cases of letters in HTML tags. When a watermarked
method based on Principle Component Analysis (PCA) is web page is tampered, the extracted watermarks can detect
proposed. After applying the PCA technique on the RGB the modifications to the web page. A. Abadpour and S.
trichromatic system, eigenimages obtained, the least significant Kasaei [7] use the PCA to compression and watermarking of
bit of the Eigenimages pixels value are replaced with the data color images. However steganography based on PCA
bits. Then inverse PCA applied and stego-image is resulted. The technique is typically a novel and first attempt scheme.
method used the correlation between the colors of RGB image.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: first, Section 2
Experimental results show that the proposed algorithm robust
against noises, attacks and detection comparable to LSB
PCA technique briefly discussed. The proposed PCA-based
methods that replace the LSBs of pixel value directly. Hope with steganography scheme is specifically described in Section 3.
optimizing the method, makes it an effective steganographic The paper continues with Section 4 which contains the
technique in security communication. experimental results and discussions. Finally, Section 5
concludes the paper.
Keywords: Steganography, Principle Component Analysis,
RGB image, correlation. 2. Principle Component Analysis
Let I be an N×N matrix, denoted by I ∈ , where F
1. Introduction represents either the real number domain or the complex
Steganography is combination of science and art concealing number domain. The first step of PCA is to calculate the
the secret message so that the very existence of it is not covariance matrix V of I, which is defined as
detectable [1]. The major steganography characteristics are
V= ,
providing a larger hidden capacity for data-hiding and
maintaining a good perceived quality [2]. In the Where is the row vector in I, t denotes the transpose
steganography process, first and more important term that operation, and ∈ is the average vector of the row
must regarded is undetectability and then robustness vectors in I, i.e.
(resistance to various image processing methods and
compression) and capacity of the hidden data, that separate .
it from related techniques such as watermarking and
Then eigen decomposition (ED) is applied to V:
cryptography. The steganographic algorithms can be divided
into two groups: spatial/time domain and transform domain V = UL ,
techniques. In the spatial domain in the case of images,
Where denotes the inverse matrix of U. L is a diagonal
secret message directly embedding in pixels value of image.
matrix with eigenvalues of V as its diagonal
The transform domain methods operate in the Discrete
elements , and the columns of U, , , . . . ,
Cosine Transform, Fourier or wavelet transform domains of
, are the eigenvectors of V.
the host signal [2]. The proposed method belongs to
According to theory of linear algebra, the primary
transform domain but color transform domain. Applying
information of V is in the larger eigenvalues and
PCA transform caused images that called eigenimages [3].
corresponding eigenvectors. Without loss of generality, we
In natural RGB images, R-, G- and B-component have high
assume that these diagonal elements in L have been sorted
correlation: , and [4],
in descending order ( . A property of
while eigenimages aren’t correlated and distribution of data
PCA is its optimal signal reconstruction in the sense of
is quite heterogeneous. Hence changing pixels value of RGB
minimum mean square error (MSE) when only a subset of
image caused most sensible variation of changing pixels
eigenvectors, called principal vectors, is used as basis
value of eigenimages [5]. Tow characteristics uncorrelation
vectors of a feature space S:
and data distribution of eigenimages can be used for
effective steganographic. Watermarking based on PCA S = span ( , ,..., ), m N.
transform for tamper-proof of web pages is proposed by
With the feature space S, we can obtain another
Qijun and Hongtao [6]. The proposed scheme generates
representation of the original data I by projecting them into
watermarks based on the PCA technique. The watermarks
the space S. Specifically this is as the following equation:
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 113
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Table 1: The average PSNR and percent of correct retrieval data for different bpp and optimum locations.
Reference
Abstract: Internet access has become more and more Since packets and frames of other categories of networks
convenient to the extent that it is now often seen by customers as are transmitted over the broadband access networks, we
a “utility”, a relatively undifferentiated key service. Emergence need to find the technologies and the architectures that will
of new equipment which requires the optimal use of bandwidth enable cost effective transport of this traffic all the way to
like HDTV, mobile TV, wireless sound system, operators in the home via an access networks.
recent years have developed more and more services requiring FTTH deployed with Passive Optical Network (PON)
higher bandwidth. Without fiber, operators face a bottleneck on
technology seems to be the best solution to alleviate the
service development and therefore on the ability to develop new
services and revenues. This paper focus on deployment of the
bandwidth bottleneck in the access network. FTTH is an
FTTH using Ethernet and PON architectures. The comparative access technology in which the optical fiber runs from the
performance analysis of the architectures and the survey on central office to the subscribers living or workspace. The
different access networks emphasis that FTTH(using fiber optic optical line terminal (OLT) resides at the central office and
cables) will be a promising technology for future bandwidth optical network unit is on the customer premises. OLT and
requirements and offers a way to eliminate the bottleneck in the ONU are interconnected by means of an optical fiber. The
last mile, with speeds 100 times higher than copper and also function of an ONU is to provide the services received from
enables new applications and services within the digital home. the OLT to the Home. ONU can also serve many homes; in
that case the network is called FTTC (fiber to the curb).
Key Words: FTTH, Ethernet, Access, PON Many applications like CATV, VOIP reaches the central
office and the ONU converts them in to single wavelength
1. Introduction and they are transmitted via optical fiber. Figure.1
represents the architecture of FTTH.
The increasing need in the telecommunication services is
the key driver behind the development in the access 2. FTTH Architectures
networks. Among the various broadband access technologies
like digital subscriber loop (DSL) and cable/modem, Fiber- FTTH can be deployed using either Ethernet or PON
to-the-home (FTTH) is the end game for many service architectures. Ring, Star and Tree are the topologies that are
providers. considered and of which Tree is the mostly preferred and
used topology [1].
FTTH architectures that have been deployed can be
classified in to three broad categories.
• Ring Architecture of Ethernet switches.
• Star Architecture of Ethernet switches.
• Tree architecture using PON technologies.
Initially in Europe, FTTH using Ethernet is based on the typically, PON has a physical tree topology with the central
architectures where the switches are located in the office (CO) located at the root and the subscribers connected
basements of the multiple dwelling units that have been to the leaf nodes of the tree. OLT is the root of the tree and
interconnected in the form of a ring. Such architectures the ONUs are connected to the OLT the root, by
provide excellent resilience against fiber cuts and it is cost optical fibers through passive optical splitter/combiners,
effective. But the sharing of bandwidth over each ring is which interconnects the ONUs. The function of an optical
comparatively small and because of this reason star splitter (OS) is to divide the power among the users in the
architectures are preferred. link. The maximum splitting ratio is 1:64 and 1:128 [6].i.e.,
OS can serve up to 128 users simultaneously.
The downstream represents the data transmission from the 2.3.1 Broadband PON (BPON)
OLT to ONU. The wavelength preferred is 1490-1550nm, BPON is the first introduced PON standard. It is accepted
since the attenuation is very less 0.2 db/km. From the and given a standard by ITU T as ITU T G.983 in 1999[7].
Figure 4, the services like voice, data and video etc., from The Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) protocol is used
different application networks transported over the optical to carry user data, hence sometimes access networks based
network reaches the OLT and are distributed to the ONUs on this standard are referred to as APONs [8], [9]. ATM
through the OS by means of power splitting. uses 53-byte cells (5 bytes of header and 48 bytes of
The optical splitter splits the power of the signal i.e., if payload). Because of the fixed cell size, ATM
there are N users the splitting ratio is 1:N. Due to power implementations can enforce quality-of-service guarantees,
splitting the signal gets attenuated but its structure and for ample, bandwidth allocation, delay guarantees, and so
properties remain the same. Each Home receives the packets forth. ATM was designed to support both voice and data
intended to it through its ONU. payloads. Yet, the advantages of ATM proved to be the
main obstacle in deployment of BPON and despite many
2.2.1. b. Upstream Data Flow field trails [10], [11] BPON did not gain much popularity.
The upstream represents the data transmission from the
ONU to OLT. The wavelength preferred is 1310 nm. If the The APON protocol operates differently in the
signals from the different ONUs arrives the splitter input at downstream and upstream directions. All downstream
the same time at the same wavelength 1310nm, it results in receivers receive all cells and discard those not intended for
superposition of different ONU signals when it reaches them based on ATM addressing information. Due to the
OLT. Hence TDMA [1] is adopted to avoid the interference broadcast nature of the PON, downstream user data is
of signals from ONUs. In TDMA time slots will be provided churned, or scrambled, using a churn key generated by the
to each user on demand for transmission of their packets. At ONT to provide a low level of protection for downstream
the optical splitter packets arrive in order and they are user data.In the upstream direction, transmission is
combined and transmitted to OLT. regulated with a time-division multiple access (TDMA)
system. Transmitters are told when to transmit by receipt of
grant messages. Upstream APON modifies ATM and uses
56-byte ATM cells, with the additional 3 bytes of header
being used for guard time, preamble bits, and a delimiter
before the start of the actual 53-byte ATM cell.
3. Performance of FTTH Networks the optical distribution network have a longer lifecycle of at
least 30 years.
Demand for the bandwidth is increasing with the emergence
of new applications like tele-working, video conferencing,
video telemetry. FTTH provides enormous bandwidth and
long rich offering for triple play services(voice, data,
video).From the Figure 7, the extent to which FTTH can
provide greater bandwidth at lower cost is unmatched by any
other technology[15].
4. Cost Considerations
Figure 10. Estimated growth of FTTH in EMEA (Europe
From Figure 9, the cost of FTTH network equipment and Middle East and Africa), APAC (Asia Pacific region) and
installation cost is less compared to all other technology as America (2005-2011) [13]
the dominant part of the cost is the civil works which can be
considerably reduced if the construction is planned in
advance. 6. Comparison of PON flavors
Furthermore, while the FTTH network and its electronic
elements have a lifecycle of many years, the fiber plant and The selected characteristics of Existing PON flavors have
been compared and summarized as in Table.1.
120 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Table 1. Comparison of PON flavors [7] ITU-T, “G.983.1 - Broadband Passive Optical Networks
(BPON): General characteristics,” June 1999.
PARAMETERS BPON EPON GPON
[8] David Faulkner, Rajendrakumar Mistry, Tom
Rowbotham, Kenji Okada, Wsewolod Warzanskyj,
STANDARD ITU T G.983 IEEE 802.3ah ITU T G.984 Albert Zylbersztejn, and Yves Picault, “The Full
Services Access Networks Initiative,” IEEE
PACKET SIZE 53 BYTES 1518 BYTES
53-1518 Communications Magazine 35, pp. 58–68, Apr. 1997.
BYTES
[9] Yoichi Maeda, Kenji Okada, and David Faulkner,
DOWNSTREAM
622Mbps 1.25Gbps 2..5 Gbps
“FSAN OAN-WG and future issues for broadband
DATA RATE optical access networks,” IEEE Communications
UPSTREAM Magazine 39, pp. 126–132, Dec. 2001.
155Mbps 1.25 Gbps 1.25 Gbps
DATARATE
[10] Ingrid Van de Voorde and Gert Van der Plas, “Full
DOWNSTEAM 1490 - 1550 1490 – 1550
WAVELENGTH nm
1550 nm
nm
Service Optical Access Networks: ATM Transport on
Passive Optical Networks,” IEEE Communications
UPSTREAM
1310 nm 1310 nm 1310 nm Magazine 35(4), pp. 70–75, 1997.
WAVELENGTH
[11] Hiromi Ueda, Kenji Okada, Brian Ford, Glenn
ATM
TRAFFIC
ATM ETHERNET ETHERNET Mahony, Stephen Hornung, David Faulkner, Jacques
MODES Abiven, Sophie Durel, Ralph Ballart, and John
TDM
Erickson, “Deployment status and common technical
MAX PON
32 16 64 or 128
specifications for a B-PON system,” IEEE
SPLITS Communications Magazine 39, pp. 134–141, Dec.
2001.
[12] www.ftthcouncilap.org, www.ftthcouncil.com
BANDWIDTH 40 Mbps 75 Mbps 1.25 Mbps
[13] “FTTH white paper on Cable solutions for operator
diversity and lower CAPEX”, February 2008.
BER - 10-12 10-10 [14] “Consumer study report about FTTH” RVA 2010.
[15] John George“ Cost Innovations Speed Fiber Past
Copper to Enable Widespread FTTH Deployment” OFS
EFFICIENCY 72% 49% 94% Optics.
Author’s Profile
7. Conclusion
This paper has provided overview of FTTH and its P. Rajeswari received her B.E. degree
architectures based on Ethernet and PON. The comparative in Electronics and Communication from
analysis of the features in all the architectures Table.1 shows Anna University, Chennai, India in 2009
the access based on PON will be a promising technology of with a rank of 41 among 15535. Presently
the future as it also proves to be a fast growing technology she is doing her M.E. in Communication
from the survey results. FTTH not only eliminate the bottle Systems at Ranippettai Engineering
neck problem at the last mile but also offers much higher College affiliated to Anna University.
bandwidth and supports applications like HDTV, VOIP, and
Telecom when compared to other access technologies like N. Lavanya received her B.E. degree in
DSL and cable. Electronics and Communication from
Anna University, Chennai, India in 2008.
Presently she is doing her M.E. in
References
Communication Systems at Ranippettai
Engineering College affiliated to Anna
[1] Dawid Nowak and John Murphy, “ FTTH: The
University.
Overview of Existing Technologies”. University
College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland.
[2] Albert Domingo Vilar, “Modeling and deployment of
Shankar Duraikannan received his B.E.
NGAN in competitive market” 2009.
degree from University of Madras and
[3] Ziad A.Elsahn ,“Smooth upgrade of existing FTTH
M.Tech. from Anna University in 1996
access networks: SAC-OCDMA and Dense SS-WDM
and 2000 respectively. He has a decade of
solutions” 2010.
teaching and research experience
[4] C. Lin, “Broadband optical access networks and fiber-to-
in the field of Optical Communication
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and Networks. Presently he is working as
strategies”, John Wiley & Sons Ltd., September 2006.
an Assistant Professor in Department of Electronics and
[5] A. Girard, “FTTx PON technology and testing”, Quebec
Communication Engineering, Ranippettai Engineering
City, Canada: Electro- Optical Engineering Inc., 2005.
College, Tamil Nadu, India.
[6] T.Koonen, “Trends in optical access and in-building
networks’ COBRA - Eindhoven the Netherlands.
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 121
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
control and project management are used throughout the discussed in Section 4 above, are analyzed in three parts;
SM processes and hence provides a good deal of input to the data reliability, fitness of respondent data and questionnaire
knowledge contents. The questions are – how well and items data and determination of component groups cut-off
important are these tools in the KM activities (acquiring, points.
selecting, using, providing/creating and storing knowledge).
5.2 Data Reliability
4.3 The Importance Of KMS Foundation
Components And Infrastructure Summary statistics for respondents (person) and items
KMS foundation components include, among a few, (questions) are depicted in Table 1 and Table 2,
computer-mediated collaboration, Experience Mgmt System, respectively. 41 respondents returned the survey
Document Management, KM portal, EDMS, OLAP, and questionnaire. Out of which, Rasch identified an extreme
Middleware tools and Knowledge Map. While collaboration score which will later be excluded from further analysis.
tools allow users to impart and share both tacit and explicit
knowledge synchronously and asynchronously, the other Table 1. Summary of 40 Measured (Non-Extreme) Persons
tools are useful to search and extract available explicit Raw Cou Mea Infit Outfit
information. Knowledge map refers to navigation aid to Score nt sure mnsq zstd mnsq zstd
both explicit and tacit knowledge, by illustrating the mean 133.8 42.8 0.49 1.02 -0.2 1.01 -0.2
knowledge flows within the organization [17]. In many s.d. 14.9 3.5 0.69 0.52 2.1 0.53 2
aspects, it involves establishing knowledge ontology, max. 167 45 2.64 3.14 6.4 3.37 6.7
mapping/linking the knowledge and validating the min. 86 30 -0.65 0.28 -4.5 0.28 -4.4
knowledge map. Real RMSE =.30 Adj.SD=.62 Separation =2.10 Person Reliability= .82
Model RMSE =.27Adj.SD=.64 Separation=2.35 Person Reliability= .85
4.4 How Important Are Different Automations And
S.E. Of Person Mean = .11Maximum Extreme Score: = 1 Persons
Automation Tools To The Overall Activities Of KMS?
Valid Responses: 95.0%
Automation speeds up and assists maintainers in their
Person RAW SCORE-TO-MEASURE CORRELATION = .51
daily activities. Technologies such as knowledge-map, CBR,
(approximate due to missing data)
expert system, agent technology and RSS are useful to assist CRONBACH ALPHA (KR-20) Person RAW SCORE RELIABILITY =
users and maintainers to get the right knowledge at the right .94 (approximate due to missing data)
time.
4.5 How Important Are Managerial Influences And Table 2. Summary of 45 Measured Items
Strategies To The KMS Activities And Processes? Raw Infit Outfit
Managerial influences such as leadership, coordination, Score Count Measure mnsq zstd mnsq zstd
control and measurement [19] may affect the general SM mean 118.9 38 0 1 0 1 0.1
KM activities and processes. Strategy deals with how KMS s.d. 16.6 3.3 0.62 0.12 0.6 0.15 0.7
is planned for use, whether through codification (storing the max. 150 40 1.16 1.29 1.5 1.4 1.9
explicit information), or personalization (storing the min. 88 29 -1.2 0.83 -1.3 0.74 -1.3
knowledge map). Real RMSE = .32 Adj.SD =.54 Separation =1.69 Item Reliability = .74
Model RMSE = .27 Adj.SD = .64 Separation =2.35 Item Reliability =.75
4.6 How Important Are Psychological And Cultural
S.E. Of Person Mean = .09
Influences In The Overall Activities Of KMS?
Psychological issues include motivation, reward and
awareness. Meanwhile cultural influences include the trusts, The spread of person responses is = 3.29 logit is fair. This
beliefs, values, norms and unwritten rules.. is due to extreme responses by a person (code=PAUS2).
However, Reliability = 0.82 and Cronbach Alpha=0.94
indicates high reliable data and hence the data could be used
5. Discussion
for further analyses.
The Pilot study [26] revealed the item reliability in the On the questionnaire items aspects, the summary of 45
initial questionnaire was found to be poor and a few measured questionnaire items (see Table 3) reveals that the
respondents and items were identified as misfits with spread of data at 2.36 logit and reliability of 0.74 are good
distorted measurements. Some problematic questions are and fair, respectively. Details on measured items are listed
revised and some predictably easy questions are excluded in Appendix A. None of the items are beyond the critical
from the final questionnaire. measures (0.4 < Acceptable Point Measure Correlation < 0.8
In the final questionnaire survey, 41 respondents from and 0.5 < Outfit Mean Square < 1.5, and -2.0 < Outfit z-
three organizations participated in the survey. Among these, standardized value < 2.0). The previous pilot study is
27% are users and superusers, 22% are systems analysts, therefore proven helpful in making the questionnaire more
15% are programmers, 15% SM managers, 10% business reliable.
analysts and the rest are DBAs, Helpdesk and other
technical staff. In years of service, 40% of respondents have
more than 10 years experience, 34% have between 1 to 5
years, 24% have between 6 to 10 years and only 3% have
less than 1 year of service.
The results of the survey, based on the components
126 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
• EB - Expert Systems or CBR tools to finalize the important components for KMS framework
• F5 - Codification strategy (storing explicit information) for collaborative SM environment. This new framework
• F7 - Combination of both codification and shall be used in our ongoing study to develop a tool to assist
personalization strategies SM CoP members to perform their SM activities better.
• G4 – Rewards should be implemented to promote more
knowledge sharing Acknowledgment
This research is funded by the Malaysia Ministry of
6. Revised KMS Framework Science and Technology (MOSTI) e-ScienceFund Project
Based on the above reduced components, the revised No.01-01-04-SF0966.
framework is depicted in Figure 5, which consists of the
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3
F’SATI, Cape Peninsula University of Technology,
Cape Town, South Africa,
Keywords: Mobile IP, Hand off, tunneling, End-to-end delay. Once the MN handoff (handover) and moves from its
home agent, it delivers packets via a tunnel. In our scenario
1. Introduction the MN follows specific trajectories, when visiting FA1,
In the event that a Mobile Node moves to a foreign network, FA2, and FA3, respectively, as depicted in Figure 2. The
it is required to register its care of address in relation to the MN registers the new CoA in HA and sends or receives
home agent. The CoA is the secondary address of the mobile packets via tunnels 1, 2, 3.
node, reflecting its current “away from home” location. This
address is temporary and whenever a MN changes its
foreign network a new CoA must be registered. Figure 1
depicts the registration process and the message flows
between these entities [5]. The MN sends a registration
request message to the HA via a Foreign Agent (FA). The
HA updates its binding table, changes the CoA entry related
to the MN and sends a registration reply which indicates the
mobile’s registration request has been received. Once this is
completed the MN is able to continue communicating within
the core network (CN) [1].
2. Handoff latency in Mobile IPv4 Figure 4 show the results of layer-2 connectivity between the
MN and any of the HA/FAs. The Base Station Subsystem
The main problem which arises with hand off is the time
(BSS) ID numbers reflected within the graph, identify the
span in which a MN is not able to receive packets. During
MN to which the agent is connected. The value of -1
this time the mobile node obtains a new CoA and updates its
indicates the MN losing connectivity with an agent [2].
last communications [8]. This period of time can be above
the threshold required for the support of real-time services
As the MN follows the trajectory, it establishes layer-2
[3].
connectivity with all the agents. When the MN moves out of
Authors in [4] proposed pre-registration and post-
the home network, it loses connectivity with the home agent
registration handoff methods to minimize handoff latency in
(BSS ID=0) at 10 min and connect to FA1 (BSS ID=1).
mobile IP networks. In pre-registration handoff method, the
Disconnection occurs again at approximately 25 min when
MN communicates with the new foreign agent (nFA) while
the MN leaves FA1 and enters FA2. Connection with FA2 is
still being connected to the old foreign agent (oFA). This
lost at approximately 41 min when it roams to FA3.
means the MN is able to do a registration prior to handoff to
Ultimately, the MN looses agent connectivity upon leaving
the new network.
FA3 at 55 min.
In post-registration handoff a tunnel is setup between the
nFA and the oFA. The MN is thus still connected to the
oFA while on new foreign agent’s subnet. With this
condition, the MN can perform a registration after
communication with the nFA is established. Both of these
methods minimize handoff latency.
3. Simulation Results
In order to study the effect of handoff latency on end-to-end
delay Mobile IPv4 we set a simulation scene as revealed in
Figure 3. It consists of one MN, one correspondent node,
one HA, three FAs, and one IP cloud that interconnects
them. At the start of the simulation, the MN is located on
the home network and from there move to foreign networks Figure 4. Agent connectivity
along a defined trajectory with an average speed of 10km/h.
Simulation results are conducted using OPNET 14.
Figures 5 and 6 illustrate both tunneled and un-tunneled
traffic received during periods of 1 hour (packets per
second) and 3 hours (bits per second) respectively. When the
MN is within its home network it does not need to receive
packets from the CN via a tunnel due to the MN using the
IP protocol when residing in its home network. When the
MN traverses through foreign networks it sends and receives
traffic via a tunnel. Gaps appear between the tunneled traffic
received as the MN roams between various foreign agents.
For example, the MN is disabled to receive tunneled traffic
upon leaving FA1 and entering FA2 at 25 min.
End-to-end packet delay is depicted within Figure 7. Within Figure 8. Average end-to-end delay
the simulation results, packet loss begins at approximately 7
min, when the MN moves out of the home network, loses 4. Conclusion
connection with the HA and resumes again at approximately
10 min. Packet flow resumes when the MN successfully In his paper we presented end-to-end delay and average and-
registers its current location in the FA1. Figure 7 indicates a to-end delay based on handoff in mobile IPv4. From this
gap between 23 and 25 min when the MN roams between study we distinguish important metrics that should be
FA1, FA2. Packet loss occurs again at approximately 40 considered in order to increase performance within mobile
min when the MN leaves FA2 and enters FA3. Packet flow networks. Performance evaluation for handoff includes
resumes again at approximately 43 min. handoff latency as well as the number of performed
handoffs. When several networks are candidates to serve as
target for a handoff, the network that provides most
bandwidth and the most stable connection should be the first
choice.
132 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Acknowledgments
Adjunct Professor Dr. Elmarie Biermann is a
This work is supported by the Fundamental Research Grant research professor at the French South African
Institute of Technology (F’SATI) at the Cape
Scheme (FRGS). The authors would like to acknowledge the
Peninsula University of Technology (CPUT),
FRGS for their support of our research project. Cape Town. She completed the BSc, BSc
(Honns) and MSc at the Potchefstroom University and her PhD at
References the University of South Africa. She is specializing within computer
security and software agents and is also the manager/founder of a
[1] Jhy-Cheng Chen, Tao Zhang, “IP-Based next research and training company within South Africa.
generation wireless networks”, WILEY-Interscience, .
2004.
[2] OPNETWORK 2005, 1348 Planning and Analyzing
Mobile IP networks
[3] R. Malekian, “ The study of Handoff in Mobile IP
Networks:, In proceeding of Broadcom’08 (IEEE), pp.
181-185, Pretoria, South Africa, 2008
[4] Svetoslav Yankov, Sven Wiethoelter, “Handover
blackout duration of layer3 mobility management
scheems”, Telecommunication networks group,
Technical University Berlin, May 2006.
[5] E. Fogelstroem, A. Jonsson, C.E. Perkins, “Mobile
Ipv4 regional registration”, RFC 4857, June 2007.
[6] Y. Chen, W. Zhuang, “DiffServ resource allocation for
fast handoff in wireless mobile Internet”, IEEE
Communication Magazine, 2002.
[7] Michal Skorepa, “Mobile Ipv4 simulation and
implementation”, In proceeding of student EECIT
2008, Czech Republic, 2008.
[8] Jeng-Yueng Chen, Chen-Chuan Ynag, Li-Sheng Yu,
“HH-MIP: An enhancement of mobile IP by home
agent handover”, EURASIP Journal on Wireless
Communication and Networking, Vol 10, 2010.
Author’s Profile
Reza Malekian is conducting research in the
area of mobile IP in the Department of
Computer Science and Information Systems
at the Universiti Technologi, Malaysia. His
research interest is in wireless
communication. He is a member of IEEE
Vancouver section and also editor-in-chief of
The International Journal of Wireless Communication and
Simulation. During summer 2010, he was a visiting researcher at
the Communications Network Laboratory (CNL), Simon Fraser
University of Canada to do a new proposal on Mobile IP version 6.
n. That is, it is hard to determine its two prime factors p and 3. while y[i] != null or y[i+2]!=null do
q. If integer factorization is difficult (as is suspected) then If the number is even perform right shift by p%8 bits.
B.B.S. with large n should have an output free from any Else, perform left shift Xi % 8.
nonrandom patterns that can be discovered with any ( i )Perform CROSSOVER between
reasonable amount of calculation. Thus it appears to be as y[i] and y[i+2].
secure as other encryption technologies tied to the ( ii ) Perform mutation on the resultant
factorization problem, such as RSA encryption. and store it in array Z .
In the proposed algorithm we use two genetic functions end.
4.copy the elements of Z[ ] into res[ ]
“CROSSOVER” and “MUTATION”. Crossover is a genetic
5. for i = 0 to N where N is number of
function which can be described by the following figure: As
elements in the array res
Illustrated in the Figure 1 the Binary representation of key hash = res[N+1] = res[0] res[1]....res[N]
and plain text are Crossected. We have two forms of 6. Append the hash to Z[ ] .
crossover: Single and Double Crossover. Where we take,
one breaking point for single crossover and two breaking 4. Analysis
points for double crossover.
Table 1 shows the comparison of GHA-1 with SHA-1,
RIPEMD-160 and MD5 in the aspects of there features and
Table 2 distinguishes how prone the algorithm GHA-1 is
when compared to the above said algorithms.
References
(S) = =- =
We have chosen, as shown in figure 2 two identical
capacitors to keep with common, and have identified the Figure 3. Schematic of CMOS Op-Amp
quantities K and Q at the corresponding resistors that
determine these filter parameters. The two resistors R1 and 3. Measured Performance
R2 of the inverter are arbitrary. Let us employ a fourth op-
The active RC filter is designed and simulated in Cadence
amp as a summer, shown in the lower part of figure 2.
spectre environment with UMC 0.18-µm silicon technology.
This equation has four solutions bandwidth (BW), the two
The whole circuit is biased with a supply voltage of ± 0.8 V.
positive ones are ω1and ω2 and their difference can be
Figure 4 plots the open loop gain of filter. It shows that the
shown to be
open loop gain is found to be 40 dB with 3 dB bandwidth of
BW= ω2 – ω1 = ω0 / (Q (1) 2MHz. It has unity gain frequency of 80 MHz. With the
Let us determine the value of Q required meeting the sweep of ± 0.8 V of supply the Dc sweep response represents
specified 1/q over a band ∆f that the offset voltage is reduced to 5 mV. Figure 5 plot the
change in power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) with
(2) frequency.It is found that the PSRR of filter is 28 dB.
The specifications for the desired filter are given in the table
I.
Table 1: Specification Results
Experimental Value
Results
Open loop Gain ≥ 23 dB
3dB frequency ≥ 1.5 MHz
Input referred ≤ 160
noise(1KHz) nV/√Hz
138 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
4. Conclusion
In this design, a low-voltage CMOS active RC low pass
filter is designed using a Akerberg Mossberg topology. The
Figure 6. Simulation result of Input referred noise response proposed techniques can be used to design low-voltage and
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 139
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
low-power active RC low pass filter in a standard CMOS profession since 1988. He is now working as Reader in
process. To demonstrate the proposed techniques, a ±0.8V Department of Electronics & Instrumentation Engineering,
and 2-MHz second-order filter implemented in a standard S.G.S.I.T.S. Indore India. His interested field of research is analog
circuit design.
0.18µm CMOS process.
Reference
Authors Profile
Abstract: Performance of a recovery algorithm based on virtual machine (PVM) are used to facilitate inter process
reassignment of task in distributed system can be improved by communication in a cluster. Clusters and distributed systems
improved scheduling algorithm. By equal load distribution of offer fault tolerance and high performance through load
task in a recovery, execution time and resource utilization can
sharing. For this reason cluster is attractive in real-time
be improved. This is done by distributed scheduling algorithms.
Fast and efficiency are most desirable features of a recovery
application. When one or more computers fail, available
algorithm. In this paper important critical issues involved in fast load must be redistributed evenly in order to have fault
and efficient recovery are discussed. Impact of each issue on tolerance with performance [1]. The redistribution is
performance of reassignment based recovery is also discussed. determined by the recovery scheme. The recovery scheme
Relationships among issues are also explored. Finally should keep the load as evenly distributed as possible even
comparisons of important issues are done between simple when the most unfavorable combinations of computers break
reassignment based recovery and fast reassignment based
down [13]. Fault tolerance with performance in cluster
recovery.
computing can be achieved by distributing the available load
Keywords: Splitting Ratio, Reassignment, Distributed evenly and equally among computing devices. In case of
System. multiple faults or multiple node failures up to a reasonable
value, load can be redistributed among all available nodes.
1. Introduction This reassignment based recovery can be easily
implemented in cluster computing. Reassignment based
Fault tolerance is a crucial requirement in distributed recovery algorithm can be improved by reducing the various
computing. As the size and complexity of distributed system overhead of reassignments and by improving scheduling
is increasing to provide services to millions of users with algorithm for reassignments. Redistribution of task is done
large data transfer to and from, probability of faults have by scheduling algorithm.
also increased. Faults are now inevitable and can not be Recovery based on reassignment of task using some
prevented 100%. Air traffic control, defense application, scheduling algorithm must be fast in the sense that it must
online railway reservation system and online banking are take less number of iterations and time to redistribute the
few applications where user must be unaware of faults and task evenly and equally among all working or non faulty
must be continued with his or her normal operation. Even a nodes. A reassignment based recovery can be made fast by
single fault can lead to great loss of human lives and money. after investigating and optimizing the critical issues related
In such a situation inclusion of fault tolerance becomes to reassignment, system environment and nature of
essential. This inclusion of fault tolerance introduces an computation and communication. In a fast recovery based
overhead which affects the performance of whole system. In on reassignment algorithm, available load is redistributed by
case of multiple faults situation it becomes more severe. In reassignment to different computing nodes with less
real time application producing the output after a number of iterations and time. So a fast recovery based on
predetermined time for which system is designed seems to reassignment is a special case of reassignment based
be impossible due to lack of fast and efficient recovery. recovery with fast convergence. A fast recovery based on
A cluster is a type of parallel or distributed processing reassignment takes less or optimal iterations to converge an
system which consists of a collection of interconnected algorithm to reassign or redistribute the load evenly across
computers cooperatively working together as a single, all computing nodes in a distributed system with low
integrated computing resource. Cluster is a multi-computer communication overhead when one or more computers
architecture. Message passing interface (MPI) or pure
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 141
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
break down. In the next section, various critical issues extent of uniform or even reassignment can be achieved.
related to fast reassignment based recovery are discussed. Heterogeneity is main issue that must be addressed carefully
to achieve the effectiveness of reassignment based
2. Critical Factors in Fast Recovery Based on algorithm. Weighted load reassignment is one of the
Reassignment approaches to address heterogeneity. This heterogeneity
must be addressed before any decision for redistribution of
load in a recovery technique.
2.1 Instability and Thrashing
Recovery based on reassignment of task is performed by
2.3 Splitting Ratio
distributing the available tasks among all available
In reassignment based recovery time can be reduced by
computing nodes. This is known as recovery based on
assigning the more tasks to lightly loaded computed node as
reassignment. Recovery time can be reduced by making the
well as by transferring the load of heavily loaded computing
reassignment evenly and equally [2]. This can be achieved
by task migration from heavily loaded computing node to nodes to lightly loaded computing node. This is done by
lightly loaded computing node. In doing this, sometimes process migration or load transfer. Load transfer module
cluster becomes unstable. It could enter in a state in which transfers a part of load from maximum loaded node to
all the computing nodes are spending their time in load minimum loaded node. This part of load is called load
transfer without accomplishing the useful work. This is transfer ratio (LTR). A larger LTR takes less number of
known as thrashing. A token based algorithm have been iterations to balance a load. However a smaller LTR takes
proposed to overcome thrashing or instability [3]. A node more number of iterations to balance the load [9].
computation capability is divided among several parts. This
part is called a token. A process that has to execute on that 2.4 Convergence
node requests for token and then it can execute. The Convergence of fast reassignment based algorithm is
algorithm works well if computation time of all nodes is related to number of iterations and time taken by an
known in advance. Load balancing is done by load algorithm to reach to an optimal reassign state [5]. Rapid
balancing decision. Contradictory decision is main cause of convergence algorithm is a need for today’s distributed
thrashing. An algorithm is said to be thrashing free or stable system. Different recovery algorithms are based on various
if it proves that load calculation remain constant during load reassignments strategies. While some strategies probably
balancing. By forming groups thrashing can be prevented to converge in polynomial time, for others the convergence
some extent. Still in highly dynamic system thrashing is a time might require an exponential number steps [6]. A fast
problem. Sometime limit can be set for such a dynamic reassignment based recovery must have faster convergence
system. In this way thrashing or instability depends on the speed and a lower communication overhead. However, fast
strategy chosen for taking the decision. Selection of convergence causes instability, threshing etc. A
particular strategy depends on the characteristics of system reassignment based algorithm must be convergence after a
such as static, dynamic, highly dynamic etc. higher bound number iteration and time. In case of fast
reassignment based algorithm this upper bound limit is less.
2.2 Effectiveness Fast convergence is a requirement but it causes instability
and fast transfer mechanism as well. Convergence can also
Another issue with fast recovery algorithms is its be improved by improving the communication delay traffic
effectiveness. Effective reassignment based recovery policy minimization and by increasing the load transfer ratio.
ensures optimal use of the distributed resources whereby no
computing node remains in an idle state while any other 2.5 Cost Function
computing node is busy. Effectiveness in reassignment Cost function predicts the recovery time for any given
based recovery depends on accuracy of knowledge of the reassignment based recovery in a multi-user heterogeneous
state of individual computing node. This level of accuracy network environment. Finding an accurate optimization cost
will decide assignment of task of failure node to appropriate function for a reassignment based recovery algorithm is very
computing node reassignment policy. A regeneration-theory difficult [7]. Williams suggested cost function as the sum of
approach is used to measure the effectiveness. It analytically a part that minimizes load imbalance and a part that
characterizes the average overall completion time in a minimizes communication [8]. Cost function can be reduced
distributed system. The approach considers the by fast convergence, by reducing the communication delay
heterogeneity in the processing rates of the nodes. It also and various scheduling overheads. Minimizing the load
imbalance depends on effectiveness of the algorithm.
considers the communication delays. An optimal one-shot
Redistribution will be effective if it will result in almost
algorithm is proposed by Sagar Dhakal [4]. This algorithm
uniform and even load distribution on every working node.
is effective since it minimizes the average completion time
In case of nods of different speed and performance
per task while improving the system processing rate. effectiveness can be achieved if load is distributed in
However this is proposed by considering the two nodes only proportion to their computational power. So cost function is
whereas in practical situation multimode distributed more crucial in case of heterogeneity as compare to
computing takes place. A fast reassignment based algorithm homogeneity. By selecting the appropriate scheduling
must redistribute the load evenly but in reality no algorithm technique communication cost can be reduced .In one
can redistribute almost evenly or uniformly. Up to some algorithm, task of resource management is handled by
142 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
dividing the nodes into mutually overlapping subsets. 2.11 Failure detection time
Thereby a node gets the system state information by Fast multiple fault recovery depends on immediate detection
querying only a few nodes. This minimized scheduling and of occurred faults. In some case, it is difficult to determine
communication overhead and therefore cost function [10]. the cause of a fault in order to provide fast fault
restoration/isolation [16]. A fault must be detected as soon
2.6 Reassignment estimation policy as fault has occurred. The time elapsed between occurrence
Reassignment estimation policy determines how to estimate of a fault and detection must be as small as possible. This
the workload of a particular node of the system [1]. fast fault detection is very difficult because it can declare a
Estimation of the workload of a particular node is a difficult healthy processor to fault due to heavy load and traffic. The
problem for which no completely satisfactory solution exists. time taken to recovery is sum of time taken to failure
A node's workload can be estimated based on some detection and time taken to run recovery algorithm after
measurable guidelines. These guidelines could include time detection. Avoiding extensive application or system data
dependent and node dependent factors such as number of undo or redo upon recovery is key for providing fast
processes on the node, resource demands on these processes, recovery [17]. Conventional recovery algorithms redo the
instruction mixes of these processes , architecture and speed computation of the crashed process since the last checkpoint
of the node's processor [3]. on a single processor. As a result, the recovery time of all
2.7 Process transfer policy protocols is no less than the time between the last
checkpoint and the crash. In fast recovery there is need for
Process Transfer Policy determines whether to execute a
improved algorithm to address this drawback [18]. If faults
process locally or remotely. This issue is mainly for dynamic
are detected immediately than further loss will be less and
reassignment based recovery algorithm [10]. Process
recovery process can prevent further loss as immediately as
transfer policy decision is major issue that affects the
it can. In that case job of recovery will be not too hard and
performance of a reassignment based recovery algorithm.
hence recovery will be fast recovery.
Generally this policy is based on threshold value. Threshold
value is a value or set of values used as a criterion to 2.12 Selection of node/nodes to run recovery
determine weather a processor is overloaded or not [11]. The fast recovery also depends on selection of node for
2.8 Reassignment Strategies running the recovery algorithm. The list of available
computers and their current work loads are dynamic within
Reassignment strategy could be sender-initiated vs. receiver-
clusters; having a direct impact on which computers should
Initiated strategies, global vs. local strategies and
be used each time a recovery operation begins [19].
centralized vs. distributed strategies. In sender initiated
Recovery manager has to select one best node to run
policies, heavy loaded nodes attempt to move work to
recovery algorithm among list of several computers. A
lightly-loaded nodes. In receiver-initiated policies, lightly-
reliable, fast and ideal node had to select in order to run the
loaded nodes look for heavily-loaded nodes from which
recovery algorithm. In cluster, nodes are added and removed
work may be received [12]. In case of global strategies, load
dynamically. Loads are dynamically fluctuating as well. In
balancer uses the performance of all workstations whereas
such a situation selection of idle node to run recovery is
in case of local strategies workstations are partitioned into
tedious. Recovery process can be run on single node or can
groups. In a centralized scheme, the load balancer is located
be run on more than one. Running of recovery on multiple
on one master workstation node. In a distributed scheme,
nodes are free from single point failure as well as it is
the load balancer is replicated on all workstations [13].
distributed recovery scheme.
2.9 Nature and type of application running on cluster:
2.13 Performance
A reassignment based algorithm works well with one type of
Performance of reassignment policy is affected of various
task may not work well with another type of load. Thus
delays. These delays include delay due to transfer of loads
nature and type of load is a major issue which decides the
from one computer node to another. This transfer delay
performance of a load balancing algorithm. The types of
varies as load varies. This delay also dependant on traffic
load can be of following types; communication intensive v/s
among source and destination node. Another delay which is
computation intensive, I/O intensive v/s CPU intensive.
significant as per performance is communication delay.
Researchers suggested a fast reassignment based algorithm
Scheduling overhead is another delay which affects the
for intensive I/O and memory requirement by allocating the
performance of recovery based on reassignment [20]. In
job to highest unused I/O and memory. Videos on demand
order to make a reassignment based recovery all delays and
are an example of intensive I/O and memory [14].
overhead must be minimized.
2.10 Communication Complexity
2.14 One-Time Assignment vs. Dynamic Reassignment
An algorithm must have low communication complexity.
The one-time assignment of a task may be dynamically done
Researcher suggested low communication complexity where
but once it is scheduled to a given processor, it can never be
each node receives information of other node from all the
rescheduled to another one [21]. On the other hand, in the
nodes without redundancy. A Distributed system with n
dynamic reassignment process, jobs can migrate from one
nodes, the communication complexity is O (n2). Researcher
node to another even after the initial placement is made.
developed algorithm with lesser complexity [15].
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 143
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Authors Profile
Sanjay Bansal has passed B.E. (Elex & Telecom Engg.) and M.E.
(CSE) in 1994 and 2001 respectively .Presently he is working as
Reader in Medi-Caps Institute of Technology, Indore. He is
pursuing PhD from Rajeev Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishvavidyalaya,
Bhopal, India.
Abstract- Privacy Preserving Data Mining has become very way, so that the private data and private knowledge remain
popular for protecting the confidential knowledge which was private even after the mining process [8]. Data modification
extracted from the data mining techniques. Privacy preserving is one of the privacy preserving techniques used to modify
data mining is nothing but the study of how to produce valid the sensitive or original information available in the
mining models and patterns without disclosing private database that needs to be released to the public. It ensures
information. Several techniques are used for protecting the high privacy protection.
sensitive data. Some of them are statistical, cryptographic,
randomization, k-anonymity model, l-diversity and etc. In this
work, we have analyzed the two statistical disclosure control
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. In Section 2,
techniques i.e additive noise and micro aggregation. We have we present an overview of micro data and masking
examined the clustering performance of additive noise and techniques. Section 3 discusses different types of micro data
micro aggregation techniques. The experimental results show protection techniques. Additive noise and micro aggregation
that the clustering performance of additive noise technique is techniques are discussed in section 4. Section 5 gives the
comparatively better than micro aggregation. performance results of additive noise and micro aggregation.
Conclusions are given in Section 6.
Keywords- Data Perturbation, Micro Aggregation, Additive
Noise, K-means clustering
2. Micro Data
1. Introduction
Protecting static individual data is called micro data. It can
The problem of privacy-preserving data mining has become be represented as tables. It consists of tuples (records) with
more important in recent years because of the increasing values from a set of attributes. A micro data set V is a file
ability to store personal data about users, and the increasing with n records, where each record contains m attributes on
sophistication of data mining algorithms to leverage this an individual respondent [3]. The attributes can be classified
information. Many data mining applications such as in four categories which are not necessarily disjoint:
financial transactions, health-care records, and network
communication traffic are deal with private sensitive data. Ø Identifiers. These are attributes that unambiguously
Data is an important asset to business organization and identify the respondent. Examples are the passport
governments for decision making by analyzing it. Privacy number, social security number, name surname, etc.
regulations and other privacy concerns may prevent data
owners from sharing information for data analysis. In order Ø Quasi-identifiers or key attributes. These are attributes
to share data while preserving privacy data owner must which identify the respondent with some degree of
come up with a solution which achieves the dual goal of ambiguity. Examples are address, gender, age,
privacy preservation as well as accurate data mining result. telephone number, etc.
The main consideration in privacy preserving data mining is
Ø Confidential outcome attributes. These are attributes
twofold. First, sensitive raw data like identifiers, names,
which contain sensitive information on the respondent.
addresses and the like should be modified or trimmed out
Examples are salary, religion, political affiliation,
from the original database. Second, sensitive knowledge
health condition, etc.
which can be mined from a database by using data mining
algorithms should also be excluded, because such knowledge
can equally well compromise data privacy. Ø Non-confidential outcome attributes. Those attribute
which do not fall in any of the categories above.
The main objective in privacy preserving data mining is to
develop algorithms for modifying the original data in some
146 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Ø MASSC etc.
Ø Sampling
Ø Local Suppression
Ø Global Recoding
Ø Top-Coding
Ø Bottom-Coding
Ø Generalization
3.1 Masking Techniques The original set of tuples in a microdata table is replaced
with a new set of tuples generated in such a way to preserve
Protecting sensitive data is a very significant issue in the the key statistical properties of the original data. The
government, public and private bodies. Masking techniques generation process is usually based on a statistical model
are used to prevent confidential information in the table. and the key statistical properties that are not included in the
Masking techniques can operate on different data types. model will not be necessarily respected by the synthetic data.
Data types can be categorized as follows. Since the released micro data table contains synthetic data,
the re-identification risk is reduced. The techniques are
Ø Continuous. An attribute is said to be continuous if it is divided into two categories: fully synthetic techniques and
numerical and arithmetic operations are defined on it. partially synthetic techniques. The first category contains
For instance, attributes age and income are continuous techniques that generate a completely new set of data, while
attributes. the techniques in the second category merge the original
data with synthetic data.
Ø Categorical. An attribute is said to be categorical if it can
assume a limited and specified set of values and 3.2.1 Fully Synthetic Techniques
arithmetic operations do not have sense on it. For
instance, attributes marital status and sex are Ø Bootstrap
categorical attributes. Ø Cholesky Decomposition
Ø Multiple Imputation
Masking techniques are classified into two categories Ø Maximum Entropy
Ø Latin Hypercube Sampling
Ø Perturbative
3.2.2 Partially Synthetic Techniques
Ø Non- Perturbative
Ø IPSO (Information Preserving Statistical
3.1.1 Perturbative Masking
Obfuscation)
Ø Hybrid Masking Random Response
Perturbation is nothing but altering an attribute value by a
Ø Blank and Impute
new value. The data set are distorted before publication.
Ø SMIKe (Selective Multiple Imputation of Keys)
Data is distorted in some way that affects the protected data
Ø Multiply Imputed Partially Synthetic Dataset [3]
set, i.e. it may contain some errors. In this way the original
dataset may disappear and new unique combinations of data
4. Analysis of the SDC techniques
items may appear in the perturbed dataset; in perturbation
method statistics computed on the perturbed dataset do not
The main steps involved in this work are,
differ from the statistics obtained on the original dataset [3].
Some of the perturbative masking methods are,
• Sensitive numerical data item is selected from the
database
Ø Micro aggregation
Ø Rank swapping • Modifying the sensitive data item using micro
Ø Additive noise aggregation and additive noise
Ø Rounding • Analyzing the statistical performance
Ø Resampling • Analyzing the accuracy of privacy protection
Ø PRAM • Evaluating the clustering accuracy
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 147
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
After modifying the values the k means algorithm is applied 5. Experimental Results
to find, whether the original value and the modified value in In order to conduct the experiments, synthetic employee
the micro aggregation table are in the same cluster. dataset can be created with 500 records. From this dataset,
we select the sensitive numeric attribute, income. Additive
noise and micro aggregation techniques are used for
4.2. Additive Noise
modifying the attribute income.
It perturbs a sensitive attribute by adding or by multiplying The following performance factors are considered for
it with a random variable with a given distribution. [2] evaluating the two techniques
Ø Masking by uncorrelated noise addition 5.1 Statistical Calculations
The statistical properties mean, standard deviation and
The vector of observations xj for the j-th attribute of the variance of modified data can be compared with the original
original dataset Xj is replaced by a vector data. Both the techniques were produced the same results.
zj = xj +εj
where εj is a vector of normally distributed errors drawn
from a random variable εj ∼ N(0, σ2εj ), such that Cov(εt, εl)
= 0 for all t ≠ l. This does not preserve variances nor
correlations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors Profile
initialization of the authentication procedure in which the communication between the network components as
user communicates with the wireless AP via the EAP Over EAPOL, Radius, DIAMETER, etc.
LAN (EAPOL). The user sends his identity in the format of The vulnerabilities mentioned for the GSM/GPRS
the Network Access Identifier (NAI). This identity can be authentication were concerned in the structure of the
the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) or his UMTS-AKA protocol; this authentication protocol benefits
temporary identity (TMSI). The IMSI must be sent in a from the mutual authentication and new cryptography with
plain text in the first connection setup and the TMSI is used a higher degree of security. Because EAP-AKA is an
in the other setups. encapsulation of the AKA procedure in EAP, it certainly
does not suffer from the GSM/GPRS vulnerabilities.
2.3. EAP-TLS support the PKI in the UMTS architecture. A procedure for
Secure Socket Layer (SSL) is the most widely used security the session resumption is also presented that improves the
protocol on the wired internet which employs a public key efficiency of the repeated connection attempts. In this
infrastructure [12]. As a result, many works have focused on structure, the need for the generation of the AVs by the
applying the SSL based authentication protocols to the HSS/HLR is eliminated. Finally, EAP-TLS provides an end
wireless networks to make a compatible integration between to end authentication procedure.
wireless and wired networks [13]-[16]. Performance 2.4. EAP-TTLS
considerations have discouraged the use of SSL based
EAP-TTLS is the revision of the EAP-TLS in which the
protocols in the resource constraint environments such as
need for the PKI in the structure was a deficiency in the
the wireless environment. On the other hand, the relatively
wireless networks [6]. EAP-TTLS utilizes the secure
small sizes of wireless data transactions imply that the
connection established by the TLS protocol. The TLS
public key encryption dominates the security processing
handshake used in the TTLS may be either mutual or one
requirements in wireless networks.
UE AP AAA Server HSS/HLR way (only the server is authenticated to the client). The
Ww Wa Wx
client may be authenticated using an AAA protocol such as
EAPOL AAA (Radius or
Diameter)
SS7
RADIUS. The authentication of the client may be EAP or
another protocol such as CHAP (Challenge Handshake
1. Connection Establishment
Authentication Protocol) [15], [16].
UE AP AAA Server HSS/HLR
2. EAP Request / Identity
Ww Wa Wx
3. EAP Response / Identity (NAI) EAPOL AAA (Radius or SS7
Diameter)
4. Access Request with UserID
(EAP-Type=EAP-TLS,
start bit set, no data)
1. Connection Establishment
5. EAP-TLS Start
[EAP-Type=EAP-TLS 2. EAP Request / Identity
(TLS Client-Hello)]
6. EAP Response [EAP-Type=EAP-TLS (TLS Server-
Public key operation to Hello, TLS Certificate, TLS-Key- 3. EAP Response / Identity (NAI)
verify AAA server’s Exchange, TLS Certificate-Request,
certificate TLS Server-Hello-Done)]
7. EAP Request 4. EAP-TLS Start
[EAP-Type=EAP-TLS (TLS
Certificate, TLS Client-Key-Exchange,
TLS Certificate-Verify, TLS Change- 5. Client Hello
Cipher-Spec, TLS Finished)]
8. EAP Response
[EAP-Type=EAP-TLS (TLS Change- 6. Server Hello, Server Certificate, Server Hello Done
Cipher-Spec, TLS Finished, New
Encripted Pseudonym)]-RADIUS 7. Client Key Exchange, Change Spec
Access Success (In SSL),
9. EAP Request
Finished (Encrypted)
The session key
Decrypt New is sent using the
Pseudonym (P-TMSI) Session Key 8. Change Spec. Finish (Encrypted)
AAA protocol
[EAP-Type=EAP-TLS]
EAP-TLS is an authentication and key agreement 12. Success, Data Cipher Suit
protocol which is mainly based on SSL v.3. Similar to the Session Key
SSL protocol, EAP-TLS engages public key cryptography to 13. EAP Success
securely communicate with the AAA server. EAP-TLS is Figure 4. EAP-TTLS authentication protocol
known as one of the most secure EAP standards on wireless
EAP-TTLS has the advantage of easy deployment on an
LANs. The requirement for a client to possess a certificate is
existing structure in a wireless network. This protocol is in
part of the authentication procedure that casted doubt on the
fact a combination of two protocols: an outer and an inner
feasibility of implementing EAP-TLS on the wireless
protocol. The inner is the legacy authentication protocol and
networks. The papers in the references [13], [14] present
the outer protects the inner protocol messages. Moreover,
some practical aspects of the implementation of the EAP-
the outer protocol provides a tunnel that enables the network
TLS on the wireless networks.
to perform the functions such as the client authentication
Fig. 3 illustrates the structure of EAP-TLS authentication
and the key distribution. On the other hand, the inner
protocol proposed in the references [13], [14]. The message
protocol includes a TLS handshake which is used to
flow in the figure includes the essential adaptations to the
authenticate the server to the client based on a public or a
EAP-TLS to make it “mobile-enabled” [14]. The
private key certificate.
initialization procedure is NAI based and similar to the
Fig. 4 shows the EAP-TTLS authentication procedure. In
protocols mentioned in the previous sections. The user sends
this figure, the TLS protocol is used to authenticate the
his identity (IMSI or TMSI) along with the certificate in an
server and the CHAP protocol performs the client
EAP response message and the EAP server verifies the user
authentication. The server must verify the value of the
identity by this certificate. On the other side, the client
CHAP challenge to authenticate the user. The steps 1
checks the server certificate validity which is signed by a
through 3 in the Fig. 4 are the initialization procedure
trusted Certification Authority (CA).
similar to the other protocols and the steps 4 through 8
In the EAP-TLS architecture proposed in the reference
demonstrate the creation of a TLS tunnel in which the
[14], the use of PKI is mandatory; so, a CA must be
server is authenticated. The rest of the steps are to
connected to the 3G core network to issue the certificates.
authenticate the client in the established tunnel. In EAP-
Different structures are proposed in the reference [14] to
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 153
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
TTLS, if the client uses a certificate for the authentication, versions of this security protocol are implemented in the
the protocol will have the same procedure as the EAP-TLS wireless networks. One of the new security architectures for
[15], [16]. the 802.11 security protocol is called WiFi Protected Access
(WPA). WPA2 version, which is widely used in the wireless
2.5. PEAP
networks, suffers from a number of vulnerabilities such as
PEAP provides a wrapping of the EAP protocol within TLS denial of service attacks, session hijacking in the absence of
[7]. The PEAP, similar to the EAP-TTLS, implements a encryption, and the lack of trust relationship within the
tunnel to transfer the protocol authentication messages. One WPA architecture. On the other hand, the user equipment
of the protocols encapsulated in the PEAP tunnel is the may initiate a bottleneck. This happens when, for instance, a
EAP-AKA authentication. As mentioned earlier, the tunnel Trojan in the terminal can originate a challenge response
derives the session keys. with the UICC and forwards the results to an active attacker.
The message flow in PEAP with the EAP-AKA The attacker then analyzes the messages and sets up an
authentication is illustrated in the Fig. 5. The UE and the attack. Another example is the malicious software residing
HSS own a common secret key which is used during the in a different host which can launch Distributed Denial of
authentication. In the initialization phase, the UE sends an Service (DDOS). When a user intends to access a WLAN
Identity (IMSI/TMSI) as part of the EAP-AKA. An AAA service via a cellular authentication procedure, the
protocol like MAP or DIAMETER or RADIUS sends the SIM/USIM must be used remotely from the WLAN client
IMSI from AAA server to the HSS/HLR. Then, HSS/HLR through a serial, Infrared, or Bluetooth connection. Sending
calculates and sends the AVs (RAND, AUTN, XRES, IK, credentials on these connections can endanger the user
and CK) to the AAA server. The chosen AV is sent to the confidentiality.
UE for the verification so that the network is authenticated 3.3.1 EAP-SIM
to the user. The RES is sent back to the AAA server and if EAP-SIM protocol establishes a secure connection between
RES=XRES, the UE is authenticated. After the AKA the GSM and WLAN [1]-[3]. The GSM network suffers
procedure is completed, the session keys are derived and from many security weaknesses such as the unidirectional
shared between the UE and the AP. These session keys are authentication and the key agreement protocol, the
not the same as those derived in the 3G-AKA but derived possibility of replay attacks, and the weak cryptographic
from the TLS master secret. primitives that resulted in many successful attacks to this
architecture [9], [17]. EAP-SIM claims that it has solved
many of the security flaws in the GSM though.
Some of the vulnerabilities of the EAP-SIM could be
summarized as follows.
• The mobile user is obliged to send his permanent
identity (IMSI) in a plain text during the first
authentication attempt. Correspondingly, a passive
eavesdropper may steal this identity and use it in a later
active attack.
• The messages transmitted between the UE and the
Radio Network Controller (RNC) are the only messages
provided with an integrity protection; hence, the
protocol may be vulnerable to replay attacks.
• Many EAP-SIM messages (EAP-Request/Notification,
EAP Success, or EAP Failure) are exchanged
Figure 5. PEAP authentication protocol unprotected enabling an attacker to send false
notification and mount denial of service attacks.
3. Deficiencies and Vulnerabilities • Although EAP-SIM mandates the use of fresh
authentication triplets, there is no mechanism that
The five authentication protocol candidates for the enables the user to check whether the authentication
integration of wireless networks were explained earlier. In triplets received from the AAA server are fresh.
this section, a critical evaluation is made introducing the Therefore, if an attacker has access to authentication
deficiencies and vulnerabilities of each protocol separately. triplets, he may use the compromised triplets as long as
Some of these vulnerabilities are revealed by the proposed the master secret key remains unchanged for the target
attacks in the literature which are also addressed in this user.
section. Additionally, the deficiencies are unveiled by • A possible way of implementing a Man-in-the-Middle
making critical comparisons between different protocols. (MitM) attack on the EAP-SIM is when the same
3.1 Vulnerabilities of the protocols authentication triplets are used in both GSM and
WLAN access. If the HSS is not used specifically for
Generally, the authentication protocols presented in the
the interworking of the GSM and WLAN, then HLR
previous section set up connections between the cellular
will be used as the data base that stores the
networks and the WLAN. The security protocols included in
authentication credentials. Accordingly, the
the WLANs are mainly based on the different versions of
authentication triplets stolen from a GSM connection
802.11. The basic version of the 802.11 is considered as one
of the most vulnerable security protocols. Currently, new
154 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
3.3.2 EAP-AKA
EAP-AKA is the authentication protocol used in the
interworking of the WLAN and the UMTS cellular networks
[1], [2], [4]. In this protocol, EAP encapsulates the AKA
procedure which is known for providing enough security.
Moreover, the authentication token (AUTN) and the
sequence number in the message flow of the authentication
procedure are engaged in order to defeat the possibility of
the replay and impersonation attacks. In spite of all the
attempts to make a secure protocol, it is blamed to have
some vulnerabilities as below.
• EAP-AKA does not support cipher suit or protocol
version negotiation and the key sizes and the algorithm
are fixed making it a less secure and inflexible protocol.
• The integrity protection is only guaranteed when
communicating between the radio network controller
and the user equipment; hence, the protocol may be
vulnerable to replay attacks. Figure 6. MitM in the EAP-TTLS
• IMSI is sent in plain text on the first authentication As it is shown in the Fig. 6, the MitM captures the
attempt; so, an adversary pretending a valid server may initialization procedure of a legitimate user and sets up a
force the user to send his IMSI and gain his permanent tunneled authentication protocol with the AAA server using
identity. the UE identity. Afterwards, the MitM forwards the
• Many EAP-AKA messages (EAP-Request/Notification, legitimate client authentication protocol messages through
EAP-Success, and EAP-Failure) are exchanged the tunnel. The MitM unwraps the messages received from
unprotected enabling an attacker to mount denial of the AAA server and forwards them to the legitimate user.
service attack. After the successful completion of the procedure, the MitM
• Although the AKA procedure is strong enough to defeat derives the session keys and starts an active or passive
the MitM attack, the integration of the UMTS with the attack.
GSM has resulted in the interception of all the UE 3.3.5 PEAP
initiated calls [18], eavesdropping attack, and an PEAP is a tunneling protocol similar to the EAP-TTLS
impersonation attack [19]. If the HSS is not used which provides a wrapping for the legacy protocols such as
specifically for the interworking of the UMTS and the the EAP-AKA. The most significant vulnerability of this
WLAN, a MitM attack is likely to happen. The protocol arises from the nature of including a tunneling
authentication credentials gained from mounting the procedure. The MitM attack in PEAP with EAP-AKA is
previously mentioned attacks on the HLR assist the displayed in the Fig. 7.
attacker to initiate a MitM attack in the EAP-AKA.
3.3.3 EAP-TLS
EAP-TLS appeared to provide the acceptable level of
security in the wired networks. It has not yet even shown
vulnerability to the MitM attacks. Nevertheless, similar to
the other interworking authentication protocols, the
Network Access Identifier (NAI) can divulge the permanent
user identity under certain circumstances thus
compromising the user privacy.
3.3.4 EAP-TTLS
EAP-TTLS was proposed to eliminate the need for a PKI in
the EAP-TLS and provide more security by tunneling which
itself augmented the possibility of a MitM attack [20]. The
attack suggested in the reference [20] is due to the fact that
the legacy client authentication protocol is not aware if it is
run in a protected or unprotected mode. The main cause of Figure 7. MitM in the PEAP with EAP-AKA
the MitM attack in EAP-TTLS is the ability of an
authentication to proceed without tunneling. The message According to the Fig. 7, the MitM initiates a tunneled
flow of the MitM attack in the EAP-TTLS is depicted in the authentication protocol with the network while
Fig. 6. masquerading as the legitimate AP to the user. MitM
unwraps the tunneled messages received from the AAA
server and forwards them to the victim. At the end of the
procedure, the MitM owns the session keys.
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 155
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
3.2 Deficiencies of the protocols EAP-SIM and EAP-AKA because of their easy compatibility
Each candidate protocol has its advantages and with the existing cellular network infrastructures. On the
disadvantages to be employed in the interworking of the other hand, the EAP-TLS/TTLS and PEAP, which were
WLAN with the cellular networks. The most notable used in the Internet, showed promising advantages to be
drawback in the EAP-SIM and EAP-AKA is their employed in the interworking structure. The security
dependency on the network structure and thus cannot be vulnerability and the deficiency of each authentication
dynamic. However, the advantage of the EAP-TLS/TTLS or protocol were addressed and compared.
PEAP is that the user can be authenticated locally and does Although 3GPP has accepted the interworking protocols for
not need to first connect to the cellular access gateway. the WLAN-Cellular network, more studies on the efficiency
Another deficiency of the two protocols is the latency of the of the security protocols for the beyond 3G networks are
authentication procedure which is exacerbated due to the required.
frequent roaming of the users among different WLANs; this
frequency is caused by the comparatively small range of References
each WLAN AP. Another advantage of the EAP-TLS/TTLS [1] 3GPP, “3GPP system to Wireless Local Area Network
or PEAP in comparison with the EAP-SIM/AKA is their (WLAN) interworking; System description,” 3GPP
applicability in the beyond 3G heterogeneous networks since TS 23.234 V9.0.0, Jan. 2010.
they have been successfully implemented as protocols in the [2] 3GPP, “Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
Internet which is the backend of the beyond 3G networks. interworking security,” 3GPP TS 23.234 V9.2.0, June
Many researches have focused on comparing the energy 2010.
consumption, latency, and the total size of these [3] H. Haverinen, J. Saloway, “EAP-SIM authentication,”
authentication protocols in an interworking scenario [13]- RFC 4186, Jan. 2006.
[16]. All the researches demonstrate that EAP-SIM and [4] J. Arkko, H. Haverinen, “EAP-AKA authentication,”
EAP-AKA suffer from the considerable latency but benefit RFC 4187, Jan. 2006.
from the small total size on the UE. [5] B. Aboba, D. Simon, “PPP EAP TLS Authentication
The most significant problem in the implementation of Protocol,” IETF RFC 2716, Oct. 1999.
the legacy wired internet protocols in the interworking of [6] P. Funk, S. Blake-Wilson, "EAP Tunneled TLS
the WLAN with the cellular networks is the infrastructures Authentication Protocol version0," IETF RFC 5281,
required for using the public key and the PKI. EAP- Feb. 2005.
TLS/TTLS or PEAP use a public key infrastructure and [7] H. Anderson, S. Josefsson, “Protected Extensible
certificate authority which are not introduced in the existing Authentication Protocol (PEAP)” IETF RFC 2026,
2G and 3G cellular networks. Another problem of using the Aug. 2001.
certificate authority is that the USIM, which is a constraint [8] L. Blunk, J. Vollbrecht, “Extensible Authentication
resource, must be preloaded with all the CA public keys. Protocol (EAP)” IETF RFC 3748, March 1998.
Furthermore, most of the UEs are not equipped with the [9] E. Barkan, E. Biham, N. Keller, “Instant ciphertext-
digital certificate. only cryptanalysis of GSM encrypted communication,”
The Table 1 summarizes the main vulnerabilities and Journal of Cryptology, Vol. 21 Issue3, 2008.
deficiencies mentioned earlier. [10] A. Bogdanov, T. Eisenbath, A. Rupp, “A hardware-
assisted real time attack on A5/2 without
Table 1: Vulnerabilities and deficiencies comparison precomputations,” in Cryptographic Hardware and
EAP- EAP- EAP- EAP-
PEAP Embeded Systems, vol. 4727 , pp. 394-412, 2007.
SIM AKA TLS TTLS
[11] Ch. Xenakis, Ch. Ntantogin, “Security architectures for
User identity
û û û ü ü B3G mobile networks,” Journal of Telecommunication
protection
Secure against Systems, vol.35, pp. 123-139, Sept. 2007.
û û ü û û [12] V. Gupta, S. Gupta, “Experiments in wireless internet
the MitM
Secure against security,” Proc. IEEE Wireless Communication and
û û û û û Networking Conf., Vol. 1, pp. 859-863, March 2002.
replay attack
Interworking [13] G. Kambourakis, A. Rouskas, S. Gritzalis, “Using SSL
û û ü ü ü
with Internet in authentication and key agreement procedures of
Short future mobile networks,” Proc. 4th IEEE Int. Conf. on
û û ü ü ü
latency Mobile and Wireless Communication Networks 2002,
Low energy pp. 152-156, Sept. 2002.
ü ü û û û
consumption [14] G. Kambourakis, A. Rouskas, G. Kormentzas, S.
Small Gritzalis, “Advanced SSL/TLS-based authentication
ü ü û û û
total size for secure WLAN-3G interworking,” IEEE
Communications Proceedings, Vol. 151, pp.501-506,
4. Conclusion Oct.2004.
The authentication and the key agreement procedure of the [15] P. Prasithsangaree, P. Krishnamurthy, “ A new
interworking architecture between the WLAN and the authentication mechanism for loosely coupled 3G-
cellular networks for different candidate protocols were WLAN integrated networks,” In Proceeding of
discussed. The two accepted protocols by the 3GPP were the Vehicular Technology Conference 2004, IEEE, Vol. 5,
pp.2284-3003, May 2004.
156 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
p121 O p128
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
M 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 1
O M (6) .
1
0
0 0 1 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 1 0 0
M O M
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
pnn1 K pnn8 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
This is obtained by converting each element of the P into
In order to have clear insight into the process of
its binary form. On assuming that the n is an even number,
permutation let us explain what we have done. Here we
the above matrix can be divided into two equal halves,
have started with the last element of the last row of the
where in each half contains m/2 rows. Then the upper half
upper half in (8), and have gone in the backward direction (
is mapped into a matrix containing m rows and four
placing the elements one after another in a column wise
columns. In the process of mapping we start with the last
manner in the first column, second column, etc., ) till we
element of the upper half and place it as the first row, first
have reached the first element of the matrix. This results in
column element of a new matrix. Then we place the last but
the first four columns of (9). Then we have commenced
one element of the upper half as the element in the second
with the first element of the lower half and filled up,
row and first column. We continue this process of placing
element after element, in the remaining four columns of (9)
the remaining elements of the upper half, one after another,
till we have reached the last element of (8). This has
till we get m rows and four columns of the new matrix.
enabled us to obtain (9). This process of permutation is
Then we place the elements of the lower half from the
expected to thoroughly permute the binary bits which are
beginning to the end in their order , such that they occupy
obtained as a consequence of the product of the plaintext
four more columns and m rows. Thus we again get a matrix
matrix and the key matrix.
of size mx8.
The matrix (9) can be brought into its corresponding
For example when n=4 (i.e., m=16), let us suppose
decimal form as shown below.
that the plaintext matrix, P is given by
216 218 18 234
86 103 83 56
35 43 36 219 165 116 155 128
P= (7) 107 121 154 12 (10)
210 242 12 16
48 194 56
3
114 165 10 193
Obviously as it is expected the elements of original
matrix, P (7) and the elements of the matrix (10) obtained
on permutation are totally different.
This can be brought to the binary form given by
It may be noted here that the IPermute() in the
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 decryption is a reverse process of the Permute() used in the
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 encryption.
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 The algorithms for encryption and decryption are
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
(8) written below.
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 Algorithm for Encryption
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1. Read n,P,K,r
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
2. for i = 1 to r
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
{
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 if ( (i mod 2)=1)
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
P=(KP) mod 256
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
else
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
P =( PK) mod 256
On permuting the above matrix in accordance with P= Permute(P)
the process explained earlier, we get }
C=P
3. Write( C )
160 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
(10 )
specified position. In the first round the key is on the left
x10 −7
( )
38.4 side of the plaintext and it is on the right side in the second
= 3.17 x 10 38.4 x10 −15 round. The same pattern is continued in the subsequent
365 x 24 x 60 x 60
rounds.
( )
The algorithms for encryption and decryption, mentioned
= 3.17 x 10 23.4 years. in section 2, are implemented in java.
Thus the cipher cannot be broken by the Ciphertext only On using the program for encryption the Ciphertext
attack. corresponding to the entire plaintext given in 3.2 is
In the case of the known plaintext attack, we know as obtained as
many pairs of plaintext and ciphertext as we require. For
example, we confine our attention only to two rounds of the
iteration process in the encryption. For the sake of
convenience in presentation, let us denote the function
Permute() as F(). Then we have
keywords: Obesity, Overweight, Body Mass Index, Skin-fold, Measurement Based Body Fat Estimation Methods
Circumference, Neural Networks There are two commonly used methods for body fat
measurements. They are
Ø Skin fold thickness method
Ø Circumference method
1. Introduction Skin fold method was standardized by Dumin and
Womersley [15]. In this method, the body fat is estimated
using different skin fold measured which are taken form
Throughout most of human history, a wide girth
different parts of the body such as midtriceps, biceps,
has been viewed as a sign of health, and prosperity. Yet it is
subscapular, suprailiac, etc., regions. These measurements
ironical that several million people are sent early to their
will be made using an apparatus called constant force
graves by damaging effects of eating too much and moving
caliber.
too little. Clearly, overweight cannot be taken lightly. The
Circumference methods were first developed by
problem of obesity is a matter of serious concern to the
Wright, Davis and Doston. This methods estimates the
individual as well as the state. Obesity increases mortality
percentage of body fat using different circumference
and morbidity at all ages. Excess fat is considered a
measures taken in different parts of the body such as, upper
detriment to physical fitness and work performance, which
and lower arm, waist, neck, abdomen, hip thigh etc.,
is also affected by a number of other variables such as age,
sex, training, attitude, and motivation, genetic and
Skin fold thickness method of body fat measurement:
environmental factors. Obesity is a condition in which there
Since most adipose tissue is in the subcutaneous layer, the
is an excessive accumulation of body fat in body. Estimation
present body fat has been traditionally estimated by
of human body fat has lot of applications in different areas
measuring skin folds at midtriceps, biceps, subscapular and
of medicine and other medical fitness tests. The most
suprailiae regions, using a constant force calipers. The
accurate way of calculating body fat percentage is the one
method was standardized by Dumin and Womersely [15].
provided by Siri’s equation [6], which requires a
Body fat is indirectly assessed from body density. The
measurement of Density via weighting under water. But this
percent body fat is calculated by the equation: % BF =
is expensive and unpractical. Anthropometry (height,
[(4.95 / body density) – 4.5] * 100. Though more accurate
weight and multiple skinfold thicknesses) by trained
than the, H-W measures, the main drawback of the skin fold
observers using standardized technique to calculate body fat
measurements is their poor repeatability in the absence of a
by Durnin and Womersley's equation [15]. But taking
skilled observer. Moreover, measurements may be difficult
164 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
or impossible in very obese people whose skin folds would The height-weight tables suggested by body
not fit between the jaws of the measuring caliper. composition working group have been extensively adopted
as a first line screening technique for obesity and the same
has been adopted by the India Armed Forces. Obesity is
defined as, weight 20% greater than the desirable weight for
that particular person.
2. Techniques Used in Measurement Based Several methods have been used to assess body
Body Fat Estimation Methods composition. Most methods of measuring the fat content in
the living subject are, to a lesser or greater degree, indirect.
Regression and multi-dimensional regression are The three classical methods used in the lab are the
the most commonly used statistical techniques in the design measurements of whole body density whole body water, and
of the above two types of measurement based fat estimation whole body potassium. Though more accurate these method
methods. There is lot of statistical methods available to are time consuming and not feasible for routine body fat
solve multi-dimensional regression problem. In statistics, assessment.
regression analysis includes any techniques for modeling Several workers have developed height-weight indices,
and analyzing several variables, when the focus is on the also called indices of relative weight or ‘indices of
relationship between a dependent variable and one or more adiposity’. These are easily calculated requiring nothing
independent variables. more than the height(H), weight(W) and Age(A). A
Most of the existing techniques for measurement commonly used index is the Body Mass Index (BMI) /
based body fat estimation formulas were based on statistical Quetlet’s index which is = weight (kg) / height (m)2. The
relationships in the data. But, in the recent years, new acceptable (normal) range is 20 to 25; A BMI of greater
techniques such as; artificial neural networks and fuzzy than 27 is overweight while obesity is taken to start at a
inference systems were employed for developing of the BMI of 30, and a BMI of 40 and above indicates gross /
predictive models to estimate the needed parameters. Soft morbid obesity. The standards are the same for men and
computing techniques are also now being used as alternate women.
statistical tool. However the H-W indices measure ‘overweight’ rather
Some previous work shows that the radial basis than obesity. Since the H-W indices cannot distinguish
function(RBF) neural network based prediction systems between excess fat, excess muscle mass (e.g. in weight
exhibiting a high performance than multilayer perceptron lifters). Fluid retention (oedema), large bones etc., these
(MLP) network, adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system drawbacks lead to a high degree of inaccuracy.
(ANFIS) and multiple regression (MR) technique. So in
this work, we explored the possibility of using a neural Circumference methods of body fat measurement: In
network to solve the body fat estimation problem. circumference methods, estimates of present body fat are
A radial basis function (RBF) neural network made with equations based on circumference measures
is trained to perform a mapping from an m-dimensional typically involving areas prone to excess fat accumulation
input space to an n-dimensional output space. RBFs can be such as the upper and lower arm, waist, hip and thigh. The
used for discrete pattern classification, function equations were first developed by Wright, Davis and Doston
approximation, signal processing, control, or any other in 1981 and include two body circumferences for males viz.
application which requires a mapping from an input to Neck circumference (NC), measured around the neck with
an output. Radial Basis Functions (RBF) represent the measuring tape passing just below the larynx; Abdomen
alternative approach to MLP's in universal function circumference (AC), measured around the abdomen at the
approximation. RBFs were first used in solving level of the umbilicus. For females, three circumferences are
multivariate interpolation problems and numerical analysis. included in addition viz., Bicep circumference (BC),
Their prospect is similar in neural network applications, measured at the largest circumference of the arm with the
where the training and query targets are rather continuous. arm extended and plan facing up; Forearm circumference
While MLP performs a global mapping (i.e., all inputs (FC), measured at the largest circumference of the forearm
cause an output), RBF network performs a local mapping and; Thigh circumference (TC), measured on the left
(i.e., only inputs near specific receptive fields will produce thigh just below the buttock. All circumferences are
an activation). The units (in the hidden layer) receiving the measured in centimeters.
direct input from a signal may see only a portion of the In 1984, Hodgdon and Beckett derived equations for
input pattern, which is further used in reconstructing a estimation of percent body fat in the males, using the same
surface in a multidimensional space that furnishes the best circumference measures and height (in cms) of the
fit to the training data. This ability of the RBF network to individual. The equations are:
recognize whether an input is near the training set or Percent body fat (men)
outside the trained region provides a significant benefit over = (0.740 * AC) – (1.249 * NC) + 0.528
MLP's. RBF's are useful in safety critical applications, as
well as in those having a high financial impact. Percent body fat (females) =
(1.051 * BC) – (1.522 * FC) – (0.89 * NC) + (0.326 * AC)
3. Definitions and Measurement + (0.597 * TC) + 0.707
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 165
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
The circumference measures and height is used to Ø The dimension of the input layer will be equal to
estimate body density by the following equation: Body the dimension of training patterns, that is the
density (men) number of circumference measures in the dataset.
=(0.19077*log10(ACNC)+(0.15456*log10[Ht])+1.0324 Ø The number of Hidden Layer will be decided
Percent body fat is then estimated from the body density automatically in the used Matlab version of RBF
by the same equation as used in the skin fold method of network
body fat measurement.
The estimate used by Hodgdon and Beckett is currently Ø The dimension of the output layer will be equal to
used by U.S. Navy, Since October 1986 for the initial one since there is only one output ‘percentage of
screening for obesity during the initial medical examination body fat’ which is to be mapped with respect to m
of its personnel. Conwayet al (1989), found that the dimensional input.
estimates of percent body fat were more strongly related Several ways have been proposed for training RBF
with physical fitness than were the H-W indices, and thus networks. Recently, Professor Simon has proposed the use
concluded that circumference methods of body fat of Kalman filters for training RBF networks . We are going
estimation assess actual body fat more reliably than the H- to use this model for our application.
W indices. After training the RBF network with the selected
number records (50/100/150/200/250 records of the 13
4. Implementation of RBF Neural Network measurements) the whole data set (252) is considered as
test data and fed in to the trained network and the value of
Based Fat Percentage Estimation Model
percentage of fat has been predicted.
Like most feed forward networks, RBFN has three layers,
Then the correlation between predicted values and
namely, an input layer, a hidden layer, and an output layer.
the originally calculated values (of under water weighing
The nodes within each layer are fully connected to the
method) has been calculated.
previous layer nodes. A schematic diagram of an RBFN
The correlation between two variables reflects the
with n inputs and m outputs is given in Fig. 1.
degree to which the variables are related. The most common
y1 yj ym
measure of correlation is the Pearson Product Moment
Correlation or called Pearson's correlation in short. When
θ 01 Σ θ0 j Σ θ 0m Σ output measured in a population the Pearson Product Moment
layer
correlation is designated by the Greek letter rho (ρ). When
computed in a sample, it is designated by the letter "r" and
is sometimes called "Pearson's r."
Φ Φ Φ hidden
layer
where Ms is the number of hidden units, cj and j are the by an underwater weighing and the density as well as the
center and the width of the jth hidden unit respectively, ji measured percentage of body fat were provided along with
represents the weight between the jth hidden unit and the ith that data.
output unit, and 0i represents the bias term of the ith • Age (years)
output unit. • Weight (lbs)
In this work,
• Height (inches)
• Neck circumference (cm)
• Chest circumference (cm)
166 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
• Abdomen circumference (cm) 5 250 7.9687 0.1802
• Hip circumference (cm)
The following graph shows the time taken for
• Thigh circumference (cm) training for different number of records used for training.
• Knee circumference (cm) As shown in the graphs, The time is gradually increasing
with respect to the increase in the size of training data set.
• Ankle circumference (cm)
• Biceps (extended) circumference (cm) 6. Conclusion
• Forearm circumference (cm) The proposed idea has been successfully
• Wrist circumference (cm) implemented using Matlab. The input parameters of the
• Percent body fat from Siri's (1956) equation (%) RBF network has been selected based on several
• Density determined from underwater weighing (cm) experiments. The experiments were repeated for several
These data are used to produce the predictive times with different number of records.
equations for lean body weight. The scope is to predict body The arrived results were more significant and
fat percentage on the basis of these variables, using comparable. The performance measured in terms of the
proposed RBF based regression model. The all body Pearson's correlation between the originally calculated
measurements are continuous variables. The first 13 values and newly estimated values reached almost 0.9
variables will be used as inputs to RBF network and 14th which is better than most of the classical methods and
value (the Percent body fat %) will be used as the expected almost equal to that of previous skinfold based methods.
output during training the network. The density value (15) The accuracy of the system was good while the
is just given here as an information and it will not be used number of records used for training is high. As far as we
for training or testing. have tested, the network can be trained in few seconds with
The following two dimensional plots are roughly few hundred records. After that, it was capable of predicting
showing the distribution of data. Singular Value the percentage of fat of few hundred records with in a
Decomposition is used to find the first principal component fraction of a second. So there will not be any practical
of the 13 features circumference measure data set. In x axis, difficulty in using the system different classes of training
we used that first principal component and the y axis we sets.
used the percentage of fat. So, the plot is showing only
approximate distribution of the data. 7 Scopes for Future Enhancements
It is obvious that the data used in this experiment
contains some outliers and little errors. Even with those
outliers and errors, the proposed system performed well. If
we apply suitable methods to remove the outliers and isolate
any abnormal records, in the training data set, then we can
expect better accuracy in prediction. Our future works will
address this issues. In this work, we have only used the
proposed regression model to estimate the percentage of
body fat. But this method is a generic model which can be
applied to any multidimensional non linear regression
Figure 2 : The 2D Plot of Input Data Space problem. So our future works will address other application
areas where the proposed model can bring better results.
Evaluation of RBF Training Performance
We have trained the RBF network with different Reference
number of records and measured the time taken for training
as well as the mean square error of last two consecutive [1] Wayt Gibbs W. Gaining on Fat Scientific American
iteration of the training. The following tables list the August 1996.
obtained results. [2] Isik Yilmaz and Oguz Kaynar, "Multiple regression,
ANN (RBF, MLP) and ANFIS models for prediction of
Table 4 : Performance of Training swell potential of clayey soils", Geophysical Research
Abstracts, Vol. 12, EGU General Assembly,TURKEY,
Number of The Time 2010
The [3] Siri, W.E., "Gross composition of the body", in
Sl. Records Taken For
Training Advances in Biological and Medical Physics, vol. IV,
No Used for Training
Error edited by J.H. Lawrence and C.A. Tobias, Academic
Training the RBF
1 50 2.4218 0.0230 Press, Inc., New York, 1956.
[4] Roger W. Johnson, Fitting Percentage of Body Fat to
2 100 3.3594 0.0645
Simple Body Measurements, Journal of Statistics
3 150 3.2812 0.1056
Education v.4, 1996
4 200 4.1562 0.1439
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 167
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
[5] Katch, Frank and McArdle, William, Nutrition,
Weight Control, and Exercise, Houghton Mifflin Co.,
Boston, 1977
[6] Behnke, A.R., Wilmore, J.H. An anthropometric
estimation of body density and lean body weight in
young men. Journal of Applied Physiology, 1969.
[7] Jackson, A.S., Pollock, M.L. Generalized equations for
predicting body density. British Journal of Nutrition,
1978.
[8] Behnke, A.R. and Wilmore, J.H., Evaluation and
Regulation of Body Build and Composition, Prentice-
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 1974
[9] Katch, F.I., McArdle, W.D., Nutrition, Weight Control,
and Exercise. Lea & Febiger: Philadelphia. PA, 1983.
[10] Wilmore, Jack, Athletic Training and Physical Fitness:
Physiological Principles of the Conditioning Process,
Allyn and Bacon, Inc., Boston, 1976
[11] Dumin & Womersley J, Body fat assessed from total
body density and its estimation from skinfold thickness:
measurement on 481 men and women aged from 16 to
72 years. Br J Nutr 1974
Authors Profile
Abstract: The concept of transition from IPv4 network to IPv6 through an Integrated IPv6/IPv4 network and hence we will
network is being processed vigorously. Extensive research study is call it Bi-directional Stateless Internet Inter control
being done presently on this topict as a transition from IPv4 to messaging protocol(BD-SIIT) as the IPv6/IPv4 network
IPv6 requires a high level compatibility and clear procedure for maintains a dual stack of both IPv4 and IPv6. The necessity
easy and independent deployment of IPv6. The transition between of reexamining the problem arises as the research in these
IPv4 internet and IPv6 will be a long process as they are two areas has not very widely been explored.The rest of this paper
completely incompatible protocols and will significant amount of
is structured as follows.Section 2 discusses the proposed new
time.For the smooth interoperation of the two protocols,various
well defined transition mechanisms have been proposed so far .In
network architecture. Section 3 illustrates the Simulation
this paper a comparative study of the behavior of IPv4-only Models of BD-SIIT Translator.The Performance
network with that of BD-SIIT under various types of traffic measurement procedures Scenario is discussed in Section 4
patterns is carried out. In the proposed BD-SIIT enabled network and Section 5 shows the Implementation and evaluation of
architecture,the hosts in IPv4 initiates a connection with hosts in BD-SIIT Translation for UDP and TCP protocols.Finally the
the IPv4 network over an integrated IPv4/IPv6 network. The whole paper is concluded in Section 6.
performance metrics considered in this research paper are
Throughput,End-to-End delay(EED),and Round trip 2. Proposed Novel Network Architecture
time(Latency).The various simulations are performed using
Network Simulator 2(ns-2).
Keywords: BD-SIIT, IPv4,IPv6,Transition mechanism. In this section, we present the description of the architecture
of the simulation environment for our work.The scenario
given in the Figure-2 depicts a conversation between two
1. Introduction IPv4 based nodes over an IPv6 based network.Assumption in
Over the last decade,the IETF has been working on the the BD-SIIT is made based on the data exchange.In this
deployment of IPv6[1,2] to replace the current internet paper we proposed a new transition algorithm called BD-
protocol version (IPv4).The motivations behind IPv6 are SIIT how it works with UDP and TCP protocols.As we know
briefly discussed in the following section and are covered in that SIIT(Stateless Internet Protocol/Internet control
the literature[4,5,6,7].The Internet Protocol version(IPv6) is messaging Protocol Translation(SIIT) is an IPv6 transition
now gaining momentum as an improved network layer mechanism that allows IPv6 only hosts to talk to IPv4 only
protocol.The current version of Internet protocol,IPv4 has hosts.BD- SIIT is said to be a stateless IP/ICMP translation
been in use for almost 30 years and exhibits some innovative ,which means that the translator is able to process each
challenges in supporting emerging demands for address space conversion individually without any reference to previously
cardinality,high-density mobility,multimedia,strong security translated packets.In paper,the authors have adopted the
etc.IPv6 is an improved version of an IPv4 i.e. designed to BD-SIIT to study network performance with few types of
coexist with IPv4 and eventually provide better traffic sources:voice over IPv4(VoIPv4),FTP-over-
internetworking capabilities than IPv4.IPv6 offers the IPv6(FTPv6) and MPEG-4-over-IPv6.The performance is
potential of achieving the scalability,reachability,end-to-end evaluated considering bandwidth,throughput, percentage of
internetworking,Quality of service(QoS),and commercial- packets dropped,and mean end-to-end delay of each traffic
grade robustness for data as well as for VoIP,IP-based flow for both IPv4 and IPv6.The ns-2 simulator shows that
TV(IPTV),distribution and triple play networks.The aim of when the traffic density of IPv6 session increases,the
this IJCNS Journal paper is to examine the behavior of a bandwidth of IPv6 increases at the expense of the session.On
transition mechanism that will involve the communication the other end,the increment of the traffic density of IPv4
between the two IPv4 hosts over an IPv6 network under session does not increase its bandwidth.
various traffic conditions.This will make possible the
exchange of information between IPv4-only network hosts
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 169
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Figure 1. Proposed Network Architecture of BD-SIIT Figure 2. Network Based BD-SIIT Translation
Process
IPv6 IPv4
applications applications
Sockets API
TCP/UDP v4 TCP/UDP v6
IPv4 IPv6
L2 Figure 5. v6-to-v4 BD-SIIT connection via BD-SIT
L1 translator
Figure 4. Protocol stack view of BD-SIIT
1
Islamic Azad University of Arak,
Computer Engineering Department,
Arak, Iran
e-kharati@iau-arak.ac.ir
2
Sama Technical and Vocational Trainig School
Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord Barnch
Shahrekord, Iran
a.bahari@gmail.com
3
Sharif University of Technology,
Mechanic Department,
Tehran, Iran
meysam.chegini@gmail.com
4
Halmstad University
School of Information Science, Computer and Electronic Engineering
Halmstad, Sweden
mohsenamerion@gmail.com
Abstract: In this paper, a combination model of routing networks which sends packets via adjacent nodes to
network has been presented. Flow models and packet model with destination. This protocol is based on demand and provides
together combines as Discrete Event in created queue in AODV the routing information any time it is required. Hence, there
routing protocol. In proposed combination model, available flow
is no need to periodic refresh. This protocol selects the
model in network has been analyzed dynamically and it causes
reduce routing time. Simulation results in this method show that
minimum distance to support QoS and operates based on
with increase network nodes, latency and rate of packet lost DSDV Protocol algorithm. The protocol maintains
reduce in comparison with pervious methods. Thus with replace established routes until they are active; therefore it is
packet model Instead of flow model, overflow calculation have suitable for non-ring and large networks. When the location
reduced and it can improve network performance. of nodes and network topology are changed; AODV
Protocol can establish new routes quickly between nodes
Keywords: Routing protocol, Fluid flow, Packet model, rate using response packets of previous routes which cause
of packet lost, wireless sensor networks overhead increase in this protocol. This is because of
releasing packets from source node to other nodes; to reduce
1. Introduction this overhead different methods have been proposed. For
example in [1], using queue in nodes results in storing
In this paper, traffic flow and discrete event models are
packets and routing them in the next periods and also
combined to route in AODV protocol of wireless sensor
reduces the time and routing restrictions. In [2], to reduce
networks. To do so, there is packet loss problem; to solve
routing packets a special algorithm is used. This algorithm
this issue queuing method is used in the middle nodes [1].
sends routing packets only for adjacent nodes that respond
To calculate the rate of packet loss, first it is essential to
to routing request during a particular time. Lack of
convert packets to flow and subsequently using related
coordination in timing, causes slow routing and reduces
differential equations and parameters such as queue length,
response time to the interactions. With distributed and
bandwidth, etc., routing delay and packet loss rate in the
paralleled computational resources in discrete event, routing
nodes can be calculated. Afterwards, by evaluating and
processing rate can be increased [3]. In routing of flow
comparing obtained rates of the proposed method with
model networks, user is able to lead network traffic and
previous methods and increasing network scale as well, the
exchanges, similar to streams flowing, in contrary to single
efficiency of the proposed method can be realized.
package. The two models differ in foreground traffic of
AODV protocol is a routing protocol in wireless sensor
174 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
packet orientation and background traffic of flow model. differential equations. These equations are resolved using
Background traffic is less important from the standpoint of Runge-Kutta fixed interval. Enqueued packet will be routed
accuracy and precision; but these two traffics are competing as discrete events and sent according to queue mode. Thus
for network resources [4]. The problem in flow model in packet loss and delay probability can be calculated. Other
AODV protocol is integration with packet routing of features and advantages of the proposed method include the
discrete events. In contrast with packet streams which use following items:
discrete events to describe routing, flow model, routes the • Network is not divided between packet and flow
network and traffic streams with a series of differential models; and flows and packets are combined
equations and continuous variables. Flow models routing dynamically. Therefore the network traffic could be
based on discrete event is much accurate than packet model transferred to all sections of the virtual network or
in AODV protocol. Packet loss rate decreases as well. In [5],
could have interaction with all the flows.
a combination model of these two models is proposed and
• Only in network queue, packet streams are converted
passes the flow of packets through the virtual network.
Therefore, flow model events can be routed on packets. In to fluid. This does not happen in any other parts of
[6] a flow-based model has been proposed that uses a series the network. Whereas in [7], packet flows are
of ordinary differential equations (ODE) to describe the converted to fluid flows upon their arrival to
behavior of stable AODV streams. These differential network. Thus, the proposed method can maintain
equations can be solved numerical and by using complex packet level accuracy with regard to changes in
computation. In [7], model [6] is upgraded by improving packet.
network topology information, a series of delay differential • User can change network traffic between packet and
equations and Runge-Kutta time interval algorithm. The flow models dynamically. Therefore network
results show that this model has better accuracy and
accuracy and precision are specifiable by time
precision run time for a large number of AODV flows in
limit. Also with increasing packet stream ratio in
compared to closed surface routers. In this reference, flow-
based traffic are combined with packet flows of discrete combined model, traffic and detail could be routed
event; for this purpose it is necessary to divide network into more in terms of computational time.
two parts of packet and flow and all flows compete for
The rest of this article is expressed as it follows. First,
network resources. In flow network, network’s primary core
section 2 expresses the features of flow model. Section 3
is global; and its statuses are determined by solving
describes how to convert packet and flow models.
differential equations. In packet network, transactions are
Afterwards, in section 4 the accuracy, precision and
routed like discrete events. This combination occurs while
performance of the proposed method is evaluated. Finally, in
the packets are entering and network flow is being converted
section 5, conclusion is presented and future functions are
to packet flows steadily. Additionally, this reference shows
introduced.
the probability of delay, packet loss and exiting out of the
network based on the schedule. In [8], a similar approach
through implementation in MATLAB is presented that 2. Flow model
solves the differential equations of processing packet events The first flow model in a network was created with Active
which are passing through the flow network faster. Queue Management (AQM) routers [9]. This model used a
Since the traffic of flow and packet model in AODV series of differential equations to route traffic behavior in
protocol are separate and the network structure cannot be order to produce the network traffic with the aid of flow
changed while routing, therefore, most of listed methods, classes. Each class contains ni homogeneous flow with the
divided network into flow and packet parts prior to routing. same specification which pass the same route. The task of
However, the proposed method in this paper merges packet these equations is the frame size control in every flow class,
and flow models together instead of dividing the network. queue state control, release control and reducing the risk of
Therefore, queue size dynamism and other details in flow loss and delay inside the network. Frame size in time t, for
network during routing can be investigated. But since each AODV flow in flow class i, is equal
dWi ( t ) 1 W (t )
packets flow only is available as surface traffic in the dt = R ( t ) − i2 × λ i (t )
i (1)
network, so it causes limitation of sending packets in virtual
network. The flow model also can only route packet streams Where Wi (t) is the frame size at the time t, Ri(t) is the
from a node to another and is not able to specify packet loss delay of going and coming back flow and λi (t) is the rate
and delay. of packet loss at time t. This equation shows AODV format
In real time routing in AODV protocol, the user can send behavior changes in traffic avoidance stage, but does not
real packet streams to any part of the virtual network. specify the size range of packet frame. Queue size l at time t
Therefore, each router in any part of the virtual network is:
combines inputted fluid and packet streams and enqueues dql (t )
them. Created dynamic queue is under control by a set of dt = Λ l (t ) × (1 − pl (t )) − Cl (2)
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 175
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Where ql(t) is l queue length at time t, Cl is bandwidth of Where is entered flow rate i to queue l. However,
the link and ql(t) is packet loss probability. Λl(t) is arrival overall delay caused by packet loss equals:
rate of passing flow classes and is equal to:
ql (t) if l =si
Λ l (t ) = ∑ Ail (t ) i Cl
i∈N l
(3) dl (t f ) =
q (t )
dbi (l) (t−ab (l) )+ab (l) + Cl otherwise
l
Where Ai (t) is instantaneous arrival rate of flow class i and i i i l (10)
Nl is set of passing flow classes through link l. In this
equation the queue length range that should be between 0 Where is flow class delay i in queue l at the time t
and maximum queue size ql is not applied either. The and bi(l) is the queue prior to queue l on the route of flow i.
network which uses random early detection (RED) Thus the loss rate for all of the packets is:
regulation for its queues, packet loss probability is based on
the average queue size and this amount can be calculated i
Ail (t)×pl (t) if l =si
rl (t f ) = r i ×(t−a )+Al (t)×p (t)
from the instantaneous queue size.
dxl (t ) ln(1− a )
bi (l) bi (l) i l otherwise
ln(1− a ) (11)
= δ × xl (t ) − δ × ql ( t )
dt (4) i
Which r l (tf) is the loss rate for all the packets by flow I in
Where xl(t) is the average queue size, δ is movement step queue l. Since packet loss and queuing delays in the return
size and α is the used weight in calculation of Exponential flow path are inappreciable, and assuming that traffic is
Weighted Moving Average (EWMA). Therefore the only on the forward way; we will have:
i
probability of packet loss in AODV protocol is equal to: Ri ( t ) = d fi ( t − π i ) + π i
(12)
0 0≤ x< q min
x−q min r ifi (t −π i )
q max − qmin × pmax q min ≤ x≤ q max λi (t ) =
ni
(13)
p( x) =
x− qmax ×(1− p max ) + p max
max
q max ≤ x≤ 2q max Where is trip time, λ i (t) is packet loss rate in flow , πI
q
1 otherwise
is one way path flow class delay and fi is the last queue
(5) that flow class has passed on going way.
Where qmin ,qmax and pmax are RED queue configuration The proposed model is only able to send AODV flows in
parameters in it; therefore the arrival rate of flow classes of i RED queues, but by changing equation (1), which controls
to the first queue si, equals: the size of sent frame, it is possible to use this model for
n W (t ) developing and modeling a wider flow class such as User
s
Ai i (t ) = iR (i t ) Datagram Protocol (UDP) and time limit processing easily
i (6) [10]. UDP Protocol, like TCP protocol, works in the session
As input rate in flow class i increases, input packet and layer, but unlike TCP is without connection. Therefore, it is
flows enter to the next queue instead of entering to middle faster, but it cannot control errors appropriately. Thus, its
nodes. Therefore, the arrival rate to the next queue equals: reliability is low. The main usage of UDP protocol is to send
g (l ) l
and receive data in high levels. So for a network that its
Ai i (t + a l ) = Di ( t ) traffic is produced via compact flows with fixed rate; this
(7)
model offers a natural solution. In [11], through calculating
g i (l ) periodic fixed point and a set of nonlinear equations a
Where Ai is entrance rate to the next queue; a l is link
solution has been proposed; here, the problem could be
release delay and gi (l) is the next node which flow i enters to solved directly and without any changes in the fluid model,
its l queue. Entrance rate to queue l has delay due to by shortening the RED queue. In this case, packet loss
queuing. This delay equals: probability equals to:
ql ( t ) (Λ (t )−C )
tf = t + l l if queue is full AND Λl (t)>Cl
Cl Λ (t )
(8) pl (t) = l
0 otherwise
tf is queue creation delay in AODV protocol while flow is (14)
entering at the time t and Cl is the bandwidth of link. Thus
if the arrival rate is more than the capacity of service, packet
loss rate would be equal to entrance rate. Otherwise, loss 3. The suggested model of converting flow
rate commensurate with flow arrival rate which are model to packet
currently competing for shared services, so we have:
Packet and fluid flows pass through the network and
Ail (t)×(1− pl (t)) if Λl (t )×(1− pl (t))≤Cl
l compete for network resources. But only packets that are
Di (t f ) = Al (t ) enqueued can be routed. Deciding whether to accept a
Λl (t)×Cl
i otherwise packet in queue depends on queue status at entrance time,
(9) instantaneous queue size and packet loss probability. Queue
176 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
status is controlled by a set of differential equations that was q~l = min{ Ql , max{ 0 , q~l + ∆ t i ( Λ l ( kδ )(1 − ~
p l ) − C l )}}
presented in the previous section. To calculate time interval
If the packet is lost with the probability of or queue is
of queues status change and flow class frame size, Runge-
Kutta fixed time interval method is used. full, arrived packet will be separated and next event
processed. Otherwise, packet length will be added to the
If δ is time interval and for each flow of which passes
instantaneous queue length; and average queue length and
through queue , in each time interval , is flow arrival packet loss probability will be re-calculated according to
rate, send rate, traffic delay, packet loss rate, RED method. Consequently, processing this packet with
traffic frame size, instantaneous queue scheduling and queuing delay is complete. Thus, flow
length, average queue length, packets
model is compatible with Runge-Kutta packet model using
arrival rate, packet loss probability, Sum of the these variables and queue mode can be specified at the
packets that entered to queue from the beginning, to beginning of each interval to update arrival of each packet.
calculate the number of packet flows entered into a network Also, the impact of packet flows on the fluid flows can be
queue, packets should be tracked until the last time interval obtained by solving fluid model equations 17 and 18.
in Runge-Kutta. In this case packets arrival rate equals:
4. Efficiency evaluation of the proposed
l N l ( kδ ) − N Pl (( k −1)δ ) method
AP ( kδ ) = P δ (15)
Simulation with time limit makes the possibility of
Packets as well as flows compete for queue space while interaction with physical world and coordination with real
entering. Thus, required queue length for packet arrival can time. Furthermore, it causes to direct traffic from router
be calculated by equation (2). Therefore queue length equals nodes to other routers and links in the network [2, 4]. The
to: problem is the time limit and events process guarantee
dql ( t ) before their deadlines. We perform and simulate the
= ξ l ( t ) × (1 − pl (t )) − Cl
dt (16) combination scheme of packet and flow models in PRIME
SSFNet test network. This network is special for routing
Where is entrance rate for both packet and fluid with time limit and most of its models are dependent on the
flows; is bandwidth of the link. So: RINSE simulator from UIUC [9]. Figure 1 shows the
ξl(t) = Λl(t) + Apl(t) (17) topology of this network that was used in [8] for the first
When the entrance rate is more than service capacity, the time. In the second experiment, the Dumbbell topology has
rate of packet loss is commensurate with the entrance rate been used which its topology is shown in Figure 2. These
packet and fluid flows which are currently competing for the operations have been conducted on SSFNet simulator for
shared service. Therefore, we have: 100 seconds on a machine with AMD Athlon64 CPU,
2.2GHz and 2GB of RAM.
Ail ( t )×(1− pl (t )) if ξl (t )×(1− pl (t ))≤Cl
l In the first experiment, the network consists of 12 nodes and
Di ( t f ) = Al (t ) 11 links which all links delay is 10 milliseconds and their
ξl ( t ) ×Cl
i otherwise
bandwidth is 100Mbps. According to the number of nodes,
(18)
there are 22 RED queues which their maximum size is
The problem in here is that packets which have arrived into
5MB. In packet routing trend, TCP Reno model is used
the queue between the Runge-Kutta time intervals are not
which its maximum frame size is 128. Also we suppose that
routable. To solve this problem, using three variables,
the interval size of flow model is constantly 1ms, applied
including instantaneous queue length ( ), average queue weight in EWMA calculation is 0.0004 and configuration
length ( ) and packet loss probability ( ), the changes are parameters of RED queue are qmin=100KB, qmax=4.5MB and
calculated. According to previous Runge-Kutta time interval pmax =0.1.
their primary values, respectively from left to right, equal: There are four flow classes in the test network. Class 0 and
q~l (t ) := ql ( kδ ) , ~
xl := xl (kδ ) , ~p := pl (kδ ) 1 are consisting of 10 flows, Class 2 of 20 flows and Class 3
If we assume packet events E1, E2, ..., Em, are currently of 40 AODV flows. Class 0, 1 and 2 start from time zero
entering the queue l and t1, t2, ... , Tm are these events time and last for total time of routing; but class 3 starts at time 30
intervals, So that t0 = 0 and and just lasts for 30 seconds. As we will see, there is a
competition between classes 2 and 3, and traffic will occur
; then the time
in connection between nodes 4 and 7 at the time of 30 to 60
between successive packet entrance events will be equal seconds.
with: Figure 3, only shows packet and flow routing results in a
Δti = ti - ti-1 number of required packets to store in the queue between
Where: i=1, 2… m nodes 4 and 7. Packet routing has many changes, but fluid
Since packets enter individually and flow enter continuously model has almost steady behavior; because the overload of
to the queue, so the queue length changes at each time mode changing has been decreased due to computational
interval of event processing. As a result, the first efficiency. Additionally, global queuing level by fluid model
instantaneous queue length during flow arrival equals: is higher than packet routing. Thus it is required to set flow
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 177
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
model more. In [7], a method has been proposed for this S1 C1
regulation.
To examine the accuracy and precision of combination
model, the flow model in classes 0, 1 and 3 are used; and in S2 C2
class 2 AODV flows are routed as a combination of packet
and fluid flow. In this test, packet flow ratio in class 2 is R1 R2
increased from 10% to 50% and finally to 100%. Figure 4 S3 C3
shows the total delay from source to destination in two
classes, namely, 0 and 2 with flow and combined models. It
could be seen, as the packet flow increases, queue length
and the total delay from source to destination increase as SN CN
well.
In the next test by using the Dumbbell topology which is Figure 2. Network topology of Dumbbell
shown in Figure 2, the computational efficiency of
combination model has been investigated. This topology
often used for analyzing AODV traffic control algorithms. It
has N server nodes as traffic sources on the left and N client
nodes as traffic collector on the right.
During the routing, both server and client nodes
simultaneously participate in M sessions and each node has
a queue with maximum size of M MB and connections
towards the routers with the bandwidth of (10×M) Mbps.
The bandwidth between two routers is (10 × M × N) Mbps
and maximum queue size of each router is (M × N). RED
queue parameters are set so that qmin is a hundredth of
maximum queue size and qmax is half of maximum queue.
Figure 5, shows the experiment results that the number of
server and client nodes are 5 and AODV simultaneous
packet flow ratio is increasing from 5 to 40. As the figure
shows, when the number of flows and nodes is the same,
virtually no time is consumed to complete the routing, but
by increasing the packet flows, routing time increases.
Class 3
Figure 3. Packet flow in Comparison with Fluid flow and
5 8
affect on queue size
Class 2
1 2 4 7 10 12
3 6 9 11
Class 0 Class1
References
[1] E. Kharati, “A Survey and optimization of routing
protocol for Wireless Ad-hoc Networks”, Master
Thesis Project, Islamic Azad University of Arak, pp.
98-119, 2004.
[2] E. Kharati and Ali Movaghar, “An object-oriented
routing structure in J-Sim environment for Wireless
Sensor Networks”, In 13th International CSI Computer
Conference, March 2008.
[3] E. Kharati and Ali Movaghar, “Optimization of S-Mac
routing protocol to reduce energy consumption for
Wireless Sensor Networks”. In 13th International CSI
Computer Conference, March 2008.
[4] E. Kharati, “Create a Debugger in simulation for
DiSenS Sensor Networks”. In First Annual Symposium
of Computer Engineering, Electronic Engineering, IT
Engineering, Islamic Azad University of Hamedan,
March 2008.
[5] C. Kiddle, R. Simmonds, C. Williamson, and B.
Unger, “Hybrid packet/fluid flow network simulation”,
In Proceedings of the 17th Workshop on Parallel and
Distributed Simulation (PADS’03), pp. 143–152, June
2003.
[6] V. Misra, W-B. Gong, and D. Towsley, “Fluid based
analysis of a network of AQM routers supporting TCP
flows with an application to RED”, In Proceedings of
the 2000 ACM SIGCOMM Conference, pp. 151–160,
August 2000.
[7] Y. Liu, F.L. Presti, V. Misra, D.F. Towsley, and Y. Gu,
“Scalable fluid models and simulations for large-scale
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 179
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Abstract: Network calculations make virtual organization able solving and in order to provide users dedicating optimal
to share distributed resources in geographical view, to achieve resources to execute these processes is significant issue in
common goals this method lacks a place, a central controlling the field of distributed networks with grid architecture.
and trusted relation generally , in order to solve the gride
In this paper, we will consider a part, called decision
problem. It is necessary to find the most suitable resource in the
shortest time. This purpose as applied in part of solving process.
controlling management , based on reinforcement learning
All devoted approaches of information retrieving try to serve all in resource management unit in grids, which makes us
requests optimally in the shortest time, but they are unable to know better about the resources by passing of time and also
match with or be flexible to grid network changes. Therefore, makes the resources map onto the request optimally and
the flexibility in retrieving and resource allocation are rapidly.
necessary. In the presented paper, a few part is inserted into We will utilize reinforcement learning since this method
protocol in order to manage decision controlling based on
matches grid network. Reinforcement learning is the online
reinforcement learning, that using learning patterns in grid
network, space recognition , factor recognition, a number of learning and also is applied in environment which is
factors and obtaining resource information in grid network ,this reportedly visible .this method is independent of long
part performs retrieving operation and resources allocation information mass for instructor (such as neural network and
more optical than other methods. genetic – based method). But in our framework, regarding
rewards which are achieved in the of path, we obtain
Keywords: resource retrieving, grid , reinforcement learning. recognition or generally rewards based on traversed steps
repeating this approach. Our resource (node) recognition
1. Introduction will be stronger; therefore we can understand the network
Network computation is a computation model that huge better.
computations can be processed through them, using Following, we introduce a new approach which is proved by
computation power of many netted computes in addition to comparison and testing, to show important and efficiency of
keeping them as a unique virtual computer in view. In other our work to the previous studies.
words, rid is able to solve enormous computational
problems, using computational power of several separated 2. Introduction of information retrieving in
computers which are mostly connected through network grid network
(internet) [1, 3]. One of the most important current issues of
Serving request is performed in two manners: 1.real-time
computer network is the distributed network with grid
and 2. Non-real-time method. First, serving is rapidly
architecture. Regarding of computer applications
performed to set out appropriate resources as soon as
development as well as hardware rapid, advancement ,
receiving request from broker resource which has mentioned
creating integrated systems ( from free heterogeneous
conditions, send a message to broker, then broker selects the
resources in order to multi purpose process along with
best resource based on different factors such as distance and
supporting of maximum- efficiency resources).
send the request to the resource for serving. Obviously, this
As many as some of the investigate and computational
method makes the network traffic heavier. In second,
application these networks are for bottleneck problem
information of resources is available at request reporting
180 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
time the discovered resources are saved by brokers in and therefore are able to rapidly the required resources to in-
resource management part. Optimal resources are searched time responses of requests [10, 12].the notable difference of
and selected as soon as request report and then the request our presented method with mentioned ones are applying of
will be sent for selected resources. According to this way, reinforcement learning which makes suitable recognition by
network traffic is significantly decreased and therefore the passing of time in to allocate optimally resources.
requests are responded more rapid.
2.1 Breadth First Search (BFS) 3. Reinforcement learning
BFS is one the simplest and most functional searching Reinforcement learning [13] generally is the art of finding
method with easy process. In this method, every node what strategy to improve the status to achieve the certain goal,
has request, sends the request to all its neighbors. The node regarding of environment recognition, relation results
also searches its local information in order to find perfect behind environment and benefits-damages of performing
answer. These mentioned steps will be done for every node several task simply, Reinforcement learning is the learning
which receives request in the case of finding necessary through environmental relation to achieve specified goal
resourced , a message asks the resources through the nearest decision maker and the person who learn, are called
node which has replied to its request [8]. Making heavy “Agents”. The thing what agent make relation with it,
traffic is the disadvantage of this method. Assume that, we named environment (in fact, every foreign thing of agent is
have ‘n’ given nodes so that every node has m neighbors. In involved). This relation continuously, is occurred in this
the first step, the broker sends a message to or responding m manner that, agent makes decision and then operates an
nodes .after passing of some steps, several messages are action accordingly. After that, the environment will respond
sent. This phenomenon makes the network occupied. with granting reward. Lastly, the agent will be transferred to
new state.
2.2 Random Breadth First Search (RBFS) In detail, agent and environment have relation sequencly
This method is similar to the previous one with this through time step t=1,2,3,…. . in every step, for example in
different that corresponding node doesn’t send the message step t, the agent receives a new state from environment. In
for all its neighbors in every step, but it sends the inquiry to this paper, we suppose that the whole space of grid is s. st Є
the part of neighbors also this method has some S where S is the possible state set of allocating environment
disadvantages and advantages decreasing network traffic resources. at is the possible task set of agent whom does
and rapid operating of the search are advantages. Since them in state st. in the new step, environment grants reward
nodes haven’t any information about neighbors that the R in time t + 1, so that r(t+1) Є R. based on its previous
message is sent for them. Therefore there is no wasting time task, the agent will be transferred to the new state S(t+1). To
to verify and decide in other words. Every node selects mathematics, a policy is a mapping. For instance
randomly some of the neighbors and sends the message to
Π :S× A
→[0,1] is a policy. It means, a number in
them. Neighbor random selection is the significant
disadvantage of this method because the dead parts of [0,1] is appropriated for any pair (action, state) like (s,a)
network which are weakly connected to the network, almost which are belong to Π : S × A . This is shown by
never are made inquiry. Π ( S × A) as follow:
Pr{at = a}{st = s} = Π (s, a )
2.3 Random Breadth First Search with RND-Step
The set of states, actions and sequenced rewards is
actually , this is improvement of previous ones in this
considered in reinforcement learning as follow:
method, we start the search, using ‘n’ brokers instead of
only one broker(‘n’ is depended on given steps) and then
every node of n node searches the releasing resources.
Disadvantages of this method are like RBFS deliberations. Figure 1. The set of stats, actions and sequenced rewards.
The value of s is a function of state value:
In other words, because of being random performance in
searching step, optimal results will not e obtained. On other
hand, searching through couple of paths (and linear
increasing of number of neighbors of all nodes) makes the
efficiency higher. Calculating of real value of the whole state is known as
2.4 Searching with keeping information policy evaluation providing of following of policy Π and it
is necessary for perfect learning the value which can be
In spite of 3 mentioned methods, this method responds the
considered for action-state (s,a) is:
request in non-real status. There are some methods which
Example: when we are going to learn reinforcement
consider the status of neighbors and responses to the
learning system appropriated for the separated and best
requests, including directed breadth first search (DBFS) and
resources to serve requests. According to the mount and
hashing method the efficiency of those methods are higher
time of processing to allocate resources, we initial this unit
then random based methods. In detail, these methods
+1 : appropriate, -1 “ inappropriate , 0: middle. It is notable
decrease significantly network traffic and mount of inquires
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 181
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
that rewarding should be granted so that agent van satisfy
us, maximizing reward and also it shouldn’t learn, how to
satisfy o instance, in example 2 , score +1 ill be granted
when the best resource is selected for processing.
Nodes xi yi =c xi For the case for the 3*3 matrix, the value of the function
N1 x1 y1 =c x1 f(x)=1+2+2=5;
N2 x2 y2 =c x2
….. …… …………
Nn xn yn =c xn
5. Conclusion
The paper deals with random walk based node sensation. It
has been shown how based on dimension random walk
representation is varied. The paper also points out proposed
schemes of node realization on the basis of curve fitting and
statistical based approaches. Nodal communication between
the farthest nodes in a cluster based network structure has
also been studied with relevant graphical representation.
References
[1] Edward A. Coding, Michael J. Plank and Simon
Benhamou, “ Random walk models in biology”
published[online] in Journal of The Royal Society
Interface, 15 April, 2008.
[2] M. I. MohdSaad, Z. A. Zukarnain, “ Performance
Analysis of Random-Based Mobility Models in
MANET Routing Protocol” published in European
Journal of Scientific Research, Vol. 32 No 4(2009), pp
444-454.
[3] Christian Bettstetter, “Mobility modeling in wireless
networks: categorization smooth movement and border
effects” published in ACM SIGMOBILE mobile
computing and Communication review 2001.
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 187
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Appendix 1
Table 1: Risk Assessment and BIA
192 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Abstract: Image denoising has become an essential exercise in such as hard thresholding, soft thresholding and Wiener
medical imaging especially the Magnetic Resonance Imaging filter is compared both visually and in the PSNR sense.
(MRI). As additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) exhibits finest
grain property of noise, multi resolution analysis using wavelet 2. Wavelet Based Image Denoising
transform is gaining popularity. The aim of the work is to
compare the effectiveness of three wavelet based denoising DWT has attracted more interest in image denoising [5].
algorithms viz. Wiener filter, hard threshold and soft threshold The DWT can be interpreted as image decomposition in a
using MRI images in the presence of AWGN. Wiener filter set of independent, spatially oriented frequency channels.
performs better visually and in terms of PSNR than the other The image is passed through two complementary filters and
thresholding techniques. emerges as two images, Approximation and Details. This is
Keywords: Denoising, Wavelet, MRI, Wiener filtering, called Decomposition or Analysis. The components can be
Threshold
assembled back into the original image without loss of
information. This process is called Reconstruction or
1. Introduction Synthesis. The mathematical manipulation, which implies
Image denoising is a procedure in digital image analysis and synthesis, is called DWT and inverse DWT.
processing aiming at the removal of noise, which may For a 2D image, an N level decomposition can be performed
corrupt an image during its acquisition or transmission, resulting in 3N+1 different frequency bands namely, LL,
while retaining its quality. Medical images obtained from LH, HL, HH.
MRI are the most common tool for diagnosis in medical Denoising algorithms that use the wavelet transform consist
field. These images are often affected by random noise of three steps:
arising in the image acquisition process. The presence of • Calculate the wavelet transform of the noisy image
noise not only produces undesirable visual quality but also • Modify the noisy wavelet coefficients according to
lowers the visibility of low contrast objects. Noise removal is some rule.
essential in medical imaging applications in order to
• Compute the inverse transform using the modified
enhance and recover anatomical details that may be hidden
in the data. coefficients.
The wavelet transform has recently entered the arena of 2.1 Wiener Filter
image denoising and it has firmly established its stand as a In signal processing, the Wiener filter is a filter proposed
powerful denoising tool. There has been a fair amount of by Norbert Wiener during the 1940s.Its purpose is to reduce
research on filtering and wavelet coefficients thresholding the amount of noise present in a signal by comparison with
[8], because wavelets provide an appropriate basis for an estimation of the desired noiseless signal. The discrete-
separating noisy image from the original image. These time equivalent of Wiener's work was derived independently
wavelet based methods mainly rely on thresholding the by Kolmogorov in 1941. Hence the theory is often called the
discrete wavelet transform (DWT) coefficients, which have Wiener-Kolmogorov filtering theory.
been affected by AWGN. The inverse filtering is a restoration technique for
There has been much research by Donoho & Johnstone [1, deconvolution, i.e., when the image is blurred by a known
2, 3] on finding thresholds, however few are specifically lowpass filter, it is possible to recover the image by inverse
designed for images. One of the most popular method filtering or generalized inverse filtering. However, inverse
consists of thresholding the wavelet coefficient (using the filtering is very sensitive to additive noise. The approach of
hard threshold or the soft threshold) as introduced by reducing one degradation at a time develops a restoration
Donoho. algorithm for each type of degradation and simply combines
Another denoising method in the wavelet domain consists of them. The Wiener filtering executes an optimal tradeoff
Wiener filtering the wavelet coefficients. In this paper, the between inverse filtering and noise smoothing. It removes
performance of this method is done on a degraded image X the additive noise and inverts the blurring simultaneously.
such that X=S+N where S is the original image and N is an
AWGN. The performance of three denoising techniques
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 193
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
The Wiener filtering is optimal in terms of the mean When using the Haar wavelet transform the steps for
square error. In other words, it minimizes the overall mean implementing denoising using the Wiener filter technique is
square error in the process of inverse filtering and noise as follows:
smoothing. The Wiener filtering is a linear estimation of the i. Apply the Haar wavelet transform to the original image
{ } {y }
original image. The approach is based on a stochastic 2
framework [6, 7]. ii. qi , j is computed by convolving i, j with a
2.1.1 Wiener Filter in the Wavelet Domain kernel of size 9.
In the model we assume that the wavelet coefficients are iii. The Wiener filter is then applied using the formula
conditionally independent Gaussian random variables. The max(qi , j − σ n2 , 0)
noise is also modeled as stationary independent zero-mean sˆ = yi , j = aˆi , j yi , j
qi , j
Gaussian variable. Let us consider an image corrupted by a
zero-mean Gaussian noise. The coefficients of the noisy iv. Apply the inverse Haar wavelet transform.
image in the wavelet domain are given by [4].
yi, j = si, j + ni , j (1) 2.2 Soft Thresholding
Where yi , j represent the coefficients of the noisy image in In soft thresholding, the wavelet coefficients with
magnitudes smaller than the threshold are set to zero, but
the wavelet domain, si , j represent the coefficients of the the retained coefficients are also shrunk towards zero by the
amount of the threshold value in order to decrease the effect
undegraded image, ni , j represent the coefficients of the
of noise assumed to corrupt all the wavelet coefficients. Soft
noise. thresholding shrinks the coefficients above the threshold in
Without loss of generality, we can assume that absolute value.
the E { yi2, j } ’s can be determined by averaging the squared When using the Haar wavelet transform, the steps for
implementing denoising using the soft thresholding
values of yi , j in a window centered at (i, j). This technique is as follows:
information can be expressed as • Apply the Haar wavelet transform to the original
R R image
Qi , j = ∑ ∑y
k =− R l =− R
2
i − k , j −1 • Apply the soft thresholding on the wavelet
(2) coefficients y(i, j )
M = (2R + 1)2
(3)
y − T if y(i , j ) ≥ T
Qi , j
qi , j = s$ (i, j ) = y + T if y(i , j ) ≤ −T
M 0
(4) otherwise
As a result, the coefficients of the Wiener filter can be (9)
expressed as T = σ 2 log ( n )
(10)
qi , j − σ n2 Where y(i, j ) is the standard deviation of the noise, n is
ai, j =
qi , j the number of wavelet coefficients, sˆ(i, j ) are the de-
(5) noised wavelet coefficients, and T is the universal
Restricting the values to only positive values, the numerator threshold and the variance is estimated using MAD
of the equation (4) takes the form max ( qi , j − σ n2 , 0 ) and so method.
sˆi , j = max ( a i , j , 0 ) yi , j • Apply the inverse haar wavelet transform.
(6) 2.3 Hard Thresholding
Where sˆi , j is the best linear estimate of the signal
In hard thresholding, the wavelet coefficients with greater
component si , j magnitudes than the threshold are retained unmodified as
The noise variance is estimated using the mean absolute they are thought to comprise the informative part of data,
deviation (MAD) method and is given by while the rest of the coefficients are considered to represent
2 noise and set to zero. However, it is reasonable to assume
mad
var iance = (7) that coefficients are not purely either noise or informative
0.6745 but mixtures of those.
mad ( ( wi )i ) = median (( w ) )
i i
The denoising method described in the previous
subsection (soft thresolding) can be carried out using the
(8) hard threshold instead of the soft threshold on the wavelet
wi represents the wavelet coefficients. coefficients in (ii).
The hard thresholding formula is given as
194 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
pretty well in the smooth regions but performs poorly along
f y(i , j ) ≥ T the edges.
y(i, j )
sˆ(i, j ) =
0 if y(i, j ) < T The comparison of PSNR of the three wavelet filters for
(11) different MRI images are tabulated in Table1 and is
observed that the Wiener filter gives better values compared
3. Results and Discussion to soft and hard thresholding for different noise variances
(σ ) such as 15, 20, 25, 30.
In this section, simulation results are presented which is
performed on the four MRI images i.e. Brain, Knee, Spine
Abdomen. White Gaussian noise is added to the MRI Table 1: Comparison of PSNR of different wavelet filters
images and denoised with the methods described previously. for different MRI images corrupted by AWGN
The performance of the three techniques is compared
using PSNR , which is defined as
255 2
PSNR = 10log10
MSE Peak Signal to Noise Ratio in dB(PSNR)
Image Noise
(12)
(σ )
Where MSE denotes the mean square error for two
Hard Soft Wiener
m × n images l (i , j ) & k(i, j ) where one of the images is
Thresholding Thresholding Filter
considered a noisy approximation of the other and is given
15 25.441 26.946 27.692
as
2
Brain 20 22.936 25.065 25.615
1 m−1 n −1
MSE = ∑∑ [l (i, j ) − k(i, j )]
mn i =0 j = 0
25
30
21.031
19.452
23.507
22.181
23.957
22.577
(13) 15 25.219 26.231 26.803
From the simulation results it has been observed that the Knee 20 22.810 24.542 24.977
Wiener filter outperforms both thresholding methods 25 20.924 23.087 23.457
visually and in terms of PSNR. More details were lost with 30 19.357 21.836 22.170
the thresholding methods especially for the hard threshold 15 25.093 26.069 26.561
Spine 20 22.753 24.458 24.812
wherein the background was not well denoised. If the
25 20.869 23.073 23.359
Wiener filter could be thought as another thresholding
30 19.348 21.871 22.126
function, it will perform better as its shape is smoother than 15 25.402 27.135 27.656
the hard and soft thresholds. Abdomen 20 22.917 25.227 25.614
This can be clearly seen from Figure1 and Figure2 that the 25 21.011 23.660 23.981
background of the denoised images with Wiener filter 30 19.436 22.324 22.622
appears smoother. The Wiener filter removes the noise
Figure1. Denoising of Brain MRI image for variance=20 (a) Original image (b)Noisy image (c)Denoised image with hard
threshold (d) Denoised image with soft threshold (e) Denoised image with Wiener filter
Abstract: DNA microarray analysis has become the most transformed data are often replaced by zeros [1] or, less
widely used functional genomics approach in the bioinformatics often, by an average expression over the row, or ‘row
field. Microarray gene expression data often contains missing average’. This approach is not optimal, since these methods
values due to various reasons. Clustering gene expression data do not take into consideration the correlation structure of the
algorithms requires having complete information. This means data. Thus, many analysis techniques, as well as other
that there shouldn't be any missing values. In this paper, a analysis methods such as hierarchical clustering, k-means
clustering method is proposed, called "Clustering Local Least
clustering, and self-organizing maps, may benefit from
Square Imputation method (ClustLLsimpute)", to estimate the
missing values. In ClustLLsimpute, a complete dataset is
using more accurately estimated missing values.
obtained by removing each row with missing values. K clusters There is not a lot of work in the literature that deals with
and their centroids are obtained by applying a non-parametric missing value estimation for microarray data, but much
clustering technique on the complete dataset. Similar genes to work has been devoted to similar problems in other fields.
the target gene (with missing values) are chosen as the smallest The question has been studied in contexts of non-response
Euclidian distance to the centroids of each cluster. The target issues in sample surveys and missing data in experiments
gene is represented as a linear combination of similar genes. [2]. Common methods include filling in least squares
Undertaken experiments proved that this algorithm is more estimates, iterative analysis of variance methods [3]
accurate than the other algorithms, which have been introduced randomized inference methods, and likelihood-based
in the literature. approaches [4]. An algorithm similar to the nearest
neighbors was used to handle missing values in CART-like
Keywords: Missing Values, Imputation, Microarray,
algorithms [5]. Most commonly applied statistical
Regression.
techniques for dealing with missing data are model-based
approaches. Local least squares imputation as k-nearest
1. Introduction neighbor imputation (KNNimpute) [6] and an estimation
In the last decade, molecular biologists have been using method based on Bayesian principal component analysis
DNA microarrays as a tool for analyzing information in (BPCA) have been introduced [7].
gene expression data. During the laboratory process, some In this paper, a local least squares imputation is proposed,
spots on the array may be missing due to various factors e.g. where a target gene that has missing values is represented as
insufficient resolution, image corruption, or simply due to a linear combination of similar genes. A k-means clustering
dust or scratches on the slide. Repeating the experiments is algorithm has been used to cluster the complete microarray
often very costly or time consuming. As a result, molecular matrix. Rather than using all available genes in the data,
biologists, statisticians, and computer scientist have made only the genes with high similarity with the target gene are
attempts to recover the missing gene expressions by some used in the proposed method which has the smallest
ad-hoc and systematic methods. Euclidian distance between the target gene and the centeroid
Microarray gene expression data have been formulated as of each cluster. The rest of the paper is organized as follows:
gene expression matrix E with m rows, which correspond to Section 2 includes a description of a mathematical model of
genes, and n columns, which correspond to experiments. local least squares imputation based on regression model.
Many analysis methods, such as principle component Section 3, discusses the proposed k-means algorithm which
analysis, singular value decomposition or clustering is used in the clustering process. Section 4, introduces the
analysis, require complete matrices. Missing log2
proposed PCA as a solution for the initial number of clusters
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 197
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
parameter and the initial centeroid for each of the clusters.
Section 5, explains the proposed novel imputing algorithm where are the coefficients of the linear combination,
based on the previous solutions. The results of numerical found from the least squares formulation (1). And, the
missing values in g can be estimated by
experiments are given in Section 6. Section 7 concludes the
paper. ,
,
2. Local Least Squares Imputation
where α1 and α2 are the first and the second missing values
A matrix denotes a gene expression data matrix in the target gene. For estimating missing values of each
gene, we need to build the matrices A and B and a vector w,
with m genes and n experiments, and assume . and solve the least squares problem of Eqn. (1).
In the matrix , a row represents expressions of
the ith gene for n experiments. In order to recover the total of 2. K-Means Clustering
q missing values in any locations of a target gene g, the k- K-means [8] is one of the simplest unsupervised learning
nearest neighbor genes of g,
algorithms that solve the well known clustering problem.
The procedure follows a simple and easy way to classify a
,
given data set through a certain number of clusters (assume
are found. In this process of finding the similar genes, the q k clusters) fixed a priori. The main idea is to define k
components of each gene at the q locations of missing centroids; one for each cluster. These centroids should be
values in g are ignored. Then, based on these k-nearest placed in an accurate way because different locations cause
neighbor genes, a matrix , a matrix different results. As a result, the best choice is to place them
, and a vector are formed. The ith as much as far away as possible from each other. The next
row vector of the matrix A consists of the ith nearest step is to take each point belonging to a given data set and
neighbor genes , with their elements
associate it with the nearest centroid. When no point is
at the q missing locations of missing values of g excluded.
pending, the first step is completed and an early group page
Each column vector of the matrix B consists of the values of
the jth location of the missing values (1 ≤ j ≤ q) of the k is done. At this point we need to re-calculate k new
vectors centroids as new centers of the clusters resulting from the
. The elements of the vector w are the n − q elements of previous step. After we have these k new centroids, a new
the gene vector g whose missing items are deleted. After the binding has to be done between the same data set points and
matrices A and B and a vector w are formed, the least the nearest new centroid. A loop has been generated. As a
squares problem is formulated as result of this loop we may notice that the k centroids change
(1) their location step by step until no more changes are done.
Finally, this algorithm aims at minimizing an objective
Then, the vector of q missing values can function, in this case a squared error function. The objective
be estimated as function
, (3)
, (2)
(9)
References
(1)
The choice of weight factors was justified by Albertch The posterior will be calculated by following formula
[4]. It is doubtful whether the weights will be appropriate for (4)
all users in all circumstances. The weights are derived from Where, is the Poisson rate parameter, and a data set.
study of project of IBM; the weights of IBM cannot be In this stage, discrete distribution is converted to continuous
applied for other projects. For overcoming this problem, in distribution – Gamma distribution. It is expressed in a
this paper by using the concepts of Bayesian theory and following formula in a form of a rate parameter rather than
Monte Carlo simulation with Markov chain theory, the a scale parameter where rate=1/scale
traditional FPA extends to Bayesian function point analysis. For (5)
Constants not involving can be ignored. So the needed
3. Bayesian Belief Network formula is presented in following equation instead of the
Bayesian belief networks are graphical tools for modeling entire Gamma density.
causes and effects in various domains[12]. In cases that (6)
input data is uncertain, Bayesian belief network modeling is According to the procedure that described in proposed
effective. Bayesian belief networks are based on the model, the fitting model is distributed as:
stochastic variables which will be represented by nodes and (7)
dependency among variables represented by arrow For a sequence of random samples from this distribution, a
heads[13]. metropolis-hasting method is selected. Regarding raw data
that is obtained from estimation.
4. Proposed Method
In the first state, the expert estimated the input low is equal
The proposed method has three main steps that are to 2. That can be presented as follows:
explained in the Marzoughi and Farhangian paper (8)
2010[14]. These steps are fitting distribution, Estimate
unknown parameter and Optimization of weights by Each state presents an interval. The next state of input low
Markov chain Monte Carlo Simulation. In fourth step the will be calculated as follows
complexity of the software project will be computed based
on Bayesian belief network approach. = =
There are 14 factors listed in table 2. This table is used for (9)
determining the complexity of the project. By using
Bayesian belief network and omitting no effected factors, the The steady state factors will be computed as
adjusted processing complexity will be calculated. The total follows:
processing complexity will be calculated as following ⇒ = (10)
formula:
(2) is selected as the weight of input low for next stage, since
5. Case Study it has the highest probability 0.39 of weights.
After determining the Total Unadjusted Function Point
(TUFP), the next step is computing the complexity of system
The proposed method is validated as such: We simulate the
by a Bayesian belief network approach.
estimations of 20 experts. By fitting data, Poisson
Firstly the factors with no influence will be omitted
distribution is identified with the unknown parameter . All
according the following table:
the functions including inputs, outputs, queries, files and
program interfaces are classified in different bounds. The
Table 1. Total Unadjusted Function Point
probability of each state is estimated in condition of prior
Data Communication 2
state. The data of input is presented as an example, other
Heavy use configuration 0
functions follows same procedure. This model can be
applied in other case studies with same condition. Input is Transaction rate 0
divided into 9 main groups that are: low1, low2, low3, End-user efficiency 0
medium4, medium5, medium6, high7, high8, high9. From Complex Proceeding 0
the fitting data, the distribution of is identified as follows: Installation ease 0
(3) Multiple sites 0
The following process is applied for search function in Performance 0
online publication and other functions can be followed with Distributed functions 1
the same method. Online data entry 0
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 205
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Online update 0
Reusability 0
Operational ease 0
Extensibility 0
P(low) P(medium) P(high) Similarly, for complexity of “medium” and “high” the
probability would be as following, respectively:
.3 .6 .1
=.o6496 (16)
In recent decades, performance measurement is taken For handling traditional Balanced Score System two steps
into consideration by both researchers and practitioners. should be taken up. In first step, the indicators of each
One of the importance of performance measurement is perspective will be identified and these indicators will be
driving organization actions. It is always emphasized that prioritized. The importance of each indicator is determined
metrics should be aligned with strategy (Kaplan and Norton, by a fuzzy AHP method.
1992; Kaplan and Norton, 2000).besides, it provides a In this study the steps of Fuzzy AHP proposed by Change
framework to drive decision making[1]. For example, (1996) [6].
shortest processing time policy appears to be the policy of After determining the weights of indicators, calculating
choice when considering time in system or waiting time the numerical value of each indicator is the next step. In this
measures. However, an earliest due date policy is more step, two marks will be indicated by evaluators that are Real
favorable when considering order lateness as the measure of Performance (RP) and Expected Performance (EP)
interest (Chan et. al. 2003). Another advantage of Based previous research, three models are common for
performance measurement is providing close loop control evaluators in term of determining the value of real
that is feedback of any process. performance and expected performance. These models are
the optimistic, the neutral and the pessimistic.
Kaplan and Norton (1992) propose four basic
perspectives that managers should monitor: financial
208 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
3. Case study
The next step, after evaluation weights is finding mental Figure 2. Logistic fuzzy membership function fitted with
pattern of evaluators. A non linear regression approach is data set
used for calculating the mental pattern of evaluators. That is
explained for best, fitting and exceeding pattern. This Regarding The pattern used by evaluators, the value
behavior is usually represented by an S-shaped curve. assigned to each performance will be converted from a scale
Regarding this assumption the procedure of determining of 1 to 5 to a scale from 0 to 1.[8] The final step is
function for all the mental pattern of evaluators including integrating the scores for each perspectives that is calculated
best pattern, fitted pattern and exceed pattern are explained by following formula:
respectively.
Parameter estimation of best model is presented in table 9 (17)
In this case study, 14 indicators are evaluated. Then, these
indicators in 4 different perspectives are integrated.
The following form show the procedures that evaluators are
suggested to follow and performance of organization based
proposed procedure
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 209
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
dashboard measurement systems like the Balanced
Table12. Final performance results form Scorecard. The British Accounting Review, 2003.
[6] D., C., Application of the extent analysis method on
fuzzy AHP. European Journal of
Operational Research, 1996.
[7] Alexandroz papalexandris, G.I., Gregory Prastacos,
Klas eric and soderquist, An integrated
methodology for putting the balanced scorecard
intoaction. European management journal, 2005.
[8] Azar.A, A.D.Z., improving the balanced Scorecard
systems based fuzzy approach. The third national
conference on performance management, 2007.
References
Abstract: The number of wireless Internet service users that friendliness tradeoff of TCP, TCP-Fusion has an approach
use wireless LAN or satellite links has increased. The broadband combining a loss-based protocol and delay-based protocol.
satellite Internet services have especially attracted attention The key concept of TCP-Fusion is that congestion window
because of its characteristics such as global coverage and sizes are increased aggressively whenever the network is
robustness. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is used by estimated underutilized. On the other hand, when the
many typical applications over satellite Internet. However, a network is fully utilized, TCP-Fusion tends to perform like
typical TCP (such as TCP-New Reno) which has been developed
the typical TCP. Therefore, TCP-Fusion has a special
for wired networks performs poorly in wireless networks.TCP-
STAR tends to reduce throughput of the typical TCP and TCP-
feature which tries to utilize the residual capacity effectively
Fusion is developed for wired high-speed links. In ATM without impacts on coexisting typical TCP flows.
networks, The ATM Forum has chosen a rate-based scheme as The Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is
an approach to congestion control for Available Bit Rate (ABR) recommended as a transfer mode for future B-ISDN. In
services. We propose a new adaptive congestion control scheme ATM networks, data from all types of communications
called the Self Detective Congestion Control (SDCC) scheme for services is treated in the same way. That is, all data packets
ATM networks. In this paper, we propose a TCP congestion are segmented into fixed length cells. Data from different
control method for improving friendliness over satellite links by sources require different characteristics of transmission.
combining TCP-Fusion’s congestion control method and TCP- Therefore, two classes of traffic services, guaranteed and
STAR’s congestion control method. Also Self Detective ABR services, are required by ATM networks. To cope with
Congestion Control (SDCC) scheme for ATM networks. We
congestion control for the ABR services a rate-based scheme
evaluate the performance of congestion control schemas in
is considered to be the best [8]. There are several rate-based
various networks.
scheme proposed by the ATM Forum, such as FECN [9],
BECN [10], and PRCA [11]. The FECN scheme uses
1. Introduction Explicit Forward Congestion Indication (EFCI) as a single-
The long propagation delay of satellite links bit to indicate congestion in the forward direction of the VC.
decreases performance of the typical TCP.TCP-STAR has In the BECN scheme, the notification cell is sent directly
been proposed to solve these problems by modifying TCP from the congested points to the source. Both the FECN and
congestion control method. TCP-STAR achieves high-speed BECN scheme are based on a negative feedback rate control
communication by using the estimated bandwidth. However, paradigm. That is, a source will reduce the cell transmission
if TCP-STAR coexists with the typical TCP, TCP-STAR rate when it receives congestion notification cells. If, within
tends to reduce throughput of the typical TCP.On the other a predetermined period of time, the source does not receive
hand, TCP-Fusion has been proposed for wired high-speed congestion notification cells, it will increase the current
networks. TCP-Fusion which uses delay-based and loss- transmission rate until it reaches the peak cell rate. But, if
based congestion control method achieves scalability and the all notification cells in the backward direction will
friendliness to the typical TCP. However, TCP-Fusion experience extreme congestion, all the sources will increase
cannot obtain high performance over satellite Internet, since the rate to the peak cell rate, so the overall network
TCP-Fusion is developed for wired high-speed links.TCP- congestion collapse may occur. In order to deal with the
STAR [1][2][3] has been proposed to improve the problem of network congestion collapse, the PRCA uses a
throughput over satellite Internet. TCP-STAR is the positive feedback rate control paradigm instead the negative
congestion control method which consists of three feedback. However, unfair distribution of available
mechanisms; Congestion Window Setting (CWS) based on bandwidth among VCs may occur because data cells from a
available bandwidth, Lift Window Control (LWC), and VC passing through more congested links will be marked
Acknowledgment Error Notification (AEN). In CWS and more often than those from VCs passing through fewer
LWC, TCP-STAR uses ABE (Available Bandwidth congested links. Thus, VCs with more congested links in
Estimation) in TCP-J [4][5] as the available bandwidth their path will suffer from starvation, because their Allowed
estimation method. In order to satisfy efficiency and Cell Rate (ACR) is lower than others. To resolve the
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 211
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
problems of the existing rate-based schemes, we propose a 2.2. Congestion Window Increment
new adaptive scheme, called SDCC scheme, based on the Original TCP-Fusion has three phases (increment phase,
following two basic concepts: decrement phase, and steady phase) in case of updating the
1. Positive feedback rate control which resolves the congestion window. In the proposed method, we apply LWC
problems of the FECN and BECN schemes. of TCP-STAR in the increment phase of TCP-Fusion.
2. Intelligent holding or selectively holding Resource Window control of decrement phase and steady phase are
Management (RM) cells which resolves the problem of the same as original TCP-Fusion. Eq.(3) shows the congestion
PRCA. window behavior of the proposed method which uses LWC.
2
Government College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
3
Department of Information Technology , V.L.B.Janakiammal College of Engineering and Technology,
Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
event is occurring or no such event is occurring. Figure 2 p E, probability for an event to occur can be computed as follows.
shows Markov state diagram in each of these cases, along
with the Markov transition probability matrices, M when Let p SE be the probability of a sensing event and
there is an event and M when there is no event. Notice let p RE be the probability of a receiving event.
that when a sensing event occurs, the node will always
transition to the transmit state. This requirement can be Now, p E is given by the following equation.
relaxed. There is also an ambiguity if both sensing and
receiving events occur. In this case, it is always assumed
p [Sense or Receive]= p SE+ p
RE –
p p SE SE
that the node always attempts to transmit the sensed event ……(4)
rather than the received event. At time t, there is some Determination of p SE(Probability of the sensing event):
probability that the node is in each of its three states. Denote
p p p pSE will be related to the sensing radius and the
O, S, as the respective probabilities of finding
T
sensing event density.
the node in the off, sensing/receiving and transmit states,
Probability of a node to sense an event :
and collect these three probabilities into the vector
p (t)=[ p O ( t ), p S (t), p T (t)] π r s2 p s
…..(1)
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 217
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Probability of a node not to sense an event: 4.1 Coverage. Assume that n sensors are deployed in
area. Let rS be the sensing radius and rT be the
1 − π r s2 p s
transmission radius. A point x ∈ T will be covered if there
For m nodes, Probability for all nodes not to sense an event :
is a node in the sensing state within rS of x. In this case, an
event that occurs at x will be detected. Thus, the probability
(1 − πrs2 ps ) m that a given node is sensing and within rS of x is πrs ps .
2
..…(7) Q πrs2 ps ≤ 1
Substituting equations 5 and 7 in equation 4, p E can be 4.2 Connectivity. There are two possible notions of
obtained as follows. connectivity for a sensor network. The first considers only
the topology of the connectivity graph that can be derived
p E = p SE + ( n -1 ) ( 1- p SE ) c ( 1- c) n -2 from the sensor network. The second is a more stringent
condition that also considers contention issues in the
..…(8) network. The existing results use the first x - Source
definition, which is the tradition that will be continued, to
c = πrT pT
2
where, explain most of the parts, however some heuristics for
Using the value obtained using equation 8; the future addressing the second requirement of connectivity are also
state of the node can be calculated using the equation 2. presented. The goal of connectivity can be summarized as
follows. The situation is illustrated in Figure 3. Assume
4. Analysis and Optimization that n sensors are deployed in area. Let rS be the sensing
One important issue in Wireless Sensor Networks is
optimizing power consumption which is done by making radius and rT be the transmission radius. Suppose a
only a subset of sensor nodes to operate in active mode, sensing event fires at some position x ∈ T and it is to be
while fulfilling the two requirements, coverage and
transmitted to y ∈ T . It is very important to successfully
connectivity. The coverage characteristic ensures that the
area that can be monitored is not smaller than that which transmit the occurrence of an event with high probability
can be monitored by a full set of sensors [14, 15, 16]. The for any x, y.
connectivity characteristic ensures that the sensor network
remains connected so that the information collected by
sensor node can be relayed to sink node [17].
218 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
p 1: ||x - s || ≤ r
0
Total number of nodes vs total power consumption per
FIGURE 3: Connectivity -S
(X can be sensed); node
Transmission of event information
from x to y.
p 2: || s i - s i −1 || ≤ rT for i=1…k Table 1 and Figure 4 shows the comparison of this work
Hence the event can be transmitted from si-1 to si, and it with previous two works. In PAM, the node is scheduled
will be received since si is in the receiving state, and only to sense state. Hence, even as the number of nodes
increases the total power per node is always 100 mW. In
p 3: || s K -y|| ≤ rT
case of AFECA and BECA, the node is scheduled to sense,
transmit, off state.
(s can transmit to y). Table 1: No of Sensor nodes vs Total Power
Consumption
4.3 Minimizing Power Consumption. Total Power (mW)
The main goal of this paper is to develop a Total no. Power AFECA
systematic approach for power conservation in sensor of Aware & Markov
networks. The idea is to select the available parameters Nodes Routing BECA
in the Markov model so as to minimize the power
Protocol
consumption, while at the same time guaranteeing
coverage and connectivity. The assumption is that the 10 100 67 50
power consumption in each of the three states is given 20 100 67 50
30 100 67 33.33
by λ0 , λT , λ S . These parameters are set to particular
40 100 50 25
values. These are externally supplied parameters, or 50 100 40 20
functional forms which are dependent on rT and rS . The 60 100 33.33 17
expected power consumption per node in steady state is 70 100 28.56 14
then given by 80 100 25 12
90 100 22.22 11
100 100 19.99 10
E = λ0 p 0 + λ S p S + λT pT ……(15)
Per Node(mW)
Consumption(mW) 3 AFECA &
2 BECA
120 Markov
1
C o n s u m p ti o n (m W )
100 PAM 0
T o ta l P o w e r
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
80 AFECA & BECA
Number of Sensor Nodes(X 10)
60 Markov
40
20 Figure 5 : Total number of nodes Vs
0 Power minimized per node
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of Sensor Nodes (X10) 5.2 Results For Mobile Events. This section includes
determination and comparison of percentage of energy
conserved in this work as well as the previous work. Total
Figure 4: Total number of nodes
power consumption per node, Amount of power minimized
Vs Total power consumption per node per node, Coverage and connectivity are represented
Table 2: No of Sensor nodes Vs Total Power through XGRAPH and it is compared with the previous
Consumption works. (i.e. AFECA & BECA[9] and PAM[7]). Results will
be discussed below:
Power min. per node (mW)
Total TOTAL NUMBER OF NODES VS TOTAL POWER
Power CONSUMPTION PER NODE
no. of AFECA
Aware Markov
& Table 3 and Figure 6 shows the comparison of this work
nodes Routing
BECA with previous two works. In S1, the node is scheduled only
Protocol
to sense state. Hence, even as the number of nodes increases
10 0 0 0 the total power per node is always 100 mW. In case of
20 0 0 0 AFECA and BECA, the node is scheduled to sense,
transmit, off state.
30 0 0 1.6777 Table 3 : No. of Nodes Vs. Total Power Consumption
per node
40 0 1.7 2.5
Total Power (mW)
50 0 2.7 3.0 Total no. Power
AFECA
60 0 3.37 3.3 of nodes Aware Markov
&
Routing
70 0 3.84 3.6 BECA
Protocol
80 0 4.2 3.8 13 100 67 50
90 0 4.48 3.9 26 100 67 50
100 0 4.701 4.0 39 100 67 33.4
45 100 58 29
TOTAL NUMBER OF NODES VS
POWER MINIMIZED PER NODE: 52 100 50 25
65 100 40 20
Here, power minimized per node on increase in the
number of nodes is compared with the previous works. The 78 100 34 17
comparison is represented in tabular (Table 2) and graphical
form (Figure 5). 85 100 31 15
91 100 29 14
104 100 25 12
220 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
120
CONNECTIVITY:
ption(m
100
Total Power
80 P AM
60 A FM CA & B E CA
Consum
40 M ark ov
20
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of Sensor
Nodes(x 10)
Figure 8 shows the coverage and connectivity on
increase in the number of nodes. At n=13, this
work provides 50% coverage and 100%
Figure 6 : Total number of nodes Vs Total power
consumption per node connectivity. On increase in the number of nodes,
Coverage and Connectivity percentage also grows
higher.
TOTAL NUMBER OF NODES VS POWER
MINIMIZED PER NODE:
Here, power minimized per node on increase in the number
of nodes is compared with the previous works. The
Number of Sensor Nodes Vs
comparison is represented in tabular and graphical form.
Coverage,Connectivity(in %)
Table 4 shows the comparison of this work with
Coverage,connectivity
previous two works. Figure 7 shows total number of nodes 120
Vs power minimized per node. 100
(in %) 80
Coverage
60
Table 4 : No. of Nodes vs. Power min. per node 40
connectivity
20
Power min. per node(mW) 0
1 3 5 7 9 11
Total no. Power Number of Sensor nodes(x
AFECA 10)
of nodes Aware Markov
&
Routing
BECA
Protocol
13 0 0 0
Figure 8: Total number of nodes Vs Coverage
26 0 0 0
and Connectivity
39 0 0 1.2769
52 0 1.3076 1.9230
65 0 2.0769 2.3076
From the above analysis and also from the (Figure
78 0 2.5384 2.5385
8), it is found that about 73% of power may be
91 0 2.9230 2.792
saved using this method.
104 0 3.2307 2.9230
4
Amount of Power