UNIVERSITE DU HAVRE

MASTERS - RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CIVIL ENGINEERING (MRECENG)

SUBMISSION OF ELECTROTECHNICS REPORT

BY

OMIKE REMIGIUS CHIMA

2017157308

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USING THE ENERGY METER AS AN EFFECTIVE ENERGY MANAGEMENT
TOOL

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 ABSTRACT
Energy Management has proven to be an essential part of the current drive for more
sustainable and efficient Electrical Energy use for both domestic and industrial applications. The
knowledge of how much KW consumed per hour empowers the Energy user with information
needed to manage the scalability of different Energy applications and also, provides the
enabling environment for Energy Savings procedures. The aim of this report is to highlight the
Energy Management possibilities available to Energy users.

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FIG.1: SHOWING A TYPICAL INDUCTOR TYPE ENERGY METER
FIG. 2: DRIVING SYSTEM
FIG.3: EDDY CURRENTS IN ALUMINIUM DISC DUE TO TIME VARYING FLUX
FIG. 4: PHASOR DIAGRAM OF FLUXES AND EDDY CURRENTS
FIG. 5: TORQUE BALANCE

FIG. 6: INTERNAL SET UP OF THE INDUCTION TYPE ENERGY METER [2]

FIG. 7: PHASOR DIAGRAM OF THE INDUCTOR TYPE

FIG. 8: BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ANALOG ELECTRONIC ENERGY METER

FIG. 9: BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DIGITAL ELECTRONIC ENERGY METER

FIG. 10: SMART ENERGY METERS

FIG 11. SHOWING PROGRESSION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENERGY METERS

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TITLE PAGE 2
ABSTRACT 3
FIGURES 4
TABLE OF CONTENT 5
CHAPTER ONE 6-8
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Technical Overview Of Energy Meters and Energy Measurements
1.2 Types of Energy Meters

CHAPTER TWO 9 - 12
Electromechanical Induction Energy Meters

CHAPTER THREE 13 -14

3.0 Electronic Energy Meters
3.1 Analog Electronic Meters
3.2 Digital Electronic Meters

CHAPTER FOUR 15 - 16
4.0 Smart Energy Meters
4.1 Smart Meter Systems In Smart Grid

CHAPTER FIVE 17 - 18
Potential Issues/Errors In Energy Meters

CONCLUSION 19

REFERENCES/BIBLIOGRAPHY 20

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 CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Energy Management forms an integral part of recent campaigns for more efficient and
sustainable Energy Use and Savings. A major component of Energy Management is the Energy
Meter tool, also known as an Integrating Device. The simplest definition of an Energy Meter is
that it is an electrical measuring device which provides real time data of consumed Electrical
Energy over a time interval (usually in Watts-hours). It is also called a watt-hour (Wh) meter.
The Energy meter is an instrument which is mostly installed by utilities in homes, organizations,
industries to measure electricity consumption per loads [2,3]. Watts is the unit for Power and
1000 Watts is equal to 1KW. Energy consumed is measured in terms of Kilowatts per time.
Thus, if we use one Kilowatt for one hour, then it means the energy consumed is 1KWh. Energy
could be expressed as the total power delivered or consumed over an interval of time t may be
expressed as [4]:

Where W: Energy, V= Voltage, i= Current, t= time

Energy meters are increasingly becoming mandatory devices in houses, factories, businesses,
shops, offices and industries. This helps users across different cadres of society to assess how
much power is being consumed to do work.

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 1.1TECHNICAL OVERVIEW OF ENERGY MEASUREMENTS
Modern Energy meters are designed using fundamental Electricity principles. Therefore,
measurements of both Electrical Power (W) and Electrical Energy (Wh) use interdependent
methods based on principles such as [1]:
 Energy Measurements in Alternating Current Networks:
W=P·t
Where W = Energy, P = Power, t = Time

 Power Measurements in Alternating Current Networks:

Where P = Power, U = Voltage, I = Current, ϕ = Phase Angle

 Power Measurements in 3-phase systems:

Where P = Power, U = Voltage, I = Current

 Power Measurements in Load Balanced 3-phase systems:

Where P = Power, UNPD = Neutral- Point Displacement Voltage, I = Current

 Delta-Voltage Neutral-Point Displacement Voltage

Where UNPD = Neutral- Point Displacement Voltage

 Deriving the Factor (√3):

The derivation below is obtained using cosine law and the angular relationships
demonstrated by the voltage triangle as shown:

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 If the above equation (3) is applied to the power equation, (1) or (2), the following results:

1.2 TYPES OF ENERGY METERS

Energy meters come in different types. They are however classified according to the following
factors:
 Type of metering point (Grid modes, secondary transmission, primary and local
distribution networks)
 Display type (Analog or Digital Display Energy Meter)
 End-User Applications (Domestic, Commercial or Industrial)
 In Terms of Phases (Single Phase, 3-Phase, High Tension, Low Tension and Accuracy
Class Meters).
Usually, the single or 3-phase Energy Meters are used relative to the power supply type. For
domestic installations (or small service measurements), the Energy meter is directly connected
between the line and the load. However, for larger-scale installations, step down current
transformers must be used in between the line and the load to isolate Energy meters from
damage resulting from exposure to higher currents. In the context of this report, we will
consider 3 types of Energy Meters namely:
 Electromechanical Induction Energy Meters
 Electronic energy Meters
 Smart Energy Meters [5].

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 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 ELECTROMECHANICAL INDUCTION ENERGY METERS

This is the earliest form of the Watt hour meter. It houses a system that comprise rotating
Aluminium disc fixed on a spindle between 2 electromagnets. The disc’s rotation speed is
proportional to the power, where power is integrated using a counter mechanism and gear
trains. The Electromagnets used are silicon steel laminated and designed as shunt and series
magnets. While the shunt magnet carries a coil of many wire turns, the series magnet bears a
coil of few wire turns. The system also houses a brake magnet (permanent magnet), which
applies a force opposite to the normal disc rotation such that it moves at a balanced position
and halts the disc while power is turned off. One limitation of this type of energy meter is their
susceptibility to external tampering [5].

FIG.1: SHOWING A TYPICAL INDUCTOR TYPE ENERGY METER

HOW IT WORKS
The induction type energy meter (mostly single-phase) comprise a driving system, moving
system, braking system and registering system.

Driving System: Contains the laminated electromagnets (M1 and M2). M1 is called the series
magnet and M2 is the shunt magnet. The coil in M1 is connected in series with the circuit and
current through this coil is called Current Coil (CC). Load current flows through M1. Also, the
coil in M2 is called the Voltage Coil (VC) and this is connected across the power supply used.
The current in VC is proportional to the Supply Voltage. The lower part of the central limb of
M2 is short circuited with copper elements called Power Factor Compensator. The flux from M2
lags behind the Supply Voltage by 90 degrees when the loop positions is adjusted. The copper
elements also provide compensation due to friction.

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 FIG. 2: DRIVING SYSTEM [4]

Moving System: This is simply a thin Aluminium disc mounted on a spindle and is fixed in the
air gap between M1 and M2. This mechanism cuts the flux from M1 and M2 magnetic forces
with induced eddy current in the disc. Both forces act as the deflecting torque.

FIG.3: EDDY CURRENTS IN ALUMINIUM DISC DUE TO TIME VARYING FLUX [4]

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 FIG. 4: PHASOR DIAGRAM OF FLUXES AND EDDY CURRENTS [4]

Braking system: This system houses the brake magnet which is situated near the disc’s edge.
As the disc rotates within the magnetic field, eddy currents are produced and these currents
react with the magnetic flux to give a torque effect. The created torque opposes the disc
motion, and therefore, the resulting brake torque is proportional to the rotational speed of the
disc.

FIG. 5: TORQUE BALANCE [4]

Registering System: Consist of a counting mechanism attached to the disc spindle. The
counting mechanism acts as a register for recording numbers and these numbers correspond to
the number of disc revolutions. The mechanism is scaled to display energy consumption
measured in Kilo Watts-Hour [5].

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FIG. 6: INTERNAL SET UP OF THE INDUCTION TYPE ENERGY METER [2]

FIG. 7: PHASOR DIAGRAM OF THE INDUCTOR TYPE [2]

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 ELECTRONIC ENERGY METERS

Electronic Energy meters are more accurate, reliable and have higher precision compared to
the induction type Energy meters. They use less power and begin instantaneous measurement
when connected to Energy loads. Electronic Energy Meters are designed based on Digital Micro
Technology (DMT) and unlike the induction type energy meters, they have no need for moving
parts. Thus the Electronic Energy meter can be best described as a static instrument which
functions based on integrated circuit applications. Two types of Electronic Energy Meters exist:
Analog and Digital Electronic Meters[5].

ANALOG ELECTRONIC METERS

FIG.8 : BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ANALOG ELECTRONIC ENERGY METER

In this type of Electronic meter, power is converted into frequency or pulse rate. Using Voltage
Divider rule, the analog meter measures the voltage for each phase. Also, using Current
transformers, the current for each phase is calculated. ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converters)
transforms the input signals into to digitized forms, and this is further converted into
corresponding frequency signals using a frequency converter. The pulse rates drive a counter
mechanism where pulses are integrated with respect to time to produce energy consumption
rates as displayed on the instrument’s scale.

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3.1 DIGITAL ELECTRONIC ENERGY METERS

FIG. 9: BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DIGITAL ELECTRONIC ENERGY METER

Digital Electronic meters are designed to include high-end digital signal processors, voltage and
current transducers. These transducers are connected to high resolution Analog-to-Digital
Converter, which convert analog input signals into digital samples. These samples are multiplied
and integrated by logic circuits to measure energy consumption [5].

The digital signal processor (DSP) measures the phase angle between voltage and current, and
this functionality make it possible to calculate Reactive Power. The DSP contains a real time
clock which is used for time calculations with respect to power integration, date/time stamps
for some parameters and maximum demand computations. Programming the DSP enables
energy calculations based on tariff and the values are stored in a non-volatile memory.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 SMART ENERGY METERS

FIG. 10: SMART ENERGY METERS

Smart Energy Meters operates an intelligent electronic measurement system which reads,
processes and transmits feedback data to Energy users. It has capacity to perform energy
measurements while conducting remote switching functions to regulate supply for efficient
electricity consumption. The high-end technology used by Smart meters allows for dual
communication modes. This 2-way communications technology for monitoring and controlling
information is known as Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI). Initially, Automated Meter
Reading (AMR) systems was used to provide one-way communications for collecting meter
data. AMI is the offshoot of research efforts towards substituting AMR []. Information can be
either sent or received over effective communication systems between utilities and users. In
the use of smart metering, it is highly unlikely to see cases of meter tampering [11].

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4.1 SMART METER SYSTEMS IN SMART GRID
Smart Meters play crucial roles in current Smart Grid networks offering seamless possibilities in
meter data collection and communications. A typical Smart Grid infrastructure automates
virtually every segment of the Electrical grid, and this system allows monitoring and control of
grid activities towards ensuring efficient and reliable dual flow of Electricity and information
between power plants and consumers and intermediate points. In conjunction with smart
meters, the Smart Grid tracks both power delivery and consumption whereby relevant energy
information is sent to utilities using communication networks. Customers can also monitor their
energy use via the internet or computer programs[11].

4.2 TYPES OF SMART METER SYSTEMS

Smart Systems have 2 types and both are based on LAN (Local Area Network) technology. They
are:
 Power Line Carrier Meter System [11]
 Radio Frequency Meter System [11]
Each system has inherent merits and demerits in terms of application. Utilities play vital roles in
the choice of smart meter systems to use. Some factors which determine the selection of any of
the available systems include:
 Functionality
 Evaluation of existing infrastructure
 Economic impact to customers
 Technical requirements [11].

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 CHAPTER FIVE

POTENTIAL ISSUES/ERRORS IN ENERGY METERS

Each energy meter type has potential issues or errors depending on the how it was designed or
built. The potential issues are highlighted as follows:

1. COMMON ISSUES/ERRORS IN ELECTROMECHANICAL INDUCTION TYPE

ENERGY METER:
In a case where supply voltage and frequency are constant, the induction type energy will have the
following issues/errors:

 Speed Error:
This occurs due to wrongly positioned brake magnet. Therefore the torque is poorly
developed. Speed error can be detected when the meter is allowed to run on full load
current or a situation where the meter runs on loads of unity power factor and reduced
lagging factor. By changing the position of the brake magnet towards the disc center or
away from the disc center and the shielding loop, the rotational speed is adjusted to
obtain a correct value. When the meter runs swiftly on inductive load and appropriately
on non-inductive load, the shielding loop must be moved towards the disc. From an
opposite perspective, when the meter runs slowly on a non-inductive load, the brake
magnet moves towards the disc center.
 Meter Phase Error
This becomes possible when a wrong adjustment of the shading band position causes a
wrong phase displacement between the magnetic flux and the supply voltage. Phase
error is tested using a 0.5 power factor load at the rated load condition. Varying the
copper shading band position in the central limb of the shunt magnet could eliminate
this error.
 Friction Error
Using an extra amount of driving torque could compensate for this error. Varying the 2
shading bands on the limbs help to create this extra torque. This adjustment occurs at low
loads (at about 1/4th of full load at power factor of 1).

 Creep:
When meters observe a slow but constant revolution due to excitement of the pressure
coil (despite the absence of load current flowing), creep error is said to occur and usually
involves some energy stored from the rotational motion observed. The rotational
movement results from factors like:
 Wrong friction compensation
 Stray magnetic field
 Over voltage across the voltage coil.

Boring slots in the disc on the opposite side of the spindle could remove creep error.

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  Temperature Effect:
This happens frequently and is majorly because of temperature changes. Temperature
equally impacts the driving and braking torques. Increasing temperature raises the
resistance of the induced-current path in the disc, and this results in error. Although the
error could be taken as negligible, but current energy meters have compensation
mechanisms built as flux dividers on brake Magnet.

Energy meter constant K = No. of revolutions / kwh

Most commercial meters have disc rotation speed at 1800 revolutions per hour in full
load.

 Frequency Error

2. COMMON ISSUES/ERRORS IN ELECTRONIC ENERGY METERS

 False energy readings higher than the actual value [6, 9].
 Errors due to electromagnetic interference [10].

3. COMMON ISSUES/ERRORS IN SMART ENERGY METERS

 Concerns with Meter Accuracy owing to weather conditions.
 Radio Frequency (RF) Exposure
 Smart Meter Security With Respect To Data Protection [11]

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 CONCLUSION

Energy Meters have eased the energy transition process and has helped to cut down on energy
waste situations over the years. Also, it has helped individuals, building owners, companies and
utilities get accurate energy information which in turn fast tracks efforts to ensure efficient
energy delivery and energy use.

In addition, we observed that there has been progressive developments for the different types
of Energy meters with significant improvements in their operations.

ELECTROMECHANICAL
ELECTRONIC SMART ENERGY
INDUCTION- TYPE
ENERGY METERS METERS
ENERGY METERS

FIG 11. SHOWING PROGRESSION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENERGY METERS

In summary, Energy Meters have created the much needed platform for accountability and
responsibility from both Energy providers and Energy consumers. This evens out the disparities
and opens the channel for more proactive measures in tackling the World’s electricity
challenges.

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 REFERENCES/BIBLIOGRAPHY

1https://www.gossenmetrawatt.com/resources/allg/fachartikel/fa-ec-130221-p059-gb_meter-
book.pdf
2 https://eedofdit.weebly.com/uploads/7/3/2/6/7326910/lm_electrical_lab_energymeter.pdf
3http://sagar.nic.in/image/Industry/1%20TRANSFORMERS%20&%20ALLIED%20PRODUCTS/Ene
rgy%20Meter.pdf
4
http://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/Webcoursecontents/IIT%20Kharagpur/Basic%20Electrical%20T
echnology/pdf/L-44%28GDR%29%28ET%29%20%28%28EE%29NPTEL%29.pdf
5 https://www.edgefx.in/introduction-on-energy-meter-different-types-of-energy-meters/
6. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/03/170303180139.htm

7. http://www.eei.org/issuesandpolicy/grid-enhancements/documents/4. smartmeters.pdf
8. https://engineering4uu.blogspot.fr/2017/03/errors-of-single-phase-energy-meter-and.html
9. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7866234/
10. http://www.enmanreg.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/reported_meter_errors.pdf
11. http://www.eei.org/issuesandpolicy/grid-enhancements/documents/smartmeters.pdf

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